Contents

Lists ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Example: Python List Operations ........................................................................................ 3
Tuple ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Example: Python Tuple Operations...................................................................................... 5
Set ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Example: Python Set Operations ......................................................................................... 8
Frozen Sets ............................................................................................................................ 9
String................................................................................................................................... 10
Dictionary ............................................................................................................................ 11
Matrix .................................................................................................................................. 12
Bytearray ............................................................................................................................. 13
Linked List ........................................................................................................................... 14
Linked List Traversal............................................................................................................. 18
Stack ................................................................................................................................... 19
Queue ................................................................................................................................. 21
Priority Queue .................................................................................................................. 23
Heap ................................................................................................................................... 25
Binary Tree........................................................................................................................... 27
Tree Traversal ...................................................................................................................... 27
Depth First Traversals: ...................................................................................................... 28
Algorithm Inorder(tree) ..................................................................................................... 28
Algorithm Preorder(tree) ................................................................................................... 28
Algorithm Postorder(tree) ................................................................................................. 28
Breadth-First or Level Order Traversal ............................................................................... 28
Binary Search Tree ............................................................................................................... 29
Graphs ................................................................................................................................ 30
Adjacency Matrix .............................................................................................................. 30
Adjacency List .................................................................................................................. 31
Graph Traversal ................................................................................................................... 31
Breadth-First Search or BFS .............................................................................................. 31
Depth First Search or DFS ................................................................................................. 31
Recursion ............................................................................................................................ 32
What is the base condition in recursion? ........................................................................... 32
How memory is allocated to different function calls in recursion? ...................................... 32
Dynamic Programming ......................................................................................................... 33
Tabulation vs Memoization ............................................................................................... 33
Tabulation .................................................................................................................... 34
Memoization ................................................................................................................. 34
Searching Algorithms ........................................................................................................... 34
Linear Search ................................................................................................................... 34
Binary Search ................................................................................................................... 36
Sorting Algorithms ............................................................................................................... 38
Selection Sort................................................................................................................... 38
Bubble Sort ...................................................................................................................... 39
Insertion Sort ................................................................................................................... 41
Merge Sort........................................................................................................................ 43
QuickSort ......................................................................................................................... 47
Partition Algorithm ............................................................................................................... 48
Lists
Python Lists are ordered collections of data just like arrays in other programming languages. It
allows different types of elements in the list. The implementation of Python List is similar to
Vectors in C++ or ArrayList in JAVA. The costly operation is inserting or deleting the element
from the beginning of the List as all the elements are needed to be shifted. Insertion and
deletion at the end of the list can also become costly in the case where the preallocated
memory becomes full.

Example: Creating Python List

Python3

List = [1, 2, 3, "GFG", 2.3]

print(List)

Output

[1, 2, 3, 'GFG', 2.3]

List elements can be accessed by the assigned index. In python starting index of the list, a
sequence is 0 and the ending index is (if N elements are there) N-1.

Example: Python List Operations

Python3

# Creating a List with

# the use of multiple values

List = ["Geeks", "For", "Geeks"]

print("\nList containing multiple values: ")

print(List)

# Creating a Multi-Dimensional List

# (By Nesting a list inside a List)

List2 = [['Geeks', 'For'], ['Geeks']]

print("\nMulti-Dimensional List: ")

print(List2)

# accessing a element from the

# list using index number

print("Accessing element from the list")

print(List[0])

print(List[2])

# accessing a element using

# negative indexing

print("Accessing element using negative indexing")

# print the last element of list

print(List[-1])

# print the third last element of list

print(List[-3])

Output

List containing multiple values:

['Geeks', 'For', 'Geeks']

Multi-Dimensional List:

[['Geeks', 'For'], ['Geeks']]

Accessing element from the list

Geeks

Geeks

Accessing element using negative indexing

Geeks

Geeks

Tuple
Python tuples are similar to lists but Tuples are immutable in nature i.e. once created it cannot
be modified. Just like a List, a Tuple can also contain elements of various types.

In Python, tuples are created by placing a sequence of values separated by ‘comma’ with or
without the use of parentheses for grouping of the data sequence.

Note: To create a tuple of one element there must be a trailing comma. For example, (8,) will
create a tuple containing 8 as the element.

Example: Python Tuple Operations

Python3

# Creating a Tuple with

# the use of Strings

Tuple = ('Geeks', 'For')

print("\nTuple with the use of String: ")

print(Tuple)

# Creating a Tuple with

# the use of list

list1 = [1, 2, 4, 5, 6]

print("\nTuple using List: ")

Tuple = tuple(list1)

# Accessing element using indexing

print("First element of tuple")

print(Tuple[0])

# Accessing element from last

# negative indexing

print("\nLast element of tuple")

print(Tuple[-1])
print("\nThird last element of tuple")

print(Tuple[-3])

Output

Tuple with the use of String:

('Geeks', 'For')

Tuple using List:

First element of tuple

Last element of tuple

Third last element of tuple

Set
Python set is a mutable collection of data that does not allow any duplication. Sets are
basically used to include membership testing and eliminating duplicate entries. The data
structure used in this is Hashing, a popular technique to perform insertion, deletion, and
traversal in O(1) on average.

If Multiple values are present at the same index position, then the value is appended to that
index position, to form a Linked List. In, CPython Sets are implemented using a dictionary with
dummy variables, where key beings the members set with greater optimizations to the time
complexity.

Set Implementation:
Sets with Numerous operations on a single HashTable:
Example: Python Set Operations
Python3

# Creating a Set with

# a mixed type of values

# (Having numbers and strings)

Set = set([1, 2, 'Geeks', 4, 'For', 6, 'Geeks'])

print("\nSet with the use of Mixed Values")

print(Set)

# Accessing element using

# for loop

print("\nElements of set: ")

for i in Set:

print(i, end =" ")

print()

# Checking the element

# using in keyword
print("Geeks" in Set)

Output

Set with the use of Mixed Values

{1, 2, 4, 6, 'For', 'Geeks'}

Elements of set:

1 2 4 6 For Geeks

True

Frozen Sets
Frozen sets in Python are immutable objects that only support methods and operators that
produce a result without affecting the frozen set or sets to which they are applied. While
elements of a set can be modified at any time, elements of the frozen set remain the same after
creation.

Example: Python Frozen set

Python3

# Same as {"a", "b","c"}

normal_set = set(["a", "b","c"])

print("Normal Set")

print(normal_set)

# A frozen set

frozen_set = frozenset(["e", "f", "g"])

print("\nFrozen Set")

print(frozen_set)

# Uncommenting below line would cause error as

# we are trying to add element to a frozen set

# frozen_set.add("h")
Output

Normal Set

{'a', 'b', 'c'}

Frozen Set

frozenset({'f', 'g', 'e'})

String
Python Strings is the immutable array of bytes representing Unicode characters. Python does
not have a character data type, a single character is simply a string with a length of 1.

Note: As strings are immutable, modifying a string will result in creating a new copy.

Example: Python Strings Operations

Python3

String = "Welcome to GeeksForGeeks"

print("Creating String: ")

print(String)

# Printing First character

print("\nFirst character of String is: ")

print(String[0])

# Printing Last character

print("\nLast character of String is: ")

print(String[-1])

Output

Creating String:

Welcome to GeeksForGeeks

First character of String is:

Last character of String is:

Dictionary
Python dictionary is an unordered collection of data that stores data in the format of key:value
pair. It is like hash tables in any other language with the time complexity of O(1). Indexing of
Python Dictionary is done with the help of keys. These are of any hashable type i.e. an object
whose can never change like strings, numbers, tuples, etc. We can create a dictionary by using
curly braces ({}) or dictionary comprehension.

Example: Python Dictionary Operations

Python3

# Creating a Dictionary

Dict = {'Name': 'Geeks', 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}

print("Creating Dictionary: ")

print(Dict)

# accessing a element using key

print("Accessing a element using key:")

print(Dict['Name'])

# accessing a element using get()

# method

print("Accessing a element using get:")

print(Dict.get(1))
# creation using Dictionary comprehension

myDict = {x: x**2 for x in [1,2,3,4,5]}

print(myDict)

Output

Creating Dictionary:

{'Name': 'Geeks', 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}

Accessing a element using key:

Geeks

Accessing a element using get:

[1, 2, 3, 4]

{1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}

Matrix
A matrix is a 2D array where each element is of strictly the same size. To create a matrix we will
be using the NumPy package.

Example: Python NumPy Matrix Operations

Python3

import numpy as np

a = np.array([[1,2,3,4],[4,55,1,2],

[8,3,20,19],[11,2,22,21]])

m = np.reshape(a,(4, 4))

print(m)

# Accessing element

print("\nAccessing Elements")

print(a[1])

print(a[2][0])

# Adding Element
m = np.append(m,[[1, 15,13,11]],0)

print("\nAdding Element")

print(m)

# Deleting Element

m = np.delete(m,[1],0)

print("\nDeleting Element")

print(m)

Output

[[ 1 2 3 4]
[ 4 55 1 2]
[ 8 3 20 19]
[11 2 22 21]]
Accessing Elements
[ 4 55 1 2]
8
Adding Element
[[ 1 2 3 4]
[ 4 55 1 2]
[ 8 3 20 19]
[11 2 22 21]
[ 1 15 13 11]]
Deleting Element
[[ 1 2 3 4]
[ 8 3 20 19]
[11 2 22 21]
[ 1 15 13 11]]

Bytearray
Python Bytearray gives a mutable sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.

Example: Python Bytearray Operations

Python3

# Creating bytearray

a = bytearray((12, 8, 25, 2))

print("Creating Bytearray:")

print(a)
# accessing elements

print("\nAccessing Elements:", a[1])

# modifying elements

a[1] = 3

print("\nAfter Modifying:")

print(a)

# Appending elements

a.append(30)

print("\nAfter Adding Elements:")

print(a)

Output

Creating Bytearray:

bytearray(b'\x0c\x08\x19\x02')

Accessing Elements: 8

After Modifying:

bytearray(b'\x0c\x03\x19\x02')

After Adding Elements:

bytearray(b'\x0c\x03\x19\x02\x1e')

Linked List
A linked list is a linear data structure, in which the elements are not stored at contiguous
memory locations. The elements in a linked list are linked using pointers as shown in the below
image:
A linked list is represented by a pointer to the first node of the linked list. The first node is called
the head. If the linked list is empty, then the value of the head is NULL. Each node in a list
consists of at least two parts:

• Data

• Pointer (Or Reference) to the next node

Example: Defining Linked List in Python

Python3

# Node class

class Node:

# Function to initialize the node object

def __init__(self, data):

self.data = data # Assign data

self.next = None # Initialize

# next as null

# Linked List class

class LinkedList:

# Function to initialize the Linked

# List object

def __init__(self):

self.head = None

Let us create a simple linked list with 3 nodes.

Python3

# A simple Python program to introduce a linked list

# Node class

class Node:

# Function to initialise the node object

def __init__(self, data):

self.data = data # Assign data

self.next = None # Initialize next as null

# Linked List class contains a Node object

class LinkedList:

# Function to initialize head

def __init__(self):

self.head = None

# Code execution starts here

if __name__=='__main__':

# Start with the empty list

llist = LinkedList()

llist.head = Node(1)

second = Node(2)

third = Node(3)

'''

Three nodes have been created.

We have references to these three blocks as head,

second and third

llist.head second third

| | |

| | |

+----+------+ +----+------+ +----+------+

| 1 | None | | 2 | None | | 3 | None |

+----+------+ +----+------+ +----+------+

'''

llist.head.next = second; # Link first node with second

'''

Now next of first Node refers to second. So they

both are linked.

llist.head second third

| | |

| | |

+----+------+ +----+------+ +----+------+

| 1 | o-------->| 2 | null | | 3 | null |

+----+------+ +----+------+ +----+------+

'''

second.next = third; # Link second node with the third node

'''

Now next of second Node refers to third. So all three

nodes are linked.

llist.head second third

| | |
 | | |

+----+------+ +----+------+ +----+------+

| 1 | o-------->| 2 | o-------->| 3 | null |

+----+------+ +----+------+ +----+------+

'''

Linked List Traversal

In the previous program, we have created a simple linked list with three nodes. Let us traverse
the created list and print the data of each node. For traversal, let us write a general-purpose
function printList() that prints any given list.

Python3

# A simple Python program for traversal of a linked list

# Node class

class Node:

# Function to initialise the node object

def __init__(self, data):

self.data = data # Assign data

self.next = None # Initialize next as null

# Linked List class contains a Node object

class LinkedList:

# Function to initialize head

def __init__(self):

self.head = None

# This function prints contents of linked list

# starting from head

def printList(self):
 temp = self.head

while (temp):

print (temp.data)

temp = temp.next

# Code execution starts here

if __name__=='__main__':

# Start with the empty list

llist = LinkedList()

llist.head = Node(1)

second = Node(2)

third = Node(3)

llist.head.next = second; # Link first node with second

second.next = third; # Link second node with the third node

llist.printList()

Output

Stack
A stack is a linear data structure that stores items in a Last-In/First-Out (LIFO) or First-In/Last-
Out (FILO) manner. In stack, a new element is added at one end and an element is removed
from that end only. The insert and delete operations are often called push and pop.
The functions associated with stack are:

• empty() – Returns whether the stack is empty – Time Complexity: O(1)

• size() – Returns the size of the stack – Time Complexity: O(1)

• top() – Returns a reference to the topmost element of the stack – Time Complexity: O(1)

• push(a) – Inserts the element ‘a’ at the top of the stack – Time Complexity: O(1)

• pop() – Deletes the topmost element of the stack – Time Complexity: O(1)

Python3

stack = []

# append() function to push

# element in the stack

stack.append('g')

stack.append('f')

stack.append('g')

print('Initial stack')

print(stack)

# pop() function to pop

# element from stack in

# LIFO order

print('\nElements popped from stack:')

print(stack.pop())

print(stack.pop())
print(stack.pop())

print('\nStack after elements are popped:')

print(stack)

# uncommenting print(stack.pop())

# will cause an IndexError

# as the stack is now empty

Output

Initial stack

['g', 'f', 'g']

Elements popped from stack:

Stack after elements are popped:

[]

Queue
As a stack, the queue is a linear data structure that stores items in a First In First Out (FIFO)
manner. With a queue, the least recently added item is removed first. A good example of the
queue is any queue of consumers for a resource where the consumer that came first is served
first.
Operations associated with queue are:

• Enqueue: Adds an item to the queue. If the queue is full, then it is said to be an Overflow
condition – Time Complexity: O(1)

• Dequeue: Removes an item from the queue. The items are popped in the same order in
which they are pushed. If the queue is empty, then it is said to be an Underflow
condition – Time Complexity: O(1)

• Front: Get the front item from queue – Time Complexity: O(1)

• Rear: Get the last item from queue – Time Complexity: O(1)

Python3

# Initializing a queue

queue = []

# Adding elements to the queue

queue.append('g')

queue.append('f')

queue.append('g')

print("Initial queue")

print(queue)

# Removing elements from the queue

print("\nElements dequeued from queue")

print(queue.pop(0))

print(queue.pop(0))
print(queue.pop(0))

print("\nQueue after removing elements")

print(queue)

# Uncommenting print(queue.pop(0))

# will raise and IndexError

# as the queue is now empty

Output

Initial queue

['g', 'f', 'g']

Elements dequeued from queue

Queue after removing elements

[]

Priority Queue
Priority Queues are abstract data structures where each data/value in the queue has a certain
priority. For example, In airlines, baggage with the title “Business” or “First-class” arrives earlier
than the rest. Priority Queue is an extension of the queue with the following properties.

• An element with high priority is dequeued before an element with low priority.

• If two elements have the same priority, they are served according to their order in the
queue.

Python3

# A simple implementation of Priority Queue

# using Queue.

class PriorityQueue(object):

def __init__(self):
 self.queue = []

def __str__(self):

return ' '.join([str(i) for i in self.queue])

# for checking if the queue is empty

def isEmpty(self):

return len(self.queue) == 0

# for inserting an element in the queue

def insert(self, data):

self.queue.append(data)

# for popping an element based on Priority

def delete(self):

try:

max = 0

for i in range(len(self.queue)):

if self.queue[i] > self.queue[max]:

max = i

item = self.queue[max]

del self.queue[max]

return item

except IndexError:

print()

exit()

if __name__ == '__main__':

myQueue = PriorityQueue()

myQueue.insert(12)

myQueue.insert(1)
 myQueue.insert(14)

myQueue.insert(7)

print(myQueue)

while not myQueue.isEmpty():

print(myQueue.delete())

Output

12 1 14 7

14

12

Heap
heapq module in Python provides the heap data structure that is mainly used to represent a
priority queue. The property of this data structure is that it always gives the smallest element
(min heap) whenever the element is popped. Whenever elements are pushed or popped, heap
structure is maintained. The heap[0] element also returns the smallest element each time. It
supports the extraction and insertion of the smallest element in the O(log n) times.

Generally, Heaps can be of two types:

• Max-Heap: In a Max-Heap the key present at the root node must be greatest among the
keys present at all of it’s children. The same property must be recursively true for all
sub-trees in that Binary Tree.

• Min-Heap: In a Min-Heap the key present at the root node must be minimum among the
keys present at all of it’s children. The same property must be recursively true for all
sub-trees in that Binary Tree.
Python3

# importing "heapq" to implement heap queue

import heapq

# initializing list

li = [5, 7, 9, 1, 3]

# using heapify to convert list into heap

heapq.heapify(li)

# printing created heap

print ("The created heap is : ",end="")

print (list(li))

# using heappush() to push elements into heap

# pushes 4

heapq.heappush(li,4)
# printing modified heap

print ("The modified heap after push is : ",end="")

print (list(li))

# using heappop() to pop smallest element

print ("The popped and smallest element is : ",end="")

print (heapq.heappop(li))

Output

The created heap is : [1, 3, 9, 7, 5]

The modified heap after push is : [1, 3, 4, 7, 5, 9]

The popped and smallest element is : 1

Binary Tree
A tree is a hierarchical data structure that looks like the below figure –

tree
----
j <-- root
/ \
f k
/ \ \
a h z <-- leaves

The topmost node of the tree is called the root whereas the bottommost nodes or the nodes
with no children are called the leaf nodes. The nodes that are directly under a node are called
its children and the nodes that are directly above something are called its parent.

A binary tree is a tree whose elements can have almost two children. Since each element in a
binary tree can have only 2 children, we typically name them the left and right children. A Binary
Tree node contains the following parts.

• Data

• Pointer to left child

• Pointer to the right child

Tree Traversal
Trees can be traversed in different ways. Following are the generally used ways for traversing
trees. Let us consider the below tree –
 tree
----
1 <-- root
/ \
2 3
/\
4 5

Depth First Traversals:

• Inorder (Left, Root, Right) : 4 2 5 1 3

• Preorder (Root, Left, Right) : 1 2 4 5 3

• Postorder (Left, Right, Root) : 4 5 2 3 1

Algorithm Inorder(tree)
• Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Inorder(left-subtree)

• Visit the root.

• Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Inorder(right-subtree)

Algorithm Preorder(tree)
• Visit the root.

• Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Preorder(left-subtree)

• Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Preorder(right-subtree)

Algorithm Postorder(tree)
• Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Postorder(left-subtree)

• Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Postorder(right-subtree)

• Visit the root.

Breadth-First or Level Order Traversal

Level order traversal of a tree is breadth-first traversal for the tree. The level order traversal of
the above tree is 1 2 3 4 5.

For each node, first, the node is visited and then its child nodes are put in a FIFO queue. Below
is the algorithm for the same –

• Create an empty queue q

• temp_node = root /*start from root*/

• Loop while temp_node is not NULL

• print temp_node->data.

• Enqueue temp_node’s children (first left then right children) to q

 • Dequeue a node from q

Binary Search Tree

Binary Search Tree is a node-based binary tree data structure that has the following properties:

• The left subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys lesser than the node’s key.

• The right subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys greater than the node’s key.

• The left and right subtree each must also be a binary search tree.

The above properties of the Binary Search Tree provide an ordering among keys so that the
operations like search, minimum and maximum can be done fast. If there is no order, then we
may have to compare every key to search for a given key.

Searching Element

• Start from the root.

• Compare the searching element with root, if less than root, then recurse for left, else
recurse for right.

• If the element to search is found anywhere, return true, else return false.

Python3

# A utility function to search a given key in BST

def search(root,key):

# Base Cases: root is null or key is present at root

if root is None or root.val == key:

return root
 # Key is greater than root's key

if root.val < key:

return search(root.right,key)

# Key is smaller than root's key

return search(root.left,key)

Insertion of a key

• Start from the root.

• Compare the inserting element with root, if less than root, then recurse for left, else
recurse for right.

• After reaching the end, just insert that node at left(if less than current) else right.

Graphs
A graph is a nonlinear data structure consisting of nodes and edges. The nodes are sometimes
also referred to as vertices and the edges are lines or arcs that connect any two nodes in the
graph. More formally a Graph can be defined as a Graph consisting of a finite set of vertices(or
nodes) and a set of edges that connect a pair of nodes.

In the above Graph, the set of vertices V = {0,1,2,3,4} and the set of edges E = {01, 12, 23, 34, 04,
14, 13}. The following two are the most commonly used representations of a graph.

• Adjacency Matrix

• Adjacency List

Adjacency Matrix
Adjacency Matrix is a 2D array of size V x V where V is the number of vertices in a graph. Let the
2D array be adj[][], a slot adj[i][j] = 1 indicates that there is an edge from vertex i to vertex j. The
adjacency matrix for an undirected graph is always symmetric. Adjacency Matrix is also used to
represent weighted graphs. If adj[i][j] = w, then there is an edge from vertex i to vertex j with
weight w.

Adjacency List
An array of lists is used. The size of the array is equal to the number of vertices. Let the array be
an array[]. An entry array[i] represents the list of vertices adjacent to the ith vertex. This
representation can also be used to represent a weighted graph. The weights of edges can be
represented as lists of pairs. Following is the adjacency list representation of the above graph.

Graph Traversal
Breadth-First Search or BFS
Breadth-First Traversal for a graph is similar to Breadth-First Traversal of a tree. The only catch
here is, unlike trees, graphs may contain cycles, so we may come to the same node again. To
avoid processing a node more than once, we use a boolean visited array. For simplicity, it is
assumed that all vertices are reachable from the starting vertex.

For example, in the following graph, we start traversal from vertex 2. When we come to vertex 0,
we look for all adjacent vertices of it. 2 is also an adjacent vertex of 0. If we don’t mark visited
vertices, then 2 will be processed again and it will become a non-terminating process. A
Breadth-First Traversal of the following graph is 2, 0, 3, 1.

Depth First Search or DFS

Depth First Traversal for a graph is similar to Depth First Traversal of a tree. The only catch here
is, unlike trees, graphs may contain cycles, a node may be visited twice. To avoid processing a
node more than once, use a boolean visited array.

Algorithm:

• Create a recursive function that takes the index of the node and a visited array.

• Mark the current node as visited and print the node.

• Traverse all the adjacent and unmarked nodes and call the recursive function with the
index of the adjacent node.
Recursion
The process in which a function calls itself directly or indirectly is called recursion and the
corresponding function is called a recursive function. Using the recursive algorithms, certain
problems can be solved quite easily. Examples of such problems are Towers of Hanoi (TOH),
Inorder/Preorder/Postorder Tree Traversals, DFS of Graph, etc.

What is the base condition in recursion?

In the recursive program, the solution to the base case is provided and the solution of the bigger
problem is expressed in terms of smaller problems.

def fact(n):
# base case
if (n < = 1)
return 1
else
return n*fact(n-1)

In the above example, base case for n < = 1 is defined and larger value of number can be solved
by converting to smaller one till base case is reached.

How memory is allocated to different function calls in recursion?

When any function is called from main(), the memory is allocated to it on the stack. A recursive
function calls itself, the memory for a called function is allocated on top of memory allocated to
the calling function and a different copy of local variables is created for each function call.
When the base case is reached, the function returns its value to the function by whom it is
called and memory is de-allocated and the process continues.

Let us take the example of how recursion works by taking a simple function.

Python3

# A Python 3 program to

# demonstrate working of

# recursion

def printFun(test):

if (test < 1):

return

else:

print(test, end=" ")

 printFun(test-1) # statement 2

print(test, end=" ")

return

# Driver Code

test = 3

printFun(test)

Output

321123

>>> More

Dynamic Programming
Dynamic Programming is mainly an optimization over plain recursion. Wherever we see a
recursive solution that has repeated calls for same inputs, we can optimize it using Dynamic
Programming. The idea is to simply store the results of subproblems, so that we do not have to
re-compute them when needed later. This simple optimization reduces time complexities from
exponential to polynomial. For example, if we write simple recursive solution for Fibonacci
Numbers, we get exponential time complexity and if we optimize it by storing solutions of
subproblems, time complexity reduces to linear.

Tabulation vs Memoization
There are two different ways to store the values so that the values of a sub-problem can be
reused. Here, will discuss two patterns of solving dynamic programming (DP) problem:
 • Tabulation: Bottom Up

• Memoization: Top Down

Tabulation
As the name itself suggests starting from the bottom and accumulating answers to the top.
Let’s discuss in terms of state transition.

Let’s describe a state for our DP problem to be dp[x] with dp[0] as base state and dp[n] as our
destination state. So, we need to find the value of destination state i.e dp[n].

If we start our transition from our base state i.e dp[0] and follow our state transition relation to
reach our destination state dp[n], we call it the Bottom-Up approach as it is quite clear that we
started our transition from the bottom base state and reached the topmost desired state.

Now, Why do we call it tabulation method?

To know this let’s first write some code to calculate the factorial of a number using bottom up
approach. Once, again as our general procedure to solve a DP we first define a state. In this
case, we define a state as dp[x], where dp[x] is to find the factorial of x.

Now, it is quite obvious that dp[x+1] = dp[x] * (x+1)

# Tabulated version to find factorial x.

dp = [0]*MAXN
# base case
dp[0] = 1;
for i in range(n+1):
dp[i] = dp[i-1] * i

Memoization
Once, again let’s describe it in terms of state transition. If we need to find the value for some
state say dp[n] and instead of starting from the base state that i.e dp[0] we ask our answer from
the states that can reach the destination state dp[n] following the state transition relation, then
it is the top-down fashion of DP.

Here, we start our journey from the top most destination state and compute its answer by
taking in count the values of states that can reach the destination state, till we reach the
bottom-most base state.

Searching Algorithms
Linear Search
• Start from the leftmost element of arr[] and one by one compare x with each element of
arr[]

• If x matches with an element, return the index.

• If x doesn’t match with any of the elements, return -1.

Python3

# Python3 code to linearly search x in arr[].

# If x is present then return its location,

# otherwise return -1

def search(arr, n, x):

for i in range(0, n):

if (arr[i] == x):

return i

return -1

# Driver Code

arr = [2, 3, 4, 10, 40]

x = 10

n = len(arr)

# Function call

result = search(arr, n, x)

if(result == -1):

print("Element is not present in array")

else:

print("Element is present at index", result)

Output

Element is present at index 3

The time complexity of the above algorithm is O(n).

For more information, refer to Linear Search.

Binary Search
Search a sorted array by repeatedly dividing the search interval in half. Begin with an interval
covering the whole array. If the value of the search key is less than the item in the middle of the
interval, narrow the interval to the lower half. Otherwise, narrow it to the upper half. Repeatedly
check until the value is found or the interval is empty.

Python3

# Python3 Program for recursive binary search.

# Returns index of x in arr if present, else -1

def binarySearch (arr, l, r, x):

# Check base case

if r >= l:
 mid = l + (r - l) // 2

# If element is present at the middle itself

if arr[mid] == x:

return mid

# If element is smaller than mid, then it

# can only be present in left subarray

elif arr[mid] > x:

return binarySearch(arr, l, mid-1, x)

# Else the element can only be present

# in right subarray

else:

return binarySearch(arr, mid + 1, r, x)

else:

# Element is not present in the array

return -1

# Driver Code

arr = [ 2, 3, 4, 10, 40 ]

x = 10

# Function call

result = binarySearch(arr, 0, len(arr)-1, x)

if result != -1:

print ("Element is present at index % d" % result)

else:
 print ("Element is not present in array")

Output

Element is present at index 3

The time complexity of the above algorithm is O(log(n)).

For more information, refer to Binary Search.

Sorting Algorithms
Selection Sort
The selection sort algorithm sorts an array by repeatedly finding the minimum element
(considering ascending order) from unsorted part and putting it at the beginning. In every
iteration of selection sort, the minimum element (considering ascending order) from the
unsorted subarray is picked and moved to the sorted subarray.

Python3

# Python program for implementation of Selection

# Sort

import sys

A = [64, 25, 12, 22, 11]

# Traverse through all array elements

for i in range(len(A)):

# Find the minimum element in remaining

# unsorted array

min_idx = i

for j in range(i+1, len(A)):

if A[min_idx] > A[j]:

min_idx = j

# Swap the found minimum element with

 # the first element

A[i], A[min_idx] = A[min_idx], A[i]

# Driver code to test above

print ("Sorted array")

for i in range(len(A)):

print("%d" %A[i]),

Output

Sorted array

11

12

22

25

64

Time Complexity: O(n2) as there are two nested loops.

Auxiliary Space: O(1)

Bubble Sort
Bubble Sort is the simplest sorting algorithm that works by repeatedly swapping the adjacent
elements if they are in wrong order.

Illustration :
Python3

# Python program for implementation of Bubble Sort

def bubbleSort(arr):

n = len(arr)

# Traverse through all array elements

for i in range(n):

# Last i elements are already in place

for j in range(0, n-i-1):

# traverse the array from 0 to n-i-1

# Swap if the element found is greater

# than the next element

 if arr[j] > arr[j+1] :

arr[j], arr[j+1] = arr[j+1], arr[j]

# Driver code to test above

arr = [64, 34, 25, 12, 22, 11, 90]

bubbleSort(arr)

print ("Sorted array is:")

for i in range(len(arr)):

print ("%d" %arr[i]),

Output

Sorted array is:

11

12

22

25

34

64

90

Time Complexity: O(n2)

Insertion Sort
To sort an array of size n in ascending order using insertion sort:

• Iterate from arr[1] to arr[n] over the array.

• Compare the current element (key) to its predecessor.

• If the key element is smaller than its predecessor, compare it to the elements before.
Move the greater elements one position up to make space for the swapped element.

Illustration:
Python3

# Python program for implementation of Insertion Sort

# Function to do insertion sort

def insertionSort(arr):

# Traverse through 1 to len(arr)

for i in range(1, len(arr)):

key = arr[i]
 # Move elements of arr[0..i-1], that are

# greater than key, to one position ahead

# of their current position

j = i-1

while j >= 0 and key < arr[j] :

arr[j + 1] = arr[j]

j -= 1

arr[j + 1] = key

# Driver code to test above

arr = [12, 11, 13, 5, 6]

insertionSort(arr)

for i in range(len(arr)):

print ("% d" % arr[i])

Output

11

12

13

Time Complexity: O(n2))

Merge Sort
Like QuickSort, Merge Sort is a Divide and Conquer algorithm. It divides the input array into two
halves, calls itself for the two halves, and then merges the two sorted halves. The merge()
function is used for merging two halves. The merge(arr, l, m, r) is a key process that assumes
that arr[l..m] and arr[m+1..r] are sorted and merges the two sorted sub-arrays into one.

MergeSort(arr[], l, r)
If r > l
1. Find the middle point to divide the array into two halves:
middle m = l+ (r-l)/2
2. Call mergeSort for first half:
 Call mergeSort(arr, l, m)
3. Call mergeSort for second half:
Call mergeSort(arr, m+1, r)
4. Merge the two halves sorted in step 2 and 3:
Call merge(arr, l, m, r)

Python3

# Python program for implementation of MergeSort

def mergeSort(arr):

if len(arr) > 1:

# Finding the mid of the array

mid = len(arr)//2
# Dividing the array elements

L = arr[:mid]

# into 2 halves

R = arr[mid:]

# Sorting the first half

mergeSort(L)

# Sorting the second half

mergeSort(R)

i=j=k=0

# Copy data to temp arrays L[] and R[]

while i < len(L) and j < len(R):

if L[i] < R[j]:

arr[k] = L[i]

i += 1

else:

arr[k] = R[j]

j += 1

k += 1

# Checking if any element was left

while i < len(L):

arr[k] = L[i]

i += 1

k += 1
 while j < len(R):

arr[k] = R[j]

j += 1

k += 1

# Code to print the list

def printList(arr):

for i in range(len(arr)):

print(arr[i], end=" ")

print()

# Driver Code

if __name__ == '__main__':

arr = [12, 11, 13, 5, 6, 7]

print("Given array is", end="\n")

printList(arr)

mergeSort(arr)

print("Sorted array is: ", end="\n")

printList(arr)

Output

Given array is

12 11 13 5 6 7

Sorted array is:

5 6 7 11 12 13

Time Complexity: O(n(logn))

QuickSort
Like Merge Sort, QuickSort is a Divide and Conquer algorithm. It picks an element as pivot and
partitions the given array around the picked pivot. There are many different versions of
quickSort that pick pivot in different ways.

Always pick first element as pivot.

• Always pick last element as pivot (implemented below)

• Pick a random element as pivot.

• Pick median as pivot.

The key process in quickSort is partition(). Target of partitions is, given an array and an element
x of array as pivot, put x at its correct position in sorted array and put all smaller elements
(smaller than x) before x, and put all greater elements (greater than x) after x. All this should be
done in linear time.

/* low --> Starting index, high --> Ending index */

quickSort(arr[], low, high)
{
if (low < high)
{
/* pi is partitioning index, arr[pi] is now
at right place */
pi = partition(arr, low, high);
quickSort(arr, low, pi - 1); // Before pi
quickSort(arr, pi + 1, high); // After pi
}
}
Partition Algorithm
we start from the leftmost element and keep track of index of smaller (or equal to) elements as
i. While traversing, if we find a smaller element, we swap current element with arr[i]. Otherwise
we ignore current element.

/* This function takes last element as pivot, places the pivot element at its correct position in
sorted array, and places all smaller (smaller than pivot) to left of pivot and all greater elements
to right of pivot */
partition (arr[], low, high)
{
// pivot (Element to be placed at right position)
pivot = arr[high];
i = (low – 1) // Index of smaller element and indicates the
// right position of pivot found so far
for (j = low; j <= high- 1; j++){
// If current element is smaller than the pivot
if (arr[j] < pivot){
i++; // increment index of smaller element
swap arr[i] and arr[j]
}
}
swap arr[i + 1] and arr[high])
return (i + 1)
}

Python3

# Python3 implementation of QuickSort

# This Function handles sorting part of quick sort

# start and end points to first and last element of

# an array respectively

def partition(start, end, array):

# Initializing pivot's index to start

pivot_index = start

pivot = array[pivot_index]

# This loop runs till start pointer crosses

 # end pointer, and when it does we swap the

# pivot with element on end pointer

while start < end:

# Increment the start pointer till it finds an

# element greater than pivot

while start < len(array) and array[start] <= pivot:

start += 1

# Decrement the end pointer till it finds an

# element less than pivot

while array[end] > pivot:

end -= 1

# If start and end have not crossed each other,

# swap the numbers on start and end

if(start < end):

array[start], array[end] = array[end], array[start]

# Swap pivot element with element on end pointer.

# This puts pivot on its correct sorted place.

array[end], array[pivot_index] = array[pivot_index], array[end]

# Returning end pointer to divide the array into 2

return end

# The main function that implements QuickSort

def quick_sort(start, end, array):

if (start < end):

 # p is partitioning index, array[p]

# is at right place

p = partition(start, end, array)

# Sort elements before partition

# and after partition

quick_sort(start, p - 1, array)

quick_sort(p + 1, end, array)

# Driver code

array = [ 10, 7, 8, 9, 1, 5 ]

quick_sort(0, len(array) - 1, array)

print(f'Sorted array: {array}')

Output

Sorted array: [1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10]

Time Complexity: O(n(logn))