Qualitative research

is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to
gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs,
[1][2]
and motivation. This type of research typically involves in-depth interviews, focus groups, or
observations in order to collect data that is rich in detail and context.

Interval Scale: Definition

The interval scale is a quantitative measurement scale where there is order, the difference between
the two variables is meaningful and equal, and the presence of zero is arbitrary. It measures
variables that exist along a common scale at equal intervals. The measures used to calculate the
distance between the variables are highly reliable.

Sampling

In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger
population for measurement. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that
we can generalise the findings from the research sample to the population as a whole.

Objectives and types

There are two types of research objectives; primary and secondary objectives. Research objectives
describe what the researcher wants to achieve from the research/study. They are formulated after
the research problem is finalized. They provide meaning and defines the research to the readers.

Case Study

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect
of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can
be used in various fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science,
and social work.
observational study

Observational studies are ones where researchers observe the effect of a risk factor, diagnostic test,
treatment or other intervention without trying to change who is or isn't exposed to it. Cohort studies
and case control studies are two types of observational studies.

Rate

a rate is a more general measure in which one quantity is divided by another quantity, where both
quantities don't necessarily need to have the same unit of measure. It can be equal to any value,
including negative numbers. Like proportions, and it can be expressed as a number or a percentage.

A type I error (false-positive) occurs if an investigator rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true in
the population; a type II error (false-negative) occurs if the investigator fails to reject a null
hypothesis that is actually false in the population. Although type I and type II errors can never be
avoided entirely, the investigator can reduce their likelihood by increasing the sample size (the larger
the sample, the lesser is the likelihood that it will differ substantially from the population).

False-positive and false-negative results can also occur because of bias (observer, instrument, recall,
etc.). (Errors due to bias, however, are not referred to as type I and type II errors.) Such errors are
troublesome, since they may be difficult to detect and cannot usually be quantified.

Data

Research data is any information that has been collected, observed, generated or created to validate
original research findings. Although usually digital, research data also includes non-digital formats
such as laboratory notebooks and diaries.

hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a specific, clear, and testable proposition or predictive statement about the
possible outcome of a scientific research study based on a particular property of a population, such
as presumed differences between groups on a particular variable or relationships between variables.

Sampling steps

Process

So Brooke wants to choose a group of college students to take part in her study. To select her
sample, she goes through the basic steps of sampling.

1. Identify the population of interest. A population is the group of people that you want to make
assumptions about. For example, Brooke wants to know how much stress college students
experience during finals. Her population is every college student in the world because that's who
she's interested in. Of course, there's no way that Brooke can feasibly study every college student in
the world, so she moves on to the next step.

2. Specify a sampling frame. A sampling frame is the group of people from which you will draw your
sample. For example, Brooke might decide that her sampling frame is every student at the university
where she works. Notice that a sampling frame is not as large as the population, but it's still a pretty
big group of people. Brooke still won't be able to study every single student at her university, but
that's a good place from which to draw her sample.

3. Specify a sampling method. There are basically two ways to choose a sample from a sampling
frame: randomly or non-randomly. There are benefits to both. Basically, if your sampling frame is
approximately the same demographic makeup as your population, you probably want to randomly
select your sample, perhaps by flipping a coin or drawing names out of a hat.

4. Determine the sample size. In general, larger samples are better, but they also require more time
and effort to manage. If Brooke ends up having to go through 1,000 surveys, it will take her more
time than if she only has to go through 10 surveys. But the results of her study will be stronger with
1,000 surveys, so she (like all researchers) has to make choices and find a balance between what will
give her good data and what is practical.

5. Implement the plan. Once you know your population, sampling frame, sampling method, and
sample size, you can use all that information to choose your sample.

Primary Data:

Data that has been generated by the researcher himself/herself, surveys, interviews, experiments,
specially designed for understanding and solving the research problem at hand.

P VALUE
The P value is defined as the probability under the assumption of no effect or no difference (null
hypothesis), of obtaining a result equal to or more extreme than what was actually observed. The P
stands for probability and measures how likely it is that any observed difference between groups is
due to chance.

Ratio

Ratio scale refers to the level of measurement in which the attributes composing variables are
measured on specific numerical scores or values that have equal distances between attributes or
points along the scale and are based on a “true zero” point.

A Likert scale

A Likert scale is a rating scale used to measure opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. It consists of a
statement or a question, followed by a series of five or seven answer statements. Respondents
choose the option that best corresponds with how they feel about the statement or question.

research

Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical
information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable
methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.
Characteristics of Research:
The characteristics of research include various points such as:-

1. Research should be controlled-

It should be controlled because of the relation between two or more variables are affected by each
other (whether it is internal or external). If the research is not controllable, then it will not be able to
design a particular research report.
2. Research should be rigorous-
It should be rigorous because it helps to follow the procedures to find out the answers related
questions which are relevant and appropriate in nature. The research information consists of two
types of sciences such as physical and social sciences. These two sciences are also varied from each
other.

3. Research should be systematic-

Research should be systematic because if a researcher wants to do a perfect research design or
process then it will have to evaluate or obtained the necessary information from the market in a
systematic manner. It takes various steps to do a perfect or systematic research process and all the
steps of procedures are interlinked to each other.

4. Research should be valid-

It means the information which is collected by the researcher can be the correct and verifiable by
yourself (i.e, researcher himself). If our collected information is fair or valid, then our research will
also be ethical in nature.

5. Research should be empirical-

This means that any conclusion drawn is totally based upon ethical or hard evidence gathered
information collected from observations and real-life experiences.

6. The foundation of knowledge-

Research is the foundation of knowledge for the purpose of knowledge and an important source for
providing guidelines or norms for solving different social, business, or governmental problems. It is a
variety of formal training which enables us to understand the new developments in one’s field in an
efficient way.

A case–control study

A case–control study (also known as case–referent study) is a type of observational study in

which two existing groups differing in outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some
supposed causal attribute. Case–control studies are often used to identify factors that may
contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects who have that condition/disease (the
"cases") with patients who do not have the condition/disease but are otherwise similar (the
[1]
"controls"). They require fewer resources but provide less evidence for causal inference than
a randomized controlled trial. A case–control study produces only an odds ratio, which is an
inferior measure of strength of association compared to relative risk.
Cohort study

Cohort studies are a type of research design that follow groups of people over time. Researchers use
data from cohort studies to understand human health and the environmental and social factors that
influence it.

The word “cohort” means a group of people. Cohort studies can be forward-looking of backward-
looking.

A forward-looking cohort study is also known as a prospective cohort study. “Prospective” means
that it relates to the future.

A backward-looking cohort study is also called a retrospective cohort study. “Retrospective” means
that it relates to the past.

Research Process Steps:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined problem will
guide the researcher through all stages of the research process, from setting objectives to choosing a
technique. There are a number of approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better
understanding of it. Such as:

A preliminary survey

Case studies

Interviews with a small group of people

Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process. It enables
the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has been found, the
investigator or researcher needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous research, how
they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build consistency between his work
and others through a literature review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant
body of knowledge and helps him follow the research process efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the research topic
and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables. In order to establish a
hypothesis, a researcher must have a certain amount of expertise in the field.

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be based
on the research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their
objectives when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research questions. It
outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design research to test hypotheses,
address the research questions, and provide decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required to acquire meaningful
evidence. This plan fits into four categories:

Exploration and Surveys

Experiment

Data Analysis

Observation
Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is used in
the business. In research, the term population refers to this study group. The research topic and
purpose help determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the community. In that case,
the research could target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic
group. A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results may be
generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer the
research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people being studied.
Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may provide primary
data.

Experiment

Questionnaire

Observation

Interview

Secondary data categories are:

Literature survey

Official, unofficial reports

An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the researcher
analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The research findings are
reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying
these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical
conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his findings. The report
must be carefully composed with the following in mind:

The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be on the
report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and charts if any.

Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should include the
study’s scope and limits.
Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will follow the
introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.

Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into sections
that are easy to understand.

Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s the final
result.

What is a null hypothesis?

The null hypothesis is the claim that there’s no effect in the population.

If the sample provides enough evidence against the claim that there’s no effect in the population
(p ≤ α), then we can reject the null hypothesis. Otherwise, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Although “fail to reject” may sound awkward, it’s the only wording that statisticians accept. Be
careful not to say you “prove” or “accept” the null hypothesis.

Example: Population on trial Think of a statistical test as being like a legal trial. The population is
accused of the “crime” of having an effect, and the sample is the criminal evidence. In the United
States and many other countries, a person accused of a crime is assumed to be innocent until proven
guilty. Similarly, we start by assuming the population is “innocent” of having an effect.

In other words, the null hypothesis (i.e., that there is no effect) is assumed to be true until the
sample provides enough evidence to reject it.

Null hypotheses often include phrases such as “no effect,” “no difference,” or “no relationship.”
When written in mathematical terms, they always include an equality (usually =, but sometimes ≥ or
≤).

You can never know with complete certainty whether there is an effect in the population. Some
percentage of the time, your inference about the population will be incorrect. When you incorrectly
reject the null hypothesis, it’s called a type I error. When you incorrectly fail to reject it, it’s a type II
error.

What is an alternative hypothesis?

The alternative hypothesis (Ha) is the other answer to your research question. It claims that
there’s an effect in the population.

Often, your alternative hypothesis is the same as your research hypothesis. In other words, it’s the
claim that you expect or hope will be true.

The alternative hypothesis is the complement to the null hypothesis. Null and alternative hypotheses
are exhaustive, meaning that together they cover every possible outcome. They are also mutually
exclusive, meaning that only one can be true at a time.

Alternative hypotheses often include phrases such as “an effect,” “a difference,” or “a relationship.”
When alternative hypotheses are written in mathematical terms, they always include an inequality
(usually ≠, but sometimes < or >). As with null hypotheses, there are many acceptable ways to
phrase an alternative hypothesis.

Similarities between null and alternative hypotheses

Null and alternative hypotheses are similar in some ways:

They’re both answers to the research question.

They both make claims about the population.

They’re both evaluated by statistical tests.

Type I and Type II errors

Type I and Type II errors are subjected to the result of the null hypothesis. In case of type I
or type-1 error, the null hypothesis is rejected though it is true whereas type II or type-2 error, the
null hypothesis is not rejected even when the alternative hypothesis is true. Both the error type-i
and type-ii are also known as “false negative”. A lot of statistical theory rotates around the
reduction of one or both of these errors, still, the total elimination of both is explained as a statistical
impossibility.

Type I Error

A type I error appears when the null hypothesis (H0) of an experiment is true, but still, it is
rejected. It is stating something which is not present or a false hit. A type I error is often called a
false positive (an event that shows that a given condition is present when it is absent). In words of
community tales, a person may see the bear when there is none (raising a false alarm) where the
null hypothesis (H0) contains the statement: “There is no bear”.

The type I error significance level or rate level is the probability of refusing the null hypothesis given
that it is true. It is represented by Greek letter α (alpha) and is also known as alpha level. Usually, the
significance level or the probability of type i error is set to 0.05 (5%), assuming that it is satisfactory
to have a 5% probability of inaccurately rejecting the null hypothesis.

Type II Error

A type II error appears when the null hypothesis is false but mistakenly fails to be refused. It is losing
to state what is present and a miss. A type II error is also known as false negative (where a real hit
was rejected by the test and is observed as a miss), in an experiment checking for a condition with a
final outcome of true or false.

A type II error is assigned when a true alternative hypothesis is not acknowledged. In other
words, an examiner may miss discovering the bear when in fact a bear is present (hence fails in
raising the alarm). Again, H0, the null hypothesis, consists of the statement that, “There is no bear”,
wherein, if a wolf is indeed present, is a type II error on the part of the investigator. Here, the bear
either exists or does not exist within given circumstances, the question arises here is if it is correctly
identified or not, either missing detecting it when it is present, or identifying it when it is not
present.

The rate level of the type II error is represented by the Greek letter β (beta) and linked to the power
of a test (which equals 1−β).
Table of Type I and Type II Error

The relationship between truth or false of the null hypothesis and outcomes or result of the test is
given in the tabular form:

Error Types When H0 is True When H0 is False

Don’t Reject Correct Decision (True negative) Type II Error (False negative)

Probability = 1 – α Probability = β

Reject Type II Error (False Positive) Correct Decision (True Positive)

Probability = α Probability = 1 – β

Type I and Type II Errors Example

Check out some real-life examples to understand the type-i and type-ii error in the null hypothesis.

Example 1: Let us consider a null hypothesis – A man is not guilty of a crime.

Then in this case:

Type I error (False Positive) Type II error (False Negative)

He is condemned to crime, though he is not He is condemned not guilty when the court actually does
guilty or committed the crime. commit the crime by letting the guilty one go free.

Example 2: Null hypothesis- A patient’s signs after treatment A, are the same from a placebo.

Type I error (False Positive) Type II error (False Negative)

Treatment A is more efficient than the Treatment A is more powerful than placebo even though it truly is
placebo more efficient.

PICOT Defined

The PICOT format is a helpful approach for summarizing research questions that explore the effect of
therapy:5

P) – Population: Adults 18 to 60 years of age, with a clinical diagnosis of chronic mechanical

neck pain.

(I) – Intervention: Subjects randomized to have manipulation would receive standard rotary or
lateral break diversified technique once, twice, or three times per week over 2, 4, or 6 weeks.
They will also receive the same exercise program assigned to the control group, to eliminate a
second variable in the study.
(C) – Comparison: A standardized supervised exercise program will be used as an active control
group. All subjects will perform a standardized exercise program at each session during the 6
week period. The non-specific effects due to attending a clinic, will be minimized.

(O) – Outcome: Changes in neck pain, measured using the 100mm VAS for pain.

(T) – Time: The outcome would be measured weekly for 6 weeks.

Steps to the PICOT Process

In developing a PICOT question, researchers must identify a need or a reason for the study. In the
EBSCO Health whitepaper, the general example used is this: A committee decides to conduct a case
study to determine whether postoperative gum chewing for abdominal surgery patients can prevent
postoperative ileus (lack of intestinal movement).

With the scenario in mind, researchers use seven steps to the PICOT search:

Formulate the PICOT question in general terms: Based on the EBSCO Health example, the research
question would be, “In patients recovering from abdominal surgery, is there evidence that suggests
gum-chewing postoperatively, compared to not chewing gum, impacts postoperative ileus?”

Identify the keywords for the PICOT mnemonic:

P– Patients recovering from abdominal surgery
I– Gum chewing
C– Not chewing gum
O – Impacts post-operative ileus

Plan the search strategy: With the question in mind, researchers consider which databases and other
search sites they might use to find information and answers. Researchers use strategies to maximize
their search terms such as looking up synonyms and phrases that mean the same thing.

Execute a search: At first, researchers search each PICOT element individually. For example, when
researching patients recovering from abdominal surgery, use the search terms “abdominal surgery,”
but also consider the search terms “recovery and postoperative.”

Refine the results: Narrow the search results by limiting the works to pertinent content, such as
articles from peer-reviewed journals or research documents.

Review the content: Review the research results to establish if they have the necessary information
to answer the PICOT question.

Determine if research results meet standards: After reviewing the research results, determine
whether they provide the best available evidence.

After the PICOT question is constructed and researched, the information garnered is used to
determine which type of study is most appropriate. Study types include meta-analysis, systematic
review, randomized controlled trial, cohort study, case-control study and case report.

“The actual search for high-quality clinical research evidence can be overwhelming to many,” Jensen
said in the EBSCO Health whitepaper. “By utilizing the PICO format, the search process will be
streamlined and will yield the best available evidence to support clinical decisions and explore
alternative treatments and procedures.”

FINER
 F Feasible Adequate number of subjects

Adequate technical expertise

Affordable in time and money

Manageable in scope

I Interesting Getting the answer intrigues investigator, peers and community

N Novel Confirms, refutes or extends previous findings

E Ethical Amenable to a study that institutional review board will approve

R Relevant To scientific knowledge

To clinical and health policy

To future research

What is Sampling ?

Sampling is the process or technique of selecting a study sample of appropriate characteristics and
of adequate size.

Why to use Sampling in Research ?

Unable to study all members of a population

Reduce selection bias

Save time and money

Measurements may be better in sample than in entire population

Feasibility

Types of Sampling Methods

Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical inferences
about the whole group.

Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria,

allowing you to easily collect data.

Probability sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct.
Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important
ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly
represented in the sample.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

Non-probability sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience samples
are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.
2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently
be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is
very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware
of observer bias affecting your arguments.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more
people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how
representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead
to sampling bias.
Levels of Measurement

There are 4 levels of measurement:

Nominal: the data can only be categorized

Ordinal: the data can be categorized and ranked

Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced

Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero.

Nominal level Examples of nominal scales

You can categorize your data by labelling them in mutually exclusive groups, City of birth
but there is no order between the categories.
Gender

Ethnicity

Car brands

Marital status

Ordinal level Examples of ordinal scales

You can categorize and rank your data in an order, but you cannot say anything Top 5 Olympic medallists
about the intervals between the rankings.
Language ability (e.g., begin
Although you can rank the top 5 Olympic medallists, this scale does not tell you intermediate, fluent)
how close or far apart they are in number of wins.
Likert-type questions (e.g.,
dissatisfied to very satisfied)

Interval level Examples of interval scales

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between neighboring data Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams)
points, but there is no true zero point.
Personality inventories
The difference between any two adjacent temperatures is the same: one
Temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius
degree. But zero degrees is defined differently depending on the scale – it
doesn’t mean an absolute absence of temperature.

The same is true for test scores and personality inventories. A zero on a test is
arbitrary; it does not mean that the test-taker has an absolute lack of the trait
being measured.

Ratio level Examples of ratio scales

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between neighboring data Height
points, and there is a true zero point.
Age
A true zero means there is an absence of the variable of interest. In ratio
scales, zero does mean an absolute lack of the variable.
 For example, in the Kelvin temperature scale, there are no negative degrees of Weight
temperature – zero means an absolute lack of thermal energy.
Temperature in Kelvin

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and
assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.

Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers,

and surveys with closed-ended questions.

Quantitative research is at risk for research biases including information bias, omitted variable
bias, sampling bias, or selection bias.

Qualitative researchQualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts,

thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that
are not well understood.

Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described
in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.

Qualitative research is also at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne
effect, observer bias, recall bias, and social desirability bias.

Quantitative research Qualitative Research

Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a theory or
hypothesis

Analyzed through math and statistical analysis Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and interpreting

Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs and tables Mainly expressed in words

Requires many respondents Requires few respondents

Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions

Key terms: testing, measurement, Key terms: understanding, context, complexity, subjectivity
objectivity, replicability

Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Quantitative research Qualitative Research

A method for developing a better It is the method used to generate numerical data by using a lot
understanding of human and social of techniques such as logical, statistical and mathematical
sciences, in understanding human techniques
behaviour and personalities better

It employs a subjective approach It employs an objective approach

It is generally expressed using words It is expressed using graphs and numbers

It has open-ended questions It has multiple choice questions

Qualitative research needs only a Quantitative research requires many respondents

few respondents

The data collection methods The data collection methods involved are experiments, surveys,
involved are interviews, focus and observations expressed in numbers
groups, literature review,
ethnography

Qualitative research is holistic in Quantitative Research is particularistic in nature

nature

The reasoning used to synthesise The reasoning used to synthesise data in this research is
data in this research is inductive deductive

This method involves a process- This method does not involve a process-oriented inquiry
oriented inquiry

It develops the initial understanding It recommends a final course of action

of data

The data taken in the Qualitative The data taken in this method is pretty measurable
research method is pretty verbal

The objective of this research The main objective of Quantitative research is to examine the
method is to engage and discover cause and effect between the variables
various ideas

It is one of the exploratory research It is a conclusive research method

Quantitative research Qualitative Research

methods

Likert scale

Likert scale measures your participants’ agreement to a statement. It can be the agreement to one
statement (then we refer to it as a Likert item) or multiple statements like surveys (e.g. System
Usability Scale (SUS)). In both cases, the participants are asked how much they agree or disagree
with one or more statements. After analyzing the responses, you are able to derive an overall
attitude either towards one or multiple related statements. Normally, you’ll have an odd number of
options, usually five. In Preely you can choose between three, five, seven and 10.
Why odd numbers you ask – you can read why further down in this post.

Example of Likert scale in Preely:

Semantic differential scale

Semantic differential scale measures where the participant’s view or attitude lies to a statement on a
bipolar adjective scale. The end-labels on the scale should be antonym adjectives e.g. modern –
traditional, beautiful – ugly, often we use easy – difficult. Normally, you’ll have an odd number of
options, often seven. Again, in Preely you can choose three, five, seven or 10.

A great example of the Semantic Differential Scale is the Single Ease Question (SEQ). The SEQ
presents a 7-point scale with the ends labeled very easy and, respectively, very difficult.

Example of Semantic differential scale in Preely:

What is Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point of any
investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes components like
variables, population and the relation between the variables. A research hypothesis is a hypothesis
that is used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Following are the characteristics of the hypothesis:

The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.

If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship between
variables.

The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.

The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be understood that
the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.

Sources of Hypothesis

Following are the sources of hypothesis:

The resemblance between the phenomenon.

Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the competitors.

Scientific theories.

General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.

Types of Hypothesis

There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:

Simple hypothesis

Complex hypothesis

Directional hypothesis

Non-directional hypothesis

Null hypothesis

Associative and casual hypothesis

What is a research objective?

Research objectives describe what your research project intends to accomplish. They should guide
every step of the researchprocess, including how you collect data, build your argument,
and develop your conclusions.

Your research objectives may evolve slightly as your research progresses, but they should always line
up with the research carried out and the actual content of your paper.

Research aims

A distinction is often made between research objectives and research aims.

A research aim typically refers to a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research
project. It should appear at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives.

Your research objectives are more specific than your research aim and indicate the particular focus
and approach of your project. Though you will only have one research aim, you will likely have
several research objectives.

Example: Research aimTo examine contributory factors to muscle retention in a group of elderly
people.Example: Research objectivesTo assess the relationship between sedentary habits and
muscle atrophy among the participants.
To determine the impact of dietary factors, particularly protein consumption, on the muscular health
of the participants.
To determine the effect of physical activity on the participants’ muscular health.

Why are research objectives important?

Research objectives are important because they:

Establish the scope and depth of your project: This helps you avoid unnecessary
research. It also means that your research methods and conclusions can easily be evaluated.

Contribute to your research design: When you know what your objectives are, you have
a clearer idea of what methods are most appropriate for your research.

Indicate how your project will contribute to extant research: They allow you to
display your knowledge of up-to-date research, employ or build on current research methods, and
attempt to contribute to recent debates.

SMART research objectives

The acronym “SMART” is commonly used in relation to research objectives. It states that your
objectives should be:

Specific: Make sure your objectives aren’t overly vague. Your research needs to be clearly
defined in order to get useful results.

Measurable: Know how you’ll measure whether your objectives have been achieved.
Achievable: Your objectives may be challenging, but they should be feasible. Make sure that
relevant groundwork has been done on your topic or that relevant primary or secondary
sources exist. Also ensure that you have access to relevant research facilities (labs, library
resources, research databases, etc.).
Relevant: Make sure that they directly address the research problem you want to work on and
that they contribute to the current state of research in your field.

Time-based: Set clear deadlines for objectives to ensure that the project stays on track.
Bar chart

A bar chart may be either horizontal or vertical. The important point to note about bar charts is their
bar length or height—the greater their length or height, the greater their value. Bar charts are one of
the many techniques used to present data in a visual form so that the reader may readily recognize
patterns or trends.

Bar charts usually present categorical variables, discrete variables or continuous variables grouped in
class intervals. They consist of an axis and a series of labelled horizontal or vertical bars. The bars
depict frequencies of different values of a variable or simply the different values themselves. The
numbers on the y-axis of a vertical bar chart or the x-axis of a horizontal bar chart are called the
scale.
When developing bar charts manually, draw a vertical or horizontal bar for each category or value.
The height or length of the bar will represent the number of units or observations in that category
(frequency) or simply the value of the variable. Select an arbitrary but consistent width for each bar
as well. Even though it is very common today that some software, such as a spreadsheet
software or R software, is used to produce charts, it’s still quite useful to know how to create
charts by hand.

Vertical bar charts

Bar charts should be used when you are showing segments of information. Vertical bar charts are
useful to compare different categorical or discrete variables, such as age groups, classes, schools,
etc., as long as there are not too many categories to compare. They are also very useful for time
series data. The space for labels on the x-axis is small, but ideal for years, minutes, hours or months.
For example, Chart 5.2.1 below shows the number of police officers in Crimeville for each year from
2011 to 2019.

Data table for Chart 5.2.1

In Chart 5.2.1, you can see that the number of police officers decreased from 2011 to 2014, but
started increasing again in 2015. The chart also makes it easy to compare the number of police
officers for any combination of years.

Vertical bar charts are an excellent choice to emphasize a change in magnitude. The best
information for a vertical bar chart is data dealing with the description of components, frequency
distribution and time-series statistics.

Grouped bar charts

The grouped bar chart is another effective means of comparing sets of data about the same places
or items. It gives two or more pieces of information for each item on the x-axis instead of just one as
in Chart 5.2.1. This allows you to make direct comparisons on the same chart by age group, gender
or anything else you wish to compare. However, if a grouped bar chart has too many series of data,
the chart becomes cluttered and it can be confusing to read.

Chart 5.2.2, a grouped vertical bar chart, compares two series of data: the numbers of boys and girls
that have a smartphone at Redwood Secondary School from 2012 to 2019. The orange bar
represents the number of boys, and the yellow bar represents the number of girls.
Data table for Chart 5.2.2

Horizontal bar charts

One disadvantage of vertical bar charts, however, is that they lack space for text labelling at the foot
of each bar. When category labels in the chart are too long, you might find a horizontal bar chart
better for displaying information, like the example in Chart 5.2.3.

Data table for Chart 5.2.3

Stacked bar charts

There are several other types of bar chart that you may encounter. The population pyramid is a
special application of a grouped bar chart. Another useful type of bar chart is the stacked bar chart.

The stacked bar chart is a preliminary data analysis tool used to show segments of totals. The
stacked bar chart can be very difficult to analyze if too many items are in each stack. It can contrast
values, but not necessarily in the simplest manner.

In Chart 5.2.4, it is easy to analyze the data presented since there are only three items in each stack:
swimming, running and biking. It is easy to see at a glance what percentage of time each woman
spent on an event. Had this been a chart representing a decathlon (with 10 events) the data would
have been significantly harder to analyze.
Data table for Chart 5.2.4

Advices to build bar charts

You should keep the following guidelines in mind when creating bar charts:

Make bars and columns wider than the space between them.

Use a single font type on a chart. Try to maintain a consistent font style from chart to chart in a
single presentation or document.

Order your shade pattern from darkest to lightest.

Avoid using a combination of red and green in the same display.

Histogram

The histogram is a popular graphing tool. It is used to summarize discrete or continuous data that
are measured on an interval scale. It is often used to illustrate the major features of the distribution
of the data in a convenient form. It is also useful when dealing with large data sets (greater than
100 observations). It can help detect any unusual observations (outliers) or any gaps in the data.

A histogram divides up the range of possible values in a data set into classes or groups. For each
group, a rectangle is constructed with a base length equal to the range of values in that specific
group and a length equal to the number of observations falling into that group. A histogram has an
appearance similar to a vertical bar chart, but there are no gaps between the bars. Generally, a
histogram will have bars of equal width. Chart 5.7.1 is an example of a histogram that shows the
distribution of salary, a continuous variable, of the employees of a corporation.

Differences between bar chart and histogram

Comparison Bar chart Histogram
terms

Usage To compare different To display the distribution of a variable.

categories of data.

Type of Categorical variables Numeric variables

variable

Rendering Each data point is The data points are grouped and rendered based on the
rendered as a bin value. The entire range of data values is divided into a
separate bar. series of non-overlapping intervals.

Space Can have space. No space.

between bars

Reordering Can be reordered. Cannot be reordered.

bars

Mean

Mean

In statistics, the mean is one of the measures of central tendency, apart from the mode and median.
Mean is nothing but the average of the given set of values. It denotes the equal distribution of
values for a given data set. The mean, median and mode are the three commonly used
measures of central tendency. To calculate the mean, we need to add the total values given in a
datasheet and divide the sum by the total number of values. The Median is the middle value of a
given data when all the values are arranged in ascending order. Whereas mode is the number in the
list, which is repeated a maximum number of times.

Definition of Mean in Statistics

Mean is the average of the given numbers and is calculated by dividing the sum of given numbers
by the total number of numbers.

Mean = (Sum of all the observations/Total number of observations)

x̄ =∑ x/n
Calculate the mean of the following data:

1 5 4 3 2

Sum the scores (SX):

1 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 15

Divide the sum (SX = 15) by the numberof scores (N = 5): 15 / 5 = 3

Mean = X = 3
Median

Median, in statistics, is the middle value of the given list of data when arranged in an order. The
arrangement of data or observations can be made either in ascending order or descending
order.
Example: The median of 2,3,4 is 3.

Conceptually, it is easy to calculate the median

Sort the data from highest to lowest

Find the score in the middle

middle = (N + 1) / 2

If N, the number of scores is even, the median is the average of the middle two scores

What is the median of the following scores:

24 18 19 42 16 12

Sort the scores:

42 24 19 18 16 12

Determine the middle score:

middle = (N + 1) / 2 = (6 + 1) / 2 = 3.5

Median = average of 3rd and 4th scores: (19 + 18) / 2 = 18.5

Mode

In statistics, the mode is the value that is repeatedly occurring in a given set. We can also say that
the value or number in a data set, which has a high frequency or appears more frequently, is called
mode or modal value. It is one of the three measures of central tendency, apart from mean and
median. For example, the mode of the set {3, 7, 8, 8, 9}, is 8. Therefore, for a finite number of
observations, we can easily find the mode. A set of values may have one mode or more than one
mode or no mode at all.

Example: In the given set of data: 2, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, the mode of the data set is 5 since it has appeared
in the set twice.

Range

The range in statistics for a given data set is the difference between the highest and lowest values.
For example, if the given data set is {2,5,8,10,3}, then the range will be 10 – 2 = 8.

Thus, the range could also be defined as the difference between the highest observation and lowest
observation. The obtained result is called the range of observation. The range in statistics represents
the spread of observations.

Range Formula
The formula of the range in statistics can simply be given by the difference between the highest and
lowest values.

Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value

Or

Range = Highest observation – Lowest observation

Or

Range = Maximum value – Minimum Value

Example : Find the range of given observations: 32, 41, 28, 54, 35, 26, 23, 33, 38, 40.

Solution: Let us first arrange the given values in ascending order.

23, 26, 28, 32, 33, 35, 38, 40, 41, 54

Since 23 is the lowest value and 54 is the highest value, therefore, the range of the observations will
be;

Range (X) = Max (X) – Min (X)

= 54 – 23

= 31

Hence, 31 is the required answer.

Interquartile Range

In descriptive statistics, the interquartile range tells you the spread of the middle half of
your distribution.

Quartiles segment any distribution that’s ordered from low to high into four equal parts. The
interquartile range (IQR) contains the second and third quartiles, or the middle half of your data set.

Interquartile Range Definition

The interquartile range defines the difference between the third and the first quartile. Quartiles are
the partitioned values that divide the whole series into 4 equal parts. So, there are 3 quartiles. First
Quartile is denoted by Q1 known as the lower quartile, the second Quartile is denoted by Q2 and the
third Quartile is denoted by Q3 known as the upper quartile. Therefore, the interquartile range is
equal to the upper quartile minus lower quartile.

Interquartile Range Formula

The difference between the upper and lower quartile is known as the interquartile range. The
formula for the interquartile range is given below

Interquartile range = Upper Quartile – Lower Quartile = Q3 – Q1

where Q1 is the first quartile and Q3 is the third quartile of the series.

The below figure shows the occurrence of median and interquartile range for the data set.
What Is Variance?
The term variance refers to a statistical measurement of the spread between numbers in a data set.
More specifically, variance measures how far each number in the set is from the mean (average),
and thus from every other number in the set. Variance is often depicted by this symbol: σ 2. It is
used by both analysts and traders to determine volatility and market security.

The square root of the variance is the standard deviation (SD or σ), which helps determine the
consistency of an investment’s returns over a period of time.

What Is Standard Deviation?

Standard deviation is a statistic that measures the dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean and
is calculated as the square root of the variance. The standard deviation is calculated as the
square root of variance by determining each data point's deviation relative to the mean.

If the data points are further from the mean, there is a higher deviation within the data set; thus,
the more spread out the data, the higher the standard deviation.

Case report

A case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an
individual patient. Case reports usually describe an unusual or novel occurrence and as such, remain
one of the cornerstones of medical progress and provide many new ideas in medicine. Some reports
contain an extensive review of the relevant literature on the topic. The case report is a rapid short
communication between busy clinicians who may not have time or resources to conduct large scale
research.

Case series

According to the latest version of the Dictionary of Epidemiology, a case series is defined as “a
collection of patients with common characteristics used to describe some clinical, pathophysiological
or operational aspects of a disease, treatment or diagnostic procedures”.
What are the advantages and disadvantages to consider when using Case Studies/ Case Reports and
Case Series ?

Advantages Can be published quickly

Provides very detailed information

Allows detailed investigation into situations which would be unethical or impractical to perform us

Disadvantages May include researcher bias

Difficult to replicate

Can't always be generalised to the broader population

Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methodology:

The qualitative research methodology is descriptive and subjective irrespective of facts. Observation
and description are more important in this type of Methodology. The main aim of this type of
Methodology is to evaluate knowledge, attitudes, behaviours, and opinions of people about the
Research’s topic. The method works using grounded Research, case study, action research,
disclosure analysis, ethnography, etc. The qualitative research methodology is based on the quality
of the phenomenon.

Quantitative Research Methodology:

This type of research methodology tests the importance of the Hypothesis of Research. This is a
systematic research methodology and is in numbers. The quantitative research methodology
includes laboratory experiments, econometric, mathematical calculations, surveys, simulation etc.
The measurement, quantity or amount is the critical factor in Quantitative research methodology.

Basic Research

Non-commercial Research is basic Research whose motive is to collect data to enhance knowledge.
It doesn’t focus on creating or inventing anything during the process. This type of Research is like an
investigation carried on basic principles, and it is also termed as theoretical Research. Examination
on principles of basic science or natural events which may not allow for an immediate purpose or
application.

Applied Research

To solve real-life problems, the applied research method is best suited. Unlike basic research
methods, used research methods solve practical problems which require scientific methods to
incorporate.

A researcher solves problems with already known and proved theories when they apply applied
research methods. The Research which provides immediate outcomes and helps basic Research as
well is involved Research. Case studies, experimental Research, and interdisciplinary Research are
applied Research. This type of Research is of practical use such as Research on pollution control,
inventing vaccines for a new disease, increasing efficiency and production of machinery.

Problem-oriented Research

This type of research methods aims to understand what the exact problem is and what would be the
best solution to this problem. The problem-oriented Research justifies its name as it focuses on the
issue to find out relevant outcomes. The word ‘problem’ doesn’t mean only one problem arising in
the Research, but the number of problems may vary.

Problem-solving Research

After application of the Problem-oriented research method, there comes a Problem-solving research
method. In this type of research method, the Researcher tries to understand the exact problem, and
he starts working on different measures to solve that problem. Applied research methods are the
best suited to solve the existing issues as these are real-life problems.

Focus Groups
Focus groups involve bringing a group of people together to provide feedback on a product. A
moderator guides the session and interacts with the focus group participants. A moderator asks
the group members questions about the product. The goal is to prompt an open and candid
group discussion. Questions are pre-determined and used to get detailed responses from the
group participants.

This helps market researchers collect valuable data. For example, a focus group would be a
Focus group
good way to decide which features customers want on a new smartphone.
sessions usually include about 10 participants and last for about 90 minutes .
So, each participant has less than 10 minutes of speaking time.

Advantages of Focus Groups

The diversity of focus groups ensures multiple perspectives.

Online focus groups are usually more affordable than in-depth interviews. (Light analysis of
answers needs no coding and only the use of transcription services such as Rev.)
This research method is also easiest to organize in a B2C setting.

The best way to understand the role that group dynamics play in purchasing decisions.

It is easy to conduct focus groups and generate results quickly.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

Focus group participants’ contributions may be disproportionate if there is
an outspoken group member.
There is also a lower average speaking time for each of the group members.

Focus groups are difficult to organize for B2B settings.

The participants may influence each other which can affect answers.

There is a strong possibility that a moderator’s bias can affect results.

In-Depth Interviews
Another qualitative data collection technique is in-depth interviews. Researchers ask the
recruited respondents questions and encourage them to provide insightful responses. In-depth
interviews generally consist of open-ended questions. Therefore, they are ideal for collecting
meaningful data about a product or service. The questions are also designed to prompt
engagement and detailed responses.

For example, an in-depth interview would be a good way for the smartphone manufacturer to
learn how a user finds the phone interface. These face-to-face interviews last
anywhere between 45- 60 minutes. But since it is a one-on-one situation, the
participant can share much more than in a group setting.

Advantages of In-Depth Interviews

Recruited respondents have a longer speaking time.

In-depth interviews offer more detailed feedback for better data collection.

Researchers can generate results using statistical data analysis.

There is less chance for moderator bias than in focus group settings.

Insights gathered from this feedback is usually more useful for the quantitative phase.

Disadvantages of In-Depth Interviews

In-depth interviews are more difficult and complicated to organize.

This research method is also generally more expensive.

The data is more complex to interpret and usually needs special software or coding.

Writing interview guides can be quite time-consuming; especially for an individual interview.

This type of qualitative research is challenging to organize in B2B settings.