HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

HMETE225

TAKUNDA PASWANE B

R227291P

LECTURE NOTES
I. Wein’s Displacement Law

Wien’s Displacement Law states that the black-body radiation curve for an object varies with
temperature.

Specifically, Wien’s Displacement Law describes how the peak wavelength of black-body
radiation changes with temperature.

It is useful primarily for estimating the temperature of remote objects. The law predicts, in
agreement that the apparent color of radiation shifts from red (long wavelengths) toward blue
(short wavelengths) as the temperature increases.

Derivation

To start with the derivation, we must understand Planck’s Law. Planck’s Law produces a
continuous function that is unique to each black-body temperature. The graph below shows the
black-body spectrum at various temperatures, as predicted by Planck’s Law.
Wien’s Law determines the wavelength of peak emission, so deriving Wien’s Law involves
finding the maximum value of Planck’s Law as a function of temperature. The first step is to take
the partial derivative of Planck’s Law with respect to wavelength, λ.
II. Planck’s Radiation Law

Planck's law describes the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body in thermal
equilibrium at a definite temperature.
It is a mathematical relationship formulated in 1900 by German physicist Max Planck to
explain the spectral-energy distribution of radiation emitted by a blackbody.
A Blackbody is a hypothetical body that completely absorbs all radiant energy falling
upon it, reaches some equilibrium temperature, and then reemits that energy as quickly as
it absorbs it.
Planck assumed that the sources of radiation are atoms in a state of oscillation and that
the vibrational energy of each oscillator may have any of a series of discrete values but
never any value between.
Planck further assumed that when an oscillator changes from a state of energy E1 to a
state of lower energy E2, the discrete amount of energy E1 − E2, or quantum of radiation,
is equal to the product of the frequency of the radiation, symbolized by the Greek letter ν
and a constant h, now called Planck’s constant, that he determined from blackbody
radiation data; i.e., E1 − E2 = hν.
Planck’s law for the energy Eλ radiated per unit volume by a cavity of a blackbody in the
wavelength interval λ to λ + Δλ (Δλ denotes an increment of wavelength) can be written
in terms of Planck’s constant (h), the speed of light (c), the Boltzmann constant (k), and
the absolute temperature (T):
The wavelength of the emitted radiation is inversely proportional to its frequency, or λ =
c/ν. The value of Planck’s constant is found to be 6.62606957 × 10−34 joule∙second, with
a standard uncertainty of 0.00000029 × 10−34 joule∙second. For a blackbody at
temperatures up to several hundred degrees, the majority of the radiation is in the infrared
radiation region of the electromagnetic spectrum. At higher temperatures, the total
radiated energy increases, and the intensity peak of the emitted spectrum shifts to shorter
wavelengths so that a significant portion is radiated as visible light.
III. Grey Bodies

A gray body is an imperfect black body; i.e., a physical object that partially absorbs incident
electromagnetic radiation.
The ratio of a gray body's thermal radiation to a black body's thermal radiation at the same
temperature is called the emissivity of the gray body.
By definition, a black body in thermal equilibrium has an emissivity ε = 1. A source with a
lower emissivity, independent of frequency, is often referred to as a grey body.
Most objects are not perfect blackbody absorbers or emitters -- they are said to be "grey"; To
account for imperfect absorption and emission, the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is scaled by
an proportionality term,ε

 ABSORPTIVITY

Absorptivity is a measure of how well a material absorbs incident thermal radiation

compared to a perfect blackbody. It is a dimensionless quantity, represented by the
symbol α , and also varies between 0 (no absorption) and 1 (perfect absorber).

 REFLECTIVITY

is understood as the ratio of the mentioned fluxes when the sample reflects
volumetrically including its interior if it is semitransparent to thermal radiation. In this
case the reflection depends on sample thickness and instead of "reflectivity" we may
recommend the use of the term "reflection coefficient"

 TRANSMISSIVITY

The transmissivity material property defines the level of transparency of a solid

object. Radiative heat transfer through a transparent solid object that is completely
surrounded by fluid can be simulated by assigning a non-zero transmissivity property
to the material.
REFERENCES

Bird, R.B.; Stewart, W.E.; Lightfoot, E.N. (2007). Transport

Phenomena (2 ed.). Wiley.

E.P Degamno, J.T Black, R.A Kobser, Materials and Processes in

Manufacturing eighth ed (1997), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River,NJ,

Frank Kreith, Raj M. Manglik, Mark S. Bohn; Principles of Heat

transfer seventh edition(2011), Publisher: Cengage Learning, Inc;
ISBN-13: 978-0-495-66770-4, ISBN-10: 0-495-66770-6,

M. Planck, The Theory of Heat Radiation, Dover, New York (1991),

English translation of Vorlesungen uber die Theorie der
Warmestrahlung (1913), p. 154. lo A. Hermann, The Genesis of
Quantum Theory, MIT Press (1971), pp. 23-24.

R. Byron Bird, Warren E. Stewart, Edwin N. Lightfoot - Transport

Phenomena, 2nd Edition-Wiley (2001) (1)