QUICK REVISION MODULE ( UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ART & CULTURE

RELIGION &
PHILOSOPHY-1
SHRAMANA SCHOOLS
Sramana, meaning “seeker,” was a tradition that began around 8th-6th
century BCE when new philosophical groups, who believed in a more
austere path to spiritual freedom, rejected the authority of the
Brahmins and Vedas (forming Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy).
It refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to Vedic religion.
The Sramana traditions subscribe to diverse philosophies, and at times
significantly disagree with each other, as well as with orthodox
Hinduism and its six schools of Hindu philosophy.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

Origin and Evolution
The term Shrama in early Vedic literature (e.g. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) is predominantly
used as an epithet for the Rishis and other monk like lifestyle.
During its later semantic development, the term came to refer to several non-
Brahmanic ascetic movements and non-vedic religion ( forming Heterodox Schools of Indian
Philosophy)

Various Shramana Schools / Heterodox

Schools of Indian Philosophy

Jainism Buddhism Ajivikas Ajnanas Charvakas

Ajivikas
The school was founded by Makkhali Gosala in 5th century BC.
The school revolves around the Niyati (Fate) doctrine of absolute
determinism.
It does not believe in free will and Karma.
It is based on the theory of atoms and believes that everything is
composed of atoms
Ajivikas led a simple ascetic life. Barabar caves: The Ajivikas
They opposed Buddhism and Jainism and were atheists.
They consider Karma a fallacy.
They believed in the existence of soul (atman) in material form (unlike formless soul of Jainism)
Bindusara (4th Century BC) was one of its followers.
Savathi (Sravasti) in Uttar Pradesh is believed to be the centre of Ajivikas.
Ashoka's 7th pillar edicts mention about Ajivikas.
The texts of Ajivika sect is non-existing at present.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

 Ajnanas
The ajnana sect believed in radical skepticism.
The school believed that it is impossible to attain knowledge about nature. Even if it is possible,
it is useless for attaining salvation.
This school was a major rival of Jainism and Buddhism.
They believed that “Ignorance is Best”.

Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy

Brihaspati laid the foundation stone of this school.
This Schoolwas the main propounder of the materialistic view to
achieve salvation.
Other name: Lokyata Philosophy
They denied the existence of any supernatural or divine agent .
They argued against the need to achieve salvation.
The Charvakas do not consider 'ether' as one of the five essential
elements as it cannot be experienced through the perception.
They propound thetheory of 'eat, drink and make merry'.

Buddhism
The origin of Buddhism is attached to the story of Siddhartha who
came to be known as Buddha.
It is the world's fourth largest religion (Around 7% of the world's
population and 0.7% of India's population) after Christianity, Islam
and Hinduism.

Concepts and Philosophy under Buddhism

The basic tenets of Buddhism are explained through the four major Noble truths.
They are:
1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga).

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

 The triple Jewel

The Buddha (the guide)

The Dharma (the Path)

The Sangha (the companions and teachers)

RIGHT RIGHT
UNDERSTANDING CONCENTRATION
Samma Di hi Samma samadhi

RIGHT RIGHT
THOUGHT
Samma sankappa
The Buddha’s MINDFULNESS
Samma sati
EIGHTFOLT PATH

RIGHT SPEECH RIGHT EFFORT

Samma vaca Samma vayama

RIGHT ACTION RIGHT LIVELIHOOD

Samma kammanto Samma ajiva

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

Prominent Boddhisattvas under Buddhism include
Avalokitesvara: manifests Buddha's compassion.
Vajrapani: manifests Buddha's Power.
Manjusri: manifests Buddha's wisdom.
Samantabhadra: Together with the Buddha and Manjusri,he forms the Shakyamuni trinity in
Buddhism.
Ksitigarbha: He took vow not to achieve Buddhahood till the hell is completely emptied.
Maitreya: A future Buddha who will appear on Earth in the future, achieve complete
enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma. Laughing Buddha is said to be an incarnation of
Maitreya.
Akasagarbha: associated with element of space.
Tara: associated with Vajrayana Buddhism. Buddhist saviour-goddess with numerous forms.
She is the feminine counterpart of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.
Skanda: Guardian of viharas and the Buddhist teachings.

Prominent personalities associated with Buddhism

Nagasena
Author of book Milinda Panho around 150 BC.

Nagarjuna
(150 AD-250 AD) founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism

Vasubandhu
A proponent of Mahayana Buddhism who wrote from the perspectives of
the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika schools.

Bodhidharma
He (5th-6th century AD) transmitted Buddhism to China.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 5

 Buddhaghosa
A 5th-century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator famous for his work
Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification).

Padmasambhava
He is contemplated as ‘second Buddha’ across Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and the
Himalayan States of India.

Atisa
A Buddhist Bengali religious leader and master , played major role in the
spread of 11th-century Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism in Asia.

Trans-national Buddhist circuit from India to Nepal

Kushinagar: The place where Lord Buddha fell ill and died in 543 BC.
Vashali: This was the place where Lord Buddha give his last sermon.
Bodhgaya: Located in Bihar, this is the place where Prince Siddharth
Found enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree.
Sarnath: This is the place where Lord Buddha gave his first sermon.
Rajgir: was the Lord’s monsoon retreat for 12 years. While spreading
his doctrine, he preached about the precepts of Lotus Sutra
and the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra.
Lumbini: It is the place where Lord Buddha was born.
Note: Buddha is known in various Buddhist texts also as Tathagata and Sakyamuni. The predecessor
of Buddha under Buddhism was Kassapa Buddha and his successor will be Maitreya.

The four major schools developed under Buddhism are:

Hinayana Mahayana Theravada Vajrayana Buddhism
Buddhism Buddhism Buddhism (Tantric Buddhism)

It means the It means the This is one of the sub- This is one of the
lesser vehicle greater vehicle. sects of Hinayana. sub-sects of
(Sthaviravada) Mahayana.

It is more of an It is more liberal. It refers to the school It was influenced

orthodox school of elder monks. by Hinduism

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 6

 It includes the It believes in the It involved
The ultimate goal is
followers of the heavenliness combining
the cessation of the
original preaching of Buddha and Brahmanical (Veda
kleshas and the
of the Buddha. Bodhisattvas based) rituals
attainment of the
embodying Buddha sublime state of with Buddhist
Nature. Nirvana philosophies.The
Kleshas include main deity is Tara
states of mind such (a lady).
as anxiety, fear,
anger, jealousy,
desire, depression,
etc.
It did not believe It believes in idol It believes in the It believes in
in idol or image or image worship concept of Tantra's, Mantras
worship. of Buddha. vibhajjavada i.e., and Yantras.
“teaching of
analysis”.

It believes in It believes in universal It emphasises Mantra is an easy

individual salvation. liberation from attaining self- and fastest path to
suffering of all being. Liberation through achieve
one’s own efforts Buddhahood

Scholars used Pali Scholars Pali is sacred

language to interact predominantly used language Classical Tibetan is
with the masses Sanskrit language of Theravada the main language
Buddhism. used for students

Emperor Emperor Kanishka

Ashoka patronised of Kushana dynasty Visuddhimagga (The
Hinayana is said to be the Path of Purification)
founder of byBuddhaghosais
Mahayana sect of the great treatise on
Buddhism in 1st this school.
century AD

This school in its A bodhisattva seeks

original form is complete
almost non- enlightenment for
existent the benefit of all
in the present age. beings.
A bodhisattva who
has accomplished
this goal is called a
Samyaksaṃbuddha.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 7

Different Buddhists school being followed in different
parts of the world.

Tuva

Mangolia Inner Mongolia

Kalmykia Torghuts

Inner Mongolia Korea

Japan

China

Tibet
Nepal
Bhutan

India
Burma
Vajrayana
Laos
Mahayana
Thailand
Theravada
Combodia Vietnam

Sri Lanka

Buddhist Mudras

Abhaya Mudra Dhyana Mudra Karana Mudra

Bhumisparsha Mudra Varada Mudra Dharmachakra Mudra

Vajra Mudra Vitarka Mudra Cosmic Mudra

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

Buddhist Terminologies
Adhitthana
In Theravada Buddhism, adhiṭṭhāna is one of the ten "perfections", exemplified by the
bodhisatta's resolve to become fully awakened.

Agama
The non-Mahayana divisions of the SuttaPitaka

Amitabha
The Buddha of the Western "Pure Land." Also known as Amida.

Tathāgata
Gautama Buddha uses it when referring to himself in the Pāli Canon.

Five Tathāgatas
These are a group of five “self-born” celestial buddhas who have always existed from the
beginning of time. These are also known as Dhyani Buddha:

Amoghasiddhi Amitābha Vairocana Akshobhya Ratnasambhava

Arhat
In Buddhism, an arhat (Sanskrit) or arahant (Pali) is a living person who has reached
Enlightenment. Mahayana Buddhist traditions have used the term for people far advanced
along the path of Enlightenment, but who may not have reached full Buddhahood.

Bhāvacakra
The bhāvacakra is a symbolic representation of saṃsāra (or cyclic existence). It is found
on the outside walls of Tibetan Buddhist temples.

Bhante
This is used to refer to Buddhist monks in the Theravada tradition. Bhante literally
means "Venerable Sir."

Bodhisattvas
Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who postpone their own salvation in order to help
all sentient beings.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

 Pure Land Buddhism
A broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism and one of the most widely practiced traditions of
Buddhism in East Asia. Pure Land is a tradition of Buddhist teachings that are focused on
the Buddha Amitābha.

Buddhist Council

Council Year Place Headed By Patron Outcome

1st 483 BC Rajgriha Mahakassapa King Ajatasatru Ananda composed

of Haryanka dynasty. the Suttapitaka
(Buddha's Teachings)
Mahakassapa
composed the
Vinaypitaka
(monastic code).
The first major split
King Kalasoka of
2nd
383 BC Vaishali Sabakami happened here –
Sisunaga dynasty.
two groups that
would later evolve
into Theravada and
Mahayana.
The split of the
Buddhist order into
Sthaviravadinis
(Theravada) and
Mahasanghikas. The
split was over small
points of monastic
discipline.

3rd 250 BC Pataliputra Mogaliputta Emperor Ashoka The Abhidhamma

Tissa of Maurya dynasty. Pitaka was composed
here making the
almost completion
of the modern Pali
Tipitaka.
Buddhist missionaries
were sent to other
countries.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

 4th Around Kashmir Vasumitra King Kanishka of Abhidhamma texts
1 Kushan dynasty.
st
and were translated from
century Ashvaghosha Prakrit to Sanskrit.
AD Sarvasthivada
doctrines were
organized into three
large commentaries
on the Pitakas.
Final division of
Buddhism into
Mahayana &
Hinayana sects.
Note:
The Theravada Buddhist council in 1871 and Theravada Buddhist council in 1954 are known as
Fifth and Sixth Buddhist Councils respectively.

Jainism
Jain ismdoes not have a single founder, instead of that the truth comes to the numbers of
teachers /Tirthankaras who propounded it at different time.
Major Jain pilgrimages in India include Dilwara temple in Mount Abu (Rajasthan), Palitana
temples (Gujarat), Girnar (Gujarat), Shikharji (Jharkhand) and Shravanabelagola (Karnataka)
The 24 tirthankaras under Jainism are:
Rishabhanatha or Adinatha, Ajita, Sambhava, Abhinandana, Sumati, Padmaprabha,
Suparshva, Chandraprabha, Suvidhi, Shital, Shreyansa, Vasupujya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma,
Shanti, Kunthu, Ara, Malli, Muni Suvrata, Nami, Nemi, Parshvanatha and Mahavira.

Basics about Vardhamana Mahavira

Prince Vardhamana was born at Kundalgram (540 BC) in Vaishali to King Siddhartha and
Queen Trishala, who ruled over the Jnatrika clan.
He found the truth of life, i.e., Kevalya near patna.
Other Names: Mahavira, jitendriya etc.

Jaina Teachings and Philosophy

They believe that through three-jewel (fold) path, one can get rid of the bad karma and
achieve salvation.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 11

 Triratna

Right
Right faith Right conduct
knowledge

II SWASTIK II II SRIVATSA II II KALASH II II NANDAVART II

II MATSYA YUGAL II II SANPUSHT II II BHADRASAN II II DARPAN II

Figure: Auspicious symbol in Jainism

It’s a
Fan!

Anekantavada, the fundamental doctrine of Jainism

emphasises that the ultimate truth and reality is complex, It’s
a Wall!
and has multiple aspects. It’s a
Spear!
It’s
a

Hence there exists non-absolutism, that means no single,

Rope!

specific statement can describe the nature of existence

and the absolute truth.
It’s a
Snake! It’s a
Tree!

Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 12

The epistemological and logical side that we can know only some aspects of reality and
therefore all our judgements are necessarily relative, is called Syadvada.
The basic difference between them is that Anekantavada is the knowledge of all differing but
opposite attributes whereas Syadavada is a process of the relative description of a particular
attribute of an object or an event.

Two major Schools or Sects under Jainism

Jainism

Digambaras Svetambaras

Mula Sangh Bispanthi, Sthanakavasi Murtipujaka Terapanthi

(Original Terapanthi (believe in (Deravasi) (They pray to
Community) and praying to (They keep saints rather
Taranpanthi Saints rather idols of the than to an
(Modern than to an tirthankaras idol in a
Communities) idol in a at their temple).
temple) temples)

Digambara School: Svetambara School:

Do not wear clothes. Wear simple white clothing.
More rigid Less Rigid
Follow all the five constraints Follow the preachings of Parsvanatha,
(Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha i.e. they believe in only four restraints
and Brahmacharya). (except Brahmacharya) to be followed
to attain Kevalya.
Tirthankaras can be men only.
Tirthankaras can be men or women,
Bhadrabahu was an exponent of
Digambara sect. Sthulabhadra was a great exponent
of this school and stayed in Magadha
unlike Bhadrabahu who went to
Karnataka.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 13

Hinduism
The word Hindiusm acquired religious connotation only during British period.
Earlier, it just indicated a group of people inhabiting around the region Indus.
The basic ideological framework is derived from the Vedas.
There were 4 goals (as shown in the given diagram) prescribed by the Hindu philosophers
for the person practising the faith.

MOKSHA: Eternal Value

FOUR PURUSHARTHAS/AIMS
OF HUMAN LIFE
DHARMA: Moral Value/Duty

ARTHA: Economic Value

KAMA: Physical Pleasure

Note: The 4 goal (Moksha) was prescribed for the 1st time by Gautama Buddha in 6
th th

Century BC

Six Schools of Hindu Philosophy

Samkhya School Yoga School

Salvation can be attained through real Salvation is possible through meditation.
knowledge.
Founder – Pantjali
Propounder: Kapila
It works towards systematic release of
Reality is constituted of 2 principles: Purusha from Prakriti by purifying and
Prakriti and Purusha. controlling changes in mental
mechanism.
Prakriti and Purusha are supposed to
be completely independent and It means the union of two principal
absolute. entities.
Believe in dualism or dvaitvada Freedom can be attained through Yama,
Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara,
Dharna, Dhyana, Samadhi(Ashtangik
Yoga).

Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 14

 Mimansa School Vedanta School / Uttara Mimamsa
Founder – Jaimini Vedanta has it’s root in Vedas/ Upanishad
(Shruti)
Salvation is possible through
performing rituals. It is based on It is a spiritual philosophy which deals
analysis of interpretation, application with the following three elements and
and use of the text of the Samhita relationship between them: (a)Brahman
and Brahmana portions of the Veda. (b)Atman (c) World/Universe
Different Vedanta schools/ philosophies
It considers the philosophy of Vedas
explain the relation among above three
to be eternal and processes all
entities/elements differently as
knowledge, and religion means
1.Identical [non-duality] 2.Different
fulfillment of duties prescribed by the
[duality]
Vedas.
Different Schools of Vedanta Philoshophy
Mimansa encompasses the Nyaya- Advaita Vedanta Vishishtadvaita
Vaisheshika system. Dvaita Shuddadvaita Achintya-Bheda-
Abheda Dvaitadvaita

Nyaya School Vaisheshika School

Propounder: Gautama Propounder: Kanada.

Salvation is possible through logic i.e. Salvation is possible through the

valid knowledge. recognition of the atomic character of
the universe.
It considered valid knowledge as real
knowledge, that is knowledge of an It is a realistic and objective philosophy
object as it exists. of universe.
Objects of universe are composed of 5
It considered God as the one who elements: earth, water, air, fire and ether.
creates, sustains and destroys the
universe It considers God to be the guiding
principle. It believes in law of karma.

Sub Schools of Vedanta

Bhedabheda is a sub-school of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (jīvātman) is
both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman.
1. Dvaitādvaita or Svabhavikabhedabheda (dualistic non-dualism), founded by Nimbarka
in the 7th century CE
2. Achintya Bheda Abheda (inconceivable one-ness and difference), founded by Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu (1486–1534 CE),propagated by Gaudiya Vaishnava.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 15

 Advaita (non-dualism), prominent scholars are Gaudapada (~500 CE) and Adi
Shankaracharya (8th century CE).
Brahman alone, pure consciousness, is ultimately real and and the true self, atman is
identical with Brahman.

Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism), prominent scholars are Nathamuni, Yāmuna

and Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE)
It is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy. Brahman alone is seen as the Supreme
Reality, but is characterized by multiplicity.

Dvaita (dualism), founded by Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE) God and the individual souls
(jīvātman) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct.

Suddhadvaita (purely non-dual), founded by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 CE).

Vallabhacharya's pure form (nondualist) philosophy is different from Advaita.
It sees equality in "essence" of the individual self with God. There is no real difference
between the two (like the analogy of sparks to fire)

Sikhism
The history of Sikhism commences with the life, times and teachings of Guru Nanak
(1469-1539).
He was a non-conformist, giving an alternative way of socio-religious organisation of
hisfollowers.
For him, the supreme purpose of human existence was salvation. This salvation would be
achieved by right belief, right worship and right conduct which are all taught by the
guru.
He developed new forms of worship like community kitchen (langar).
Initially the Mughal-Sikh relations were very cordial, but the execution of fifth Guru Arjan
Dev on Jahangir's orders became a causeof dispute.
The sixth Guru Hargobind (1606-44) set a trend of militancy. The Guru transformed the Sikh
CULTinto Sikh CORPS. He constructed the Akal Takht.
The next two Gurus, Guru Har Rai and Guru Har Krishan were in constant conflict and were
eventually detained by Aurangzeb. Guru Teg Bahadur was also one of those in line for
establishing the sovereign authority of the Sikhs in the dominions.
The last physical guru was Guru Gobind Singh after whose death, the system of 'personal
guruship' came to an end and the authority of the Gurus was transferred to Guru Granth and
Guru Panth.
Guru Gobind Singh also started through the rite of initiation the KHALSA who were markedly
different from the non-Khalsa Sikhs who came to be called Sahajdhari Sikhs.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 16

 Zoroastrianism
This religion has its origin in Persia by the prophet Zarathustra around 6-7 BCE.
They are a monotheistic religion who believe in one eternal god whose name is Ahura.
The first contact of the Zoroastrians with India was in 936 AD when they fleed from Iran
because of the Islamic invasions. They are commonly known as Parsis.
Their fire temples are called Atash Bahram country.Their sacred text called Zend Avesta .
They worship fire but also consider air, water and earth to be sacred elements.

Abrahamic Religion
The Abrahamic religious, also referred to as Abrahamism, are a group of monotheistic
religious that claim to worship the God of Abraham, including Judaism, Christianity,
Islam, and the Baha Faith. The group is named after the prophet and patriarch Abraham,
who is mentioned in the scriptures including the Torah, Tanakh, Bible, and Quran.

Judaism
Judaism is a monotheistic religion that believes in one God.
It is one of the oldest religions.
The Jews believe in Yahweh or the one true God who was instituted by Abraham.
Their religious book is called the Torah, which is also the first five books of the Old
Testament or Bible.
Talmud is compilations of legal and ethical writings and a brief history of Jewish history.
They have separate prayer halls and synagogues (place for worship).
They follow religious services called the Eliyahu-hanavior the thanksgiving to Elijah the
Prophet.

Christianity
It was founded by Jesus Christ in Jerusalem.
The basic philosophy of Christianity is the existence of one God who created the Universe.
Jesus was a messenger who wanted to help people to find God and become their 'saviour'.
Christians worship the Holy Trinity: the father (God), the son (Jesus) and the Holy ghost.
The sacred text of the Christians is the Bible. It contains portions of the Old Testament of
the Jews and the New Testament.
Main Practice: Baptism where a child or any individual enters the church's service. Another
practice is called Eucharist or breaking bread and wine with God which signifies unity with
the being.
There were two stages of the spread of Christianity in India: the first was in the medieval
period and the second was during the 18th century Missionary work under the aegis of the
British.
www.visionias.in Vision IAS 17
Islam
Islam was originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century AD.
The word 'Islam' connotes 'submission' to God.
The basic tenants of Islam are that there is only one Allah (manifestation of god) who sent his
messenger to help the people on Earth.
Prophet Muhammad was the last in the long lines of messengers sent by God on earth like
Abraham, Moses, etc.
Islam also believe in the Day of Judgment where the merits and bad deeds will be judged.
The sayings or day to day teachings of Prophet Muhammad were compiled by his followers
after his death and is called Hadith.
The holy book of Quran was compiled before prophet's death.
Quran and Sunnah form the basis for Islamic laws or Sharia.
According to Prophet,one has to give a portion of their earnings to the needy and the poor that
is called Zakat or charity.
Two major sub-divisions of Islam are: Shia (those who believe Prophet's successor should be
from his own flesh) and Sunni.

Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 18