MECHANICS

PHS 105/ Department of Physics

AKINBORO F. G

1
DISPLACEMENT
Newton’s Laws of motion
1. Newton's law of Motion state that every body continues on its
state of rest or uniform acceleration unless an impulse force act on
its.
2. Newton second law of motion state that:
Action and Reaction are equal and opposite

3. Newton third law of motion state that:

That forces equal to the product of mass and acceleration
F = Ma
❖ Speed: Distance moved also known as displacement of object
from one position to the other an objects displacement is 10m in a
certain direction of its speed

❖ Velocity: in the rate of change of displacement. it can also be

expressed as: displacement time or distance covered per time
Velocity = Distance covered (ds) in sec.
Time taken (dt) in sec..

Displacement Cont.
➢ Vector Quantity: quantity with both size and
direction of Displacement. eg velocity

➢ Scalar Quantity: quantity with size both no

direction. example speed or mass
s y
v v
s= y=
= t = t
ds t dv t
d d
f1 12

o t o t
 VELOCITY - TIME GRAPH = ACCELERATION

Velocity time graph gives us more information about

acceleration of object. Consider the motion of
1
m s -
V 2 C D

V 1 A
B

V 0 t t2 t3 t4 t5

Velocity-Time Graph
An object described by the graph above. Here the object work
off from initial velocity o and attain end velocity V, in t second
at A, it now maintain this velocity until B in reached at V1 taking
time T1-T2. The object now maintain the new velocity until t3 at
C, again become constant until D is reached and finally come
down to 0, Vo at time t5
It should be noted that there can only be velocity charge if
there is an accelerator

6
From the above, we can deduce that the object accelerated
two times during the course of its journey or flight it now
decelerate once
Accelerate 1 from to to t1 V1- V2
T1-T2
Accelerate 2 from t2 to t3 , V2 - V1
T3- T2
Deceleration from t4 to t5,` V2 - V0
T5 - T0

7
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY - FREE FALL

Object falling freely from a certain distance above the

ground falls with a uniform acceleration of approximately
9.8 meters / second square (9.8m/s2 ). The distance
traveled under acceleration due to gravity is independent
of inertia irrespective of the type of object.

8
 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT

A footballer kick a ball 2.5ms vertically upwards from

o

A, U=o

Acceleration due to gravity is -g, because the ball moves from A, its
initial position at A to the final position B against the gravitational
pull which is downwards
= ut + ½ at2
10
MECHANICS
PHS 105/ Department of Physics

AKINBORO F. G

1
CIRCULAR
MOTION
IN THE LAST CLASS
WE TREATED THE TOPICS- Displacement,
Velocity And Acceleration of Object In Straight
line
Today are going to treat-
Circular motion

3
The following serves as reminder to last week’s lecture:-

4
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance and displacement are two quantities that may seem to mean
the same thing yet have distinctly different definitions and meanings.
•Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an
object has covered" during its motion.
•Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place
an object is"; it is the object's overall change in position.
To test your understanding of this distinction, consider the motion
depicted in the diagram below. A physics teacher walks 4 meters
East, 2 meters South, 4 meters West, and finally 2 meters North.

5
Even though the physics teacher has walked a total distance of 12
meters, her displacement is 0 meters. During the course of her motion,
she has "covered 12 meters of ground" (distance = 12 m). Yet when she
is finished walking, she is not "out of place" - i.e., there is no
displacement for her motion (displacement = 0 m). Displacement, being
a vector quantity, must give attention to direction. The 4 meters east
cancels the 4 meters west; and the 2 meters south cancels the 2 meters
north. Vector quantities such as displacement are direction aware.
Scalar quantities such as distance are ignorant of direction. In deter
D IS P L A C E M E N T T IM E & AV E R A G E V E L O C IT Y

The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with

respect to a frame of reference, and is a function of time. Velocity
is equivalent to a specification of an object's speed and direction
of motion.
For example, someone who takes 40 minutes to drive 20 miles
north and then 20 miles south (to end up at the same place), has an
average speed of 40 miles divided by 40 minutes, or 1 mile per
minute (60 mph). Average velocity, however, involves total
displacement, instead of distance.

7
D IS P L A C E M E N T T IM E & AV E R A G E V E L O C IT Y

250m x2
X 1

x
0 P1 P2

t1 ∆x=250m t2

8
AVERAGE VELOCOTY
Someone who takes 40 minutes to drive 20 miles north and
then 20 miles south (to end up at the same place), has an
average speed of 40 miles divided by 40 minutes, or 1 mile
per minute (60 mph). Average velocity, however, involves
total displacement, instead of distance

9
Velocity – Time Graph = Acceleration
Velocity time graph gives us more
information about acceleration of object.
Consider the motion of.
1
m s -
V C D

A
V 1
B

V 0 t t t3 t4 t5
2

10
11
12
Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion, in physics, repetitive movement back and forth
through an equilibrium, or central, position, so that the maximum
displacement on one side of this position is equal to the maximum
displacement on the other side. The time interval of each complete
vibration is the same
CIRCULAR MOTION
There are many cases of objects moving in a curve or
circular path about some point, such as bicycles or cars
turning round corners or racing cars going round
circular tracks.

14
The earth and other planets move round the sun in roughly circular
paths.

The speed is in linear motion, we then have to use ‘angular

speed’.

This helps to find the ‘period’ or time to go once round the circle.

We shall also find tout how an objects moving at constant speed

round a circle have acceleration towards the Centre of the circle.
Consider an object moving in a circle with a uniform speed round a fixed
point O as centre, Figure below

A
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21
MECHANICS
PHS 105/ Department of Physics

AKINBORO F. G

1
2
FORCES, MASS & ACCELERATION
4
5
6
ACTION AND REACTION

Newton 3rd law of motion state that, action and reaction are opposite.
E.g. leaning on table. one exerts an action on the table while the table
produces an equal and opposite reaction.
MOMENTUM CHANGES DUE TO ACTION AND REACTION
The effect of Acton and reaction can be study by two trolleys A & B.
A sand fall constantly @ the rate of 50g/s onto a belt moving horizontally at
40cm/s.

7
8
VELOCITY OF A BULLET

9
FORCES & MOMENTS
Moment – Forces that keep machine working levels or keep
objects in equilibrium
Examples
State force
Photo frame
Latides
Bridges
Turning Effect
Opening of door
See – saw

10
 TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES IS
CALLED MOMENTS
P

A D
O
B L

11
From the above diagram:
Total force in one direction = Total time in opposite direction
Moment of force about g point or axis 0 in force X perpendicular
distance from the point of action.
Anticlockwise moment = @ any point clockwise moment @ the same
per.
Effect of perpendicular about on moment

12
 R 2

R1

W1 W2 W3

P O

40 60

B C

4n

P + Q = 4n
Total Clockwise moment = Total anticlockwise moment
13
WAVE AND WAVES

PHS 231 Department of Physics

AKINBORO F. G

1
 WAVE OPTICS-
TRANSVERSE STATIONARY WAVES
TRANSVERSE STATIONARY WAVES

3
 TRANSVERSE STATIONARY WAVES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(1 )

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

When two waves with the same amplitude, frequency and time period travel
in opposite direction in a straight line, the result wave obtained is called
stationary wave
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5
 PROPERTY OF STATIONARY WAVES
Stationary waves are form due to superposition of two simple harmonic
longitudinal progressive wave of the same amplitude and periodic time and
traveling in opposite direction.
The important properties of those waves are
(1) In those -wave’s nodes and antinodes are formed alternately.
Nodes are the position where the particles are at their mean position having
maximum strain. Antinodes are the position where particles vibrate with
maximum amplitude and minimum strain.
(2) All the particles except the nodes vibrate harmonically with time period
equal to each of the component waves.
(3) The amplitude of the vibration gradually increases from zero to
maximum from node to antinodes.
6
(4) The medium is split into segment and all particle of each segment
vibrate in phase.
(5) Condensation and verification do not travel toward as in the case of
progressive wave but they appear and disappear alternately at the same
place.
(6) Condensation and verification do not travel forward; therefore there
are no transfers of energy.
(7) The distance between from adjacent node and antinode is T/4

7
(8) The appearance of the wave can be represented by a sin e wave but
reduces to straight line in each period.
(9) The velocity and acceleration are separated by a distance at any
given instance.
(10) In the same segment at the same instance all particles will be in
phase and the velocities and acceleration will be maximum or minimum of
the same instance

8
THE TURNING FORK
X Y
N N

Y
X

X Y

A A

N N
N N

X Y

N N

9
A tuning fork is a two-pronged metal fork that can be used as an acoustic
resonator. Traditionally, this tool has been used to tune musical
instruments. Tuning forks work by releasing a perfect wave pattern to
match a musician's instrument.
It is a fork-shaped acoustic resonator used in many applications to
produce a fixed tone. The main reason for using the fork shape is that,
unlike many other types of resonators, it produces a very pure tone, with
most of the vibrational energy at the fundamental frequency

10
ENERGY OF A PROGRESSIVE WAVE
(1) The case of progressive wave, new waves are continuously formed at
the end of the wave which means that there is continuous transfer of
energy in the direction of propagation of waves.
The energy for the propagation is supplied from source.
(2) The energy transfer per second is equal to the energy processed by
the particles in a length U which is equal to the velocity of waves.
(3) The energy of the partly in part of kinetic KE and partly potential PE.
(4) The kinetic energy is due to the velocity of vibrating particle.

11
(5) For a Particle executing simple harmonic motion the velocity in
maximum sit the mean position and minimum at the extreme position
and consequently the KE is maximum at the mean position and
minimum at the extreme and
(6) The particle vibration with simple harmonic motion has their
potential energy due to displacement and maximum at their extreme
position and minimum of their mean position.

12
In longitudinal there is compression and verification, therefore the energy
distribution is not limit at the point of no velocity there is no compression
and there is no energy and at the point of maximum velocity there is
compression hence maximum energy.
Note: In the case of longitudinal wave, there is not transfer of the medium
in the direction of propagation but there is always transfer of energy along
the direction of propagation

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Anticipate

TEAM SYNERGY
 PHS 105
Course Outline (Mechanics Synopsis)
Linear Motion: (Motion in a straight)
* Measurement, Standard, Unit and Errors
* Displacement, Average Velocity
* Instantaneous Velocity
* Acceleration
* Acceleration of falling Bodies and Gravity

Motion in a Circle: (Circular Motion)

* Centripetal Acceleration
* Centripetal Force
* Inertia Force in Rotation (Moment of Inertia)
* Centrifugal Force

Simple Harmonic Motion

* Periodic Motion (Periodic time, Frequency and Amplitude)
* Dynamics of Simple Harmonic Motion
* Resonance
* Damped and Force Oscillations

Gravitation
* Newton’ Law of Universal Gravitation
* Satellites and Weightlessness
* Kepler’s Laws

Statics and Hydrostatics

Statics
* Mass, Force and Weight
* Forces in Equilibrium
* Resolution of Forces
* Moment of Forces
* Principles of Moment
* Couple
* General Conditions of Equilibrium

Hydrostatics (Fluid at Rest)

* Fluid, Pressure
* Transmission of Fluid Pressure
* Density, Relative Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
* Pressure in a liquid due to its own weight and pressure measurements

Elasticity
* Stress, Strain
* Young’s Modules, Bulk and Sheer Moduli

Friction, Viscosity and Surface Tension

* Sliding and Static Friction
* Viscosity (Laminar and Turbulent flows)
* Surface Tension and Capillarity

Text Books
* Applied Mechanics ---- Hannah & Hillier
* Physics (principles with applications) ------ Douglas C. Giancoli
* General Physics ----- Sternhein and Kana
* Any other physics text books covering these synopses
Mechanics: Study of Motions of objects and of the forces that affect their motions.

Linear Motion
Physics like many other sciences is largely based on quantitative measurements. A quantitative
discussion of motion requires measurements of time and distance, so that we can consider the
standards, units and errors involved in physical measurement.

Measurements: Quantitative physical measurements must be expressed by numerical comparison

of some agreed set of standards. All measuring devices are calibrated directly in terms of primary
standards of Length, Time and Mass as established by international scientific community. All
physical quantities can be expressed in terms of some combinations of these three fundamental
dimensions, which we denote as L, T and M respectively.

Internationally accepted set of metrics units called the “Systeme Internationale (S.I) units are:
Metre, Kilogram and Second, termed as basic units i.e., “M. K.S” System; older units are
C.G.S. units.

Errors: Measurements and predictions are both subject to errors.

Measurement errors are of two types: Random and systematic.

Both errors are present in all experiments and can be reduced by taking the average of many
measurements (Random)

Displacement: Change in position of an object or distance between two points in a specified

direction. To distinguish between distance and displacement, take for instance, a person walking
70m east and then turn around to walk 30m west.

y
The total distance walked is 100m but
displacement is 40.0m I.e. 40m from the
starting point

West 40m 30 70m East

Velocity and Speed
Velocity: Signifies both magnitude (numerical value) and direction, which makes velocity a vector
quantity. Speed: Signifies only magnitude.

Note: Average velocity is defined in terms of displacement rather than total distance travelled.
Hence, average velocity = Displacement
Time Elapsed
Unit = m/s.
Let = ϰ2 – ϰ1 and t = t 2 - t1
= Displacement and t = change in time or elapsed time
Average velocity Ṽ = ϰ2 – ϰ1 =
t2 - t1 t

Instantaneous Velocity: Velocity at any instance of time, defined as average velocity over an
indefinitely short time interval.
Vnst=
t , unit is m/s.

Acceleration = Change of velocity

Time elapsed; the unit is m/s2
Hence, average acceleration, = V2 - V1 =
t2 - t1 t

Similarly, Instantaneous acceleration is:

inst=

unit: m/s2
 Uniformly Accelerated Motion
This occurs when acceleration remains constant over time. But when acceleration changes, the
change is sufficiently small such that we assume it to be constant; thus situation is treated as
uniformly accelerated motion. In this case, instantaneous and average accelerations are equal.
Suppose the initial time t1 = 0, then
T = t2 (time elapsed)
Let the initial position x1 and initial velocity v1 be represented as x0 and v0
Hence, Ṽ (average velocity) = =

So, also,
=

At = v – v0
V = V0 + at ……………….. (1)

Recall Ṽ= and that ϰ1 = ϰ0, ϰ2 = ϰ

When t1 = 0
Ṽ=

ϰ = Ṽt + ϰ0 …………………. (2)

Since velocity increases at a uniform rate, the average velocity Ṽ, will be midway between the initial and
final velocities, hence
Ṽ= , now substituting this in equation (2),

We obtain ϰ = ϰ0 + ( )t = ϰ0 + ( )t

X = ϰ0 + v0t + at2 ……………… (3)

To obtain the velocity v at time t in term of v0, a, ϰ, and ϰ0, we begins as

ϰ = ϰ0 + Ṽt = ϰ 0 + ( )t
 Recall from equation (1) that

t= .

 ϰ = ϰ0+ ( )( )

= ϰ 0 + v2 – v02
2a
V2 = v02 + 2a (ϰ - ϰ 0) ………… (4)
Hence, kinematic equations for constant acceleration are:
V = v0 + at
V = v0 + a t
2
ϰ = ϰ 0 v0 + at ϰ = v0 t + a ( t)2
V2 = v02 + 2a (ϰ - ϰ 0) V2 = V0 + 2 a ϰ
Ṽ= (v0 + v)
= ϰ = (v0 + v) t
Note that these equations are not valid unless (a) is a constant. In many cases ϰ 0 = 0

Illustrations:
1. A car accelerates from rest to 30m/s. What is its average acceleration?
Solution: -
= = = = 3 m/s.

an increase in velocity of 3m/s in each second of the 10 seconds time interval.

(2) An object moves according to the formula

ϰ = b + ct3. . What is the instantaneous acceleration at time t?
Solution:
1st find v
V= = (b+ ct3) = 3ct2

Then, hnat = lim 0 = (3tc2) = 6ct

 (3). A car initially at rest at a traffic light accelerates at 2m/s2 when the light turns green.
After 4 secs, what are its velocity and position?
Solution:
= 2m/s2, t = 4secs and v0
(i) v = v0 + a t = 0 + 2(4) = 8mls
(ii) ϰ = v0 t + a t)2 = 0 + (2) (4)2 =16m

(4). A car accelerates from rest with a constant acceleration of 2m/s2 onto a highway
where traffic is moving at a steady rate of 24m/s.
(a). How long will it take for the car to reach a velocity of 24m/s?
(b). How far will it travel in that time?
(c). The driver does not want the vehicle behind to come closer than 20m nor force it to
slow down. How large a break in traffic must the driver wait for
Solution
(a) i. e time need to reach the velocity v= 24m/s
V = V0 + a t
= t=V+ 0 = 24 = 12sec
a 2

(b) ϰ = V0 t + a t)2 = 0+ (2) )2 = 144m

(c) The vehicle behind is moving at a constant velocity V0 = 24m/s, so =0

In 12sec., it moves a distance ϰ = V0 t + a t)2
= 24 x 12 + 12 x 0 = 288m
Since the entering car travels 144m in this time, the oncoming vehicles gains
(288 - 144) m or 144m, If it is to come no closer than 20m, the break in traffic must be at least
(144 + 20) m or 164m.
Assignment 1
A car reaches a velocity of 20m/s with an acceleration of 2m/s2. How far will it travel while it is
accelerating if it (a) Initially at rest? (b). initially moving at 10m/s.

A train accelerates uniformly from rest to reach 54km/h in 200sec after which the speed remains
constant for 300 sec. At the end of this time the train decelerates to rest in 150 sec. Find the total
distance travelled.

A baseball pitcher throws a fastball with a speed of 44m/s. It is observed that in throwing the
baseball, the pitcher accelerates the bell through a displacement of about 3.5m from behind,
estimate the average acceleration of the ball during the throwing motion.

Falling Bodies and Gravity (By Galileo Galilei 1564- 1642)

At a given location on the Earth and in the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same
uniform acceleration due to gravity , denoted by g = 9.8m/s2, downward. “g” varies slightly due as
a result of changes in latitude, elevation and density of local geological features.
When dealing with freely falling objects, we make use of the same equation as described in
kinematic by replacing a with g and since the motion is vertical, we put y in place of x, y0 in place
ϰ 0.
Note: It is arbitrary whether we choose y to be position in the upward direction or in the
downward direction, but we must be consistent about it throughout a problem’s solution.
The equations for falling bodies will be
V = v0 + gt
Y = y0 + v0t + gt2
V2 = V02 + 2g (y – y0) and taken = +g (as downward).

Example: Suppose that a ball is dropped from a tower 70.0m high, how far it will have
fallen after 2.0 sec.
= g = +9.8m/s2 since we have chosen downward as +ve
 V0 = 0, y0 = 0
y = 0 + 0 + gt2 = (9.8) x 22 = 19.6m
Now suppose the ball in the above is thrown downward with a speed of 3.0mls instead of
being dropped, what they would be its position and speed after 2.0 sec?

Solution:
V0 = 3.0m/s and t = 2.0Sec, y0 = 0
y = V0 t + gt2 = 3 x 2 + x 9.8 x 4

= 6 + 9.8 x 2 = 25.6m
Its speed after 2.0 Sec,
V = V0 + gt = 3.0 + 9.8+ 2 = 22.6m

Example: A ball is thrown upward into the air with an initial velocity of 15.0m/s
Calculate (a) How high it goes (b) How long the ball is in the air before it comes back to his hand.

Solution
Let y be +ve in upward direction and –ve in the downward direction.
Note the difference in convention) i.e. a = -9.8mls2
So, to determine d highest height, V = 0, and V0 = 15.0m/s
(1) V2 = v02 + 2gy
Y = v2 - v02 = 0 – (15)2 = 11.5m
2g 2(-9.8)

(2) y= y0 + V0t + gt2 , y0 = 0

y= 15t + (-9.8) t2
y- y0 = V0t + gt2
Displacement not total distance travelled
0 = 15.0 t + (-9.8) t2
= 15t – 4.9t2 = 0
 = t (15- 4.9t) = 0
t=0 or t = 15 =3.06Sec
4.9
t = 0 corresponds to initial point (A) and y = 0, while t = 3.06sec corresponds to C when the
ball has returned to y = 0 i.e ball is in the air.

Assignment 2
1. A ball thrown upward with velocity of 15.0mls, (a) how much time it takes for the
ball to reach the maximum height. (b) The velocity of the ball when it returns to the
thrower’s hand. (c) at what time t the ball passes a point 8.0m above the ground.

2. A ball is dropped from a window 84m above the ground, (a) when does the ball
strike the ground? (b) What is the velocity of the ball when it strikes the ground?

(3) A ball is thrown upward at 19.6mls from a window 58.8m above the ground
(a) How high does it go? (b) When does it reach its highest point? (c) When does it
strike the ground?
 2.0 Circular Motion
An object moves in a straight line if the net force on it acts in the direction of motion or is
zero. If the net force acts at an angle to the direction of motion or is zero. If the net force acts
at an angle to the direction of motion at any moment, the object moves in curved paths. An
object that moves in a circle at constant speed V is said to experience Uniform circular
Motion. The magnitude of the velocity remains constant but the direction is continuously
changing as the object moves around the circle.
v
v v v
V+ r
v V+ +V

a r
r+ r
c r
a
c
r r+ r

2.1 Centripetal Acceleration: “Centre-Seeking” acceleration or radial acceleration (it’s

directed along the radius, towards the centre of the circle, denoted by r.

Consider the above diagrams, since they are similar (isosceles ) then their sides are proportional
i.e.
= , now divide by ,

, taking the limit 0,

(Instantaneous acceleration and velocity), hence r = v

r = v , r = v2
V r r , called the centripetal acceleration

Comments: Acceleration varies inversely with the radius, the smaller the circle the greater the
acceleration. It also varies as V2, i.e. it increases rapidly with the speed.
Example:
(1). A 150g ball at the end of a string is revolving uniformly in a horizontal circle of radius 0.6m. The
ball makes exactly 2.0 revolutions in a second; what is its centripetal acceleration?
V=

= = 7.54m/s

r = V2 = (7.54)2 = 94.8m/s2
r 0.6
Note: The period T of an object revolving in a circle is defined as the time required for one
complete revolution.
V = distance =

time
(2). The moon is nearly circular orbit about the Earth has a radius of about 384,000km
and a period of 27.3days. Determine the acceleration of the moon towards the earth.
Solution: To orbit the earth, the moon travels a distance 2 ,
r = 3.84 x 108m
v= = 6.28 x 3.84 x 108

27.3 x 24 x 60 x 6

= 1.02 x103mls.

Hence r = v2 = (1.02 x 103)2 = 2.72 x 10-3mls2

r 3.84 x 108

2.2: Centripetal Force: From Newton’s 2nd, law, F= Ma, an object that is accelerating must
have a net force acting on it. Therefore, for a ball on the end of a string, moving in a circle must
have a force applied to keep it moving in that circle.
Since, r = v2 Centripetal force is F = Mv2
 r r
Since, r is directed towards the centre at any moment, the net force too must be directed toward
the centre of the circle.
(In vector form, F= - M v2 ř, ř = r is a unit vector in that direction
r r
Example: A car travels on flat circular track of radius 200m at 30m/s and has a centripetal
acceleration r = 4.5m/s2.
(a) If the mass of the car is 1000kg, what frictional force is required to provide the
acceleration?
(b) If the co-efficient of static friction s is 0.8, what is the maximum speed at
which the car can circle the track?
Solution
(a) Mass = 1000kg, = 4.5m/s2
F=M = 1000 x 4.5 = 4500Ν F
r
N =N
(b) W = mg (i.e normal force Ν) F=uN

Frictional force possible is Νs N= Νsmg F= USN =Νsmg

2
mv = Ν mg
Digression
r
=
= (0.8x200x9.8) = 39.6m/s

Comment: If the driver attempt to exceed 39.6m/s, the car will not be able to continue on the
circular course and it will skid off.

2.3 Moment of Inertial

Moment: Turning effect of a force about an axis. And Torque is just equal and opposite forces.
Despite the fact that T = I is similar in form to F = Ma, it is important to realize that both the
torque T and moment of inertial I depend on the position of the axis of rotation. “I” also depends
on the shape and mass of the rotating object.
To calculate the moment of inertial of a complex object, we must initially separate the object into
N small pieces of mass m1, m2, m3 , ……….mN, with each piece having distance r1, r2, r3, ……….,
rN from the axis of rotation.
Moment of inertial I for first piece is
I = m1r2 + m2 r22 + …………… + MNrN2

Note that I is large when the forcess

, are far from the axis of rotation.
When the masses are arbitrarily small, the sum becomes an integral, given by
I= so, for several shape and sizes, we have different moments of
inertial. For instance, a uniform disk or cylinder of radius R rotating about the axis,
I= mR2 and for a rod of length l rotating about the centre,

I= ml2

Example: Two equal point masses M0 are at the ends of a mass less than bar of length l. Find the
moment of Inertial for an axis perpendicular to the bar through (a) the centre (b) an end

Solution (a): For an axis through an end, the mass at that end has r = 0 while the other mass is at a
distance l, so
I = M 0 ( ) 2 + M 0 ( ) 2 = M 0 l2

2
(b) For an axis through an end, the mass at that end has r = 0 while the other mass is at a
distance l, so, I = 0 + M0 l2 = M0l2
Comment: This shows that moment of Inertial depends on the position of the rotation axis.

2.4 Centrifugal force: This is equal and opposite to the centripetal force and therefore acts
radially outwards. It is seen to be due to the tension in a cord, required to provide the motion in a
circle.
Assignment 3
1. A 1000kg car rounds a curve on a flat road of radius 50m at a speed of 50km/h (14m/s).
Will the car make the turn, or will it skid, if (a) the pavement is dry and the coefficient of
static friction is Ns = 0.25?
2. A racing car starts from rest in the pit area and accelerates at a uniform rate to a speed of
35m/s in 11Sec; moving on a circular track of radius 500m. Assuming constant tangential
acceleration, find (a) the tangential acceleration and (b) the centripetal acceleration when
the speed is 30m/s.
3. Find the moment of Inertial of a thin rod of length l and mass m about an axis through its
centre.

dϰ

ϰ
-1/2 1/2

Ƶ
Simple Harmonic Motion
When an object moves back and forth repeatedly over the same path, it is said to be oscillating or
vibrating. Examples are a Sheldon or swing, pendulum clock, violin string etc. S.H.M is
characterized by several quantities like (1) Amplitude (maximum displacement of the oscillating
object from equilibrium). Cycle (complete oscillation back and forth), Period T (time required for
one complete oscillation). Frequency F (the number of cycles in a unit time).
In general, the period T and frequency F are related by F = in Hz

Now consider an object at the end of a coil spring, when displaced from its equilibrium position
and released, the resulting oscillating motion is referred to as simple harmonic motion. The
position, velocity and acceleration are related in a specific way which we now determine.
When a coil spring is stretched by application of force, the logarithm x and the applied force F are
proportional.
F = kϰ, k is called the spring constant.
The spring exerts a restoring force that is opposite in direction
Ғ = -kϰ
-ve sign indicates that the restoring force
r is always opposite to displacement

Take for instance, a mass resting on a frictionless table attached to a spring. Suppose the mass is
pulled from its equilibrium point and it is released, then it moves under the influence of restoring
force.
Definition of
F= ma

-kx = ma , =- (simple harmonic motion)

Fr = 0 Fr = -kϰ

m M
ϰ

ϰ= 0 ϰ= 0

Now recall that, v = and = =

Hence =- 2nd derivative of ϰ is proportional to –ϰ

i.e = - ϰ by comparism

ϰ = - ϰ Two functions that have this properly are sines and cosines
For instance,
ϰ = A co scot, where A and W are constants to be determine shortly.
 (cos t) = - sm t, V = =-A

Similarly, (sm t) =

a= =A cos

Recall S.H.M., equation, a = x, so by compassion

x = -A cos t=-

= x

or

A and A are the amplitude, maximum displacement in either direction from the
equilibrium position.
Since 2 and =

Or

Question: An object has a mass of 0.1kg and is on a flatless table. If a 5N force is applied,
the spring in stretched 0.2m,
(a) What is the spring constant? (b) Find the characteristic frequency and period of
oscillation that the mass is set in motion.

Solution:
a) F = kx = k =

b) = ,T=

3.1 Energy in Simple Hamonia Motion

In S.H.M., like pendum, there is a continual interchange of potential and kinetic energy, i.e.
when the pendulum is at its highest point, the velocity is zero and the energy is entirely
potential.
Simply, when a mass oscillates on a spring, the total energy is constant and there is also a
continual interchange of potential and kinetic energy. It is convenient to define potential
energy to be zero at the equilibrium point. As the mass passes through X = 0, its energy is
entirely kinetic.
The potential energy at a displacement X is equal to the work that must be done against the
restoring force to stretch the spring to that extent.
Hence a displaced object, work done by a force F is and the required force to stretch
a spring is F = kx. Hence, work done in stretching the spring from 0 to R is
= =

Potential Energy

Total energy =

Example: A mass of 2kg on a spring is extended 0.3m from the equilibrium position and
released from rest. The spring constant is 65N/m
(a) What is the initial potential energy of the spring?
(b) What is the maximum speed of the mass after it is released?
(c) Find the speed when the displacement is 0.2m

Solution (a) initially the displacement is 0.3m, so

(b) The energy is totally kinetic when the spring and the mass passes through the
unstretched position x = 0. So the K.
(c) When x = 0.2m, potential and kinetic energies are non–zero since total energy is
conserved:

v=

3.2. Damped Oscillation

Most real situation cannot be described precisely by the equations of S.H.M. because
of the presence of dissipative forces such as friction or air resistance. For instance, a
pendulum clock will gradually come to rest unless energy is supplied to replace the
losses.
Damping is caused by dissipative forces, typically dependent on the velocity.
Dissipative force Fd is linearly proportional to V i.e. Fd = rv, r = damping constant,
while the minus sign indicates that the damping force opposes the motion.
Now consider the effect of damping force in the equation of motion for a weight on a
spring:
When r = 0, the oscillation continues with same amplitude indefinitely.
x

When a small amount of damping is present, oscillation is steedily decreases in

amplitude until negligibly small.
If r is larger, then the oscillation is faster

But when very large, oscillation cannot occur and the body/weight returns to its
equilibrium position without oscillation.

3.3 Forced Oscillation and Resonance

When a vibrating system is set in motion, it vibrates at its natural frequency.
However, a system is often not left to merely oscillate on its own but may have an
external force applied to it, which itself oscillates at a particular frequency.
For instance a mass on a spring when pulled, vibrates back and forth at a frequency f,
the mass then vibrates at the frequency f of the external force, even if this frequency
is different from the natural frequency of the spring, which we denote as f 0, where f0
is:

, this is an example of forced oscillation.

 The amplitude of vibration and hence, the energy transferred into the vibrating
system is found to depend on the difference between f and , its maximum when the
frequency of the external force is equal to the national frequency of the system.
i.e., f= , A (Resonance
the amplitude can become large when the driving brief.
For lightly damped F, near the natural frequently ,
. When the damping is small, the increase in B Heavily
amplitude near f = is very large. This effect is dumped
Known as Resonance. The natural vibrating
frequency of a system is called its resonant frequency, frequency.

Assignment 4
1. A spring stretches 0.150m when a 0.300kg mass is hung from it. The spring is
then stretched an additional 0.100m from its equilibrium point and released.

Determine (a) the spring constant k (b) the amplitude of the oscillation A (c) the
maximum velocity V0 (d) the velocity v when the mass is 0.050m from
equilibrium and (e) the maximum acceleration of the mass.

2. For a S.H.O. determine, (a) the total energy (E), the kinetic and potential energies

of half amplitude:

4.0 Gravitation
Newton’s study on planetary motion has led to inferring a formular for gravitational force
between two masses. This formula is termed the law of universal gravitation (law of
nature). It states that for two uniform spheres of two objects of any shape that are so small
compared with their separation, that, they may be considered as point particles, the law has
a simple form. If two spheres or particles have gravitational masses m &m1 and their
centres are separated by distance r, then the forces between the two spheres have a
magnitude.

F= F F1
m m1
 r

G = Gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10-11 NM 2kg -2

Since the magnitude of the gravitational force varies as ,

Then the law is called Inverse Square Law

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to
the square of the distance between them. This force acts along the path of the two particles.

4.1 Weight
Weight of an object is the gravitational force it experiences. For an object on the surface of
the Earth, its force is mainly due to the earth’s attraction.
Consider an object with gravitational mass m at the surface of the earth, subjected to a
gravitational force, F, by law of universal gravitation.

RE = Radius of the earth = 6400km

RE

ME Since F = (Newton’s gud law)

a=g

i.e, gravitational acceleration is the same for all objects.

Satellites & Weightlessness

A satellite is put in an orbit by accelerating it to a sufficiently high tangential speed with the
use of rocket. For instance in circular motion, satellites are usually put into circular orbits
because they require at least take-off speed. Therefore, for satellites that move in orbit, it

acceleration is , Hence recall that F = and since

and F =

m = mass of satellite
V v r = sum of the Earth’s radius
m rE plus the satellite’s height h
f above the Earth: r = rE th
a Vv = velocity of the orbit
m
rE

Vorb

Note: The mass of the satellite does not appear and the orbital speed decreases as the radius
of the orbit increases.

Since velocity = and displacement = 2 r, T =

Hence the period of the orbit is:

T= =

Square both sides

This is called the Kepler’s third law, which states that the square

of the period of the orbit is proportional to the cube of the radius of the orbit.

Summary of Keepler’s Laws (Laws of Planetary Motion)

First Law: The path of each planet about the sum is an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
Planet

F1
 Sum F2

Second Law: Each planet moves so that an imaginary line drawn from the sin to the planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time
1

F1
3
Sum

2 4

5.0 Statics and Hydrostatics

Statics: Study of forces in equilibrium

5.1 Mass, Forces and Weight

Just give definitions and then read-up:

5.2 Forces in Equilibrium

A single force cannot exist alone and is unbalanced. For equilibrium, it must be balanced
by an equal and opposite force acting along the same straight line. Forces may be said to
exist in pairs, however, a single force may also be balanced by any number of other forces.

Conditions for Equilibrium:

(1) Find a body to be at rest, the sum of the forces acting on it must add up to zero.
Hence, if the forces on the object act in a plane, a condition for equilibrium is that
and if it acts in 3-dimension,
 (2) The sum of the torgues acting on a body must be zero

These two conditions ensure that a rigid body will be in both translationl and rotational
equilibrium.
Example: Two weights w1 and w2 are balanced on a board pivoted about its centre: (
(a) What is the ratio of their distance from the pivot?

(b) If w1 = 200N, W2 = 400N, and x = 1m

P X1 = 1m, what is x2?
(assume the board to be weightless)
x1 x2
w1 w2
Solution: First law of equilibrium condition, N force exerted by the support must
balance their weights such that the net force is zero.
i.e. N = w1 + w2 (N – w1 – w2 = 0)
so, tongue about each weight: =
=
Hence = + =0

(b) If = 200N, = 400N, 0 = 5.0m

= 0.5m

Example 2: Again, find when the pivot is at the centre, i.e, torgue about point P, where

w1 is placed.

W1 N Torgue about (P1), (N and w2)

( )
 Smile, sum of torgues must be zero
P1 x1 x2 ( )
x1 + x 2 w2
Again, the sum of forces must be added up to zero
N – w1 - w2 = 0
N = w 1 + w2
Putting N,
- (

- (

- =

Comment: No matter whereever P is, same answer is obtained.

5.3 Resolution of forces

d
c Forces ab and ad can be replaced completely by a single force
Ac i.e. to replace a single force by two other forces in any
R W convenient direction. These two forces are known as the
Components of the single force.
a b y d c
y
a d R b
x

ab = ac cos i.e. x = R cos and d = ac sin i.e. Y = RSin

Polygon of Forces
If more than three forces act at the same point and are in equilibrium, they may be
represented in magnitude, sense and direction by the sides of a polygon “taken in order”
1,2,3,4 are represented by ab, bc, cd and da
c
2
b
3 1

d a
4

Hyrostatics (Fluid at Rest)

Preamble: Matter consists of 3 states: Solid, Liquid and Gases.

Fluid: Liquid and gases (has definite volume, but no define shape while gas has neither,
definite, shape or volume.

Pressure: Study of fluid mechanics involves density of a substance (defined as mass per
unit volume).

If F is the magnitude of the normal force on the paston and A is the surface area of the
piston, then the pressure, P of the fluid at the level to which the device has been submerged,
is defined as the ratio of force to area.

Pressure =
Suppose the normal force exerted by the fluid is F over a surface element of area A, the
pressure at that point is:

P= Unit is N/m2 (Pascal Pa)

Transmission of Fluid Pressure

Pressure increases linearly with depth. Consider a liquid of density P at rest and open to the
atmosphere as in the figure below. A sample of liquid in a cylinder of cross-sectional area,
A, extending from the surface of the liquid to a depth h, pressure exerted by the fluid on the
bottom face is P and on the tip is Po, hence, upward force is PA and downward force
exerted is PoA.
Mass of liquid in the cylinder is m = Pv = PAh.
Weight w of the liquid in the cylinder is W = mg = Pvg = for the cylinder to be in
equilibrium, upward force must be greater than the downward force.
PA – PoA = PghA – A (P – P2) = PghA
P = Po + Pgh
Po = l atm pressure
1.01 x 105 Pa h

PA
Absolute
mg pressure
fig.

Pascal’s Law
A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point
of the liquid and to the wall of the container i.e. pressure at every point in a liquid is the
same.
Fluid Dynamics (Fluids in Motion)
This is the study of properties of a fluid as a function of time. Fluid in motion in
characterized in two main types: Steady or Laminar and Non-Steady or Turbulent.
Steady or Laminar: If each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path such that different
particle never cross each other. In this case, the velocity of the fluid at any point remains
constant in lime.
Non Steady or Turbulent: This is an irregular flow characterized by whirl pool–like region
i.e. at certain critical speed, the fluid flow becomes non-steady.
Viscosity: Degree of internal friction in the fluid, viscos force is associated with the
resistance of two adjacent layers of the fluid to move relative to each other.

Elasticity

Elasticity Properties of Solids

Pre-ambles: Kinetic theory of gasses has shown that matter consists of molecules, which behaves
like free particles in gases. For solids, the molecules have small distance and so, exert significant
forces on one another. The relationship between potential energy U(r) and F(r) is illustrated in the
graph below:
Energy dependence of
u intermolecular distance.
Fig (2.0)
ro
r

Note: That the molecules are normally at freed position (distance ro from one another) and their
forces in any molecule is zero; and potential energy (p.e) is minimum.
du (r) = 0
dr
The response of a material to a given type of deforming force as explained in the above graph
describes the principle of elasticity- the ability of a material to return back to its original shape and
size.

Stress: This is the external force per unit cross sectional area acting on an object
Stress = Force , Unit is Nm-2
Area
Strain: - This is the ratio of the change in original size or shape to the original size or shape.
Strain = R
h
Illustration: - A piece of wire stretched by an increasing force obeys Hook’s law i.e. extension is
proportional to force strain is proportional to stress.

F Stress
Fig (2.1) 1 2 4 5

3 yield

0 Strain e

0 – 2, wire return to its original length after the load had been removed. 2, is known as elastic
limit. After this print, it is brittle. 3, is the yield print beyond this print, extension is rapid, and this
known as plasticity. At 4, material is under maximum force or stress that can be sustained. At 5,
it is the breaking point.
Since strain is proportional to stress, the constant of protionality is called elastic modulus
Anticipate

TEAM SYNERGY
PHYSICS FOR BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS

PHS 105 /PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

Name of Presenter: OLURIN OLUWASEUN T.

1
Boyle’s Law is concerned with the relationship of pressure and volume using a
fixed amount of gas ( a fixed number of mols of gas)
P*V = constant at constant temperature
Avogadro’s Law is concerned with the relationship between the
number of molecules or mols (n) and the volume of a gas under
conditions of constant pressure and temperature

V  n at constant pressure and temperature

Charles’ Law is concerned with the relationship of temperature and volume when
dealing with a constant amount of gas (mols)
V  T when T is expressed in K. The K temperature scale is derived from the behavior
of gases
if V  T then V = kT where k is a constant at constant pressure
Ideal gas law: PV = nRT where R is a constant
R = 0.0821 L.atm/K.mol
Note that at constant n and T, PV = constant Boyle’s Law

Note that at constant P and T V/n = constant Avogadro’s Law

Note that at constant P and n, V/T = constant Charles’s Law

Standard conditions of pressure and temperature
T = 0 °C (273 K)
Pressure: 1 atm
What volume does a mol of any ideal gas occupy at STP?

PV = nRT
V = 1mol(0.0821 L*atm/K*mol)(273 K)/(1 atm)
V = 22.4 L
This means that equal volumes of gases under identical conditions of temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules
Example: Gas having 150 cm3 volume has
pressure 120 cmHg. If we increase volume of
container to 300 cm3, find final pressure of the
gas.
Since P1.V1 is constant from boyle's law;
P1.V1=P2.V2
120.150=P2.300
P2=60 cm H

12
Example: Gas at 127 0C has volume 240 ml. If we increase temperature of gas from 127 0C to
227 0C, find final volume of the gas.
Solution:
We first convert unit of temperature.
T1=127+273=400 K
T2=227+273=500 K
V1=240 ml
V2=?
We use Charles' law to solve this problem.
V1/T1=V2/T2
240/400=V2/500
V2=300 ml

13
Example: If we want to decrease pressure of gas, placed in a
container having constant volume, from 4P to P how much we
should change the temperature of it. Its current temperature is
127 0C.
P1=4P
P2=P
T1=127 0C=127+273=400 K
P1/T1=P2/T2
4P/400=P/T2
T2=100 K=t+273
t=-173 0C
14
PHYSICS FOR BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
AND AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS

PHS 105 /PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

Name of Presenter: OLURIN OLUWASEUN T.

1
 Course Title
Course Code: PHS 105 / Department: PHYSICS

Name of Presenter: PROF. V. MAKINDE