I

Complex Series

The sum of the first N terms of a series is

⼆
Zi Zzt NSN G E
M 1
Z
n

Here Zn can be red imaginary and complex

Gene Mac laurin expansion of et

SE ⼆ It Zt
ÉZIÌZI
Zn infinite series
mo n

Later we will earn Taylor series and you

will know that SAFE
In the Geo wing we will introduce
I arithmetic series

z geometric series

3 Taylor series ⼀
Very important 皆
 2
arithmetic series aiqtnd

qt N_n d
Snfqtlaǒdjtlaǒzd
N 1
E aǒnd
FO
NI N 1

E I d E n
q n o ⼝ ___ QO

qNtd.IN N
_________
II a piece of cake

geometric series an qrn

Sniqtqrtqf tqrtl
N 1

ns.o
qrn
There are many ways to carry out the sun

rN z f ljfrttrNT.it ______________
r ⼯
N 1
he E rn
n
1
N ON
I 1 r
N
z M 1 r
n o r 2
 3
不 us the sum of a geometric series is

si Ěqrn q Èrn
l rN
a.fi
1
aoi r 1

So the Emula to carry

seems singularity
r I.IS this singularity of Snored

Nope it is not red

example S It Ītzt Ět
Introduce the function fcx ⼯ 2 x_x I

It is clear that S f位

Now we need to carry out the sun for Ax

ffhdx
2 3
Flx x x x ___

x ltxti ⼆
Px
 4

Making use of the relation fx Fix

ffx 装 表 台⼆ ⼆

Xff ⼆⼆ ⼗三
⼆
表 ⼀
⼤了

djz f位 4
⼆ ⼀
⼩ S

example so Itcosotfe
Making use of the complex algebra
so Re It it ÌÉGÍ
30
__

Replacing the phase by the complex number

ÉEZ the infinite sun becomes

So Re It Zt
Ét 票
Re E Re
eosotising
⼀ Pretty cool
⼆
do cos sing
 5
Taylor Series fan

Given a function Xx as

Shown
it
on the right
to express it
Is
lfhfx
possible
in terms of power series

三
Hx qtqxtazxtgi ⼀

Skipping the Math rigors one can try to

compute the coefficients an 它
I
just plug to into fcx

for a simple
2 lake a derivative then plug in

q xfko yes

3 take two derivatives then plug in x 0

f 0
fb zaz
⼀

q 2
 6

Keep taking higher order derivatives

fh
qf n

Collecting all results together the fnfcx

Can be expressed as a power series

Xxkfojtflaxtfxx
2

⼆
⼆
n_n
fhxn ⼀

This result is remarkable the local properties

Of the fn foyhfko all around ED
dictates its global pro fee B

example fx d

fx É fkx G fh
fo fb ⼆
fko ___
I

thus ⼆ It xt
Ìxijx
 7
One can apply the same trick To expand fx
at an arbitrary point x_x

ffx aǒq x_x G x_x 不 ⼀

It is straightforward to Show that art

fcx Hxdtfk x_x
tzo x_x of
fyxo X_X
n

n
mo

抓八
One can expand fx its
die
Xof equilibrium pt fxo 0

Parablfhlx
fr According to Taylor series

f flx ⼗
年 x_x
xf.ae
x

⼼ 2
fcx 璧 x_x
___________

quadratic potential
 8
Analytic Continuation

All the series properties can be generalized

to complex numbers on the complex plane
For instance consider the infinite sun 拍

HZ It Zt ZI
Imzylzk I
It can be shown that fa
X Rez is for
2 IZKIZconvergent
f is convergent

So does it make any sense when 2

ffz I 2 4 8 t

If I tell you that I 2 4 8⼗ Ì

maybe you will just drop the go
applied math course ooo
 9
simple harmonic oscillator

The mass is worn out

K
a bit m mōom
m
⼀
⼝ How is the period modified

Assuming the mass difference is small

g 1
器 I

Te equation of motion is

Cmōomjxtkx 0

Making everything dimensionless

WE 若 so set wot t

and introduce x
器
Te EOM becomes dimensionless

x x gx o
_____

perturbation
 10
The solution Xlt can be expanded

xltkxdti gx.lt tfxzlt ⼀

The Zero th order solution Xdt takes the form

xdtkcosht x Itqgtsf____

Lets compute the coefficient a

Egjx x 1 8 cosht
2
1 g gxigxi
cos Rt

g 49 osht ⾏
5 Gskosnt 右划
too

xltl cos Rt tgxifxzt

Now write down EOM order by order
 11
zero th order
_trivial
cosht cos Rt ⼆

order OF
x ⼗ 1 9 cos Rt

x.lt O_o
___
Acoslt 0
___
B cos 你 t
___

unknown constants

substitute back into EOM

IX Bosht 1 9 cos At 0

4 x Bt 1 9 0

agj 可

Thus 9 I and B 0

Because x.co
⼆
and xio 0

A 0 and 0 ⼆
0 四
x.lt 0
 12
One can work out the calculations To all orders
I
x
管 ⼆
Itggf Égn__
IMZ
BE i ltigtiiǖgrii
lzk I
8⽇ I ⼯ g 2
gzf
X Rez
⼆ 2 f

NZ is convergent
扣
⼀
⼆六 É T_T
the complex plane
By analytic continuation on

NZFB.CZ ⼦Z ⼆
t
thus xlz 2 ⼯ 2 4 8⼗⼀
⼯

Does this make sense m mōomitgsmo

For 8 2 m 1 2 mi 3M

管 器 器 ⼆ ⼆ ⼆
号 YES 0