processes

Article
Numerical Simulation and Process Optimization of Magnesium
Alloy Vehicle Dashboard Cross Car Beam (CCB) Based
on MAGMA
Jiquan Li 1 , Long Chen 1 , Shaofei Jiang 1 , Huiqi Gan 2 and Weina Hao 1, *

1 College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China

2 WanFeng Meridian Lightweight Technology Co., Ltd., Shaoxing 312000, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: At present, the qualified rate of large thin-walled magnesium alloy castings is low. In
this study, the effects of mold structure and process parameters were investigated to improve
the production qualification rate of castings. The filling process of die castings was simulated by
numerical simulation technology to optimize their structure. On the basis of an optimized mold
structure, the process parameters of die castings were optimized using a response surface model,
and a group of optimal process combinations were obtained: pouring temperature—660 ◦ C; mold
preheating temperature—200 ◦ C; injection speed—6.5 m/s. The rationality of the optimized mold
structure and process parameters is verified by die-casting experiments. The results show that the
optimized mold structure and process parameters can effectively reduce the internal shrinkage cavity
casting defects of automotive CCB castings, and effectively improve the production qualification
rate of magnesium alloy CCB castings. This research has important guiding significance for the
production of large thin-walled magnesium alloy parts.

Keywords: magnesium alloy; die casting; response surface experiments; process optimization

Citation: Li, J.; Chen, L.; Jiang, S.;

1. Introduction
Gan, H.; Hao, W. Numerical
Simulation and Process Optimization
Since the turn of the 21st century, the increasing worldwide sales of automobiles has
of Magnesium Alloy Vehicle
resulted in large-scale mining and use of metal materials [1], which has led to the increasing
Dashboard Cross Car Beam (CCB) depletion of traditional metal resources on the Earth’s crust. The issue of how to reduce
Based on MAGMA. Processes 2023, 11, their resource consumption and environmental pollution has become a primary concern for
16. https://doi.org/10.3390/ sustainable human development [2,3]. In order to effectively solve this problem, automotive
pr11010016 lightweight technology has become one of the key research directions in the automotive
industry [4–7]. The most effective way to achieve automotive lightweight technology today
Academic Editor: Taeseon Lee
is to use new lightweight materials to replace traditional metal materials and process the
Received: 18 November 2022 new lightweight materials into automotive parts through advanced processes [8,9]. In
Revised: 18 December 2022 order to realize the sustainable development of automobile lightweight technology, in
Accepted: 20 December 2022 recent years, magnesium alloy has been widely used in the automobile industry for its
Published: 22 December 2022 light weight and excellent mechanical properties [10–12]. However, magnesium alloy in
the actual die-casting production has several defects, which leads to casting scrap, and
its low pass rate makes the progress of the magnesium alloy manufacturing industry
difficult [13,14].
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
In the process of die-casting production, due to the imperfect design of mold structure
This article is an open access article
and process parameters, many casting defects will be generated, among which air entrain-
distributed under the terms and
ment and shrinkage cavity defects are the most common [15–17]. Liu et al. [18] carried out
conditions of the Creative Commons a numerical simulation and predicted defects of YM5 magnesium alloy vehicle bearing
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// through Pro/E software and improved the casting quality by optimizing the mold pouring
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ system. Ma et al. [19] simulated the AZ91D automobile automotive cooling system’s pump
4.0/). impeller by ProCAST and predicted the shrinkage cavity and other defects and reduced the

Processes 2023, 11, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11010016 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2023, 11, 16 2 of 14

casting defects by optimizing the sprue bush structure. Peng et al. [20] used Any Casting to
simulate different process parameters of the NZK magnesium alloy wheel to determine the
optimal process, and the die-casting experiments showed that the solution can effectively
reduce casting defects. However, first, most studies have been confined to theoretical re-
search, with lack of proof and severe limitations. Second, all the magnesium alloy parts that
have been studied are small parts, and there is no in-depth study of large-scale thin-walled
magnesium alloy parts.
In the magnesium alloy manufacturing industry, the complexity of the mold design for
large thin-walled castings has resulted in a lack of experience in this area, so it can only be
produced by trial and error. However, due to entrainment and shrinkage, the product scrap
rate is high, and the production cost is additionally increased [21]. For this, it is of great
industrial value to improve the quality of castings by optimizing the structure and process of
the mold before production. It is necessary to further promote the application of magnesium
alloy in automotive lightweight technology, and to reduce the casting defects of large thin-
walled magnesium alloy castings while improving the qualification rate of production. In
this paper, the minimum air entrainment and the minimum shrinkage cavity rate are taken
as the optimization objectives, and the die-casting filling simulation of the designed die
structure is carried out through the numerical simulation technology to select the optimal
casting system scheme. Through the Design-Expert response surface experiment, the
pouring temperature, mold preheating temperature, and injection velocity parameters were
theoretically analyzed and optimized, and a group of optimal process parameters were
obtained. The experimental results show that the optimized mold structure and process
parameters can effectively reduce the entrainment shrinkage phenomenon of the castings,
in which the air entrainment rate is reduced by 17%, the shrinkage cavity rate is reduced
by 7%, and the qualified rate of CCB castings is greatly improved.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials and Modeling
The material studied in this project is AM60B alloy (Shanxi Regal Advanced Material
Co., Ltd.; Yuncheng City, Shanxi Province, China), which belongs to the Al-Mn system
of magnesium alloys. It is widely used in the shells of electrical products, thin or shaped
brackets, and other parts because of its high strength and good corrosion resistance. Cross
Car Beam (CCB) is used as a crossbeam bracket part for automotive dashboards, and
AM60B alloy fully meets the performance requirements of CCB. The chemical composition
of the selected AM60B magnesium alloy is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Chemical composition of diecast AM60B alloy.

Element Al Zn Mn Si Fe Cu Ni Be Mg
Proportion (%) 5.8 0.18 0.56 0.08 0.0003 0.006 0.00086 0.0012 Bal.

The magnesium alloy CCB studied in this project has high requirements for its ma-
chining accuracy and surface quality because of its wall thickness and complex structure.
Using UG12.0 software (MAGMA 5.4) to design the three-dimensional model of CCB parts,
two options were designed for its pouring system, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 shows that the biggest difference between the casting systems of the two
schemes is the layout of the runner. Considering that the arrangement of the runner has
a great influence on the flow of molten metal, it is necessary to select a better scheme by
simulating the die-casting filling process of these two casting systems through numerical
simulation technology.
Processes 2023, 11,
Processes 2023, 11, 16
x FOR PEER REVIEW 33of
of 14
15

(a) (b)
Figure 1.
Figure 1. 3D
3D model
model with pouring system:
with pouring system: (a)
(a) scheme
scheme 1; (b) scheme
1; (b) scheme 2.
2.

2.2. Response
Figure 1Surface
showsTest
thatDesign
the biggest difference between the casting systems of the two
schemes is the layout
In die-casting of the runner.
production, Considering
the process that the
parameters arrangement
have an extremelyof the runner influ-
important has a
greaton
ence influence
the fillingonand
the solidification
flow of molten metal, it is necessary
of magnesium to select
liquid [22–27]. a better
Factors such scheme
as pouringby
simulating the die-casting filling process of these two casting systems through
temperature, mold preheating temperature, and injection speed have a great influence on numerical
simulation
metal technology.If these process parameters are not designed reasonably, castings are
thermoforming.
prone to casting defects such as air entrainment and shrinkage cavity.
2.2. Response
The MAGMA Surfacesoftware
Test Design(UG12.0 software, MAGMA5.4) calculates the mass exchange
of liquid metal in the local area
In die-casting production, the during the solidification
process parameters have of the
ancasting andimportant
extremely the resulting
in-
feeding
fluence on the filling and solidification of magnesium liquid [22–27]. Factors such asby
process. The shrinkage-related defects can be quantitatively predicted the
pour-
feeding model. mold preheating temperature, and injection speed have a great influence
ing temperature,
In summary,
on metal this paper
thermoforming. optimizes
If these theparameters
process pouring temperature, moldreasonably,
are not designed preheating cast-
tem-
perature, and compression
ings are prone injection
to casting defects suchspeed.
as air Using the volume
entrainment of rolled air
and shrinkage and shrinkage
cavity.
cavity rate
The as the optimization
MAGMA software (UG12.0indexes, the factor-level
software, MAGMA5.4) tablecalculates
of the response
the masssurface test
exchange
was obtained as shown in Table 2.
of liquid metal in the local area during the solidification of the casting and the resulting
feeding process. The shrinkage-related defects can be quantitatively predicted by the feed-
Table 2. Factor-level table of response surface test.
ing model.
In summary,
A this paper optimizes the
B pouring temperature, mold preheating
C tem-
perature, and compression injection speed. Using the volume of rolled air and shrinkage
Pouring Temperature (◦ C) Mold preheating Temperature (◦ C) Injection Speed (m/s)
cavity rate as the optimization indexes, the factor-level table of the response surface test
Level 1 660 as shown in Table 2.
was obtained 160 4.5
Level 2 680 180 5.5
Level 3 700 200 6.5
Table 2. Factor-level table of response surface test.

A Casting Experiment
2.3. Die B C
Pouring Temperature (°C) Mold preheating Temperature (°C) Injection Speed (m/s)
The object of this study was large thin-walled magnesium alloy castings, and an
Level 1 660 160
IDRA3200 large die-casting machine was used in the production of die casting. 4.5 The rough
Level 2 680 produced by die casting were
castings 180obtained by deburring the castings, 5.5 and the final
Level 3 700 were obtained by machining. 200
castings The CCB ca stings before and after6.5 the optimization
of the process parameters were tested by the X-ray testing machine (SRE MAX 80–150;
2.3. minimum
the Die Castingresolution
Experimentis 100 µm) to detect the important parts of the castings, and the
mechanical properties
The object of thisofstudy
the castings before
was large and after magnesium
thin-walled the optimization
alloywere testedand
castings, by the
an
mechanical performance testing machine (AG-IC 100 KN).
IDRA3200 large die-casting machine was used in the production of die casting. The rough
castings produced by die casting were obtained by deburring the castings, and the final
3. Results and Discussion
castings were obtained by machining. The CCB ca stings before and after the optimization
3.1. Simulation
of the Analysis of Die
process parameters wereCasting
testedFilling
by the X-ray testing machine (SRE MAX 80–150; the
The process
minimum parameters
resolution is 100 μm)areto
determined before the parts
detect the important simulation. According
of the castings, andtothe
theme-
die
casting manual and experience, the initial setting is 680 ◦ C for pouring temperature, 180 ◦ C
chanical properties of the castings before and after the optimization were tested by the
for mold preheating
mechanical temperature,
performance and 5.5 (AG-IC
testing machine m/s for100press injection speed.
KN).
 3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Simulation Analysis of Die Casting Filling
The process parameters are determined before the simulation. According to the die
casting manual and experience, the initial setting is 680 °C for pouring temperature, 180
Processes 2023, 11, 16 °C for mold preheating temperature, and 5.5 m/s for press injection speed. 4 of 14

3.1.1. Filling Temperature Simulation

3.1.1. Figure
Filling 2Temperature
shows the temperature
Simulation distribution of the simulated filling process of the
two Figure
schemes. The figure shows that
2 shows the temperature when it of
distribution reaches 40%, thefilling
the simulated filling temperature
process of the two of
scheme 1 is only about 620 °C, and in particular, the temperature of
schemes. The figure shows that when it reaches 40%, the filling temperature of scheme 1 is one sprue is less than
600 °C,
only aboutwhich
620 ◦isC,aand
greater difference
in particular, thecompared
temperature to the set sprue
of one pouring temperature,
is less than 600 ◦ C, and it is
which
easy
is to have
a greater cold compartment
difference compared defects,
to the setwhile scheme
pouring 2 does notand
temperature, show it isaeasy
similar phenom-
to have cold
enon when filling.
compartment When
defects, filling
while schemeup to 66%, not
2 does the show
temperature
a similar ofphenomenon
molten metalwhen in scheme
filling.1
rises slowly,
When filling upbuttothe previous
66%, lower temperature
the temperature of moltenmetal
metalliquid has been
in scheme 1 rises filled to the
slowly, butmain
the
body of the
previous casting,
lower which will
temperature appear
metal as ahas
liquid large temperature
been filled to the difference,
main body making
of thethe lower
casting,
temperature
which area in
will appear as the process
a large of cooling
temperature a large stress
difference, making difference;
the lowerittemperature
is likely to havearea se-
in
rious
the shrinkage
process cavitya defects.
of cooling In contrast,
large stress difference; scheme 2 keeps
it is likely filling
to have to theshrinkage
serious casting body cavity at
the set temperature;
defects. when the
In contrast, scheme fillingfilling
2 keeps is completed, the temperature
to the casting body at the set distribution
temperature; of scheme
when
2 isfilling
the relatively more uniform
is completed, compareddistribution
the temperature with the two of schemes,
scheme 2 is which is conducive
relatively more uniformto re-
ducing thewith
compared generation
the twoofschemes,
casting defects
which is inconducive
CCB during tothe die-casting
reducing production
the generation ofprocess.
casting
defects in CCB
In summary, theduring the die-casting
simulation production
result of filling process.
temperature In summary,
of scheme 2 is betterthe than
simulation
that of
result of
scheme 1. filling temperature of scheme 2 is better than that of scheme 1.

Figure2.
Figure 2. Temperature
Temperaturedistribution
distributiondiagram
diagramof
oftwo
twoprojects:
projects:scheme
scheme1 (a,c,e); scheme
1 (a,c,e); scheme 22 (b,d,f).
(b,d,f).

3.1.2. Filling Speed Simulation

Figure 3 shows the simulation results of the filling speed of the two solutions. Figure 3
shows that when the filling reaches 40%, the metal liquid of both solutions starts to flow
into the casting with a speed of about 40 m/s, but the metal liquid of the middlemost flow
channel of solution 1 is obviously filling into the casting more slowly; when the filling
reaches 70%, there is clearly an unfilled phenomenon in the A area of solution 1, which will
 3.1.2. Filling Speed Simulation
Figure 3 shows the simulation results of the filling speed of the two solutions. Figure
3 shows that when the filling reaches 40%, the metal liquid of both solutions starts to flow
Processes 2023, 11, 16 into the casting with a speed of about 40 m/s, but the metal liquid of the middlemost flow 5 of 14
channel of solution 1 is obviously filling into the casting more slowly; when the filling
reaches 70%, there is clearly an unfilled phenomenon in the A area of solution 1, which
will
make make
the the
areaarea
veryvery prone
prone to entrapment,
to air air entrapment, while
while option
option 2 has
2 has no no similar
similar phenome-
phenomenon.
non.
When When filling
filling up toup to 90%,
90%, therethere are several
are several small small andreinforcement
and thin thin reinforcement
bars inbars
the Binarea
the B of
area of scheme 1, which leads to a liquid flow velocity of more than 60
scheme 1, which leads to a liquid flow velocity of more than 60 m/s. The higher velocity m/s. The higher
velocity
differencedifference
will also will
lead also
to thelead
easytooccurrence
the easy occurrence of air entrapment
of air entrapment in thisscheme
in this area, while area,
while scheme 2 eliminates the problem of excessive liquid velocity in the B area;
2 eliminates the problem of excessive liquid velocity in the B area; when filling is completed, when
filling is completed,
the liquid velocity ofthe liquid2velocity
scheme is more of schemecompared
uniform 2 is morewith
uniform
that compared
of scheme with
1, andthat
the
of scheme 1, and the velocity
velocity simulation is better. simulation is better.

Figure 3. Filling velocity simulation results of the two projects: Scheme 1 (a,c,e,g); Scheme 2 (b,d,f,h).

To summarize, the pouring system layout of scheme 2 is more reasonable than that
of scheme 1. In the simulation process of scheme 2, the magnesium liquid loses less heat
during filling, which makes the fluidity of the magnesium liquid better, makes the filling
process smoother, and reduces the energy consumption of the magnesium liquid. Therefore,
the simulation results of scheme 2 are better than scheme 1.
Processes 2023, 11, 16 6 of 14

3.2. Response Surface Test Results and Analysis

Based on scheme 2, 17 sets of experiments were designed with the optimized parame-
ters of pouring temperature, mold preheating temperature, and injection speed, and the
optimized indexes of air entrapment rate and shrinkage cavity rate, among which there
were five sets of repeatability experiments at the same level to verify the model, and the
remaining 12 sets of experiments at different levels. The experimental results are shown
in Table 3.

Table 3. Experimental table of response surface and statistics of results.

Pouring Mold Preheating Injection Speed Air Entrapment Shrinkage Cavity

Serial Number Temperature (◦ C) Temperature (◦ C) (m/s) (%) (%)
A B C Y1 Y2
1 660 160 5.5 1.47 0.401
2 700 160 5.5 1.46 0.537
3 660 200 5.5 1.44 0.334
4 700 200 5.5 1.44 0.457
5 660 180 4.5 1.58 0.365
6 700 180 4.5 1.55 0.479
7 660 180 6.5 1.38 0.368
8 700 180 6.5 1.37 0.48
9 680 160 4.5 1.59 0.463
10 680 200 4.5 1.54 0.393
11 680 160 6.5 1.39 0.465
12 680 200 6.5 1.36 0.395
13 680 180 5.5 1.45 0.423
14 680 180 5.5 1.46 0.419
15 680 180 5.5 1.45 0.418
16 680 180 5.5 1.45 0.413
17 680 180 5.5 1.45 0.423

3.2.1. Response Surface Model for Air Entrapment Rate

The quadratic model was analyzed by the Model Fit Summary module of the Design-
Expert software to have the highest fit, and the significance analysis of the response surface
of the air entrapment rate under this model is shown in Table 4. The F-value of this model
is 194.29, which indicates that the significance of the model is very high. p < 0.0001 in
this model indicates a very significant term, and p < 0.05 indicates a more significant term.
From the p-value of this model, it can be seen that the primary term C has a very significant
effect on the air entrapment rate, B has a significant effect on the air entrapment rate, and
the secondary term C2 also has a significant effect on the air entrapment rate.

Table 4. Response surface significance analysis.

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F-Value p-Value Statistical Significance

Model 0.0762 9 0.0085 194.29 <0.0001 Significant
A 0.0003 1 0.0003 7.17 0.0316
B 0.0021 1 0.0021 48.48 0.0002
C 0.0722 1 0.0722 1657.05 <0.0001 Significant
AB 0 1 0 0.5738 0.4735
AC 0.0001 1 0.0001 2.3 0.1736
BC 0.0001 1 0.0001 2.3 0.1736
A2 2.632 × 10−7 1 2.632 × 10−7 0.006 0.9402
B2 2.632 × 10−7 1 2.632 × 10−7 0.006 0.9402
C2 0.0013 1 0.0013 30.45 0.0009 Significant
Residual 0.0003 7 0
Lack of fit 0.0002 3 0.0001 3.75 0.1171
Pure error 0.0001 41 0
Cor total 0.0765 6
Processes 2023, 11, 16 7 of 14

By analysis, the fitted Equation (2) of the air entrapment rate (Y1 ) of the model is:

Y1 = 1.45 − 0.0062 × A − 0.0162 × B − 0.095 × C + 0.0025 × AB + 0.005 × AC + 0.005 × BC + 0.0002 × A2 +

(1)
0.0002 × B2 + 0.0178 × C2

In the case of considering only the air entrapment rate, the degree of influence of single
factors on the air entrapment rate is shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the pouring
temperature and mold preheating temperature have little effect on the air entrapment rate
of the casting, but the pressure injection speed has a greater effect on the air entrapment rate
of the casting and reduces the air entrapment rate of the casting as the pressure injection
speed increases.

Figure 4. Effect of single factors on air entrapment rate (Y1 ).

In the case of considering only the air entrapment rate, the effect of two factors acting
together on the air entrapment rate was analyzed, and the results are shown in Figure 5.
Through the response surface and contour distribution in the figure, it can be seen that the
significance of the three die-casting process parameters on the air entrapment rate is in the
following order: injection speed, mold preheating temperature, and pouring temperature.
The optimal process combination is 680 ◦ C for pouring temperature, 200 ◦ C for mold
preheating temperature, and 6.5 m/s for injection speed.
 In the case of considering only the air entrapment rate, the effect of two factors acting
together on the air entrapment rate was analyzed, and the results are shown in Figure 5.
Through the response surface and contour distribution in the figure, it can be seen that
the significance of the three die-casting process parameters on the air entrapment rate is
Processes 2023, 11, 16 in the following order: injection speed, mold preheating temperature, and pouring tem- 8 of 14
perature. The optimal process combination is 680 °C for pouring temperature, 200 °C for
mold preheating temperature, and 6.5 m/s for injection speed.

(A–B) response surface (A–C) response surface (B–C) response surface

(A–B) contour map (A–C) contour map (B–C) contour map

Figure 5. The interaction effect of two factors on the air entrapment rate (Y1).
Figure 5. The interaction effect of two factors on the air entrapment rate (Y1 ).
3.2.2.Response
3.2.2. ResponseSurface
Surface Model
Model for
for Shrinkage
ShrinkageCavity
CavityRate
Rate
Thequadratic
The quadratic model
model was
was analyzed
analyzedby bythe
theModel
ModelFitFitSummary
Summary module
moduleof Design-
of Design-
Expert software to have the highest fit, and the response surface significance
Expert software to have the highest fit, and the response surface significance analysisanalysis of of
theshrinkage
the shrinkagecavity
cavity rate
rate under
under this
this model
modelisisshown
shownininTable
Table5.5.The
TheF-value of of
F-value thisthis
model
model
is 148.17, which indicates that the significance of the model is very high. p < 0.0001 in this
is 148.17, which indicates that the significance of the model is very high. p < 0.0001 in
model indicates a very significant term, and p < 0.05 indicates a more significant term.
this model indicates a very significant term, and p < 0.05 indicates a more significant term.
From the p-value of this model, it can be seen that the primary terms A and B have a very
From the p-value of this model, it can be seen that the primary terms A and B have a very
significant effect on the shrinkage cavity rate, and the secondary term B² has a significant
significant effect on the shrinkage cavity rate, and the secondary term B2 has a significant
effect on the solidification time.
effect on the solidification time.
Table 5. Significance analysis of response surface.
Table 5. Significance analysis of response surface.

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F-Value p-Value Statistical Significance

Model 0.0402 9 0.0045 148.17 <0.0001 Significant
A 0.0294 1 0.0294 975.23 <0.0001 Significant
B 0.0103 1 0.0103 341.5 <0.0001 Significant
C 0.000008 1 0.000008 0.2653 0.6223
AB 0 1 0 1.4 0.2751
AC 0.000001 1 0.000001 0.0332 0.8607
BC 0 1 0 0 1
A2 0.0001 1 0.0001 1.74 0.2292
B2 0.0004 1 0.0004 12.67 0.0092 Significant
C2 3.184 × 10−7 1 3.184 × 10−7 0.0106 0.921
Residual 0.0002 7 0
Lack of fit 0.0001 3 0 2.76 0.1761
Pure error 0.0001 4 0
Cor total 0.0404 16
Processes 2023, 11, 16 9 of 14

By analysis, the fitted Equation (2) of the shrinkage cavity rate (Y2 ) of the model is:

Y2 = 0.4192 + 0.0606 × A − 0.0359 × B + 0.001 × C − 0.0033 × AB − 0.0005 × AC + 0.0035 × A2 0.0952 × B2 + 0.0003 × C (2)
Figure 6 shows the degree of influence of single factors on the shrinkage cavity rate
in the case of considering only the shrinkage cavity rate. It can be seen that the pouring
temperature and mold preheating temperature have a greater effect on the shrinkage cavity
rate of the casting, and the shrinkage cavity rate of the casting increases as the pouring
temperature increases, while the shrinkage cavity rate of the casting decreases as the mold
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1
preheating temperature increases. However, the pressure injection speed has almost no
effect on the shrinkage cavity rate of the casting.

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure
Figure 6. Effect of single6.factor
Effecton
of shrinkage
single factor on shrinkage
cavity rate (Y2 ). cavity rate (Y2).

In the case ofonly

In the case of considering considering only the
the shrinkage shrinkage
cavity cavity
rate, the rate,ofthe
effect twoeffect of two facto
factors
acting togethering
ontogether on the shrinkage
the shrinkage cavity ratecavity rate was analyzed,
was analyzed, and theare
and the results results
shownare shown
ure 7. The response surface and contour distribution in the figure show that the s
in Figure 7. The response surface and contour distribution in the figure show that the
significance ofcance
three of three die-casting
die-casting process process parameters
parameters on the shrinkage
on the shrinkage cavity
cavity rate arerate
in are in t
lowing order: pouring temperature, mold preheating temperature, and injection
the following order: pouring temperature, mold preheating temperature, and injection
speed. The optimal processprocess
combination ◦ C for pouring temperature, 200 ◦ C for
is 660 is
The optimal combination 660 °C for pouring temperature, 200 °C for mol
mold preheating temperature,
heating and 4.5
temperature, m/s
and 4.5for
m/sinjection speed.
for injection speed.
 In the case of considering only the shrinkage cavity rate, the effect of two factors act-
ing together on the shrinkage cavity rate was analyzed, and the results are shown in Fig-
ure 7. The response surface and contour distribution in the figure show that the signifi-
cance of three die-casting process parameters on the shrinkage cavity rate are in the fol-
lowing order: pouring temperature, mold preheating temperature, and injection speed.
Processes 2023, 11, 16 The optimal process combination is 660 °C for pouring temperature, 200 °C for mold pre- 10 of 14
heating temperature, and 4.5 m/s for injection speed.

Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
(A–B) response surface (A–C) response surface (B–C) response surface diagra

(A–B) contour map (A–C) contour map (B–C) contour map

(A–B) contour map (A–C) contour map (B–C) contour map
Figure Interactiveeffect
Figure 7. Interactive effectofof two
two factors
factors on shrinkage
on shrinkage cavitycavity
rate (Yrate
2). (Y2 ).

Figure 7. Interactive effect of two factors on shrinkage cavity rate (Y2).

In
In the actualproduction,
the actual production, thethe above
above factors
factors should
should be taken
be taken into consideration,
into consideration, and and
the optimal
the optimal process
In theprocess combination
combination
actual production, was obtained
thewas
above through
obtained the
through
factors should analysis
be the
taken of the
analysis Optimization
of the Optimization
into consideration, and
module
module of
ofDesign-Expert
the optimalDesign-Expert software when
software
process combination the
waswhen airthe
entrapment
obtained rateanalysis
air entrapment
through the and shrinkage
rate
of and cavity rate cavity
shrinkage
the Optimization
were considered
ratemodule at the same
of Design-Expert
were considered time:
software
at the pouring
same when temperature
time:the 660
air entrapment
pouring °C, mold preheating
rate and660
temperature ◦
shrinkage temper-
cavity
C, mold rate
preheating
ature
were200considered
temperature °C, and
200 press
◦ C, injection
at and
the same speed
presstime: 6.5 m/s.
pouring
injection temperature
speed 6.5 m/s.660 °C, mold preheating temper-
ature 200 °C, and press injection speed 6.5 m/s.
3.3. Simulation Analysis
3.3. Simulation Analysis
3.3. Simulation
Based on theAnalysis
optimal process combination obtained above, the air entrapment rate
Based on the optimal process combination obtained above, the air entrapment rate
and shrinkage cavity rate of the
Based on the optimal CCB before and after optimization
above,were simulated usingrate
and
MAGMA
shrinkage cavity
software, and the
ofprocess
rate simulation
the CCB combination
before and obtained the air
afterinoptimization entrapment
were simulated using
and shrinkage cavity rate of the CCBresults
beforeare
andshown Figure 8. were simulated using
after optimization
MAGMA software, and the simulation results are shown in Figure 8.
MAGMA software, and the simulation results are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Comparison of air entrainment rate before and after optimization: (a) before optimization;
(b) Figure
after optimization.
8. Comparison of air entrainment rate before and after optimization: (a) before optimization;
Figure 8. Comparison of air entrainment rate before and after optimization: (a) before optimization;
(b) after optimization.
(b) after optimization.
In terms of the air entrapment rate, from Figure 8, we can see that before the optimi-
zation of In the castings
terms of the in
airthe filling process,
entrapment the Figure
rate, from volume8,ofweair
canis see
very high;
that most
before theofoptimi-
the
castings’
zation of the castings in the filling process, the volume of air is very high; most ofofthe
air entrapment amounted to 14%, especially in region A, where the amount
air castings’
entrapment is more thanamounted
air entrapment 20% of thetodraft,
14%,which also in
especially indicates
region A,thatwhere
the area
the isamount
prone of
to casting defects such as air holes.
air entrapment is more than 20% of the draft, which also indicates that the area is prone
Processes 2023, 11, 16 11 of 14

In terms of the air entrapment rate, from Figure 8, we can see that before the opti-
mization of the castings in the filling process, the volume of air is very high; most of the
castings’ air entrapment amounted to 14%, especially in region A, where the amount of
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
air entrapment is more than 20% of the draft, which also indicates that the area is12prone of 15
to
casting
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW defects such as air holes. 12 of 15
After optimization, the volume of air in the casting is obviously reduced, the volume
ofaair
volume
in most rateofof 14%.
the In terms
castings of air
is less entrainment
than 3%, and only rate,a the optimized
very small number castingofair entrain-
areas have a
ment
volume
a volumerate is
rateratereduced
of 14%.
of 14%. by
In In 17%,
terms
terms which greatly
ofofairairentrainmentreduces
entrainmentrate, air
rate, the entrainment defects
optimizedcasting
the optimized in casting.
castingairairentrain-
entrainment
rate is As
ment faris as
reduced
rate bythe17%,
reduced shrinkage
bywhich cavity
greatly
17%, which isreduces
concerned,
greatly air air
reduces it entrainment
can be seen
entrainment from in
defects
defects Figure 9 that the
incasting.
casting.
shrinkage
AsAsfar cavity
farasasthe area before
the shrinkage optimization is mainly
cavityisisconcerned,
shrinkage cavity concerned, concentrated
it can
it can be seen
be seen in the
fromfrom middle
Figure 9 thatthe
Figureof 9thecast-the
that
ing, and the
shrinkagecavity
shrinkage shrinkage
cavity area
areabeforecavity
before rate reaches
optimization
optimization 14%.
is mainly The shrinkage
concentrated
is mainly cavity position
in the middle
concentrated in the of the
of middle opti-
the cast- of the
mized
ing, and
casting, casting
andthethe isshrinkage
significantly
shrinkage cavity reduced,
rate
cavity reaches and
14%.
rate reaches the shrinkage
The
14%. The cavity
shrinkage cavityrate
shrinkage is
positiononly
cavity 7%. It shows
ofposition
the opti- of the
that
mized
optimizedthecasting
shrinkage
casting isporosity
is significantly ofreduced,
significantlythe optimized
and thecasting
reduced, theisshrinkage
shrinkage
and reduced bycavity
cavity rate about
is 7%.
onlyrate
7%. It
isshows
only 7%. It
that the
shows thatshrinkage
the shrinkageporosity of the optimized
porosity casting is casting
of the optimized reduced isbyreduced
about 7%. by about 7%.

Figure
Figure
Figure9.9.Comparison
Comparison of
Comparison of shrinkage
ofshrinkage cavity
shrinkagecavity
cavity rate
rate
rate before
before
before and
and
and after
after
after optimization:
optimization:
optimization: (a)(a) before
before
(a) before optimization;
optimization;
optimization;
(b)(b)
after
(b) optimization.
after
after optimization.
optimization.

3.4. Die
3.4.
3.4. DieCasting
Die CastingExperiment
Casting Experiment
Experiment
TheTheprocess
The processparameters
process parametersbefore
parameters before and
beforeand after
andafter
after optimization
optimization
optimization combined
combined
combined with
with the the
with structure
structure of
structure
the
scheme
of scheme 2 are applied to the die-casting production of CCB parts. The castings obtained by
of 2
scheme are2 applied
are to
applied the
to die-casting
the die-casting production
production of
of CCB
CCB parts.
parts. TheThe castings
castings obtained
obtained
die-casting
by and and
by die-casting
die-casting machining
and machining
machiningareare
shown
areshownin in
shown Figure
Figure
in 10.
10.It
Figure Itcan
10. can be
beseen
It can seen
be from
seenfrom Figure
Figure
from 10that
10
Figure that there
10 that
there
is there
no is no
obvious obvious difference
difference in in
the the surface
surface of of
thethe CCB
CCB casting
casting before
before and
and
is no obvious difference in the surface of the CCB casting before and after optimiza- after optimiza-
after optimization.
Fromtion.the
tion. From
From the
the overall
overall overall appearance,
appearance, the the
appearance, thesurface
surface gloss
gloss
surface ofofthe
gloss thethe
of casting
casting isisgood
casting good
is and
good and there
and areare
there
there areno
no
obvious obvious
no obvious defects.
defects.
defects.

(a) (b)
(a) 10. CCB Die-casting: (a) before optimization; (b) after(b)
Figure optimization.
Figure
Figure 10.10.CCB Die-casting:(a)(a)
CCBDie-casting: optimization;(b)
beforeoptimization;
before (b)after optimization.
afteroptimization.
After the die-casting was completed, 100 castings were taken before and after process
optimization
After thefor X-ray inspection
die-casting on their key
was completed, 100parts. Thewere
castings inspection results and
taken before are shown in
after process
Table 6. It can be seen from Table 6 that before process optimization, there were many air
optimization for X-ray inspection on their key parts. The inspection results are shown in
entrainments or shrinkages inside 85 castings, and only 15 castings were qualified
Table 6. It can be seen from Table 6 that before process optimization, there were many air
entrainments or shrinkages inside 85 castings, and only 15 castings were qualified
Processes 2023, 11, 16 12 of 14

After the die-casting was completed, 100 castings were taken before and after process
optimization
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW for X-ray inspection on their key parts. The inspection results are shown in
13 of 15
Table
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
6. It can be seen from Table 6 that before process optimization, there were many air
13 of 15
entrainments or shrinkages inside 85 castings, and only 15 castings were qualified products;
after process optimization, only six castings had many air entrainments or shrinkages
products;
inside, and after
thereprocess
were 94optimization, only six
castings qualified. Thecastings had many
results further air entrainments
demonstrate or
the accuracy
shrinkages
products;
of inside, and
afterMAGMA
the previous there were 94
process optimization,castings qualified. The results further demonstrate
simulation. only six castings had many air entrainments or
the accuracy inside,
shrinkages of the previous
and thereMAGMA
were 94 simulation.
castings qualified. The results further demonstrate
the accuracy of the previous MAGMA simulation.
Table 6. X-ray inspection results of 100 castings taken before and after optimization.
Table 6. X-ray inspection results of 100 castings taken before and after optimization.
Table 6. X-ray inspection results Air Entrainment
of 100 or Shrinkage
castings taken Qualified Product
before and after optimization.
Air Entrainment or Shrinkage Qualified Product
Before optimization 85 15
Before optimization Air Entrainment85 or Shrinkage 15 Product
Qualified
After optimization 6 94
After optimization
Before optimization 685 9415
After optimization 6 94
Figure11
Figure 11shows
showsthe theX-ray
X-rayinspection
inspectionresults
resultsof ofkey
keyparts
partsofofthe
theCCB
CCBcasting
castingbefore
before
optimization.
optimization. It can
It can
Figure 11 be seen
be seen
shows from the
from the
the X-ray circled parts
circled parts
inspection in
results the
inof figure
thekey
figure that
partsthat there
of there are a large
are casting
the CCB number
a large num-
before
of casting
ber of defects
casting caused
defects by entrained
caused by air inside
entrained air the casting.
inside the It is because
casting. It is of theofexistence
because of
the exist-
optimization. It can be seen from the circled parts in the figure that there are a large num-
these
ence defects that the casting has defective products.
ber of these defects
casting defectsthat the casting
caused has defective
by entrained products.
air inside the casting. It is because of the exist-
ence of these defects that the casting has defective products.

Figure
Figure11.
11.X-ray
X-raytest
testbefore
beforeoptimization.
optimization.
Figure 11. X-ray test before optimization.
Figure
Figure1212shows
showsthetheoptimized
optimizedX-ray
X-rayinspection
inspectionresults
resultsofofkeykeyparts
partsofofCCB
CCBparts.
parts.
The
Theresults
results
Figureshow
showthat
12 shows the
that internal
the
the quality
internal
optimized of CCB
quality
X-ray castings
of CCB
inspection is generally
castings
results is keygood,
partsand
of generally good,no casting
of CCB and no
parts.
defects
casting such
defects
The results assuch
show large
that shrinkage
asthe
large
internal cavity
shrinkage porosity
cavity
quality werewere
porosity
of CCB castingsfound, which
is found,
generally meets
which meets
good, and thenoASTM
the ASTM
casting
E505A2
defectsstandards.
E505A2 standards.
such as large shrinkage cavity porosity were found, which meets the ASTM
E505A2 standards.

Figure 12. X-ray test after optimization.

Figure 12. X-ray test after optimization.
Figure 12. X-ray test after optimization.
The mechanical properties of CCB castings before and after optimization are shown
in TableThe
The7.mechanical
It can be seen
mechanical from Table
properties
properties 6 that
ofofCCB
CCB the tensile
castings
castings strength,
before
before and
and yield
after
after strength, are
optimization
optimization and elonga-
are shown
shown in
tion
in of CCB
Table 7. castings
It can be have
seen been
from significantly
Table 6 that improved
the tensile after optimization.
strength, yield Among
strength,
Table 7. It can be seen from Table 6 that the tensile strength, yield strength, and elongationand them,
elonga-
the
of tensile
tion
CCBof CCBstrength
castings increased
castings
have have
been beenby about 30improved
MPa,
significantly
significantly the after
yieldafter
improved strength increased
optimization.
optimization. Among by them,
Amongabout 20
them,
the
MPa,
tensileand
the tensilethe
strength elongation
strength
increased increased
increased
by about by
by about about
30 MPa, 5%.
30 MPa, the yield
the yield strength
strength increased
increased by about
by about 20 MPa,20
MPa,
and and
the the elongation
elongation increased
increased by 5%.
by about about 5%.
Table 7. Mechanical properties before and after optimization.
Table 7. Mechanical properties before and after optimization.
Tensile Strength (MPa) Yield Strength (MPa) Elongation (%)
Tensile190.24
Strength (MPa) 79.76
Yield Strength (MPa) 3.2
Elongation (%)
After optimization 191.52
190.24 81.35
79.76 4.2
3.2
After optimization 184.58
191.52 78.94
81.35 5.8
4.2
Before optimization 221.19 103.64 9.4
Processes 2023, 11, 16 13 of 14

Table 7. Mechanical properties before and after optimization.

Tensile Strength (MPa) Yield Strength (MPa) Elongation (%)

190.24 79.76 3.2
After optimization 191.52 81.35 4.2
184.58 78.94 5.8
221.19 103.64 9.4
Before optimization 215.34 106.74 10.6
218.96 98.74 9.8

4. Conclusions
In this paper, the die-casting process of large thin-walled magnesium alloy castings
was simulated by numerical simulation technology. By optimizing the mold casting system
and process parameters, the quality of castings can be improved, and the qualified rate of
products can be increased, which has great guiding significance for the production of large
thin-walled magnesium alloy castings. The specific conclusions are as follows:
(1) Under the same process parameters, MAGMA software was used to simulate the
filling of two pouring system schemes for CCB of magnesium alloy automobiles, and
the results showed that the design of the pouring system of scheme 2 was better than
that of scheme 1, and the design of scheme 2 could effectively reduce casting defects.
(2) In the die-casting process of the AM60B magnesium alloy automotive CCB bracket,
when only the air entrapment rate is considered, the press injection speed has the
greatest influence, the mold preheating temperature is second, and the pouring
temperature has the least influence. When considering only the shrinkage cavity rate,
the pouring temperature has the greatest influence, the mold preheating temperature
is second, and the press injection speed has the least influence.
(3) In the actual production process, the air entrainment rate and shrinkage cavity rate
should be considered comprehensively. The optimal combination of process parame-
ters is as follows: pouring temperature 660 ◦ C, mold preheating temperature 200 ◦ C,
and press injection speed 6.5 m/s. Under these process parameters, the qualified rate
of magnesium alloy CCB castings can be improved effectively.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.L. and L.C.; methodology, J.L. and S.J.; software, L.C.;
validation, L.C., H.G. and W.H.; writing—original draft preparation, L.C.; writing—review and
editing, J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Zhejiang Key Research and Development Program
(No. 2022C01081).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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