This article was downloaded by: [Eastern Kentucky University]

On: 16 March 2013, At: 15:44

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office:
Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Sports Sciences

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription
information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20

Biology and medicine of soccer: An update

Roy J. Shephard
Version of record first published: 09 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Roy J. Shephard (1999): Biology and medicine of soccer: An update, Journal of Sports
Sciences, 17:10, 757-786

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/026404199365498

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial
or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the
contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and
drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for
any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused
arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Jour nal of Sports Sciences, 1999 , 17, 757± 786

Biology and medicine of soccer: An update

ROY J. SHEPHARD
Faculty of P hysical E ducatio n and H ealth, University of Toronto, O ntar io, C anada

Accepted 29 July 1999

Recent literature on the biology and medicine of soccer (primarily since 1990) has been accum ulated by a
com bination of computer searching of relevant databases and review of the author’ s extensive W les. From a total
of 9681 papers, 540 were selected for closer scrutiny and 370 are discussed in the present review. These articles
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

cover patterns of play and the resulting energy demands, the nutritional requirem ents of soccer, the anthropo-
m etric, physiological, biochem ical and imm unological characteristics of successful players, the in X uence of
environmental stressors (heat, cold, hypoxia and time zone shifts), special features of fem ale and junior competi-
tors, selected issues in training, and the incidence and prevention of injuries. The information presented has
important implications for the safety and success of soccer players; the challenge is now to ensure that this
information is understood and acted upon by coaches and individual team m em bers.

K eyw ords : energy costs, environmental factors, female players, injuries, junior players, nutrition, physiological
characteristics.

Introduction experim ental design was inadequate, inform ation from

370 reports was W nally included in the review. G iven the
Soccer (association football) is now the m ost popular volum e of available m aterial, the topics of rugby (Rigg
sport in the world. It is estim ated that the FIFA World and Reilly, 1988; U eno et al., 1988), N orth-Am erican
C up of 1998 attracted som e 40 billion television spec- (M ueller and Blyth, 1988; Baltzer et al., 1997),
tators (H illis, 1998). T here has been a corresponding Australian rules (Douge, 1988; Patrick and M cKenna,
grow th of interest in the biology and m edicine of the 1988) and G aelic football (Reilly, 1990; F lorida-Jam es
sport. Several review s and sym posia have addressed and Reilly, 1995) were avoided, except as far as they
speciW c aspects of the gam e, particularly the energy contributed to the understanding of association foot-
dem ands of com petition and the corresponding nutri- ball. Sm all-sided gam es and indoor soccer were also
tional requirem ents (Ekblom , 1986, 1994; Shephard excluded; in general, these call for a m ore intense
and Leatt, 1987; Reilly et al., 1988, 1993; Reilly, 1990; form of the gam e (Reilly, 1990). Constraints of space
Santilli, 1990; Shephard 1990, 1992; D ’ H ooghe, further precluded consideration of the histor y of soccer
1991; D avis and Brewer, 1993; Tum ilty, 1993; Bangsbù , (Dunning, 1994), tactics (Bolling, 1994), sociological
1994a,b,c; Ekblom and W illiam s, 1994; L ees and and psychological issues, doping (Eissm ann, 1994a) or
N olan, 1998). the problem s encountered by the referee (Asam i et al.,
In this review, I sum m arize recent inform ation on 1988; C atterall et al., 1993; Eissm ann, 1994b; Johnston
the biology and m edicine of com petitive soccer, using and M cN aughton, 1994; Rontoyannis et al., 1998).
m odern m ethods of com puterized literature search. The Topics included were as follows: patterns of play and
m ain focus was on peer-reviewed papers published since resultant energy dem ands; nutritional and X uid needs;
1990, sought am ong citations in the Sport D iscus data- the anatom y and physiology of the successful player;
base and the author’ s own W les on the biology and environm ental factors (hot and cold weather, hypoxia,
m edicine of soccer. F rom a total of 9681 articles, 540 circadian rhythm s and tim e zone shifts); special features
papers were given closer scrutiny. D iscarding studies of fem ale and junior players; optim al training plans; and
w here inform ation was redundant or insuY cient, or the the incidence and prevention of injuries. W here appro-
priate, additional inform ation has been introduced,
* Address all correspondence to Roy Shephard, PO Box 521, Brack- based on laboratory studies of equivalent patterns of
endale, BC V0N 1H0, Canada. e-m ail: royjshep@ m ountain-inter.net physical activity (particularly with respect to the topical

Jour nal of Sports Sciences ISSN 0264-041 4 print/ISSN 1466-447 X online Ó Taylor & Francis Ltd
 758 Shephard

Table 1 Anatomy and physiology of successful m ale soccer Table 2 Typical pattern of play for m ale soccer players
players
· Distance covered 8± 12 km (less in goalkeeper)
· Age 24± 27 years
· Mainly aerobic (walking, jogging and running)
· Height 1.83 m (less in mid W eld)
· Interspersed short sprints
Making and receiving ~ 30 passes
· Body mass 75± 80 kg
· - 1
· Body fat <10%
- 1 · Kicking ball at 17± 28 m ´ s
· Heart volume >13 ml ´ kg
Maxim al oxygen intake 60± 70 m l ´ kg - 1 ´ min - 1 (less in
· Costs increased by dribbling, running sideways and back-
· wards, changes of direction
goalkeeper)
Anaerobic threshold ~ 45 ml ´ kg
- 1 · Total energy cost per game 5± 6 M J
· - 1
Anaerobic power ~ 27 W ´ kg (sustained for 60 s in
· jumping)
· Muscles: developm ent of trunk and knee extensors and
X exors
1988; Ali and Farrally, 1991). N ote is usually taken of
walking, running and other activities, such as heading
50± 60% fast-twitch in vastus lateralis; ~ 40% in
· and throwing in. In top gam es, there are typically 900±
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

gastrocnemius
1000 actions with the ball, including 350 passes with
· CN S: large visual W eld, fast peripheral W eld reactions
one touch and 150 w ith two touches.
Successful team s on average m ake 16± 30 attacks and
7± 10 shots to score a goal (L uhtanen, 1990). An analy-
issues of high-altitude training and the adm inistration of sis based on 12 junior team s showed individual players
creatine supplem ents). m aking an average of 29 passes (50% successful), receiv-
ing 34 passes (69% successful), dribbling W ve times
(38% success rate), m aking two shots on goal (technical
Patter ns of play and associated success 66% , scoring success 8% ) and attem pting 20
biom echanical issues interceptions (59% successful). Losers were less suc-
cessful than w inners on all m ovem ents, w ith particu-
Investigators have studied patterns of play (m ovem ents larly large diV erences for dribbling and shots on goal
of the individual and constellations of players: Gre- (Luhtanen, 1994). Crosses, diagonal passes, passes into
haigne, 1988; H arris and Reilly, 1988; Pollard et al., zones directly in front of an opponent’ s goal, and
1988) and the success of individual m ovem ents (Ali, sequences originating from corners and free kicks seem
1988; Chervenjakov, 1988), as well as the m echanical m ost likely to generate scoring opportunities (M oyls,
forces required to m ake individual m ovem ents. Reilly 1988). It is also im por tant to sustain the perform ance
(1994a,b, in press) provided detailed review s covering of a player until the W nal 15 m in of a gam e, as the likeli-
at least 13 data sets and m ore than 217 players; Lees hood of scoring is increased during this period (Reilly,
and N olan (1998) have also recently reviewed various in press).
aspects of biom echanics in soccer. As in m any sports,
individual and team skills m ake an im portant contribu-
Distance covered
tion to successful perform ance; never theless, inform a-
tion on the type, intensity, duration and frequency of The distance covered during a gam e (an average of 8± 12
individual m ovem ents has an im portant bearing on km for out W eld players) appears to be related to both the
energy demands, the physical and physiological charac- aerobic W tness of the player and his or her capacity to
teristics of those who are m ost likely to becom e success- sustain a high fractional utilization of aerobic power.
ful players, and the design of an appropriate training Studies of university (Van Gool et al., 1988) and D anish
regim en. league (Bangsbù et al., 1991) players con W rm earlier
observations that a 5± 9% greater distance is covered in
the W rst than in the second half of a m atch; nevertheless,
Patter ns of individual m ovements
aerobically W t players m ay be spared this decrem ent in
The energy cost of a gam e depends on the total distance perform ance (Tum ilty, 1993; Reilly, 1994a). O ther fac-
covered and on the style of play (Reilly, 1996), but is tors m odifying the distance covered include the stand-
largely independent of the speed of m ovem ent. Tech- ard of com petition, the nature of the playing surface
niques of m easuring m ovem ent patterns have ranged (natural or artiW cial turf ) and environm ental conditions.
from hand notation, the use of a tape-recorder and cine Icy or waterlogged surfaces are likely to im pair all
W lm , to the m ost recent research using up to six video- m ovem ents, whereas high altitudes or ver y hot condi-
cam eras (Bangsbù et al., 1991; Reilly, in press) with tions predispose to fatigue in the second half of a m atch
com puter-aided analysis of m ovem ent patterns (M oyls, (Reilly, 1994a).
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 759

Walking and running requires relaxation of the body parts and giving w ith the
im pact of the ball (L uhtanen, 1994). W hen kicking,
C urrently, top players cover som e 25% of their 8± 12 km
rotational m ovem ents im part a high angular velocity to
distance by walking, 37% by jogging, 20% by subm axi-
the foot. T he release speed of the ball from an instep
m al cruising, 11% by sprinting and 7% by m oving
kick is in the range 17± 28 m ´ s - 1 (Isokawa and Lees,
backwards (Reilly, in press), m ostly when they are not
1988; L uhtanen, 1988; N arici et al., 1988), the values
in possession of the ball. Up to 90% of the activity is
depending both on the skill of the player and the
aerobic, but with som e 7 m in of higher-intensity activity
radius of rotational m ovem ent for the lim b parts. Two
(Bangsbù et al., 1991). In top com petition, players m ust
m ain types of kicking pattern appear to be used: using a
run w ith the ball once every 30 s on average, and m ake a
short and a long back swing, the kicking tim e being
2± 3 s all-out sprint about once every 90 s; pauses for
shorter for the shor t m ovem ent (Isokawa and Lees,
rest usually last no m ore than 2± 3 s (Reilly, 1990, in
1988).
press; Bangsbù et al., 1991). T he m axim al running speed
T he m axim al ball speed is strongly correlated with the
reaches about 9 m ´ s - 1 ; values are som ewhat higher in
peak isokinetic torque that a player can develop in the
attackers and defenders than goalkeepers and m id W eld
hip Xexor and knee extensor m uscles (N arici et al.,
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

players (L uhtanen, 1994); the average speed over an

1988). D uring pass kicking, the player orients the pelvis,
entire m atch is about 7.2 km ´ h - 1 (Bangsb ù et al., 1991).
the right leg and the foot towards the right, and intro-
Although playing positions are now relatively X exible,
duces a m edial com ponent of foot velocity, but m ost
m id W eld players cover the greatest distance, m ainly at
of the speed of the foot is still developed by the knee
m oderate speeds (Reilly, 1990). T hey thus require an
extensor m uscles (Levanon and D apena, 1998). D uring
aerobic pro W le, w ith an ability to sustain eV ort at close to
such a kick, the ankle joint of the pivot leg becom es
their `anaerobic threshold’ (Bangsbù 1994a,d). C entre
m ore W rm ly stabilized as skill increases, with both the
backs engage in a higher proportion of sprinting, and
knee and the hip joints contributing to m aintenance
they require stronger developm ent of their anaerobic
of balance (H agiwara and Am ano, 1993).
pro W le. T he goalkeeper of the 1970s covered a distance
of som e 4 km during a gam e (Reilly, 1990); he or she
was in possession of the ball for som e 10% of this dis- Heading movements
tance. A 1992 rule-change prohibiting the pick-up of a
H eading m ovem ents demand explosive m uscle
back pass is likely to have reduced this W gure (Reilly,
strength. Som e authors have expressed concern that
1994a).
such m ovem ents m ay cause cerebral concussion, par-
Inexperienced players activate the rectus fem oris
ticularly in young players (Lees and N olan, 1998). A
asym m etrically during running, but activation becom es
standard soccer ball has a m ass of 0.425 kg when dr y,
sym m etrical as experience is gained (Turunen et al.,
and (particularly in the case of stitched balls) is som e
1996). The speed of running depends in part on stride
4± 5% heavier when it is wet and m uddy (Arm strong
length. Changes in horizontal velocity and acceleration
et al., 1988). T he force at im pact is about one order
decrease with an increase in the num ber of steps taken
sm aller than that exp erienced in boxing (Burslem and
during a sprint (K ollach and Krabbe, 1996). As the
Lees, 1988; Townend, 1988), and is 7± 10% less for
average height of players has increased, both the m ost
m oulded than for stitched balls (Levendusky et al.,
econom ical and the m axim al potential running speed of
1988). T he im pact force can be further reduced (for
players have shown a parallel increase. Partly for this
exam ple, in children’ s gam es) if the inX ation pressure is
reason, but also because of greater com petition, there
decreased (Arm strong et al., 1988).
has been a trend to a faster pace of play and thus an
In practice, the m ain source of any brain dam age in
increase in the distance covered over the course of a
adult players is physical contact with another partici-
gam e.
pant. N evertheless, dam age from repeated im proper
O ne recent report suggested that the energy cost of
heading of the ball rem ains a possibility, par ticularly in
walking was greater in soccer players than in the general
children and inexperienced players. The ball should be
population (Tofts et al., 1998). T his seems unlikely
received in the m iddle of the forehead, where the skull is
am ong com petitive players; possibly, the observed dif-
thickest, and the X at nature of the surface gives a greater
ferences reX ected m uscle stiV ness, or injur y-related
m argin for error (Luhtanen, 1994).
problem s in the knee joints of the players.

Throwing-in
Kicking movements
T hrowing-in also depends m ainly on explosive m ove-
Receiving and kicking the ball add to the basic m eta- m ents, with the player attem pting to exploit force devel-
bolic dem ands of walking and running. Receiving oped in regions other than the arm s. T he handspring
 760 Shephard

throw -in was developed to increase release speeds, but lying cost of running (Reilly, 1994a,b). E arly estim ates
has now been largely abandoned. It required m ore skill for a low standard of com petition suggested a total
than a standard throw -in, and since the ball was released excess energy cost of ~ 2.5 M J (Reilly, 1990). A m ore
from the arm s at a lower level, a higher trajectory was realistic W gure for top players is 5± 6 M J per gam e
needed to cover an equivalent distance (Luhtanen, (Shephard, 1992).
1994). M ost players who used this technique seemed to T he energy consum ption between form al gam es
use too X at an angle of release (Kollath and Schw irtz, depends on the num ber of training sessions per day (one
1988). A m oving throw-in can increase the distance or two), the choice of tapering plans and the possibility
covered by up to 13 m relative to a standing throw-in of m idweek gam es. It can m atch that estim ated for
(Kollath and Schw irtz, 1988). days of com petition. H owever, based on the assum ption
that energy expenditures oV the football W eld are only
m oderate, the daily energy requirem ent of a m ale player
Diving motion
was estim ated at 14.7 M J ´ day - 1 (3500 kcal ´ day - 1 )
D epending on the position of the ball, the diving m otion (W illiam s, 1994).
of the goalkeeper can som etim es be enhanced by throw- D iet sheet estim ates of food intake have ranged quite
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

ing the body w ith a lower trajectory, m oving the centre widely from 12.8 M J ´ day - 1 (C aldarone et al., 1990),
of m ass of the body m ore quickly towards the ball 13.1 M J ´ day - 1 (Reilly, 1994b) and 14.1 M J ´ day - 1 (van
(Suzuki et al., 1988). Skilled goalkeepers have the ability Erp-B aar t et al., 1989a) to 20.7 M J ´ day - 1 (Jacobs et al.,
to dive faster than their less skilled peers (Suzuki et al., 1982). T he weighed food intake m ethod indicated aver-
1988). age values of 11.0 and 12.8 M J ´ day - 1 at two Scottish
Prem ier L eague clubs (M augh an, 1997). D iscrepancies
between need and intake m ay have arisen because
Overall match performance
m easurem ents were m ade at training cam ps, w here diet
For m ost coaches, m atch perform ance provides the best is unrepresentative of players’ norm al consum ption
context for estim ating a player’ s overall skills. Features (Hickson et al., 1986). T here is also diY culty in allow-
that are noted include the num ber and success of m oves ing for the consum ption of snacks, which can account
such as kicking, passing, dribbling, heading and throw- for 22% of energy intake in young soccer players
ing (rated for accuracy, tim e on target, error score and (W illiam s, 1994). A study of fem ale athletes indicated a
understanding of the overall gam e), the eY ciency of positive energy balance in soccer players, in contrast to
goal accom plishm ent and the overall consistency of substantial negative energy balances for gym nasts and
perform ance (Luhtanen, 1994). W gure skaters (Fogelholm et al., 1995).

Energy expenditure and nutritional needs Glycogen stores and metabolic needs
The energy sources exploited over the course of a soccer
Total energy expenditure
m atch are sim ilar to those found in other types of inter-
Energy expenditure during gam es varies w ith the stan- m ittent exercise (Shephard, 1982). D epletion of glyco-
dard of com petition, playing position and patterns of gen in the m ost frequently recruited m uscle W bres
play, as discussed above. Although the nom inal dura- becom es a signiW cant cause of fatigue as a gam e pro-
tion of a gam e is 90 m in, it can be extended by as gresses, and perform ance can be enhanced by an initial
m uch as 30 m in for `extra tim e’ ; even in a World C up, boosting of m uscle glycogen reserves (Bangsbù et al.,
the tim e the ball is in play can range from 52 to 76 m in 1992). H um an m uscle norm ally stores 60± 150 m m ol
(Tum ilty, 1993). M etabolic dem ands are further glucosyl units ´ kg - 1 wet weight, or 250± 650 m m ol ´ kg - 1
increased by accelerating and stopping, turning, jum p- dr y weight (W illiam s, 1994). T he liver content ranges
ing and tackling, and irregular or feigned m ovem ents from 200 m m ol ´ kg - 1 wet weight after an overnight fast
(Ekblom , 1986; Shephard and Leatt, 1987; Shephard, to 1000 m m ol ´ kg - 1 wet weight after deliberate carbo-
1992; Reilly, 1997). As m any as 1000 changes in the hydrate loading.
direction of m ovem ent m ay occur for each player over a Som e early studies suggested that glycogen depletion
gam e (Yam anaka et al., 1988). Running backwards or in thigh m uscle was virtually com plete by the end of a
sideways increases energy costs by 20± 40% as the speed gam e (Saltin, 1973). O thers have reported that less than
is increased from 5 to 9 km ´ h - 1 . W hen controlling the a half of thigh reserves were utilized. In som e studies,
ball, additional energy is expended on stabilizing the lim ited resynthesis of glycogen m ay have occurred as
body and kicking the ball; the stride is faster in rate and play proceeded (Nordheim and Vù llestad, 1990). T he
shorter in length, with a 6± 10% increase in energy costs, glycogen used by a soccer player is likely to be sm aller
depending on the speed of dribbling and thus the under- in m uscles other than the thigh. If the total energy
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 761

requirem ent is 6 M J, and glycogen usage is 155± 160 g, the principles are well know n to scientists, the dietary
this will provide only som e 2.5 M J of energy, and a sub- practices even of top league players som etim es rem ain
stantial usage of fat and protein m ust also be presum ed. substantially suboptim al. For exam ple, only 35% of top
Circulating glucose oV ers a further possible source of Turkish players attained a score of over 50, and none
carbohydrate. Som e early reports found quite low con- scored higher than 75, on a dietar y questionnaire with a
centrations of blood glucose by the end of a m atch, but potential score of 100 (Kayahan et al., 1992).
m ore recent results indicate that norm al or increased
blood glucose is m aintained (Shephard and Leatt, C arbohydrates. A high carbohydrate intake is recom -
1987). In one recent report, no player W nished a gam e m ended to m axim ize glycogen stores. T he dietary
w ith a blood glucose concentration of less than 4 recom m endation, best expressed per kilogram of body
m m ol ´ l- 1 (Bangsbù , 1994a). N evertheless, a com bina- m ass, is 8 g ´ kg - 1 ´ day - 1 (Devlin and W illiam s, 1991) or
tion of gluconeogenesis and the release of glucose from even 10 g ´ kg - 1 ´ day - 1 (G raham , in press). T he ability of
liver m ay provide som e 200 m m ol (900 kJ) of the carbo- a given food to raise blood glucose depends on how
hydrate energy needed during a gam e without reducing easily it is digested and m ade available for m etabolism .
blood glucose. Availability is expressed as the glycaem ic index (C oyle,
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

1991; C ostill and Hargreaves, 1992), the standard being

the blood glucose response to ingestion of 50 g of pure
Lipid metabolism
glucose (an index of 100). Som e sim ple carbohydrates
Based on the heart rates attained during a soccer m atch such as fructose have a low glycaem ic index, w hereas
and obser vation of interm ittent exercise in the labora- som e com plex carbohydrates such as amylopectin have
tory, as m uch as 40% of total energy needs (1.9± 2.3 M J) a high index. Availability m ay also be m odiW ed, depend-
can be m et from the oxidation of 50± 60 g (200± 250 ing on the fat and protein content of the diet.
m m ol) of free fatty acids (Bangsbù , 1994c). A substan- EV ective carbohydrate loading approxim ately
tial increase in blood concentrations of free fatty acids doubles norm al m uscle glycogen stores. O nce this has
is seen, especially during the second half of a gam e been accom plished, reserves rem ain elevated for 3± 6
(Bangsbù , 1994c). A peak is reached during the days unless exhausting exercise is undertaken (G oforth
im m ediate post-exercise period, as the release of fatty et al., 1997). In contrast, liver stores are depleted by as
acids continues but utilization falls (Bangsbù , 1994c). little as 12 h of fasting, and a carbohydrate m eal on the
G lycerol show s only a m inor increase, perhaps because evening before a gam e is recom m ended to m axim ize
m ost of any glycerol that is released is used for hepatic hepatic reserves (Graham , in press). G lycogen loading
gluconeogenesis (Bangsbù , 1994c). results in a 5± 6% increase in the ability of adult players
to m ake m ultiple sprints after 45 m in of sim ulated
soccer (Bangsbù et al., 1992). H owever, the value of
Protein metabolism
carbohydrate loading has been questioned in the case of
T he extent of protein m etabolism during a soccer gam e young players. C ounter-argum ents in this age group
has yet to be resolved. Studies of equivalent bouts of have included the preferential fat utilization of a young
continuous exercise in the laboratory suggest that less child and side-eV ects during the initial phase of
than 10% of the total energy requirem ent (0.6 M J) is glycogen depletion ± fatigue, irritability and decreased
derived from the breakdown of protein (Wagenm akers cognitive ability (Bar-Or and Unnithan, 1994).
et al., 1989). It was once thought that the ingestion of a glucose
solution 30 m in before a gam e would decrease blood
glucose and perform ance because of an insulin over-
D ietar y recommendation
shoot. Such fears have proven groundless (Coyle, 1991).
T he diet of the soccer player should m eet overall energy In fact, a sm all dose of carbohydrate given shor tly before
expenditure, provide an appropriate balance of carbo- a gam e m ay help to spare m uscle glycogen and m aintain
hydrate, fat and protein, possibly oV er creatine supple- blood glucose (Shephard and Leatt, 1987; T sintzas
m ents, and m eet m icronutrient requirem ents. Although et al., 1993). T he adm inistration of either solid or
liquid carbohydrate (50 g) 5 m in before high-intensity
interm ittent exercise also enhances blood glucose and
Table 3 Dietary recom mendation for m ale soccer players
increases the tim e to exh austion relative to placebo
Daily food intake 14± 15 M J ´ day - 1
(Walton and Rhodes, 1997). T he ingestion of a glucose
· Carbohydrate 8 g ´ kg - 1 ´ day- 1 polym er solution (15.5% ) before a gam e and at half-
· Protein 1.5 g ´ kg - 1 tim e increases the distance covered in the second period
·
· No bene W t from vitamins or trace elem ents of a m atch relative to a sweetened placebo solution
(K irkendall et al., 1988). O n the other hand, it has
 762 Shephard

been shown that adm inistration of a glucose polym er thesis and enhance im m une function. Although bene W t
preparation (6.9% , 5 m l ´ kg - 1 ) 15 m in before a m atch can be dem onstrated in m alnourished individuals
and at half-tim e did not enhance soccer-related skills (Antonio and Street, 1999), glutam ine is diY cult to
in com parison to a placebo solution (Zeederberg et al., adm inister, and any increase in circulating concentra-
1996). F ur therm ore, carbohydrate supplem ents did tions is transient, since it is largely m etabolized by the
not prevent a fall in plasm a am ino acid concentrations gut and the liver. Adm inistration of four doses of 100
during and after a m atch (van Hall et al., 1998). m g ´ kg - 1 averts the 20% drop in plasm a glutam ine seen
After a gam e, it is particularly im portant to increase during a m arathon event, but this has no protective
blood glucose rapidly to speed the replenishm ent of eV ect against exercise-induced im m unosuppression
glycogen stores (Fallow W eld and W illiam s, 1993; (Rohde et al., 1998). Branched-chain am ino acids also
Adam o et al., 1998). D uring the W rst few hours after have their advocates. These substances are m etabolized
exercise, glycogen resynthesis is independent of insulin prim arily by m uscle, and plasm a concentrations
(Graham , in press). T he early ingestion of an optim al decrease substantially over the course of a soccer m atch
carbohydrate solution (2 g ´ kg - 1 of body m ass over the (Blom strand et al., 1991); m oreover, this decline was
W rst 4 h) triples the rate of glycogen form ation (Ivy, reversed and m ental perform ance enhanced by the
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

1991). Ideally, a carbohydrate solution should be taken adm inistration of a branched-chain am ino acid supple-
even before showering (W illiam s, 1994). It is often m ent during play (Blom strand et al., 1991). Another
necessary for physicians and coaches to insist on the report claim ed that the adm inistration of branched-
early post-gam e intake of carbohydrate. If left to their chain am ino acid supplem ents to young soccer
own devices, m ost players fail to ingest the 10 g ´ kg - 1 of players reduced the release of am m onia during a m atch
carbohydrate that is needed to give a rapid boost of (Parravini et al., 1992). M ore recently, it has been
m uscle glycogen (Shephard and L eatt, 1987; C aldarone show n that the rate of oxidation of branched-chain
et al., 1990; Bangsbù et al., 1992; K irkendall, 1993; am ino acids is independent of m uscle glycogen stores,
Liesen and M uecke, 1994; W illiam s, 1994; Haw kins and their adm inistration does not alter the tim e to
and F uller, 1998). O ne report suggested that the sim ul- fatigue (Jackm an et al., 1996; M adsen et al., 1996). T he
taneous ingestion of am ino acids stim ulated insulin m ost recent trend has been creatine loading, used by at
secretion and thus glycogen resynthesis (Zawadzki et al., least four of the European sides in the 1998 World C up.
1992), but subsequent studies have failed to con W rm It is claim ed that oral creatine supplem ents increase the
this (Burke et al., 1995; Roy and Tarnopolsky, 1998). creatine content of m uscle (particularly exercising
M uscle injury, whether the result of direct traum a or m uscle) (H arris et al., 1992; Antonio and Street, 1999),
excessive training, m ay lim it a player’ s potential for boost m uscle m ass (Balsom et al., 1993a), increase peak
replenishm ent of glycogen stores (Costill et al., 1990). power output and sprinting ability (Birch et al., 1994;
Rossiter et al., 1996; Vandebuerie et al., 1998), delay
Proteins and amino acids. It is now widely accepted that fatigue (Balsom et al., 1993b), speed the resynthesis of
the World Health O rganization’ s recom m ended daily phosphocreatine (GreenhaV et al., 1994; Casey et al.,
protein intake of 1 g ´ kg - 1 of body m ass is too low for 1996; Sm ith et al., 1998) and increase m uscle torque
athletes who undertake heavy training (Shephard, 1983; during repeated exercise (G reenhaV et al., 1993). Fur-
Lemon, 1991; Lem on, 1994). Studies based on m eta- therm ore, the intram uscular accum ulation of creatine
bolic tracers and nitrogen balance techniques suggest seems to be boosted by a high carbohydrate diet (G reen
that 1.2± 1.8 g ´ kg - 1 is m ore appropriate (Tarnopolsky et al., 1996). D espite these favourable reports, others
et al., 1988; M eredith et al., 1989), which is provided have found no ergogenic bene W t from creatine supple-
by m ost soccer players’ diets. Those who m ay be at risk m ents (L e Rum eur et al., 1990; Barnett et al., 1996),
include grow ing children (Bar-O r and U nnithan, 1994), particularly during subm axim al exercise (Balsom et al.,
players from developing countries and vegetarians. 1993b; G reen et al., 1994).
Som e protein is needed to replace the am ino acids
m etabolized in gluconeogenesis, and to cover the Fats. T he adoption of a high carbohydrate diet is com -
dem ands of m uscle repair and hyper trophy, although m only at the expense of fat intake. N orm ally, this is
the latter requirem ents are relatively sm all (M illward bene W cial to the health of the soccer player. An excessive
et al., 1994). Additional dem ands m ay be im posed by restriction of fat intake can cause de W ciencies in both
dam age to the gut and liver, particularly if players essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitam ins (G raham ,
becom e over-heated and dehydrated during a m atch in press), although no im provem ent in aerobic or anaer-
(M arshall, 1998). obic perform ance was observed when well-trained
M any claim s have been m ade for the value of am ino soccer players were given supplem ents of om ega-3 fatty
acid supplem ents, but few have been substantiated. acids (Raastad et al., 1996). There m ay also be som e shift
Glutam ine has been advocated to stim ulate protein syn- of m etabolism from fat to carbohydrate; in theory, this
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 763

m ight increase the rate of glycogen depletion, but one positions, in part because they are less vulnerable to
recent study indicated no increase in endurance with a injuries, in part because of the im portance of experience
high fat diet (H elge et al., 1998). One lim ited report has to this playing position (Reilly, 1994b), and possibly
suggested that if m edium -chain triglycerides (derived because the physiological dem ands are less than in other
from coconut oil) are adm inistered together with a 10% playing positions.
carbohydrate solution, an ergogenic eV ect is obtained
during prolonged exercise (Van Zyl et al., 1996).
A nthropometric pro W le

Vitamins and minerals. Although a low -fat diet has the T he anthropom etric pro W le reX ects in part the ethnic
potential to create vitam in de W ciencies, m ost re- background of a player, and occasionally individuals can
searchers have found no enhancem ent of physiological be very successful because high skill and m otivation
characteristics or perform ance after the adm inistration com pensate for w hat appears to be an unfavourable
of either vitam in (Van de Beek, 1991; Fogelholm , body type. E qually, a skilful coach can m odify tactics to
1994b) or m ineral (Clarkson, 1991; Fogelholm , 1994b) accom m odate an unusual body build in a particular
supplem ents. player.
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

T he intake of ascorbic acid m eets dietary recom - At one tim e, there tended to be a negative association
m endations, and supplem ents m erely increase urinary between the standard of play and body size (Reilly,
excretion (Rokitzki et al., 1994). D e W ciencies of vitam in 1990). In recent years, there has been a tendency to
B, m inerals and trace elem ents relative to recom m ended recruit taller and heavier players. For exam ple, a study
dietary allowances have been claim ed for G erm an and of the D anish national squad noted an average height
D utch soccer team s (van Erp-Baart et al., 1989b; T iedt of 1.83 m and a body m ass of 77 kg (Bangsbù and
et al., 1991; Liesen and M uecke, 1994), and after com - M izuno, 1988). Top Italian soccer players were found to
petition G erm an players are oV ered 0.2 litres of m ineral have an average height and body m ass of 1.83 m and
water or fruit juice containing 150 m g of m agnesium 75.5 kg respectively (C aldarone et al., 1990). A recent
and various trace elem ents; however, there is no clear G erm an study found values of 1.83 m and 80 kg
evidence that this enhances either health or perfor- respectively (Coen et al., 1998), and in Hungary players
m ance. An Italian study of professional soccer players in the national squad were taller than those in Leagues I
noted low serum ceruloplasm in (perhaps because of and II (M oh … csi et al., 1991). W hen values are diV eren-
increased free radical production), but norm al serum tiated by playing position, goalkeepers and defenders
copper (Resina et al., 1991). N orm al serum ferritin and tend to be the tallest players, and m id W eld players the
haem oglobin concentrations also provide little support shortest (Reilly, 1994c).
for the hypothesis of a m icronutrient de W ciency (Resina As m ight be anticipated, m agnetic resonance im aging
et al., 1991; Telford and C unningh am , 1991). shows a strong developm ent of both the upper and lower
parts of the quadriceps fem oris (K atsuta et al., 1993).
T his gives soccer players a characteristic body shape
Anatomy and physiology of the successful and som atotype, with a tendency to m esom orphy (for
player exam ple, a rating of 3.0± 5.0± 2.5: W hite et al., 1988).
T he body fat content of top players is ~ 10% during
T he `ideal’ age, anthropom etric and physiological pro- the playing season (M angine et al., 1990; C oen et al.,
W le of a successful soccer player can be described, based 1998), but can rise to 19± 20% between seasons (Reilly,
on the characteristics of play noted above, but the gam e 1994c). Given that about 5% body fat is com m on in
dem ands suY cient skill that substantial deviations from distance runners, it m ay be inferred that soccer players
this pro W le rem ain com patible w ith perform ance of a have traditionally carried m ore than an optim al am ount
high standard. I com m ent here on the optim al age, of body fat, and that between seasons in particular it is
anthropom etric and physiological characteristics. im por tant to lim it the accum ulation of body fat. G oal-
keepers are heavier and carry m ore body fat than other
players (Davis et al., 1992).
A ge
D im ensional issues becom e im portant when evalu-
T he optim al playing age is in the range 24± 27 years. It is ating physiological variables, whether com paring indi-
unclear how far this is determ ined by an accum ulation vidual players w ho diV er in body size or relating average
of skills, incipient deterioration in physiological charac- W gures to population norm s. Potential options include
teristics, loss of m otivation to continue hard training, or height, body m ass, lean body m ass, surface area or a
an unwarranted unwillingness of m anagem ent to renew power function of one of these variables. Body m ass
professional contracts for older players. G oalkeepers rem ains the m ost widely used reference criterion for
seem to have longer careers than those playing in other m ost types of data.
 764 Shephard

Aerobic performance hear t rate, peak stroke volum e and haem oglobin con-
centration. T he resting heart rate of top players is typic-
M easures of heart rate and oxygen consum ption during
ally 48± 52 beats ´ m in - 1 (Reilly, 1990) and, perhaps for
play suppor t the inference from tim e-and-m otion stud-
this reason, the resting diastolic pressure is around 70
ies that soccer is largely an endurance sport. T his con-
m m Hg. O ther consequences of the bradycardia include
clusion is further suppor ted by m easures of respirator y
sinus node pauses > 1750 m s in 44% of players,
and cardiac function.
second-degree atrioventricular block in 17% and atopic
H eart rates during play range from 155 to 170
beats in 27% (Furlanello et al., 1990). Recently reported
beats ´ m in - 1 . Values for m id W eld players and forwards
W gures for m axim al heart rate are sim ilar to those for the
are som ewhat greater than for defenders (Van G ool,
general population: 187± 193 beats ´ m in - 1 (Bangsb ù et
1987; Rohde and Espersen, 1988; Van Gool et al., 1988;
al., 1988; Verstappen and Bovens, 1989; W inter et al.,
Bangsbù , 1994c); in goalkeepers values average only
1989). Lower W gures (176 beats ´ m in - 1 : N owacki et al.,
124 beats ´ m in - 1 (Reilly, 1990). These data suggest that,
1988; 179 beats ´ m in - 1 : W hite et al., 1988) probably
in m ost players except goalkeepers, oxygen consum p-
reX ect testing on a cycle ergom eter. Indeed, in one of
tion is on average up to 70% of m axim al oxygen intake
these studies, a parallel treadm ill test showed a m uch
(Bangsbù , 1994a), with a value of 2.9 l ´ m in - 1 in a 70 kg
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

higher peak heart rate (Nowacki et al., 1988). H arvard

player with an aerobic power of 60 m l ´ kg - 1 ´ m in - 1 (close
W tness test scores of 117± 120 arbitrar y units are classed
to the anaerobic threshold). N evertheless, heart rate
as `excellent’ , reX ecting a relatively rapid recovery of
estim ates of the intensity of eV ort m ay be inX ated
resting hear t rates after all-out exercise (Reilly, 1990).
som ewhat because interm ittent exercise, isom etric con-
Stroke volum e depends on both plasm a volum e,
tractions, em otion and therm al stress, all increase heart
generally augm ented by rigorous aerobic training, and
rates; the obser ved values reX ect the total cardiac load
cardiac dim ensions. M any echocardiographic studies of
(Reilly, 1990; Tum ilty, 1993).
top professional soccer players have show n a m oderate
Som e attem pts to m easure average oxygen consum p-
enlargem ent of the left ventricular cavity, as would be
tion directly have yielded values of only 1± 2 l ´ m in - 1
expected in a large and well-trained individual; indeed,
(Durnin and Passm ore, 1967; O gushi et al., 1993), but
diV erences from the general population can be detected
these results m ay have been com prom ised by short
even in prepubescent soccer players (Bianchi et al.,
sam pling periods and lim itations of play im posed by
1998). N evertheless, evidence of ventricular hyper-
the gas collecting device (a relatively heavy and clum sy
trophy is lim ited. O ne report put the m axim al thickness
Kofranyi-M ichaelis respirom eter). D ata for soccer-
of the ventricular wall, unstandardized for body size,
related activities based on the lightweight K2 telem etr y
at only 9.9 ± 1.0 m m (Pellicia et al., 1990), although
system suggest that a value of 4 l ´ m in - 1 m ay be reached
another noted values of 14.5 ± 0.7 m m for posterior wall
during dribbling, and W gures of 2± 4 l ´ m in - 1 are typical
thickness and 14.2 ± 0.4 m m for interventricular septal
of other active phases of the gam e (Kawakam i et al.,
thickness during systole (Penco et al., 1990). Heart
1992).
volum e is typically > 13 m l ´ kg - 1 (K inderm ann et al.,
T he progressive exhaustion of players with a poor
1993) and resting stroke volum e is above the population
aerobic power seems in keeping with the need to sustain
average, at about 100 m l (Penco et al., 1990). T he high
an average 70% of peak aerobic eV or t over a 90 m in
peak oxygen pulse (25± 29 m l ´ beat- 1 ) suggests that a
gam e.
large stroke volum e is m aintained through to m axim al
eV ort (Apor, 1988; N owacki et al., 1988).
Pulmonar y function. Soccer players have large lung H aem oglobin concentrations are generally norm al
volum es relative to standing height, perhaps as a con- (Biancotti et al., 1992; K ayatekin et al., 1993). H owever,
sequence of selection rather than as a response to as in other well-trained athletes, serum ferritin is som e-
speciW c training (Reilly, 1990). T he m axim um respira- tim es low (Islegen et al., 1989), suggesting a latent iron
tory m inute volum e in top players m ay be as large as 150 de W ciency.
l ´ m in - 1 (Verstappen and Bovens, 1989), and m easure-
m ents of peak inspiratory force show signiW cantly higher M aximal oxygen intake. M any m easurem ents of m ax-
values in professional soccer players than in sedentar y im al oxygen intake have been carried out on the cycle
individuals (Fuso et al., 1996). N evertheless, it is ergom eter; this technique underestim ates a player’ s
unlikely that respirator y function lim its the average potential relative to likely perform ance on the soccer
player’ s perform ance, and it does not seem that the large W eld. Values have tended to show an increase over the
pulm onary volum es contribute any tactical advantage. last two decades.
It has been argued on both dim ensional grounds and
Cardiovascular function. The oxygen transporting cap- the empirical relationship between aerobic power and
acity of the cardiovascular system depends on peak body m ass observed in soccer players, that data should
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 765

be expressed relative to (body m ass) 0.75 (W islù V et al., corresponding to a blood lactate concentration of 4
1998). A value of 63.7 m l ´ kg - 1 ´ m in - 1 would equate to m m ol ´ l- 1 (OBLA) is sim ilar to that of distance runners,
188.6 m l ´ kg - 0.75 ´ m in - 1 . N evertheless, m ost reports at 77% of aerobic power in English First D ivision
continue to express aerobic power in units of m l ´ kg - 1 ´ players (W hite et al., 1988). T here seems little corre-
m in - 1 ; indeed, the traditional units seem m ore relevant lation between the individual’ s percentage of aerobic
to function, given that the energy costs of walking and power at O BL A and the decrem ent in perform ance
running are rough ly proportional to body m ass. over the course of a gam e (Balsom , 1988). M oreover,
Current W gures for players except the goalkeeper are the `anaerobic threshold’ of Australian national and
in the range 60± 70 m l ´ kg - 1 ´ m in - 1 (Apor, 1988; State players was sim ilar (45.5 vs 43.8 m l ´ kg - 1 ´ m in - 1 ),
Bangsbù et al., 1988; Faina et al., 1988; N owacki et al., although (presum ably because of a greater m echanical
1988; Chatard, 1991; Puga et al., 1993). A m inim um of eY ciency) the national players were able to run faster
65 m l ´ kg - 1 ´ m in - 1 has been suggested as desirable in top w hen at their `anaerobic threshold’ (Green, 1992).
players (Vanfraechem and Tom as, 1988). D iV erences
in m axim al oxygen intake with playing position are cur- A naerobic power. N uclear m agnetic resonance studies
rently relatively sm all; the highest W gures are seen in m im icking the activity pattern of soccer suggest that
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

m id W elders, and outside full-backs have higher values creatine phosphate stores are largely regenerated during
than centre-backs (Nowacki et al., 1988; Puga et al., pauses for recover y (Bangsbù , 1994b). N evertheless, the
1993). intensity of acute sprints is evidenced by the W ndings
of increased blood concentrations of adenosine and
inosine m onophosphate degradation products (am m o-
A naerobic perfor mance
nia, hypoxanthine and uric acid) during bouts of play
D espite the endurance nature of soccer, som e authors (Bangsbù , 1994b).
have argued that diV erent standards of player (Tum ilty, T he vertical jum p of soccer players averages ~ 0.56 m ,
1993) and diV erent playing positions (Davis and and the standing broad jum p ~ 2.2 m (Reilly, 1990).
Brewer, 1992) are diV erentiated better by com ponents Although brief exp losive jum ps of this type diV erentiate
of anaerobic W tness (the `anaerobic threshold’ , speed, players by standard of com petition (GauY n et al.,
power, strength, the capacity of the lactic acid system ) 1989), this is not true of 15 s of continuous, all-out
than by aerobic power. The diV erence in anaerobic work exercise (Faina et al., 1988). G erm an researchers have
capacity between Australian national and State players thus adopted an anaerobic W tness assessm ent that is
(G reen, 1992) was as m uch as 20%. based on a com bination of tim es for shorter (5 m and
30 m ) sprints and the running speed sustained at the
M easurement of anaerobic perfor mance. Anaerobic per- `anaerobic threshold’ (C oen et al., 1998). Top players
form ance has been assessed by vertical and standing have a 30 m tim e of less than 4 s (Kinderm ann et al.,
broad jum p tests, M argaria’ s staircase sprint, all-out 1993); m oreover, professionals are already ahead of
rides on a cycle ergom eter, and a specially designed am ateur players after covering a distance of 10 m
sprint treadm ill (Chatard, 1991). To this list m ay be (K ollath and Q uade, 1993), showing the im portance of
added tests of turning and side-stepping such as an acceleration as well as speed.
ag ility run (Reilly, 1990), and the m easurem ent of the G oalkeepers tend to record higher scores for anaer-
`anaerobic threshold’ . O ne problem w ith such m eas- obic function than those playing in other team positions
urem ents is their lim ited relevance to the sprinting and (Tum ilty, 1993). Centre-backs also require a large
explosive m ovem ents of soccer. For m any purposes, it is anaerobic power to enable them to jum p to win the ball
best to evaluate perform ance in term s of soccer-speci W c (Reilly, 1990). Application of the M argaria test to
W eld tests (Kinderm ann et al., 1993; Balsom , 1994), Indian soccer players showed an anaerobic power of
including the decrem ent in perform ance over a succes- 1040± 1210 W (17.1± 19.4 W ´ kg - 1), with the highest
sion of sprints (M cKay and Shephard, 1988; Balsom , values recorded for goalkeepers (Bhanot, 1988). A
1990). sprint treadm ill test yielded sim ilar overall results,
although because this test placed less of a prem ium on
`A naerobic threshold ’ . T he oxygen de W cit of soccer jum ping, values were lowest for goalkeepers (Chatard,
players during 2± 7 m in of exhaustive exercise (49.5 1991).
m l ´ kg - 1 ´ m in - 1 : Bangsbù et al., 1993) is not rem arkable.
H owever, successful players can utilize a large fraction A naerobic capacity. Early research showed peak blood
of aerobic power interm ittently throughout a 90 m in lactate concentrations of 9.5 m m ol ´ l- 1 at the end of the
W rst half of a First D ivision m atch, and 7.2 m m ol ´ l - at
1
gam e (Bangsbù and Lindqvist, 1992). Top players can
m aintain a speed > 14.4 km ´ h - 1 at the `anaerobic the end of the second half (Ekblom , 1986). However,
threshold’ (Kinderm ann et al., 1993). T he work rate it is doubtful if such high concentrations could be
 766 Shephard

sustained throughout play, and the bicarbonate concen- 1994c), or the use of test m easurem ents (such as grip
trations seen after a gam e ( ~ 22 m m ol ´ l- 1 ) do not sug- strength or isom etric leg strength) that bear little rele-
gest that there is suY cient accum ulation of lactate to tax vance to soccer perform ance. Som e researchers have
buV ering m echanism s seriously (Reilly, 1990). Several found that peak isokinetic torques for the quadriceps
recent studies have yielded blood lactate concentrations and ham string m uscles bear little relationship to the
of 4± 6 m m ol ´ l - 1 (G erisch et al., 1988; Rohde and standard of play (Zakas et al., 1995); others have noted
Espersen, 1988; Bangsbù et al., 1991; Sm ith et al., 1993; greater strength in top players versus their less-skilled
Bangsbù , 1994a,c). Presum ably, m uch depends on peers ( ö berg, 1989). Particularly m arked developm ent
when the sam ple is collected, as circulating lactate m ay would be anticipated in the m uscles used for jum ping,
be m etabolized during inter vals of less intensive play kicking, tackling, changing pace or direction, and m ain-
(Bangsbù , 1994a). Values are also inX uenced by tactics. taining balance on a slippery W eld: the quadriceps,
For instance, higher W gures were seen w ith `person-to- ham strings, triceps surae, hip X exors, and ankle dorsi-
person’ m arking than w ith zone coverage (G erisch et al., and plantar-X exors. Trunk X exor and extensor strengths
1988), and blood lactate was also increased by rapid are indeed greater in soccer players than in runners
dribbling (Reilly, 1990). (W illiam s and Singh, 1997). Leg strength is also well-
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Bosco (1990) found that over a 15 s interval, soccer developed in soccer players, particularly at high speeds
players developed an anaerobic perform ance of 27 of contraction. Even at a young age, well-trained soccer
W ´ kg - 1, interm ediate between sprinters and skaters players show no diV erence of force or power between
versus endurance runners and skiers. H owever, m uch the dom inant and non-dom inant lim bs (C apranica
depends on the test m ode. O ver a 30 s W ingate (cycle et al., 1992). Values for leg strength are higher in goal-
ergom eter) test, the power output of US national players keepers and defenders than in those in other playing
was 8.1 W ´ kg - 1 (M angine et al., 1990), but a score positions, particularly when m easurem ents are m ade at
based on 60 s of repeated jum ping dem onstrated a low contraction velocities (Togari et al., 1988).
power output of 23 W ´ kg - 1 in professional soccer K nee extension and knee X exion strength can have an
players (Reilly, 1990). im portant bearing on kick perform ance (C abri et al.,
1988; D e Proft et al., 1988a), although skill rem ains the
m ost im portant factor. W here strength and kick per-
M usculoskeletal function
form ance are unrelated, for exam ple in young players
The observed proportions of slow - and fast-tw itch W bres (M ognoni et al., 1994), diV erences in strength m ay be
depends on the individual’ s playing position and the cancelled out by opposing diV erences in skill (Trolle
m uscle that has been sam pled. In the vastus lateralis, et al., 1993), or a potential correlation m ay be negated
which is im portant for kicking, 50± 60% of W bres are by interactions between strength and the velocity of con-
fast-twitch (FT) (Apor, 1988; Bangsbù et al., 1988; traction. T he strength of the hip X exor m uscles has an
M ontanari et al., 1990), but in the gastrocnemius, which im portant inX uence on ball speed, as shown by corre-
is im portant for locom otion, 56% are slow-tw itch, 40% lations with isokinetic torque (Narici et al., 1988) and
FT a and 4% F T b (Bangsbù et al., 1988) W bres. T he electromyographic studies (De Proft et al., 1988b). T he
respective m ean cross-sectional areas for slow- and fast- release speed when kicking is inX uenced by the ability
tw itch W bres are 4038 m m 2 and 5822 m m 2 (M ontanari to stabilize the ankle (Luhtanen, 1988), the approach
et al., 1990). In som e studies, the m ain diV erences angle (the optim al angle is 30± 60 °: Isokawa and L ees,
between soccer players and the general population have 1988) and the use of a running as opposed to a standing
been superior capillarization and a larger cross-sectional kick (O pavsky, 1988).
area of the W bres, rather than diV erences in W bre-type An appropriate balance of strength between the
distribution (Bangsbù et al., 1988; Kuzon et al., 1990). ham string and quadriceps m uscles seems im por tant for
As with aerobic power, argum ents based on dim en- injur y prevention (Knapik et al., 1991; Fow ler and
sional theory and em pirical relationships am ong soccer Reilly, 1993). O verall strength is also im por tant in this
players have suggested that m uscle strength should be regard, as is X exibility of the hip joint (Reilly and
expressed relative to (body m ass) 0.75 (W islù V et al., Stirling, 1993). M uscle tightness has been reported in
1998). However, to the extent that the m uscles are used m any players, particularly as a result of training (M cKay
in jum ping and other accelerative m ovem ents, values and Shephard, 1988). For exam ple, 17% of U S national
per kilogram of body m ass appear to have greater players dem onstrated ham string tightness (M angine
functional relevance. In general, m uscle strength is et al., 1990). N evertheless, m ost players record relatively
unrem arkable. Likewise, the isom etric strength of som e high scores on one popular m easure of lower back X exi-
m uscle groups is little better than the population aver- bility, the sit-and-reach test (M cKay and Shephard,
age. Such W ndings m ay reXect either a lack of speciW c 1988). Ankle stiV ness m ay enhance stability at this joint,
resistance training in conditioning program m es (Reilly, but it im pairs other aspects of perform ance and also
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 767

increases vulnerability to injury (Balsom , 1994; Parente Reaction times

et al., 1996). D espite m uscle stiV ness, ag ility scores
place soccer players in the top 5± 6% of a young and W t Successful players have a large visual W eld and respond
population (W hite et al., 1988). quickly to m ovem ents in the periphery of the W eld
T he articular cartilage of the knee is 24% thicker in (Apor, 1988). Light reaction tim es for sim ple and choice
juvenile soccer players than in controls. It is unclear stim uli are 150± 200 m s and 170± 220 m s, respectively.
w hether this is early evidence of injury or an expression T he age of the player and playing position appear
of physiological hypertrophy, but the high incidence to have a m arginal inXuence only on reaction tim es
of self-reported knee problem s am ong soccer players (Luhtanen, 1994). T he speed of reactions increases as
suggests that injur y m ay be responsible (Tofts et al., concentrations of noradrenaline and adrenaline rise
1998). w ith prolonged exercise above the `anaerobic threshold’ ;
G iven an adequate diet, a strengthening of the bones som e authors have described an inverted-U curve,
would be anticipated from the prolonged weight- w ith a nadir at a m ean heart rate of 164 beats ´ m in - 1
bearing exercise of the soccer player. T his expectation (C hm ura et al., 1994, 1998). O thers have found that
is supported by ultrasound, w hich show s a greater even m axim al exercise increases the speed of both
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

density of the os calcis in First D ivision soccer players visual search and inform ation processing (M cM orris
(Von Jerges et al., 1992). and G raydon, 1997).

Plasm a lipids and hor mon es

E nvironm ental tem peratures and X uid
A Turkish group found not only low concentrations of requirem ents
total cholesterol (4.2 m m ol, 160 m g ´ dl- 1 ), but also low
concentrations of low -density lipoprotein cholesterol In m any countries w here soccer is popular, environ-
(0.94 m m ol, 36 m g ´ dl- 1 ) in soccer players (Varol et al., m ental conditions are cool. M uscle perform ance is then
1990). Further studies are needed, but the prolonged suboptim al, and if the initial warm -up is not extended,
distance running of soccer players probably has a the risk of injury m ay be increased (Reilly et al., 1993).
favourable inX uence on the plasm a lipid pro W le. D uring the winter m onths, there m ay also be a danger of
A rise in plasm a concentrations of both noradrenaline hypotherm ia, especially for goalkeepers (M aughan and
and adrenaline has been reported during a soccer m atch Leiper, 1994), although this can readily be countered by
(Bangsbù , 1994c), but the increase in adrenaline is no an increase in the layers of clothing worn.
greater than that observed during 40 m in of laboratory At the opposite end of the therm al spectrum , 34 cases
exercise at 50% m axim al oxygen intake (Brenner et al., of heat exhaustion occurred at one youth soccer tour-
1998). N oradrenaline concentrations increase by about nam ent in the USA (K irkendall, 1993) and core body
twice as m uch as in m oderate-intensity laboratory exer- tem peratures of 40 °C have been reported during gam es
cise (Brenner et al., 1998). T he reported responses are played in very hot conditions (Ekblom , 1986). Sweat
only about 20% of that seen during all-out laboratory loss increases from 1.5 litres per gam e in cool conditions
exercise (K jaer, 1989), although higher W gures m ight be (10± 15 °C) to 3.5± 4.0 litres per gam e in hot conditions
reached with the excitem ent of top com petition. In any (30± 38 °C) (Shephard and Leatt, 1987; Bangsbù ,
event, concentrations are suY cient to stim ulate glyco- 1994c; M aughan and L eiper, 1994). Assum ing an
genolysis and lipolysis, m odify lym phocyte traY cking, energy expenditure of 5 M J and a m echanical eY ciency
and exert chronotropic and inotropic eV ects on the of 25% , heat production am ounts to 4 M J, and 1.6 litres
myocardium . In contrast, a decreased basal excretion of of sweat would need to be evaporated to dissipate this
noradrenaline has been noted in over-trained soccer heat. In hot conditions, at least tw ice as m uch sweat
players (Lehm ann et al., 1992; N aessens et al., 1994, m ust be secreted, since m uch of the sweat rolls to the
1996). ground unevaporated (M augh an and Leiper, 1994).
Insulin concentrations do not change over the W rst N evertheless, the core body tem perature stabilizes at a
half of a m atch, but tend to fall during the second period little over 39 °C under m ost environm ental conditions,
(Bangsbù , 1994a,c); at this stage, growth horm one showing that therm al regulation has been relatively
concentrations are rising (C arli et al., 1986). C ortisol eV ective (Shephard, in press).
concentrations also increase, but there are probably D epending on how m uch a player can be persuaded
only m inor changes in plasm a glucagon (Carli et al., to drink, a X uid de W cit develops over the course of a
1986). T he pattern of horm onal response probably gam e. At 38 °C and 25% relative hum idity, the W nal
reX ects in part a progressive glycogen depletion, and weight loss averages a little over 2 kg, even if the player
it m ay exp lain w hy fatty acid m obilization occurs can be persuaded to drink 1.5 litres of X uid (Ekblom ,
predom inantly in the later phases of a gam e. 1986). U nder m ore usual playing conditions, X uid loss
 768 Shephard

is about 2 litres, and in cold conditions it m ay be no m ore vulnerable to viral infections after a gam e
m ore than 1 litre (Bangsbù , 1994c). A sm all weight loss (Shephard, 1997). Studies of com petition and heavy
does not always signal dehydration. The quantity of training in soccer players have shown decreases in total
water carried in the m olecular structure of glycogen lym phocytes and T-h elper cells, with a reduction in
rem ains the subject of debate, but som e suggest a W gure the C D 4 +/C D 8 + ratio (Seneczko and Rzetelski, 1984;
as large as 2.7 m l of water per gram . This X uid is Liesen et al., 1989; Bury et al., 1998; Rebelo et al., 1998)
liberated as glycogen stores becom e depleted. Sm aller and a decrease in T-cell proliferation (Bury et al., 1998).
am ounts of water are generated by m etabolism , and Often (Seneczko et al., 1984; Liesen et al., 1989) but not
m etabolism in itself burns food with a decrease in body always (Bur y et al., 1998), there was also a decrease in
m ass (Shephard and Leatt, 1987). If glycogen stores natural killer cell count, an increase in neutrophil count
were to be fully depleted over a gam e, a player m ight but a decreased functional activity of neutrophils (Bur y
lose 1.5± 2.0 kg of body m ass without signiW cant et al., 1998), and no change in C -reactive protein rela-
dehydration. tive to sedentary controls (Dufaux et al., 1984). Adverse
T he physiological eV ects of water loss depend on horm onal and cellular changes are largely avoided if
which body com partment is depleted. E ndurance run- body tem perature is clam ped artiW cially by exercising
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

ners develop a preferential loss from the plasm a com - while subm erged in cold water (Cross et al., 1996), and
partment, am ounting to a 2.4% decrease in plasm a m easures to control the core tem perature of soccer play-
volum e per kilogram decrease in body m ass (C ostill ers would also probably reduce suppression of the
et al., 1976). Assum ing a sim ilar relationship applies im m une response.
under the hottest conditions of soccer play, there would W hen playing in a hot environm ent, the warm -up
be a 9.6% decrease in plasm a volum e as 4 litres of sweat tim e should be shortened, and care should be taken to
was secreted. Ventricular preloading would presum ably ensure that team m em bers do not becom e over-heated
suV er a sim ilar loss, and stroke volum e and cardiac out- before a m atch. Replacement of lost X uid is lim ited by
put would dim inish accordingly. The central eV ects of rates of gastric em ptying and intestinal absorption,
plasm a volum e depletion are inevitably exacerbated although it rem ains uncertain which of these two factors
by vasodilatation of the skin vessels, which diverts up is dom inant (M augh an and Leiper, 1994). Exercise pro-
to 20% of the available cardiac output away from the gressively slow s gastric em ptying as the intensity of eV ort
working m uscles. T he end results of im paired m uscular rises above 70± 75% of aerobic power (M aughan, 1991).
circulation include a speeding of glycogen depletion, Voluntary hyperhydration in the week before com -
fatigue and a decline in physical perform ance (Sawka petition appears to increase body Xuid reser ves and to
et al., 1979; Arm strong et al., 1985). Severe dehydration im prove tem perature regulation, but it does not check
m ay cause a decrease not only in aerobic power, but the decrease in perform ance at the end of a m atch
also in m uscular strength and endurance (Fogelholm , (Rico-Sanz et al., 1996). F luid ingestion during a gam e
1994a). T here is also likely to be a decrease in both skin is encouraged by the provision of personal water bottles
and cerebral blood X ow. The reduction in skin blood and the awareness of personal sweat rates (Broad et al.,
Xow helps to conser ve venous pressure, but reduces 1996). Soccer players seem less able to anticipate the
heat loss and exacerbates the rise in core tem perature. extent of sweat loss than athletes who com pete in events
A reduction in cerebral X ow can cause m ental fatigue, that require prolonged, continuous exercise (Burke and
errors of judgem ent and a deterioration in cooperation Haw ley, 1997). Players should drink up to 500 m l of
between players. Perform ance in a variety of tests of Xuid before a gam e and as m uch as possible at half-tim e;
cognitive function deteriorates when there is a heat- if conditions are very hot, it is also desirable to press for
induced 2% decrease in body m ass (G opinatham et al., an adjustm ent of the rules to allow for the ingestion of
1988), and psychom otor perform ance is im paired with Xuid during play (M aughan and Leiper, 1994). Prepar-
a 2.5 litre X uid de W cit (L adell, 1965). Conversely, the ations containing sodium , potassium and up to 5± 6%
provision of glucose-containing X uids sustains cognitive glucose or sucrose have only a m inor advantage over
function over 90 m in of exercise (Reilly and Lewis, clean tap water in term s of restoring balance (Kavanagh
1985). and Shephard, 1977; K onikoV et al., 1986; Lam bert
T he rise in core tem perature has other less obvious et al., 1997). Som e people m ay drink larger quantities
eV ects, including a stim ulation of stress horm one out- of the special Xuids, because these drinks are m ore
put (catecholam ines, grow th horm one and cortisol) and palatable than tap water; the thirst drive m ay also be sus-
an increased production of som e cytokines (particularly tained, with m ore rapid correction of increased plasm a
interleukin-1 and interleukin-6). Increases in the pro- concentrations of vasopressin and renin/angiotensin/
duction of cor tisol and counter-regulator y changes in aldosterone (Thrasher et al., 1984; Bandenberger et al.,
interleukin concentrations m ay exacerbate the post- 1989). Absorption of X uid from the intestine has been
exercise depression of im m une function, leaving players reported to be facilitated by preparations with a dilute
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 769

salt and glucose content (N ose et al., 1988; M augh an, m axim al exercise and a 50% reduction in glycogen util-
1991), but recent observations have not con W rm ed this ization; nevertheless, 10± 12 days in a hot environm ent
(Lam bert et al., 1997). The drinking of X uids with a high are usually needed for m axim al bene W t (M aughan and
sodium content during a gam e m ay also be counter- Leiper, 1994). It is often not possible to arrange for
productive in term s of restoring a norm al plasm a com - team s to rem ain in a city for 10± 12 days, and other
position (Kavanagh and Shephard, 1977), since sweat is problem s of prolonged residence away from hom e m ay
a hypotonic solution. After play, ingestion of plain water outweigh any projected gains in perform ance from 12
exacerbates the fall in plasm a sodium ion concentration, rather than 6 days of acclim atization. O ne of the m ajor
reducing the inclination to drink and increasing urine changes after acclim atization is an increased rate of
output (Nose et al., 1988). At this stage, it is im portant sweating at any given intensity of exercise (Shephard,
to provide X uids containing both sodium ions and 1982). This can help in controlling core tem perature,
carbohydrate (Nose et al., 1988; G onzalez-Alonso et al., but if the environm ent is hum id, m uch of the sweat
1992). Alcoholic drinks should be avoided, because of m erely accum ulates under the player’ s clothing, increas-
their diuretic eV ect (M augh an and Leiper, 1994). ing discom fort and exacerbating dehydration (Aoyaji
T he best way of ensuring the safety of players in a hot et al., 1997). As sweat output rises, there m ust be a
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

environm ent is to m onitor environm ental conditions corresponding increase in the intake of both X uids and
closely, although unfortunately soccer oY cials still take salt, and since thirst does not provide a reliable guide to
too little notice of indicators accepted in other cate- body requirem ents, physicians m ust m onitor players
gories of sport. T he web bulb globe tem perature is a carefully for both X uid and m ineral de W cits when a team
convenient index to assess environm ental conditions m oves to a hot clim ate.
(M inard, 1961; Am erican College of Sports M edicine,
1984). This tem perature is calculated as 0.7 (T w b) + 0.2
(T g) + 0.1 (T db ), where T w b is the wet bulb tem perature, E V ects of m oderate hypoxia
T g is the globe tem perature and T db is the dry bulb tem -
perature. T he recom m endation is that gam es should As in other athletes, m oderate hypoxia (an altitude of
be cancelled if the wet bulb globe tem perature exceeds 2500 m ) causes an increase in heart rate and ventilation
28 °C. A reading of 23± 28 °C im plies a high risk; under during subm axim al exercise, and the tim e required for
such conditions, players should be m onitored closely heart rate to recover during interm ittent exercise is
for heat stress. T he risk is m oderate if the wet bulb globe prolonged (Bangsbù et al., 1988). Players who are
tem perature is 18± 23 °C; if the tem perature is below vulnerable to acute m ountain sickness show a below-
18 °C, the risk is low. average diV erence in arterial oxygen saturation between
If a team m ust play m any prelim inar y, run-oV sea level and values observed w ithin 6 h of reaching
m atches over several weeks, a hot environm ent can have altitude (G onzales et al., 1998). H owever, the develop-
cum ulative eV ects. One possible danger is a progressive m ent of m ountain sickness during the W rst few days at
depletion of salt reserves. T he body pool of sodium ions an altitude of 3400 m does not necessarily im ply there
is quite large (2000± 3000 m Eq), but 10% of this reser ve w ill be a corresponding decrem ent in m atch perfor-
could be lost during each gam e that is played under m ance on the sixth day after reaching altitude (Gonzales
adverse therm al conditions. T he salt intake between et al., 1998). H igh-altitude conditions predispose to
gam es determ ines whether a sodium de W cit accum u- fatigue in the later part of a m atch (Reilly, 1994b).
lates or not. Sodium intake norm ally ranges from 85 to T he potential bene W ts of altitude training have been
340 m Eq ´ day - 1. If there is a de W cit, the player suV ers a debated for m any years. O ften, hypoxia leads to a cur-
corresponding depletion of body Xuids, w ith sym ptom s tailm ent of norm al training schedules, and there m ay
of irritability and fatigue. T he danger is best m onitored be either no im provem ent or even a deterioration in
by weighing players on a daily basis, after they have aerobic power. However, the recent approach of `living
defecated and em ptied their bladder; if body weight high’ (at an altitude of 2500 m ) and training at sea level
is falling, the sodium ion content of the urine should be has yielded appreciable gains in m axim al oxygen intake,
exam ined and additional salt provided as required m axim al sustained work tim e and the speed of running
(Shephard, 1982). Som e authors recom m end supple- over 5000 m (Levine and Stray-G undersen, 1997).
m ents of 8± 10 g ´ day - 1 (Wenger, 1988). Play should not Team s from countries that lack the m ountains needed
be allowed if the pre-gam e body m ass has decreased by for `living high’ have experim ented w ith the use of living
m ore than 2% (Law rence, 1992). cham bers where the partial pressure of oxygen is
G iven adequate tim e, players can undergo substantial reduced by an equivalent am ount; although a physio-
acclim atization to a hot environm ent. A clear response is logically equivalent stim ulus, it seem s likely that the
seen after 1 week (Law rence, 1992; Aoyaji et al., 1995), negative psychological eV ects of such incarceration m ay
w ith a signiW cant reduction in heart rate during sub- outweigh potential physiological gains.
 770 Shephard

EV ects caused by circadian rhythm s and Other variables

tim e zone shifts
Circadian variations in other variables follow the general
course of body tem perature (Reilly and Brooks, 1982;
There are circadian rhythm s in m any biological func-
Shephard, 1984). D iurnal variations in resting and exer-
tions, ranging from core body tem perature to heart rate,
cise heart rate of about 8 beats ´ m in - aV ect the use of
1
aerobic power, m uscle strength, speed and wakefulness.
resting heart rate to predict training or overtraining
There is som e evidence that tasks requiring explosive
status, and of subm axim al heart rate to predict exercise
m ovem ents are linked to wakefulness and peak earlier
intensity and m axim al oxygen uptake. A high resting
than gross m otor tasks, which are m ore closely related
hear t rate and decreased therm al reser ve reduce the
to body tem perature. Perform ance of a player will be
tolerance to hot environm ents during the afternoon.
m axim ized if com petition can be synchronized with a
It is diY cult to exam ine diurnal variations in aerobic
4± 6 h tim e window corresponding to the peaking of
power, anaerobic capacity and m uscle strength, since
critical variables, but a sudden shift of an athlete to
test scores vary w ith m otivation, and this in turn is inX u-
another tim e zone can lead to substantial desynchron-
enced by the individual’ s arousal. Som e, but not all
ization, w ith a disastrous drop in perform ance at the
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

investigators (Reilly and Brooks, 1982, 1990), have

supposed tim e of peaking.
found an afternoon peak in aerobic power (see
Shephard, 1984, for a review ). Isom etric m uscle
Arousal strength increases by 10% , and anaerobic capacity by
8%, but there is little consistent change in anaerobic
Cerebral arousal norm ally reaches a m inim um around
power over the course of the day. These changes have
03.00 h. T here m ay be a period of drowsiness after
corresponding im plications for perform ance on the
lunch, and it m ay be best to take a break from training
soccer W eld.
in the early afternoon. But together with m ost aspects
of m otor perform ance, wakefulness peaks in the late
afternoon or late evening (Reilly and Brooks, 1982; Risk of myocardial ischaemia and sudden death
Shephard, 1984; Reilly et al., 1997b; Shephard and
Shek, 1997). We m ight anticipate that early-risers Team sports cause a substantial short-term increase in
(`larks’ ) reach their peak of perform ance earlier than the risks of m yocardial ischaem ia and sudden death;
late-risers (`ow ls’ ); however, lim ited data do not statistics for rugby football, for exam ple, show one death
altogether support this hypothesis (Hill et al., 1988; per 50,000 h of play (Opie, 1975), and in G erm any
Burgoon et al., 1992). playing soccer is the m ost com m on cause of exercise-
D iurnal variations occur in anticipation tim es, reac- induced sudden death (K abisch and Funk, 1991;
tion tim es, pacing, m ovem ent speeds and m uscle Raschka et al., 1996). M oreover, there is som e danger
strength. T he total work output over an hour of self- that high salaries m ay cause professional players and
paced exercise is sim ilar in the m orning and evening, their trainers to dissim ulate any cardiac problem s (Rost,
but perform ance in the second half of the hour is greater 1990). It is thus im portant to appreciate that cardiac
in the m orning than in the evening (Reilly and G arrett, events show a circadian rhythm (Shephard, 1974, 1995;
1995), possibly because people begin the test in the M uller et al., 1987), and that the risk of a cardiac
m orning with a suboptim al level of arousal. M ood catastrophe can be m inim ized by playing at the optim al
state im proves with arousal. In theory, this should point in the 24 h cycle.
enhance cooperation between players, reduce percep- T he risk of sudden death show s a 2.6-fold increase in
tions of exertion, and decrease fatigue and pain from the W rst 3 h after wakening (Rocco et al., 1987), with a
injuries. Conversely, a low level of arousal m ay pre- trough during the late evening (W illich, 1995). Possible
dispose to injuries and accidents. O ne report sug- inX uences include assum ption of the upright posture,
gested that a four-tim e-zone journey from W isconsin to a higher platelet reactivity (ToX er et al., 1987), and a
Hawaii had little inXuence on the m ood, perception higher peripheral vascular resistance and cardiac work
of eV ort or m uscle soreness in a group of sw im m ers rate (Panza et al., 1991) during the m orning. By noon,
(O ’ Connor et al., 1991); however, this study has been platelet reactivity is countered by an increased secretion
criticized because m easurem ents were only m ade at one of an inhibitor of plasm inogen activator (Angleton et al.,
instant. 1989).
T he diurnal variation in core body tem perature
is about 8 °C, with a peak in the late afternoon
Perfor mance
(Shephard, 1984). H igher body tem peratures increase
Xexibility and reduce the need for warm -up, but also The com petitive perform ance of the soccer player im -
dim inish therm al reserves. proves during the day. Reilly and Walsh (1981) followed
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 771

soccer players during a W ve-a-side indoor soccer m ara- but daily training rem ained possible. T he U S wom en’ s
thon that lasted 4 days; m ovem ents on the W eld were soccer team found a disturbed m ood state and a 10%
at a m inim um around 05.00 h, peaking at 17.00 h. de W cit in strength, anaerobic power and anaerobic
O thers have m ade sim ilar obser vations on athletes and capacity during the W rst 2 days after travel from the
swim m ers (Ferrario et al., 1982; Baxter and Reilly, U SA to Taiwan, but these de W cits were m ade good over
1983). Long-term m em ory is also better in the after- the next 2 days (H ill et al., 1993).
noon, suggesting that this m ay be the optim um tim e for Adjustm ents to tim e zone shifts occur m ore rapidly in
coaching (M anfredini et al., 1998). the sum m er, possibly because of longer hours of day-
light (Suvanto and H „rm a, 1993). However, adaptation
becom es m ore diY cult as a player ages (M oline et al.,
Time zone shifts
1992).
T he inX uence of tim e zone shifts depends on w hether
players are brought closer to their functional peak at the
Speeding adjustments to time zone shifts
tim e of a gam e. West coast U S football team s have a
reduced likelihood of winning when playing daytim e Several recent reviews have oV ered suggestions for
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

gam es away in central and eastern tim e zones; their speeding adjustm ents to tim e zone shifts (French, 1995;
disadvantage is zero w hen on the west coast, but 14% Reilly et al., in press). O ne sim ple suggestion is to adjust
for the central tim e zone and 16.3% for the eastern tim e the rhythm of training, eating and sleeping by an hour
zone. Baseball team s have show n a sim ilar disadvantage per day for several days before travelling overseas,
w ith eastward travel before a gam e (Recht et al., 1995). although careful use of external Zeitgebers is im portant if
H owever, the disadvantage in away football m atches is this tactic is to be eV ective (Reilly et al., 1997b,c).
entirely corrected if practice tim es are system atically ad- If possible, a daylight eastbound X ight should be
vanced to correspond with eastern tim e zone conditions chosen, and m eals lim ited to tim es appropriate to the
(Jehue et al., 1993). In contrast, west coast team s had new environm ent. Adherence to the new tim e schedule
the advantage in M onday night gam es, which were held should begin im m ediately on arrival, wakefulness in
at 21.00 h eastern standard tim e (Sm ith et al., 1997). daylight being enhanced by deliberate exposure to
Large disruptions of circadian rhythm can occur w ith sunlight or a bright ar ti W cial light and proprioceptive
transm eridional travel. External environm ental clues stim ulation (brisk walking or light training). M oderate
(daylight, m eal tim es and sw ings in environm ental tem - am ounts of caV eine m ay be taken in coV ee or tea, but
perature) facilitate adjustm ent to the new environm ent. alcohol should be avoided, as this further distorts nor-
Because the inherent circadian rhythm is 25± 27 h rather m al sleep; excessive quantities of coV ee also exacerbate
than 24 h, adaptation is usually easier to a westward dehydration and cause problem s in sleeping the follow-
journey than to the shortening of the night involved in ing night. It has been claim ed that arousal can also be
m ost travel from N orth Am erica to Europe, w hen the m anipulated by diet: a high carbohydrate and low pro-
biological clock m ust be turned back by 18 h (or tein m eal would favour the uptake of tryptophan by
advanced by 6 h), or the entire cycle m ust be disrupted. the brain, increasing serotonin concentrations and thus
O n the eastbound journey, problem s are often com - drowsiness; in contrast, a high protein m eal would
pounded by inappropriate m eal tim es and diY culty in increase arousal (Wurtman, 1982).
sleeping on an aircraft. Prolonged sleep loss can itself M inor tranquillizers are often ineV ective. They m ay
decrease aerobic power, m uscle strength and m ental depress perform ance or violate doping rules on the
perform ance (Shephard, 1984), although this has yet to follow ing day, and are thus best avoided (Redfern et al.,
be demonstrated for a single night of poor sleep. Perhaps 1994).
because of disturbed sleep and clim atic change, the
British O lym pic squad showed poor values for leg and
N ew approaches
back strength and choice reaction tim e for 5 days after
X ying from London to F lorida (Reilly et al., 1997a). C ircadian adjustm ents can be speeded by using tim ed
W ith careful planning, subjective adaptation m ay be exposure to bright artiW cial light (French, 1995) to
relatively com plete after one night’ s sleep on travelling m anipulate brain m elatonin (Shor t, 1993). A 3 h 9000
from N orth Am erica to Europe, but problem s persist for LU X pulse, given at the appropriate tim e on three suc-
several days if a 10± 12 h displacem ent of circadian cessive days (w hen body tem perature is beginning to
rhythm is required. Rugby league players who X ew from rise, between 04.00 and 07.00 h on the W rst day), can
England to Australia found their sym ptom s m ost severe advance the biological clock by 3 h or m ore. C onversely,
3 days after arrival in Australia (Reilly and M ellor, if light exposure occurs 3 h before the m inim um core
1988). EV ects were sm aller during the m orning than tem perature is reached, the body clock is adjusted to
later during the day; m uscular strength was subnorm al, westward travel.
 772 Shephard

An alternative approach is to ingest m elatonin (Petrie were 5.1 and 4.6 m m ol ´ l - 1 at half-tim e and at the end of
et al., 1990). A 2± 10 m g dose taken at 16.00 h on the day a gam e respectively, and m ean heart rates were in the
before travel, and a sim ilar dose on the day of travel, can range 173± 177 beats ´ m in - 1 (Davis and Brewer, 1993).
give a 6± 8 h phase advance. C onversely, an equivalent D espite drinking 1.4 litres of X uid, a 0.9 kg decrease in
dose taken at 05.00 h can slow the biological clock. As body m ass developed over the course of a gam e (Brewer
yet, it is diY cult to obtain m edical-quality m elatonin and D avis, 1994).
and its m echanism s of action rem ain unclear. H owever, T he lean body m ass of fem ale soccer players is ~ 44 kg
it enhances cytokine secretion, it is a powerful scavenger (Colquhoun and Chad, 1986) and body fat can account
of free radicals and a m ild hypnotic, in addition to for as m uch as 21± 22% of body m ass (Colquhoun and
its im pact on the biological clock (H ardeland and Chad, 1986; W ithers et al., 1987; D avis and Brewer,
Rodriguez, 1995). The response varies 25-fold from 1993), although C anadian intercollegiate players have
one person to another (Reilly et al., 1998). Residual values around 16% (M cKay and Shephard, 1988).
hypnotic eV ects m ay outweigh resetting of the bio- Knee extension and X exion forces are substantially less
logical clock, and trials have yielded conX icting results than in m ale players (Kohno et al., 1991), but X exi-
(Waterhouse et al., 1998). bility is greater in wom en (N yland et al., 1997). An
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

inadequate intake of energy is less com m on in soccer

players than in som e other fem ale athletes (Borgen and
Special characteristics of fem ale and young Corbin, 1987). N evertheless, one study indicated that
soccer players eight of nine fem ale players were trying to lose weight
during the playing season, w ith calcium and iron intake
Fem ale players 30% below recom m ended values (Nutter, 1991). A
The participation of wom en in soccer is relatively possible inX uence of the prem enstrual syndrom e on
recent. In E ngland, the Football Association sanctioned perform ance was suggested by an increased risk of
fem ale players as recently as 1971 (Brewer and D avis, traum atic injury during the prem enstrual and m enstrual
1994). By 1991, there were 470 wom en’ s team s in the phases of the ovulator y cycle; injuries were less frequent
Japanese Football Association (K ohno et al., 1991). in those taking oral contraceptives (M ù ller-N ielsen and
M any wom en still train and play on a part-tim e basis. In Ham m ar, 1989).
the early 1990s, club-standard D anish players were
undertaking two or three 90 m in training sessions per Junior players
week (Jensen and Larsson, 1992), with international
standard players supplem enting this by running for In som e countries, particularly the USA, the rules of
20± 30 m in 2± 4 tim es per week. Elite British players youth soccer now diV er from those of the adult gam e.
trained W ve tim es per week (Davis et al., 1992). Under-eight players have a gam e that is divided into
Physiological data for fem ale soccer players show four 12 m in quarters, and under-10 players play two 25
sim ilar diV erences from the general population to those m in periods. T he W eld dim ensions are also reduced, and
observed in their m ale counterparts. Aerobic power has seven players per side play in under-8 and under-10
been reported to be 47± 49 m l ´ kg - ´ m in - in collegiate gam es (Bar-O r and U nnithan, 1994). U nlim ited substi-
1 1

players (M cK ay and Shephard, 1988; Rhodes and tutions are allowed at all levels except national under-16
M osher, 1992), 52 m l ´ kg - ´ m in - in English players m atches, in which two substitutions per side are per-
1 1

who underwent a period of concentrated training (D avis m itted. T he age categorization of players continues to
- 1 - 1 be a m atter of concern; players born early in the selec-
et al., 1992) and 54.7 m l ´ kg ´ m in in the Japanese
national team (K ohno et al., 1991), w ith occasional tion year (between August and O ctober) are m ore likely
values as high as 57.6 m l ´ kg - ´ m in - (Davis and Brewer, to be identiW ed as talented, to be exposed to coaching,
1 1

1993). The m ean distance covered during a gam e was and to participate ultim ately in national and profes-
reported to be 8500 m , blood lactate concentrations
Table 5 Special features of junior soccer players
Table 4 Special features of female soccer players
· Shorter playing tim e, more substitutions allowed
Aerobic power 60 ml ´ kg - 1 ´ min - 1
· Lean body mass 44 kg
·
· Body fat >16%
Aerobic power 52± 55 ml ´ kg - 1 ´ min - 1
· Anaerobic capacity, endurance and strength less than in
· adult players
· Strength less than m en, skills greater
· Less tolerant of play in hot conditions
· Calcium and iron intakes may be suboptim al
· Danger of acute and chronic apophyseal avulsions (iliac
· Distance covered per gam e 8.5 km crest, anterior tibial tuberosity)
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 773

sional team s than those born later in the selection year injuries are m ild, w ith contusions, sprains and strains
(H elsen et al., 1998). predom inating (Kibler, 1993). H owever, injuries of the
T he optim al age to begin learning soccer-speci W c head and upper lim bs are m ore com m on than in older
skills is between 9 and 12 years, during which tim e early players (M icheli, 1991).
m aturing children perform better than late m aturers. Acute avulsions of apophyses are m ost likely in the
Junior players are highly selected with respect to speed; iliac crest (Crielaerd, 1991; M icheli, 1991). C hronic
endurance, anaerobic capacity and m uscle force all lesions (O sgood-Schlatter’ s disease) m ay develop in the
tend to be less than in m embers of adult team s ( Jungi anterior tibial tuberosity in players aged 8± 15 years who
et al., 1997), although an aerobic power averaging 60.1 are training very hard (Crielaerd, 1991). Hypogonadism
m l ´ kg - 1 ´ m in - 1 was reported for a top junior team in and an associated im balance of anabolic and catabolic
F rance (Barthelemy et al., 1992). H eight and lean body processes m ay occasionally predispose to a high risk of
m ass continue to increase from the under-16s to the m uscle injuries (N aessens et al., 1995).
under-18s, due to a com bination of training and increas-
ing selective pressures (Leatt et al., 1987). H owever, the
developm ent of m uscle m ass is greater than can be O ptim al training plans
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

explained sim ply by an increase in height. D iV erences

in strength per unit body m ass are relatively sm all, D epending on the stage of the com petitive season,
although if data are expressed in such units, the under- the optim al training plan includes, in addition to aerobic
18s still perform better than the under-16s at high and anaerobic com ponents, m easures to enhance
contraction speeds (Leatt et al., 1987). m uscular strength and endurance, X exibility and ag ility,
In 12-year-old players, m aturational status and w hile developing playing skills and tactics. It is im port-
physiological data often do not diV er from those of other ant to avoid over training, and G erm an investigators
relatively W t young children (Bell, 1988, 1994). A nor- estim ated that as m any as 50% of soccer players
m al training program m e does not appear to inX uence were overtrained after a 4 m onth com petitive season
either growth or sexual developm ent (Baxter-Jones and (Lehm ann et al., 1992). T he m ain aspects of an optim al
H elm s, 1996). Around puberty, both cardiovascular training plan are covered elsewhere (see Reilly, 1990;
(Lucidi et al., 1993) and strength (M artelli et al., 1993) Bangsbù , 1994d), and only a few speci W c com m ents on
variables appear m ainly to be related to the body size of aerobic, strength, X exibility and inter-season training
the individual player. A G erm an research group found are added here.
heart rates of 160± 180 beats ´ m in - 1 and blood lactate
readings of 3± 4 m m ol ´ l- 1 in 11- to 12-year-old boys
A erobic training
(K lim t et al., 1992). T he internal diam eter of the left
ventricle and the thickness of the inter ventricular Although aerobic training m ay yield dram atic increases
septum m ay already show som e increase at this age in aerobic power, the kinetics of oxygen intake and heart
(Bianchi et al., 1998), but with no increase in thickness rate do not appear to be aV ected by such training
of the ventricular wall (Pavlik et al., 1993). O ne recent (Fukuoka et al., 1997); this has im portant im plications
report noted an increase in the Sokolow -Lyon ECG for the perform ance of short sprints. One im portant
voltage index and a high incidence of w hat were dividend of aerobic training not m ade obvious in usual
regarded as electrocardiographic abnorm alities in pre- physiological tests is an enhanced relative usage of fat,
pubertal and pubertal players (Bianchi et al., 1998). w hich helps to conserve m uscle glycogen (Reilly, 1990).
D iV erences in heat tolerance of the child and ado-
lescent should be noted in hot weather. T he increase in
Strength training
core tem perature is greater in a child than in an adult at
any given level of hypohydration; however, the sodium - Training plans often place too little em phasis on
ion concentration in the sweat is lower than in adults strength developm ent, and kick perform ance can be
(M eyer et al., 1992) and children’ s preference is for a im proved by an increase in resistance training (De Proft
grape-Xavoured replacement beverage (M eyer et al., et al., 1988a). Strength training also enhances joint
1994). stability and reduces the risk of injury. The regim en
T he risk of injury in average adolescent and pre- can com prise either functional (football-speciW c) m ove-
adolescent players (5± 73 and 10± 106 per 10,000 player- m ents or training of individual m uscle groups; the
hours in boys and girls, respectively) is relatively low increase of m om ent and peak power m ay be as large
(M icheli, 1991; Kibler, 1993; Betz and Klim t, 1994). w ith loaded kicking m ovem ents as w ith high resistance
D uring a youth soccer tournam ent, the risk increased to training (Aagaard et al., 1994).
140 per 10,000 hours in m ales and to 320 per 10,000 An im portant tactical advantage is gained if a player
hours in fem ales (M icheli, 1991). About two-thirds of learns to kick equally well w ith both feet (Starosta,
 774 Shephard

1988; M cLean and Tum ilty, 1993). O ne way of develop- Com m on problem s include groin pain, contusions,
ing this skill is to require a right-wing player to play on acute and chronic m usculotendinous strains, and liga-
the left wing during practice. m entous injuries of the knee and ankle joints; facial
injuries and concussion are less frequent hazards
(O ntario Soccer Association, 1988; F ried and Lloyd,
Flexibility training 1992; Chan et al., 1993; Kuppig and H eisel, 1993;
Flexibility work is best perform ed at the beginning and Tucker, 1997).
end of a training session. D espite relatively good scores It has recently been argued that, at least for profes-
on X exibility tests (M cK ay and Shephard, 1988), an sional soccer players, occupational safety legislation
8 week contract± relax stretching training program m e requires regular health surveillance designed to prevent
augm ented active and passive X exibility by up to 6 ° injuries (Fuller and H awkins, 1997). In par ticular, a
range of m otion, in addition to enhancing m axim al detailed physiological pro W le provides a benchm ark
torque and work (H andel et al., 1997). against w hich the developm ent of chronic injuries can
be assessed, and it also provides an invaluable guide to
rehabilitation. As in other sports, a warm -up appears to
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Inter-season training reduce the risk of injur y, and problem s are particularly
Aerobic activities should continue between seasons. likely if such preparation is om itted in cold weather
In the absence of eV ective inter-season training, tread- (Reilly et al., 1993). Seasonal eV ects can include dr ying
m ill run tim e and m axim al oxygen intake decrease, a of the ground in sum m er (Phillips et al., 1998) and
longer tim e is needed to com plete a W eld test run, and freezing in winter. Equipm ent problem s include a
peak isokinetic torque, m ean W bre area and the num ber reluctance to wear shin pads of any type during training,
of capillaries per slow tw itch W bre all decrease (Bangsbù and a failure to use pads with additional ankle protec-
tion during com petition (Haw kins and F uller, 1998).
et al., 1988; Kayatekin, 1995). M aintenance of training
avoids the handicap of poor W tness at the beginning of Injuries are also correlated with poor X exibility (Rupp
a new season (Islegen and Akg  n, 1988); the risk and Kuppig, 1995), inadequate rehabilitation follow ing
of injuries is reduced, and tim e can be devoted to a previous injury (Ekstrand and G illquist, 1982) and
enhancement of skills rather than basic conditioning overtraining (Barros, 1996). Unfortunately, X exibility
(Bangsb ù et al., 1988). seems to decrease over a playing season (Rupp and
Kuppig, 1995); players are also reluctant to take part in
program m es designed to increase X exibility (Haw kins
and Fuller, 1988). After an injury, rehabilitation to
Incidence and prevention of injuries
restore strength and endurance is im portant for the
Sudden death prevention of a recurrence of the lesion (Fried and
Lloyd, 1992).
Sudden death occurs surprisingly frequently in soccer Prim ar y sports injuries seem related to various
players. In Germ any, an analysis of 603 cardiac deaths defects of posture and body m echanics. O ne prospective
during training and 542 deaths during com petition study showed that ankle injuries were linked to low
found alm ost 40% of incidents occurred in soccer (445 scores for ankle m echanics, knee injuries were associ-
episodes) (K abisch and Funk, 1991; Raschka et al., ated with lum bar lordosis and sway back, back injuries
1996). Individual cases have been attributed to cardio- were associated with poor shoulder sym m etr y, scapulae
myopathy (Berteau, 1993) and viral myocarditis (Sido abduction, back asym m etr y, kyphosis, lordosis and
and Jako, 1995). T he risk is probably highest if com - scoliosis, and m uscle strains were linked to lum bar
petition takes place in the m orning. lordosis, sway back and abnorm al knee inter-space
(Watson, 1995). As in other gam es, the prevalence of
injur y increases w ith the standard of com petition
M usculoskeletal injuries
(O ntario Soccer Association, 1988; Kuppig and H eisel,
A study by the O ntario Soccer Association (1988) 1993), and an appropriate m atching of team s and insist-
found that 4.8% of am ateur players were injured over a ence on fair play are im por tant preventive m easures
year, with a quarter of the group needing to take tim e (Fried and Lloyd, 1992). O ne indicator of m uscle
oV work. About a quarter of these injuries were con- injur y, creatine kinase release, is particularly apparent
sidered preventable. A 2 year study from Trinidad and when playing against a better team (H ubner-Wozniak
Tobago indicated that 25% of injuries sustained in et al., 1994). T he eV ects of prolonged exercise on
soccer were of suY cient severity to cause 3 or m ore leg strength, electrom echanical delay and laxity of the
weeks oV work (Ali and Tavares, 1992). M usculoskeletal knee joint m ay contribute to injury (G leeson et al.,
injuries occur m ost frequently in the lower extrem ities. 1998).
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 775

Head injuries m any sports, there rem ains considerable scope to

transm it this inform ation to the players and their
Although heading the ball is som etim es advanced as a
coaches in a form that is understood and acted upon.
possible cause of dangerous head injuries, m ost serious
incidents of concussion are caused by collision w ith
another player (Townend, 1988). O ne-third of form er
national team players in N orway were found to have R eferences
central cerebral atrophy when evaluated by com puted
tom ography (Sortland and Tysvaer, 1989). Aagaard, P., Sim onsen, E.B., Trolle, M ., Bangsbù , J. and
Klausen, K. (1994). E V ects of diV erent strength training
regim es on m oment and power generation during dynamic
Knee and ankle injuries knee extensions. E uropean Jour nal of Applied Physiology , 69 ,
382± 386.
K nee and ankle injuries frequently arise because the Adamo, K .B., Tarnopolsky, M .A. and Graham, T.E. (1998).
rotational traction of current soccer shoes (up to 50 Dietary carbohydrate and postexercise synthesis of pro-
N ´ m ) is too great, especially when playing on artiW cial glycogen and macroglycogen in human skeletal muscle.
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

turf (Valiant, 1988). Stresses are applied m ainly on the A merican Jour nal of Physiology , 275 , E229± E234.
outwardly rotated foot, and the upper part of the outside Ali, A.H. (1988). A statistical analysis of tactical m ovem ent
of the shoe m ust provide correspondingly greater sup- patterns in soccer. In Science and Football (edited by T.
Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 302± 308.
port (Rodano et al., 1988). Sideways cutting m ovem ents
London: E & FN Spon.
are particularly likely to cause injuries to the lateral
Ali, A. and Farrally, M. (1991). A com puter-video aided tim e
aspect of the ankle, and the risk can be reduced by wear- m otion analysis technique for m atch analysis. Jour na l of
ing shoes with a m odiW ed sole (hollow inner core) and Sports M edicine and Physical Fitness , 31 , 82± 88.
upper (high-cut) (StacoV et al., 1996). Ali, T. and Tavares, S. (1992). M usculo-skeletal sport injuries
in Trinidad and Tobago. Com munication to the Inter -
nation al Sym posium on the M edical Aspects of Soccer
Injuries of tendo- achilles
( Football ), Vancouver, BC.
Achilles tendon injur y is a relatively com m on problem Am erican College of Sports M edicine (1984). Prevention of
am ong soccer players (Stibbe, 1988). External causes therm al injuries during distance running. M edicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise , 16 , ix± xiv.
include excessive training, running on hills and
Angleton, P., Chandler, W.L. and Schmer, G. (1989). Diurnal
im proper shoes, particularly those with an inXexible sole
variation of tissue-type plasminogen activator and its rapid
or an inadequate heel. D iV erences in leg length or exces- inhibitor. C irculation , 79 , 101± 106.
sive pronation of the foot can be addressed by orthotic Antonio, J. and Street, C. (1999). G lutamine: A potentially
devices (Sandrey et al., 1996). Eight weeks of training useful supplem ent for athletes. C anadian Jour na l of Applied
w ith an ankle disc is suY cient to enhance equilibrium in Physiolog y , 24 , 1± 15.
response to a standard perturbing force (Pintsaar et al., Aoyaji, Y., M cLellan, T. and Shephard, R.J. (1995). E V ects
1996). of 6 versus 12 days of heat acclim ation on heat tolerance
in lightly exercising m en wearing protective clothing.
E uropean Jour na l of Applied P hysiology , 71 , 197± 206.
M uscle spasm Aoyaji, Y., M cLellan, T. and Shephard, R.J. (1997). E V ects of
endurance training and heat acclim ation on psychological
Insertional tendinopathies often give rise to m uscle strain in protective clothing. M edicine and Science in Sports
spasm . O ne exam ple in soccer players is the recto- and Exercise , 29 , S212.
adductor syndrom e. This has responded to m uscular Apor, P. (1988). Successful form ulae for W tness training. In
stretching and adm inistration of som atostatin-14 Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids
(Parente et al., 1996). and W.J. M urphy), pp. 95± 105. London: E & FN Spon.
Arm strong, C.W., Levendusky, T.A., Eck, J.S., Spyropoulos,
P. and Kugler, L. (1988). In X uence of in X ation pressure
C onclusions and ball wetness on the impact characteristics of two types
of soccer balls. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly,
A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 394± 398.
G iven the current im por tance of soccer as an inter-
London: E & FN Spon.
national sport, the volum e of recent scienti W c inform a-
Arm strong, L.E., Costill, D.L. and Fink, W.J. (1985). In X u-
tion on this topic is perhaps not surprising. Valuable ence of diuretic-induced dehydration on competitive
practical lessons can be learned for the selection, running performance. M edicine and Science in Sports and
nutrition and preparation of soccer players to com pete E xercise , 17 , 456± 461.
successfully and safely in the wide variety of environ- Asami, T., Togari, H. and Ohashi, J. (1988). Analysis of
m ents presented by a worldw ide stage. H owever, as in m ovem ent patterns of referees during soccer matches. In
 776 Shephard

Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids Bar-Or, O. and U nnithan, V.B. (1994). Nutritional require-
and W.J. M urphy), pp. 341± 345. London: E & FN Spon. ments of young soccer players. Jour nal of Sports Sciences, 12 ,
Balsom, P.D. (1988). The relationship between aerobic S39± S42.
capacity, anaerobic power, anaerobic capacity, anaerobic Barnett, C ., Hinds, M . and Jenkins, D.G. (1996). E V ects of
threshold, and perform ance decrem entation in m ale col- oral creatine supplem entation on m ultiple sprint cycle
legiate soccer players. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, perform ance. Australian Jour nal of Science and M edicine in
Spring W eld C ollege, SpringW eld, M A. Sport , 28 , 35± 39.
Balsom, P. (1990). A W eld test to evaluate physical perform - Barros, S.A. (1996). Articular mobility and the risk of injuries
ance capacity of association football players. Science of in soccer due to overtraining. Comm unication to the
Football , 6 , 34± 40. Conference on O vertraining and O ver reaching in Sport:
Balsom, P. (1994). Evaluation of physical performance. In Physiological , Psychological and B iom edical C onsiderations ,
Football (Soccer ) (edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 102± 122. University of M emphis, M emphis, TN.
Oxford: Blackwell ScientiW c. Barthelemy, L., Sebert, P., Vanderm arcq, Y. and G uillodo, Y.
Balsom, P.D., Ekblom, B., S ” derlund, K., Sj ” din, B. and (1992). QualitŠs athlŠtiques et adaptation … l’ e V ort de
Hultman, E. (1993a). Creatine supplementation and jeunes footballeurs du Centre de Form ation de Brest,
dynamic high-intensity interm ittent exercise. Scandina vian vainqueurs de la coupe Gambardella 1989± 1990 (Athletic
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Jour nal of M edicine and Science in Sports , 3 , 143± 149. qualities and adaptation to e V ort in young footballers of the
Balsom, P.D., Harridge, S.D., S ” derlund, K., Sj ” din, B. and Brest Training Centre, winners of the Gambardella Cup,
Ekblom, B. (1993b). Creatine supplementation per se 1989± 1990). M Šdecine du Sport , 66 , 60± 65.
does not enhance endurance exercise perform ance. A cta Baxter, C . and Reilly, T. (1983). In X uence of time of day on
Physiologica Scandina vica , 149 , 521± 523. all-out swimming. B r itish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 17 ,
Baltzer, A.W.A., Ghadamgahi, P.D., G ranrath, M . and Poessel, 122± 127.
H.J. (1997). American football injuries in G erm any: First Baxter-Jones, A.D.G. and Helms, P.J. (1996). E V ects of
results from Bundesliga football. Knee Surger y , Sports training at a young age: A review of the Training of
Traum atology , Arthroscopy , 5 , 46± 49. Young Athletes (TOYA) Study. Pediatric Exercise Scienc e , 8 ,
Bangsbù , J. (1994a). Energy demands in com petitive soccer. 310± 327.
Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 12 , S5± S12. Bell, W. (1988). Physiological characteristics of 12-year-old
Bangsbù , J. (1994b). Physiological demands. In Footb all soccer players. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly,
(Soccer ) (edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 45± 58. Oxford: A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 175± 180.
Blackwell ScientiW c. London: E & FN Spon.
Bangsbù , J. (1994c). The physiology of soccer ± with special Bell, W. (1994). Pubertal developm ent in active boys.
reference to intense intermittent exercise. A cta Physiologica Com munication to the 1993 FIEP World C ong ress: Physical
Scandinavica , 151 (suppl. 619), 1± 155. Activity in the Lifecycle , W ingate Institute, Netanya, Israel.
Bangsbù , J. (1994d). Physical conditioning. In Football (Soccer ) Berteau, P.C. (1993). Hypertrophie myocardique apicale
(edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 124± 138. Oxford: Blackwell et sport (Apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and sport).
ScientiW c. Science et Sports , 8 , 1± 7.
Bangsbù , J. and Lindqvist, F. (1992). Com parison of various Betz, M . and Klimt, F. (1994). Anforderungen und Risiken
exercise tests with endurance performance during soccer beim K inderfuû ball (Strain and risks of soccer in children).
in professional players. Inter nation al Jour nal of Sports Deutsche Z eitschrift f  r Sportm edizin , 45 , 228± 232.
M edicine , 13 , 125± 132. Bhanot, J.L. (1988). M aximal anaeroic power of Indian
Bangsbù , J. and M izuno, M . (1988). M orphological and soccer players according to playing position. In Science
metabolic alterations in soccer players with detraining and and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K . Davids and
retraining and their relation to perform ance. In Science W.J. M urphy), pp. 172± 174. London: E & FN Spon.
and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K . Davids and Bianchi, G., Nardi, P., Cecchetti, F., Parisis, A. and Pellicia,
W.J. M urphy), pp. 114± 124. London: E & FN Spon. A. (1998). Studio del `cuore d’ atleta’ nei giovani calciatori:
Bangsbù , J., Klausen, K., Bro-Rasmussen, T. and Larsen, J. E V etto dell’ attivit…sportiva e dell’ accrescimento puberale
(1988). Physiological responses to acute, moderate hypoxia (Studies of athlete’ s heart in young football players: E V ects
in elite soccer players. In Science and Football (edited by T. of sport on pubertal growth). M edicina dello Sport 51 , 171±
Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. Murphy), pp. 257± 264. 177.
London: E & FN Spon. Biancotti, P.P., C aropresco, A., Di Vincenzo, G.C., G anzit,
Bangsbù , J., Nù rregaard, L. and Thorsù e, F. (1991). Activity G.P. and Gribaudo, C .G. (1992). Hematological status in a
pro W le of competition soccer. C anadian Jour na l of Sport group of male athletes of diV erent sports. Jour nal of Sports
Sciences , 16 , 110± 116. M edicine and Physical Fitness , 32 , 70± 75.
Bangsbù , J., Nù rregaard, L. and Thorsù e, F. (1992). The e V ect Birch, R., Noble, D. and Greenha V , P.L. (1994). The
of carbohydrate diet on intermittent exercise perform ance. in X uence of dietary creatine supplem entation on per-
Inter nation al Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 13 , 152± 157. formance during repeated bouts of maxim al isokinetic
Bangsbù , J., M ichalsik, L. and Petersen, A. (1993). Accumu- cycling in man. E uropean Jour nal of Applied P hysiology , 69 ,
lated oxygen de W cit during intense exercise and m uscle 268± 270.
characteristics of elite athletes. Inter nation al Jour na l of Blomstrand, E., Hassm en, P. and Newsholme, E. (1991).
Sports M edicin e , 14 , 207± 213. E V ect of branched-chain amino acid supplementation on
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 777

m ental performance. Acta Physiologica Scandina vica , 143 , Viti, A. (1986). Horm onal and m etabolic e V ects following
225± 226. a football m atch. Inter nation al Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 7 ,
Bolling, B. (1994). The evolution of football tactics. In 36± 38.
Footb all (Soccer ) (edited by B. Ekblom ), pp. 20± 30. Oxford: Casey, A., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Howell, S., Hultman, E.
Blackwell ScientiW c. and Greenha V , P.L. (1996). Creatine ingestion favorably
Borgen, J.S. and C orbin, C.B. (1987). Eating disorders among a V ects performance and muscle metabolism during m ax-
fem ale athletes. Physician and Sportsmedicin e , 15 , 89± 95. imal exercise in humans. Am erican Jour nal of Physiology ,
Bosco, C. (1990). Strength elasticity in football. In Sports 271 , E31± E37.
M edicine Applied to Football (edited by G. Santilli), pp. Catterall, C., Reilly, T., Atkinson, G. and Coldwells, A.
63± 70. Rome: CONI. (1993). Analysis of the work rates and heart rates of associ-
Brandenberger, G., Candas, V., Follenius, M . and Kahn, J.M . ation football referees. B r itish Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 27 ,
(1989). The in X uence of the initial state of hydration on 193± 196.
endocrine responses to exercise in the heat. European Chan, K .M ., Yuan, Y., Li, C.K., Chien, P. and Tsang, G.
Jour na l of Applied Physiology , 58 , 674± 679. (1993). Sports causing most injuries in Hong Kong. B r itish
Brenner, I., Shek, P.N., Zam ecnik, J. and Shephard, R.J. Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 27 , 263± 267.
(1998). Stress hormones and the immunological responses Chatard, J.-C. (1991). Physiological pro W le of the soccer
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

to heat and exercise. Inter na tional Jour nal of Sports player. Com munication to M edicine and Football: The 10th
M edicine , 19 , 130± 143. C ong ress of Sports M edicine of the A.Z. St. Jan , Bruges,
Brewer, J. and Davis, J. (1994). The fem ale player. In Foot- Belgium.
ball ( Soccer ) (edited by B. Ekblom ), pp. 95± 99. Oxford: Chervenjakov, M . (1988). Assessment of the playing e V ective-
Blackwell ScientiW c. ness of soccer players. In Science and Football (edited by T.
Broad, E.M ., Burke, L.M ., Cox, G.R., Heeley, P. and Riley, Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 288± 292.
M . (1996). Body weight changes and voluntary X uid London: E & FN Spon.
intakes during training and competition sessions in team Chmura, J., Nazar, K. and Kaciuba-Uscilko, H. (1994).
sports. Inter nationa l Jour nal of Sports Nutr ition , 6 , 307± 320. Choice reaction tim es during graded exercise in relation to
Burgoon, P.W., Holland, G.J., Loy, S.F. and Vincent, W.J. blood lactate and plasma catecholam ine thresholds. Inter -
(1992). A com parison of morning and evening `types’ nation al Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 15 , 172± 176.
during m aximum exercise. Jour na l of A pplied Sport Scienc e Chmura, J., Krysto W ak, H., Ziem ba, A.W., Nazar, K. and
Research , 6 , 115± 119. Kaciuba-Uscilko, H. (1998). Psychomotor perform ance
Burke, L.M . and Hawley, J.A. (1997). Fluid balance in team during prolonged exercise above and below the blood lac-
sports: Guidelines for optim al practices. Sports M edicin e , tate threshold. European Jour nal of Applied Physiology , 77 ,
24 , 38± 54. 77± 80.
Burke, L.M ., Collier, G.R., Beasley, S.K., Davis, P.G., Fricker, Clarkson, P. (1991). M inerals: Exercise perform ance and
P.A., Heeley, P., Walder, K. and Hargreaves, M . (1995). supplem entation in athletes. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 9
E V ect of coingestion of fat and protein with carbohydrate (suppl.), 91± 116.
feedings on muscle glycogen storage. Jour na l of Applied Coen, B., Urhausen, A., C oen, G. and Kinderm ann, W.
Physiolog y , 78 , 2187± 2192. (1998). Der Fuû ball-Score: Bewertung der k ” rperliche
Burslem, I. and Lees, A. (1988). QuantiW cation of impact Fitness (A soccer speciW c W tness score). Deutsche Zeitschr ift
accelerations of the head during the heading of a football. f  r Sportm edizin , 49 , 187± 191.
In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Colquhoun, D. and Chad, K.E. (1986). Physiological charac-
Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 243± 248. London: E & FN teristics of Australian fem ale soccer players after a com-
Spon. petitive season. A ustralian Jour na l of Science and M edicine in
Bury, T., M arechal, R., M ahieu, P. and Pirnay, F. (1998). Sport , 18 , 9± 12.
Im munological status of football players during the Costill, D.L. and Hargreaves, M . (1992). Carbohydrate nutri-
training season. Inter nationa l Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 19 , tion and fatigue. Sports M edicin e , 13 , 86± 92.
364± 368. Costill, D.L., Cot Š, R. and Fink, W. (1976). M uscle water and
Cabri, J., De Proft, E., Dufour, W. and Clarys, J.P. (1988). The electrolytes following varied levels of dehydration in man.
relation between m uscular strength and kick performance. Jour na l of Applied Physiology , 40 , 6± 11.
In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Costill, D.L., Pascoe, D.D., Fink, W.J., Robergs, R.A. and
Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 106± 153. London: E & FN Barr, S.I. (1990). Impaired muscle glycogen resynthesis
Spon. after eccentric exercise. Jour na l of A pplied Physiology , 69 ,
Caldarione, G., Teanquilli, C. and Giam pietro, M . (1990). 46± 50.
Assessm ent of nutritional state of top level football players. Coyle, E.F. (1991). Tim ing and method of increased carbo-
In Sports M edicine A pplied to Football (edited by G. Santilli), hydrate intake to cope with heavy training, competition
pp. 133± 141. Rome: CO NI. and recovery. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 9 (suppl.),
Capranica, L., C ama, G., Fanton, F., Tessitore, A. and Figura, 29± 52.
F. (1992). Force and power of preferred and non-preferred Crielaerd, J.-M . (1991). Traum atologie de jeune joueur de
leg in young soccer players. Jour nal of Sports M edicine and football (Traum atology of the young soccer player). C om-
Physical Fitness , 32 , 358± 363. m unication to M edicine and Football: The 10th C ongress
Carli, G., Bonifazi, M., Lodi, L., Lupo, C., M artelli, G. and of Sports M edicine of the A.Z. St. Jan , Bruges, Belgium.
 778 Shephard

Cross, M .C., Radomski, M ., Van Helder, W., Rhind, S.G. and Fallow W eld, J. and W illiam s, C. (1993). C arbohydrate intake
Shephard, R.J. (1996). Endurance exercise with and with- and recovery from prolonged exercise. Inter nationa l Jour na l
out a thermal clam p: E V ects on leukocytes and leukocyte of Sports Nutr ition , 3 , 150± 164.
subsets. Jour nal of A pplied Physiology , 81 , 822± 829. Ferrario, V.F., Aghemo, P., Pedrabissi, L., Vizzotto, L.,
Davis, J.A. and Brewer, J. (1992). Physiological characteristics Fornaroli, E., Verga, M ., Giovanelli, F., Calori, R. and
of an international female soccer squad. Jour nal of Sports Miani, A. (1982). Ritm i circadiani in atleti m ilitari
Sciences , 10 , 142± 143. (Circadian rhythms in military athletes). M edicina dello
Davis, J.A. and Brewer, J. (1993). Applied physiology of fem ale Sport , 35 , 227± 239.
soccer players. Sports M edicin e , 16 , 180± 189. Florida-James, G. and Reilly, T. (1995). The physiological
Davis, J.A., Brewer, J. and Atkin, D. (1992). Pre-season demands of Gaelic football. B ritish Jour nal of Sports
physiological characteristics of English First and Second M edicine , 29 , 41± 45.
Division soccer players. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 10 , Fogelholm, G.M ., Kukkonen-Harjula, T.K., Taipale, S.A.,
541± 547. Sievanen, H.T., Oja, P. and Vuori, I.M . (1995). Resting
De Proft, E., C abri, J., Dufour, W. and Clarys, J.P. (1988a). metabolic rate and energy intake in female gym nasts, W gure
Strength training and kick perform ance in soccer players. skaters and soccer players. Inter national Jour na l of Sports
In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. M edicine , 16 , 551± 556.
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 108± 113. London: E & FN Fogelholm, M . (1994a). E V ects of body weight reduction on
Spon. sports performance. Sports M edicin e , 18 , 249± 267.
De Proft, E., Clarys, J.P., Bollens, E., C abri, J. and Dufour, W. Fogelholm, M . (1994b). Vitamins, minerals and supplem enta-
(1988b). M uscle activity in the soccer kick. In Science and tion in soccer. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 12 , S23± S27.
Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. Fowler, N.E. and Reilly, T. (1993). Assessment of m uscle
Murphy), pp. 434± 440. London: E & FN Spon. strength asymmetry in soccer players. In Conte mporar y
Devlin, J.T. and Williams, C . (1991). Food, nutrition and Ergonom ics (edited by E.J. Lovesey), pp. 327± 333. London:
sports perform ance. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 9 (suppl.), Taylor & Francis.
iii. French, J. (1995). C ircadian rhythms, jet lag and the athlete.
D’ Hooghe, M. (1991). Geneeskunde en Voetbal ( M edicine and In C urrent Therapy in Sports M edicin e (edited by J. Torg and
Football ). Bruges: A.Z. St.-Jan. R.J. Shephard), pp. 596± 600. Philadephia, PA: M osby.
Douge, B. (1988). Football: The com mon threads between Fried, T. and Lloyd, G.J. (1992). An overview of com -
games. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, mon soccer injuries: M anagement and prevention. Sports
K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 3± 19. London: E & FN M edicine , 14 , 269± 275.
Spon. Fukuoka, Y., Shigem atsu, M., Itoh, M ., Fujii, N., Homma, S.
Dufaux, B., Order, U., Geyer, H. and H ollm ann, W. (1984). and Ikegami, H. (1997). E V ects of football training on
C-reactive protein concentrations in well-trained athletes. ventilatory and gas exchange kinetics to sinusoidal work
Inter nation al Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 5 , 102± 106. load. Jour na l of Sports M edicine and Physical Fitness, 37 ,
Dunning, E. (1994). The history of football (soccer). In 161± 167.
Football (Soccer ) (edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 1± 19. Oxford: Fuller, C.W. and Hawkins, R.D. (1997). Developing a health
Blackwell ScientiW c. surveillance strategy for professional footballers in com -
Durnin, J.V.G.A. and Passmore, R. (1967). E nerg y , Work and pliance with the U K health and safety legislation. B ritish
Leisure , London: Heinem ann. Jour nal of Sports M edicine , 31 , 148± 152.
Eissmann, H.-J. (1994a). Doping. In Football (Soccer ) Furlanello, F., Bettini, R., Resina, A., Gramegna, L., Vison … ,
(edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 215± 220. Oxford: Blackwell L., Vergara, G., Antolini, R. and Vecchiet, L. (1990).
ScientiW c. Arrhythm ological W ndings in top level football players. In
Eissmann, H.-J. (1994b). The referee. In Footb all (Soccer ) Sports M edicine A pplied to Football (edited by G. Santilli),
(edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 100± 101. Oxford: Blackwell pp. 353± 356. Rome: CONI.
ScientiW c. Fuso, L., Di C osmo, V., Nardecchia, B., Sammarro, S.,
Ekblom, B. (1986). Applied physiology of soccer. Sports Pagliari, G. and Pistelli, R. (1996). Maxim al inspiratory
M edicine , 3 , 50± 60. pressure in elite soccer players. Jour nal of Sports M edicin e
Ekblom, B. (ed.) (1994). Football ( Soccer ). Oxford: Blackwell and Physical Fitness , 36 , 67± 71.
ScientiW c. Gau Y n, H., Ekstrand, J., Arnesson, L. and Tropp, H. (1989).
Ekblom, B. and W illiam s, C. (eds) (1994). Foods, nutrition Vertical jum p perform ance in soccer players: A compara-
and soccer performance. Jour na l of Sports Science s, 12 tive study of two training programmes. Jour na l of H um an
(suppl.), S1± S50. M ovem ent Studies , 16 , 159± 176.
Ekstrand, J. and Gillquist, J. (1982). The avoidability of Gerisch, G., Rutem ” ller, E. and Weber, K. (1988). Sports-
soccer injuries. Inter nation al Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 4 , medical measurements of performance in soccer. In Science
124± 128. and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K . Davids and
Faina, M ., Gallozzi, C ., Lupo, S., C olli, R., Sassi, R. and W.J. M urphy), pp. 60± 67. London: E & FN Spon.
Marini, C . (1988). De W nition of the physiological pro W le Gleeson, N.P., Reilly, T., M ercer, T.H., Rakawaki, S. and Rees,
of the soccer player. In Science and Football (edited by T. D. (1998). In X uence of endurance activity on key neuro-
Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. Murphy), pp. 158± 163. muscular and m usculoskeletal performance. M edicine and
London: E & FN Spon. Science in Sports and E xercise , 30 , 596± 608.
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 779

Goforth, H.W., Arnall, D.A., Bennett, B.L. and Law, P.G. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 322± 328.
(1997). Persistence of supercompensated m uscle glycogen London: E & FN Spon.
in trained subjects after carbohydrate loading. Jour na l of Hawkins, R.D. and Fuller, C.W. (1998). A preliminary
A pplied Physiology , 82 , 342± 347. assessm ent of professional footballers’ awareness of injury
Gonzales, G.F., Villena, A. and Aparicio, R. (1998). Acute prevention strategies. B r itish Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 32 ,
m ountain sickness: Is there a lag period before sym ptom s? 140± 143.
A merican Jour nal of H um an B iology , 10 , 669± 677. Helge, J.W., WulV , B. and Keins, B. (1998). Im pact of a fat-
Gonzalez-Alonso, J., Heaps, C.L. and Coyle, E.F. (1992). rich diet on endurance in m an: Role of the dietary period.
Rehydration after exercise with common beverages and M edicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 30 , 456± 461.
water. Inter nationa l Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 13 , 399± 406. Helsen, W., Starkes, J.L. and van W inckel, J. (1998). The
Gopinatham, P.M ., Pichan, G. and Sharma, V.N. (1988). in X uence of relative age on success and dropout in male
Role of dehydration in heat-stress induced variations in soccer players. Am erican Jour na l of H um an B iology , 10 ,
m ental performance. Archives of Environm ental H ealth , 43 , 791± 798.
15± 17. Hickson, J.F., Schrader, J.W., Pivarnik, J.M . and Stockton, J.E.
Graham , T. (in press). The importance of carbohydrate, fat (1986). Nutritional intake from food sources of soccer
and protein for the endurance athlete. In Endurance in athletes during two stages of training. N utr itional Reports
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Sport (edited by R.J. Shephard and P.O.  strand). Oxford: Inter nationa l , 34 , 85± 91.
Blackwell ScientiW c. Hill, D.W., C ureton, K.J., Collins, M .A. and Grisham , S.C .
Green, A.L., G reenha V , P.L., M acDonald, I.A., Bell, D., (1988). Diurnal variations in response to exercise of `morn-
Holliman, D. and Stroud, M.A. (1994). The in X uence of ing types’ and `evening types’ . Jour na l of Sports M edicin e
oral creatine supplementation on m etabolism during sub- and Physical Fitness , 28 , 213± 219.
m axim al incremental treadmill exercise. Clinical Science , Hill, D.W., Hill, C .M ., Fields, K.L. and Smith, J.C. (1993).
87 , 707± 710. E V ects of jet lag on factors related to sports performance.
Green, A.L., Hultm an, E., M acDonald, I.A., Sewell, D.A. and C anadian Jour nal of Applied Physiology , 18 , 91± 103.
Greenha V , P.L. (1996). Carbohydrate ingestion augm ents Hillis, W.S. (1998). Preparations for the World Cup (editor-
skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine sup- ial). B ritish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 32 , 95.
plementation in hum ans. Am er ican Jour nal of Physiology , Hubner-Wozniak, E., Szm uchrowski, L. and Lutoslawska, G.
271 , E821± E826. (1994). E V ects of soccer m atch play on selected blood
Green, S. (1992). Anthropometric and physiological charac- biochemical variables. B iology of Sport , 11 , 83± 89.
teristics of South Australian soccer players. Austra lian Islegen, C . and Akg  n, N. (1988). E V ects of 6 weeks pre-
Jour na l of Science and M edicine in Sport , 24 , 3± 7. seasonal training on physical W tness among soccer players.
Greenha V , P.L., Casey, A., Short, A.H., Harris, R.C ., In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K.
S ” derlund, K. and Hultm an, E. (1993). In X uence of oral Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 125± 128. London: E & FN
creatine supplementation on muscle torque during Spon.
repeated bouts of m aximal voluntary exercise in man. Islegen, C., Karamizrak, O., Ozkilic, H. and Erlacin, S. (1989).
C linical Science , 84 , 565± 571. T  rk milli futbol takim inin hemoglobin, hematokrit, serum
Greenha V , P.L., Bodin, K., S ” derlund, K. and Hultm an, E. dem ir, tdbk ve ferritin parametrelerinin incelenm esi
(1994). E V ect of oral creatine supplementation on skeletal (Investigations on hemoglobin, hematocrit, serum iron and
m uscle phosphocreatine resynthesis. Am erican Jour nal of ferritin parameters of Turkish national soccer players).
Physiolog y , 266 , E725± E730. Turkish Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 24 , 65± 70.
Grehaigne, J.F. (1988). Game system s in soccer from the Isokawa, M . and Lees, A. (1988). A biomechanical analysis of
viewpoint of coverage of space. In Science and Football the instep kick motion in soccer. In Science and Football
(edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy),
pp. 316± 321. London: E & FN Spon. pp. 449± 455. London: E & FN Spon.
Hagiwara, T. and Amano, K. (1993). An electromyographic Ivy, J.L. (1991). M uscle glucogen resynthesis before and after
study of outside kicking. B ulletin of the Institute of H ealth and exercise. Sports M edicin e , 11 , 6± 19.
Sport Science s , U niversity of Tsukuba , 16 , 51± 61. Jackm an, M ., Wendling, P., Friars, D. and Graham , T. (1996).
Handel, M ., Horstmann, T., Dickhuth, H.H. and Guelch, M etabolic, catecholamine, and endurance responses to
R.W. (1997). E V ects of contract± relax stretching training ca V eine during intense exercise. Jour na l of A pplied Physi-
on muscle performance in athletes. E uropean Jour nal of olog y , 81 , 1658± 1663.
A pplied Physiology , 76 , 400± 408. Jacobs, I., Westlin, N., Karlsson, J., Rasm ussen, M . and
Hardeland, R. and Rodriguez, C. (1995). Versatile melatonin: Houghton, B. (1982). M uscle glycogen concentration of
A positive m olecule serves various functions in signaling elite soccer players. E uropean Jour na l of Applied Physiology ,
and protection. Chronobiology Inter national , 12 , 157± 165. 48 , 297± 302.
Harris, R.C., S ” derlund, K. and Hultman, E. (1992). Eleva- Jehue, R., Street, D. and Huizenga, R. (1993). E V ect of tim e
tion of creatine in resting and exercise m uscle of normal zone and game time changes on team performance:
subjects by creatine supplementation. C linical Scienc e , 83 , National Football League. M edicine and Science in Sports
367± 374. and Exercise , 25 , 127± 131.
Harris, S. and Reilly, T. (1988). Space, teamwork and attack- Jensen, K. and Larsson, B. (1992). Variations in physical
ing success in soccer. In Science and Football (edited by T. capacity among the Danish national soccer team for
 780 Shephard

women during a period of supplemented training. Jour na l responses to exercise in man: With special reference to
of Sports Sciences , 10 , 144. physical training. Inter nationa l Jour na l of Sports M edicin e ,
Johnson, L. and M cN aughton, L.M . (1994). The physio- 10 , 2± 15.
logical requirem ents of soccer refereeing. A ustra lian Klimt, F., Betz, M . and Seitz, U. (1992). M etabolism and cir-
Jour nal of Science and M edicine in Sport , 26 , 67± 72. culation of children playing soccer. In C hildren and E xercise
Jungi, M ., Knobloch, M ., Held, T. and Marti, B. (1997). XVI: Pediatric Work P hysiology (edited by J. Coudert and
Athletische Entwicklung im Juniorenfussball: Querschnitt- E. van Praagh), pp. 127± 129. Paris: M asson.
studie der drei Nationalkader U 15, U 17 and U20 (Athletic Knapik, J.J., Bauman, C .L., Jones, B.H., Harris, J.M . and
development in soccer juniors: Cross-sectional study on Vaughan, L. (1991). Pre-season strength and X exibility
Swiss National Teams U15, U17 and U20). Schweizer ische imbalances associated with athletic injuries in fem ale
Zeitschrift f  r Sportm edizin und Sporttraum atologie , 45 , collegiate athletes. Am er ican Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 19 ,
137± 141. 76± 81.
Kabisch, D. and Funk, D. (1991). Todesf„lle im organisierten Kohno, T., O’ Hata, N., Shirata, T., Hisatomi, N., Endo, Y.,
und angeleiten Sport (Cases of death in organized and Onodera, S. and Sato, M . (1991). Physical characteristics
recreational sport). D eutsche Zeitschr ift f  r Sportm edizin , 42 , of Japan women’ s National team soccer players. Com -
464± 470. munication to the C onference on Sport for All , UK K
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Katsuta, S., Kuno, S.Y. and Itai, Y. (1993). M uscle com - Institute, Tampere, Finland.
position of various athletes by M RI. B ulletin of the Institute Kollath, E. and Krabbe, B. (1996). Kinetische Analyse kurzer
of H ealth and Sport Sciences , U niversity of Tsukuba , 16 , Sprints von Fuû ballspielern (Kinetic analysis of short
107± 119. sprints of soccer players). Sportono m ics , 2 , 55± 58.
Kavanagh, T. and Shephard, R.J. (1977). On the choice of Kollath, E. and Quade, E. (1993). Experim ental measurement
X uid for the hydration of middle-aged m arathon runners. of professional and amateur soccer players’ sprinting speed.
B ritish Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 11 , 26± 35. In Science and Football II (edited by T. Reilly, J. Clarys and
Kawakami, Y., Nozaki, D., Matsuo, A. and Fukunaga, T. A. Stibbe), pp. 31± 36. London: E & FN Spon.
(1992). Reliability of measurement of oxygen uptake by a Kollath, E. and Schwirtz, A. (1988). Biomechanical aspects of
portable telemetric system . E uropean Jour na l of Applied the soccer throw-in. In Science and Football (edited by T.
Physiolog y , 65 , 409± 414. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. Murphy), pp. 460± 467.
Kayahan, O., Kuter, T.M ., Akkus, H. and Gunduz, H. (1992). London: E & FN Spon.
Elit takim oyuncularinin beslenm e bilgilerinin deger- KonikoV , F., Shoenfeld, Y., M agazanik, A., Epstein, J.
lendirilmesi (Nutrition knowledge of elite athletes from and Shapira, Y. (1986). E V ect of salt loading during
soccer, basketball and volleyball 1st league players). Turkish exercise in hot, dry climate. B iom edical Pharm acotherapy ,
Jour nal of Sports M edicine , 27 , 143± 149. 40 , 296± 300.
Kayatekin, M . (1995). Duzenliantrenm anin futbolcularda diz Kuppig, R. and Heisel, J. (1993). Fuû ballsport: Typische
X eksor ve ekstansor kas kuvvetlerine etkisi (The e V ects of Verletzungsmuster in einder 7-Jahres-Analyse (Football:
regular training on knee extensor muscle torques of soccer typical injury experience in a seven-year analysis). Deutsche
players). Turkish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 30 , 85± 94. Zeitschrift f  r Sportm edizin , 44 , 244± 248.
Kayatekin, M ., Semin, I., Oktay, G., Selamoglu, S., C ecen, A., Kuzon, W.M ., Rosenblatt, J.D., Huebel, S.C., Leatt, P.,
Turgay, F. and Acarbay, S. (1993). Bir profesyonel ikinci lig Plyley, M .J. and Jacobs, I. (1990). Skeletal m uscle W bre
futbol takaminin sezon oncesi indirekt maxim um VÇ O 2 type, W bre size, and capillary supply in elite soccer players.
degerleri ile demir metabolizmasina iliskin bazi hem atolojik Inter nation al Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 11 , 99± 102.
parametreler arasindaki iliskinin arastirilmasi (Some Ladell, W.S. (1965). The Physiology of H uman Sur vival . New
haem atological parameters related to ferric m etabolism York: Academ ic Press.
and indirect max VÇ O 2 values in second league football Lambert, G.P., Chang, R.T., Xia, T., Sum mers, R.W. and
players). Turkish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 28 , 69± 76. GisolW , C .V. (1997). Absorption from diV erent intestinal
Kibler, W.B. (1993). Injuries in adolescent and preadolescent segments during exercise. Jour na l of Applied Physiology , 83 ,
soccer players. M edicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 204± 212.
25 , 1330± 1332. Lawrence, R.M . (1992). Fluids, heat and dehydration. Com -
Kindermann, W., Gabriel, H., Coen, B. and Urhausen, A. munication to the Inter nation al Sym posium on the M edical
(1993). Sportmedizinische Leistungsdiagnostik in Fuû ball Aspects of Soccer ( Football ), Vancouver, B.C .
(Sports m edical performance diagnostics in football). Leatt, P., Shephard, R.J. and Plyley, M .J. (1987). Speci W c
Deutsche Z eitschrift f  r Sportm edizin , 44 , 232± 236. muscular development in under-18 soccer players. Jour na l
Kirkendall, D.T. (1993). E V ects of nutrition on performance of Sports Sciences , 5 , 165± 175.
in soccer. M edicine and Science in Sports and E xercise , 25 , Lees, A. and Nolan, L. (1998). The biomechanics of soccer: A
1370± 1374. review. Jour na l of Sports Sciences , 16 , 211± 234.
Kirkendall, D.T., Foster, C., Dean, J.A., Grogan, J. and Lehmann, M., Schnee, W.S.R., Stockhausen, W. and Bachl, N.
Thom pson, N.N. (1988). E V ect of glucose polymer sup- (1992). Decreased nocturnal catecholamine excretion:
plem entation on perform ance of soccer players. In Science Param eter for an overtraining syndrome in athletes?
and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K . Davids and Inter nation al Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 13 , 236± 242.
W.J. M urphy), pp. 33± 41. London: E & FN Spon. Lemon, P.W.R. (1991). E V ect of exercise on protein require-
Kjaer, M. (1989). Epinephrine and some other horm onal ments. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 9 (suppl.), 53± 90.
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 781

Lem on, P.W.R. (1994). Protein requirem ents of soccer. (Correlations between peak torque and anthropom etric
Jour na l of Sports Science s , 12 , S17± S22. param eters in young soccer players). M edicina dello Sport ,
Le Rumeur, E., Le M oyec, L. and Toulouse, P. (1990). M uscle 46 , 277± 280.
fatigue unrelated to phosphocreatine and pH: An `in vivo’ M aughan, R.J. (1991). Carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions
31-P NM R spectroscopy study. M uscle and N er ve , 13 , during prolonged exercise. In Perspectives in Exercise Scienc e
438± 444. and Sports M edicine 4: Ergogen ics (edited by D.R. Lamb
Levanon, J. and Dapena, J. (1998). Com parison of the kin- and M .H. Williams), pp. 35± 86. Indianapolis, IN :
ematics of the full-instep and pass kicks in soccer. M edicine Brown/Benchmark.
and Science in Sports and E xercise , 30 , 917± 927. M aughan, R.J. (1997). Energy and m acronutrient intakes of
Levendusky, T.A., Armstrong, C.W., Eck, J.S., Jeziorowski, J. professional football (soccer) players. B ritish Jour nal of
and Kugler, L. (1988). Im pact characteristics of two types Sports M edicine , 31 , 45± 47.
of soccer balls. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, M aughan, R.J. and Leiper, J.B. (1994). Fluid replacem ent
A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 385± 393. requirem ents in soccer. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 12 ,
London: E & FN Spon. S29± S34.
Levine, B.D. and Stray-G undersen, J. (1997). `Living high± M cKay, L. and Shephard, R.J. (1988). Standardized Tests for
training low’ : E V ect of m oderate altitude acclim atization C anadian Soccer Players . Ottawa, ON: Canadian Soccer
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

with low altitude training on performance. Jour na l of Association.

A pplied Physiology , 83 , 102± 112. M cLean, B.D. and Tumilty, D.M . (1993). Left± right asym-
Liesen, H . and M uecke, S. (1994). The G erm an experience m etry in two types of soccer kick. B ritish Jour nal of Sports
of peak performance in football. In Football (Soccer ) M edicine , 27 , 260± 262.
(edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 158± 165. Oxford: Blackwell M cM orris, T. and Graydon, J. (1997). The e V ect of exercise
ScientiW c. on cognitive perform ance in soccer-speciW c tests. Jour nal of
Liesen, H., Riedel, H., Order, U., M  cke, S. and W idenm ayer, Sports Sciences , 15 , 459± 468.
W. (1989). Zellul„re Imm unit„t bei Hochleistungssportlern M eredith, C.N., Zackin, M .J., Fontera, W.R. and Evans, W.J.
(Cellular immunity in high perform ance athletes). Deutsch e (1989). Dietary protein requirem ents and body protein
Z eitschrift f  r Sportmedizin , 40 , 9± 14. m etabolism in endurance-trained m en. Jour nal of Applied
Lucidi, L., Andreini, R., Gattesche, L., Rubenni, M .G., Physiolog y , 66 , 2850± 2856.
Guaglio, G., Boddi, V. and Resina, A. (1993). Correlazione M eyer, F., Bar-Or, O., MacDougall, D. and Heigenhauser,
fra alcune variabili antropometrici, il VÇ O 2m ax , e la soglia G.J.F. (1992). Sweat electrolyte loss during exercise in
anaerobica ventiloria in giovani calciatori (Relationship the heat: E V ects of gender and maturation. M edicine and
among some anthropom etric characteristics, VÇ O 2m ax, and Science in Sports and Exercise , 24 , 776± 781.
ventilatory anaerobic threshold in young soccer players). M eyer, F., Bar-Or, O., Salsberg, A. and Passe, D. (1994).
M edicina dello Sport , 46 , 265± 272. Hypohydration during exercise in children: E V ect of thirst,
Luhtanen, P. (1988). Kinematics and kinetics of m aximal drink preferences and rehydration. Inter nationa l Jour nal of
in-step kicking in soccer. In Science and Football (edited by Sports Nutr ition , 4 , 22± 35.
T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 441± M icheli, L. (1991). The young football player. Com munica-
448. London: E & FN Spon. tion to M edicine and Football: The 10th C ong ress of Sports
Luhtanen, P. (1990). Video analysis of technique and tactics. M edicine of the A.Z. St. Jan , Bruges, Belgium.
Comm unication to the Inter nation al C onference on Sports M illward, D.J., Bowtell, J.L., Pacy, P. and Rennie, M .J.
M edicine Applied to Football , Rome. (1994). Physical activity, protein m etabolism and protein
Luhtanen, P. (1994). Biom echanical aspects. In Footb all requirem ents. P roceedings of the N utr itional Society , 53 ,
( Soccer ) (edited by B. Ekblom ), pp. 59± 77. Oxford: 223± 240.
Blackwell ScientiW c. M inard, D. (1961). Prevention of casualties in M arine Corps
M adsen, K., M acLean, D.A., Kiens, B. and C hristensen, D. recruits: Period of 1955± 1960, with com parative incidence
(1996). E V ects of glucose, glucose plus branched-chain rates and climatic heat stresses in other training categories.
amino acids or placebo on bike performance over 100 km. M ilitar y M edicin e , 126 , 261± 272.
Jour na l of Applied Physiology , 81 , 2644± 2650. M ognoni, P., Narici, M .V., Sirtori, M .D. and Lorenzelli, F.
M anfredini, R., Manfredini, F., Fersini, C. and C onconi, F. (1994). Isokinetic torques and kicking: M aximal ball
(1998). C ircadian rhythm s, athletic performance, and jet velocity in young soccer players. Jour nal of Sports M edicin e
lag. B ritish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 32 , 101± 106. and Physical Fitness , 34 , 357± 361.
M angine, R.E., Noyes, F.R., M ullen, M .P. and Barber, S.D. M oh … csi, J., Gellei, I., B Šres, F., Petrekanits, M . and M Šsz …
ros,
(1990). A physiological pro W le of the elite soccer athlete. J. (1991). A comparison of soccer team s of the W rst
Jour na l of Orthopaedic and Sport P hysical Therapy , 12 , 147± and second league and the National team in a study of
152. spiroergom etry and anthropometry. C omm unication to
M arshall, J.C. (1998). The gut as a potential trigger of the C onference on Sport for All , UKK Institute, Tampere,
exercise-induced in X amm atory responses. C anadian Finland.
Jour na l of Physiology and Phar m acology , 76 , 479± 484. M oline, M .L., Pollak, C.P., M onk, T.H., Lester, L.S., Wagner,
M artelli, G., Causarano, A., Gradi, M ., M erlo, F. and D.R., Zendall, S.M ., Graeber, R.C., Salter, C.A. and
Bonifazi, M . (1993). Correlazioni fra picco del m omento Hirsch, E. (1992). Age-related di V erences in recovery from
di forza e param etri antropometrici in giovani calciatori sim ulated jet lag. Sleep , 15 , 28± 40.
 782 Shephard

Mù ller-Nielsen, J. and Hammar, M. (1989). Wom en’ s soccer ö berg, B. (1989). Lower Extrem ity M uscle Strength in Soccer
injuries in relation to the m enstrual cycle and oral contra- Players . Link ” ping, Sweden: Link ” ping University.
ception use. M edicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 21 , O’ Connor, P.J., Morgan, W.P., Koltyn, K.F., Raglin, J.S.,
126± 129. Turner, J.G. and Kalin, N.H. (1991). Air travel across
Montanari, G., Vecchiet, L. and Campo, J.R.R. (1990). Struc- four tim e zones in college swim mers. Jour nal of Applied
tural adaptm ents of the m uscle soccer players. In Sports Physiolog y , 70 , 756± 763.
M edicine Applied to Football (edited by G. Santilli), pp. Ogushi, T., Ohashi, J., Nagahama, H., Isokawa, M . and
169± 179. Rome: CONI. Suzuki, S. (1993). Work intensity during soccer m atch-play
Moyls, P.W. (1988). Continuous sports data: Innovative (a case study). In Science and Football II (edited by T. Reilly,
techniques in coding and analysis. Unpublished doctoral J. Clarys and A. Stibbe), pp. 121± 123. London: E & FN
dissertation, U niversity of Toronto, Ontario. Spon.
Mueller, F.O. and Blyth, C .S. (1988). Forty years of head and Ontario Soccer Association (1988). O ntar io Am ateur Soccer
cervical spine fatalities in Am erican football: 1945± 1984. Injur ies Study ± 1988. Toronto, ON: Ontario Soccer
In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Association.
Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 224± 229. London: E & FN Opavsky, P. (1988). An investigation of linear and angular kin-
Spon. em atics of the leg during two types of soccer kick. In Science
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Muller, J.E., Ludmer, P.L., Willich, S.N., To X er, G.H., and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K . Davids and
Aylmer, G., Klangos, I. and Stone, P.H. (1987). C ircadian W.J. M urphy), pp. 456± 459. London: E & FN Spon.
variation in the frequency of sudden cardiac death. Circula- Opie, L.H. (1975). Sudden death and sport. Lancet , 1 ,
tion , 75 , 131± 138. 263± 266.
Naessens, G., Lefevre, J., Sleeckx, W., Callens, J. and Dries- Panza, J.A., Epstein, S.E. and Quyyum i, A.A. (1991).
sens, M . (1994). U rinary basal noradrenaline excretion Circadian variation in vascular tone and its relation to
measurements in the follow up of training processes in alpha-sym pathetic vascoconstrictor activity. New E ngland
semi-professional soccer players. Communication to the Jour nal of M edicin e , 325 , 986± 990.
Sym posium on the Sports M edicine of Soccer, Lake Buena Parente, C ., M ontagnani, S. and Tajana, G. (1996). Inser-
Vista, FL. tional tendinopathies in athletes: Clinical, biomechanical
Naessens, G., De Slypere, J.P., Dijs, H. and Driessens, M . and morphological correlations. M Šdecine du Sport , 70 , 5± 8.
(1995). Hypogonadism as a cause of recurrent m uscle Parravini, R., Buccino, G., Bernardi, R., Sacco, T., Levizanni,
injury in a high level soccer player. Inter nationa l Jour nal of G. and Tavana, R. (1992). The e V ects of branched-chain
Sports M edicin e , 16 , 413± 417. amino acid supplem entation in a group of football players.
Naessens, G., C handler, T.-J., K ibler, W.-B. and Driessens, M . In B ranched-C hain Am ino A cids: B iochem istr y , Physio-
(1996). Noradrenaline excretion patterns and overtraining. pathology, and Clinical Science (edited by P. Schauder).
Com munication to the C onference on Overtraining and New York: Raven Press.
Overreaching in Sport: Physiological, Psychological and B io- Patrick, J.D. and M cKenna, M .J. (1988). The C ABER com -
m edical C onsiderations , U niversity of Mem phis, M emphis, puter system : A review of its application to the analysis of
TN. Australian Rules football. In Science and Football (edited
Narici, M .V., Sirtori, M .D. and M ognoni, P. (1988). M aximal by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy),
ball velocity and peak torque of hip X exor and knee exten- pp. 267± 273. London: E & FN Spon.
sor muscles. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Pavlik, G., Simon, G.Y., Olexo, Z.S., Petrekanits, M . and
Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 429± 433. London: Vajk, Z. (1993). Kardialis es spiroergogra W as mutatok
E & FN Spon. gyerm ek labdarugoknal (Cardiac and spiroergographic
Nordheim, K . and Vù llestad, N. (1990). G lycogen and lactate indexes in young football players). H ungar ian Review of
metabolism during low intensity exercise in m an. A cta Sports M edicin e , 34 , 17± 31.
Physiologica Scandina vica , 139 , 475± 484. Pellicia, A., Sportaro, A., Granato, M ., Alebiso, A., M arcello,
Nose, H., M ack, G.W., Shi, X. and Nadel, E. (1988). Role G. and D’ Arcangelo, E.D. (1990). Doppler and color
of osm olality and plasma volume during rehydration in doppler echocardiography in the cardiological evaluation
humans. Jour nal of Applied Physiology , 65 , 325± 331. of soccer players. In Sports M edicine Applied to Football
Nowacki, P.E., Cai, D.Y., Buhl, C. and Krumm elbein, U. (edited by G. Santilli), pp. 312± 317. Rome: CO NI.
(1988). Biological perform ance of German soccer players Penco, M., Di Renzi, P., Passarriello, R. and Dagianti, A.
(professional and juniors) tested by special ergom etry and (1990). M agnetic resonance in cardiac evaluation of soccer
treadm ill methods. In Science and Football (edited by T. players. In Sports M edicine Applied to Football (edited by
Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. Murphy), pp. 145± 157. G. Santilli), pp. 323± 330. Rome: CO NI.
London: E & FN Spon. Petrie, K., C onaglen, J.V. and Thompson, L. (1990). E V ect of
Nutter, J. (1991). Seasonal changes in female athletes’ diets. melatonin on jet lag after long haul X ights. B ritish M edical
Inter nation al Jour nal of Sports N utrition , 1 , 395± 407. Jour nal , 298 , 705± 707.
Nyland, J.A., Caborn, D.N.M ., Brosky, J.A., Kueller, C .L. and Phillips, L.H., Standen, P.J. and Batt, M .E. (1998). E V ects of
Friedho V , G. (1997). Anthropometric, m uscular W tness, and seasonal change in rugby league on the incidence of injury.
injury history com parisons by gender of youth soccer B ritish Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 32 , 144± 148.
teams. Jour nal of Strength and Conditio ning Research , 11 , Pintsaar, A., Brynhildesen, J. and Tropp, H. (1996). Postural
92± 97. corrections after standardised perturbations of single lim b
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 783

stance: E V ect of training and orthotic devices in patients loading on mental functions during sustained physical
with ankle instability. B r itish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 30 , work. In Ergonom ics Inter nationa l ’ 85 (edited by I.D. Brown,
151± 155. R. Goldsm ith, K. C oom bes and M . Sinclair), pp. 700± 702.
Pollard, R., Reep, C . and Hartley, S. (1988). The quantitative London: Taylor & Francis.
com parison of playing styles in soccer. In Science and Reilly, T. and M ellor, S. (1988). Jet lag in student rugby league
Footb all (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. players following a near maximal time-zone shift. In Science
M urphy), pp. 309± 315. London: E & FN Spon. and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and
Puga, N., Ramos, J., Agostinho, J., Lomba, I., Costra, O. and W.J. M urphy), pp. 249± 255. London: E & FN Spon.
de Freitas, F. (1993). Physical pro W le of a W rst division Reilly, T. and Stirling, A. (1993). Flexibility, warm-up and
Portuguese professional soccer team. In Science and Football injuries in mature games players. In Kinanthropom etr y IV
II (edited by T. Reilly, J. Clarys and A. Stibbe), pp. 40± 42. (edited by W. Duquet and J.A.P. Day), pp. 119± 123.
London: E & FN Spon. London: E & FN Spon.
Raastad, T., Hostm ark, A.T. and Strom me, S.B. (1996). Reilly, T. and Walsh, T.J. (1981). Physiological, psychological
Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation does not improve and performance measures during an endurance record for
m axim al aerobic power, anaerobic threshold [ sic ] and a 5-a-side soccer play. B r itish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 15 ,
running perform ance in well-trained soccer players. C om- 122± 128.
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

m unication to the Conference on Overtraining and O ver- Reilly, T., Lees, A., Davids, K. and M urphy, W.J. (eds) (1988).
reaching in Sport: Physiological, Psychological and B iom edical Science and Football . London: E & FN Spon.
C onsiderations , University of Mem phis, M emphis, TN. Reilly, T., Clarys, J. and Stibbe, A. (eds) (1993). Science and
Raschka, C., Parzeller, M . and Glaeser, H. (1996). Todesf„lle Football II . London: E & FN Spon.
im Vereinssport in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Sud- Reilly, T., M aughan, R. and Budgett, R. (1998). M elatonin: A
den death in sports club m embers in Germany). Deutsch e position statement of the British Olympic Association.
Z eitschrift f  r Sportmedizin , 47 , 17± 22. B r itish Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 32 , 99± 100.
Rebelo, A.N., Candeias, J.R., Fraga, M .M ., Duarte, J.A.R., Reilly, T., Atkinson, G. and Budgett, R. (1997a). E V ects of
Soares, J.M .C., M agalhØes, C . and Torrinha, J.A. (1998). tem azepan on physiological and performance variables
The impact of soccer training on the imm une system . following a westerly X ight across W ve time zones. Jour nal of
Jour na l of Sports M edicine and Physical Fitness , 38 , 258± 261. Sports Sciences , 15 , 62.
Recht, L.D., Lew, R.A. and Schwartz, W.J. (1995). Baseball Reilly, T., Atkinson, G. and Waterhouse, J. (1997b). B iolog ical
team s beaten by jet lag (letter). Nature , 377 , 583. Rhythm s and E xercise . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Redfern, P., M inors, D. and Waterhouse, J. (1994). Circadian Reilly, T., Atkinson, G. and Waterhouse, J. (1997c). Travel
rhythms, jet lag, and chronobiotics: An overview. C hrono- fatigue and jet lag. Jour na l of Sports Sciences, 15 , 365± 369.
biology Inter nation al , 11 , 253± 265. Reilly, T., Atkinson, G. and Waterhouse, J. (in press). In X uence
Reilly, T. (1990). Football. In Physiology of Sports (edited by of time zone shifts. In Endurance in Sport (edited by R.J.
T. Reilly, N. Secher, P. Snell and C . Williams), pp. 371± Shephard and P.O.  strand). Oxford: Blackwell ScientiW c.
426. London: E & FN Spon. Resina, A., Gatteschi, L., Rubenni, M .G., Giamberardino,
Reilly, T. (1994a). M otion characteristics. In Football (Soccer ) M .A. and Imreh, F. (1991). Comparison of som e serum
(edited by B. Ekblom ), pp. 31± 42. Oxford: Blackwell copper parameters in trained professional soccer players
ScientiW c. and control subjects. Jour nal of Sports M edicine and Physical
Reilly, T. (1994b). Physiological aspects of soccer. B iolog y of Fitness , 31 , 413± 416.
Sport , 11 , 3± 20. Rhodes, E.C. and M osher, R.E. (1992). Aerobic and anaer-
Reilly, T. (1994c). Physiological pro W le of the player. In obic characteristics of elite female university soccer players.
Footb all (Soccer ) (edited by B. Ekblom ), pp. 78± 94. Oxford: Jour na l of Sports Science s , 10 , 143± 144.
Blackwell ScientiW c. Rico-Sanz, J., Frontera, W.R., Rivera, M .A., Rivera-Brown, A.,
Reilly, T. (1996). Science and Soccer . London: E & FN Spon. M ole, P.A. and M eredith, C.N. (1996). E V ect of hyper-
Reilly, T. (1997). Energetics of high-intensity exercise (soccer) hydration on total body water, temperature regulation
with particular reference to fatigue. Jour na l of Sports and performance of elite young soccer players in a warm
Sciences , 15 , 257± 263. climate. Inter national Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 17 , 85± 91.
Reilly, T. (in press). Endurance aspects of soccer and other Rigg, P. and Reilly, T. (1988). A W tness pro W le and anthropo-
W eld gam es. In Endurance in Sport (edited by R.J. Shephard m etric analysis of W rst and second class rugby union
and P.O.  strand). Oxford: Blackwell ScientiW c. players. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly,
Reilly, T. and Brooks, G.A. (1982). Investigation of circadian A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 194± 200.
rhythms in m etabolic responses to exercise. E rgonom ics , 25 , London: E & FN Spon.
1093± 1107. Rocco, M .B., Barry, J., Campbell, S., Nabel, E., Cook, E.F.,
Reilly, T. and Brooks, G.A. (1990). Selective persistence of Goldm an, L. and Selwyn, A.P. (1987). Circadian variation
circadian rhythm s in physiological responses to exercise. of transient myocardial ischemia in patients with coronary
C hronobiology Inter nationa l , 7 , 59± 67. heart disease. C irculation , 75 , 395± 400.
Reilly, T. and Garrett, R. (1995). E V ects of time of day on self- Rodano, R., Cova, P. and Vigano, R. (1988). Designing a
paced perform ance of prolonged exercise. Jour na l of Sports football boot: A theoretical and experimental approach. In
M edicine and Physical Fitness , 35 , 99± 102. Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids
Reilly, T. and Lewis, W. (1985). E V ects of carbohydrate and W.J. M urphy), pp. 416± 425. London: E & FN Spon.
 784 Shephard

Rohde, H.C . and Espersen, T. (1988). Work intensity during Shephard, R.J. (1992). The energy needs of the soccer player.
soccer training and m atch play. In Science and Football Clinical Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , 2 , 62± 70.
(edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), Shephard, R.J. (1995). Exercise and sudden death: An over-
pp. 68± 75. London: E & FN Spon. view. Sport Science Review , 4 , 11± 37.
Rohde, T., Asp, S., M acLean, D.A. and Pedersen, B.K. Shephard, R.J. (1997). Physical A ctivity , Training and the
(1998). C ompetitive sustained exercise in hum ans, Immune Response . Carm el, IN: Cooper Publications.
lymphokine-activated killer cell activity, and glutam ine ± Shephard, R.J. (in press). M inim izing the practical problem s
an intervention study. E uropean Jour nal of A pplied P hysi- of world-wide soccer com petition: M anagement of
olog y , 78 , 448± 453. heat exposure and a shift in circadian rhythm s. Sport
Rokitzki, L., Hinkel, S., Klemp, C ., Cu W , D. and Keul, J. et Science .
(1994). Dietary, serum and urine ascorbic acid status in Shephard, R.J. and Leatt, P. (1987). Carbohydrate and X uid
male athletes. Inter nationa l Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 15 , needs of the soccer player. Sports M edicin e , 4 , 164± 176.
435± 440. Shephard, R.J. and Shek, P.N. (1997). Interactions between
Rontoyannis, G.P., Stalikas, A., Sarros, G. and Vlastaris, A. sleep, other body rhythms, imm une responses, and exer-
(1998). M edical, m orphological and functional aspects cise. Canadian Jour nal of A pplied Physiology , 22 , 95± 116.
of Greek football referees. Jour nal of Sports M edicine and Short, R.V. (1993). M elatonin: Horm one of darkness. B ritish
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

Physical Fitness , 38 , 208± 214. M edical Jour na l , 307 , 952± 953.

Rossiter, H.B., Cannell, E.R. and Jakeman, P.M. (1996). The Sido, Z. and Jako, P. (1995). Virus myocarditis es sport (Viral
e V ect of oral creatine supplementation on the 1000-m myocarditis and sport). H ungar ian Review of Sports M edi-
perform ance of competitive rowers. Jour na l of Sports cine , 34 , 257± 263.
Sciences , 14 , 175± 179. Smith, M ., Clarke, G., Hale, T. and M cM orris, T. (1993).
Rost, R. (1990). Physiological and pathophysiological aspects Blood lactate levels in college soccer players during
of cardiovascular perform ance in soccer players. In Sports match play. In Science and Football II (edited by T. Reilly,
M edicine Applied to Football (edited by G. Santilli), J. Clarys and A. Stibbe), pp. 129± 134. London: E & FN
pp. 311± 317. Rome: CONI. Spon.
Roy, B.D. and Tarnopolsky, M .A. (1998). In X uence of diV er- Smith, R.S., Guillem inault, C. and Efron, B. (1997). C ir-
ing macronutrient intakes on muscle glycogen resynthesis cadian rhythm s and enhanced athletic performance in the
after resistance exercise. Jour nal of A pplied Physiology , 84 , National Football League. Sleep , 20 , 362± 365.
890± 896. Smith, S.A., M ontain, S.J., M atott, R.P., Zientara, G.P.,
Rupp, S. and Kuppig, R. (1995). M uskeldehnbarkeit und Jolesz, F.A. and Fielding, R.A. (1998). C reatine sup-
Verletzungsh „u W gkeit im Fuû ballsport: Prospektive Un- plem entation and age in X uence m uscle m etabolism during
terssuchung  ber eine Saison (M uscle X exibility and injury exercise. Jour na l of Applied P hysiology , 85 , 1349± 1356.
rates in soccer: Prospective study over one season). D eut- Sortland, O. and Tysvaer, A.T. (1989). Brain damage in for-
sche Zeitschr ift f r Sportm edizin , 46 , 127± 131. mer association football players: An evaluation by cerebral
Saltin, B. (1973). M etabolic fundamentals in exercise. computed tom ography. Neuroradiology , 31 , 44± 48.
M edicine and Science in Sports , 5 , 137± 146. StacoV , A., Steger, J., Stuessi, E. and Reinschmidt, C. (1996).
Sandrey, M .A., Zebas, C .J. and Adeyanju, M . (1996). Pre- Lateral stability in sideward cutting m ovem ents. M edicine
vention of injuries in excessive pronators through proper and Science in Sports and Exercise , 28 , 350± 358.
soccer shoe W t. Jour nal of Athletic Training , 31 , 231± 234. Starosta, W. (1988). Symm etry and asymm etry in shooting
Santilli, G. (ed.) (1990). Sports M edicine A pplied to Football . demonstrated by elite soccer players. In Science and Football
Rome: CO NI. (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy),
Sawka, M .N., Knowlton, R.G. and Critz, J.B. (1979). E V ect pp. 346± 355. London: E & FN Spon.
of prolonged running on physiological responses to sub- Stibbe, A.B. (1988). Achilles tendinitis in soccer. In Science
sequent exercise. Jour nal of Hum an E rgology , 8 , 83± 90. and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K . Davids and
Seneczko, F. and Rzetelski, B. (1984). Lim focty TiB krwi W.J. M urphy), pp. 213± 218. London: E & FN Spon.
obwodowej w roznych okresach rocznego cyklu trenin- Suvanto, S. and H „rm a, M . (1993). The prediction of the
gowego pilkarzy i osob nietrenujacych (Peripheral blood adaptation of circadian rhythms to rapid time zone
T and B lym phocytes at various phases of an annual train- changes. E rgonom ics , 36 , 111± 116.
ing cycle in soccer players and non-training persons). Suzuki, S., Togari, H., Isokawa, M ., Ohashi, J. and Ohgushi, T.
Immunologia Polska , 9 , 197± 205. (1988). Analysis of the goalkeeper’ s diving m otion. In
Shephard, R.J. (1974). Sudden death: A signiW cant hazard of Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids
exercise? B r itish Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 8 , 101± 110. and W.J. M urphy), pp. 468± 475. London: E & FN Spon.
Shephard, R.J. (1982). P hysiology and B iochem istr y of Exercise . Tarnopolsky, M .A., M acDougall, J.D. and Atkinson, S.A.
New York: Praeger. (1988). In X uence of protein intake and training status on
Shephard, R.J. (1983). B iochem istr y of P hysical Activity . nitrogen balance and lean body m ass. Jour nal of Applied
Spring W eld, IL: C.C. Thom as. Physiolog y , 64 , 187± 193.
Shephard, R.J. (1984). Sleep, biorhythms and human per- Telford, R.D. and C unningham, R.B. (1991). Sex, sport, and
formance. Spor ts M edicin e , 1 , 11± 37. body-size dependency of haematology in highly trained
Shephard, R.J. (1990). M eeting carbohydrate and X uid needs athletes. M edicine and Science in Sports and E xercise , 23 ,
in soccer. Canadian Jour nal of Sport Sciences , 15 , 165± 171. 788± 794.
 B iology and m edicine of soccer 785

Thrasher, T.N., Wade, C.E., Keil, L.C. and Ramsay, D.J. capacity and sprint power in cyclists. Inter national Jour nal
(1984). Sodium balance and aldosterone during dehydra- of Sports M edicin e , 19 , 490± 495.
tion and rehydration in the dog. Am er ican Jour nal of Van Erp-Baart, A.M .J., Saris, W.H.M ., Binkhorst, R.A., Vos,
Physiolog y , 247 , R76± R83. J.A. and Elvers, J.W.H. (1989a). Nationwide survey on
Tiedt, H.J., Grim m, M . and Unger, K.D. (1991). Verlaufsun- nutritional habits in elite athletes: Part I. Carbohydrate,
tersuchung von Eisen, Kupfer, Zink, C alcium, M agnesium, protein and fat intake. Inter nationa l Jour na l of Sports
Ferritin und Transferrin im Serum sowie H „m oglobin M edicine , 10 (suppl. I), S3± S10.
und H „matocrit im Blut bei Leistungssportlern: Teil 2 Van Erp-Baart, A.M .J., Saris, W.H.M ., Binkhorst, R.S., Vos,
(Research progress on iron, copper, zinc, calcium, m ag- J.A. and Elvers, W.H. (1989b). Nationwide survey on
nesium, ferritin and transferrin as well as haem oglobin and nutritional habits in elite athletes: Part II. M ineral and
haemotocrit in the blood of high-performance athletes: vitamin intake. Inter nationa l Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 10
Part 2). M edizin und Sport , 31 , 161± 165. (suppl. I), S11± S16.
To X er, G.H., Brezinski, D., Schafer, A.I., C zeisler, C.A., Vanfraechem , J.H .P. and Tom as, M . (1988). M aximal aerobic
Rutherford, J.D., Willich, S.N., G leason, R.E., W illiam s, power and ventilatory threshold of a top level soccer team .
G.H. and M uller, J.E. (1987). C oncurrent m orning In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K.
increase in platelet aggregability and the risk of myocardial Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 43± 46. London: E & FN
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

infarction and sudden cardiac death. New England Jour nal Spon.
of M edicine , 316 , 1514± 1518. Van Gool, D. (1987). De fysieke belasting tijdens ean voet-
Tofts, L.J., Stanley, C.S., Barnett, T.G. and Logan, J.G. balvedsfrifd: Studie van afgelegde afstand, hartfrequintie,
(1998). Knee joint function and the energy cost of level energieverbruck en lactaatbapalingen (Physical workload
walking in soccer players. B ritish Jour nal of Sports M edicin e , during a football gam e: Studies of distance covered, heart
32 , 130± 133. rate, energy consum ption and lactate levels). Unpublished
Togari, H., Ohashi, J. and Ohgushi, T. (1988). Isokinetic doctoral dissertation, University of Leuven, Belgium.
m uscle strength of soccer players. In Science and Football Van Gool, D., Van G ervan, D. and Boutmans, J. (1988). The
(edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), physiological load imposed on soccer players during real
pp. 181± 185. London: E & FN Spon. m atch-play. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly,
Townend, M .S. (1988). Is heading the ball a dangerous activ- A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 51± 59. London:
ity? In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. E & FN Spon.
Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 237± 242. London: E & FN Van Hall, G., Saris, W.H.M . and Wagenmakers, A.J.M .
Spon. (1998). E V ect of carbohydrate supplem entation on plasma
Trolle, M ., Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E.B., Klausen, K. and glutamine during prolonged exercise and recovery. Inter -
Bangsbù , J. (1993). E V ects of strength training on kicking nation al Jour na l of Sports M edicin e , 19 , 82± 86.
performance in soccer. In Science and Football II (edited Van Zyl, C.G., Lam bert, E.B., Hawley, J.A., Noakes, T.D.
by T. Reilly, J. Clarys and A. Stibbe), pp. 95± 97. London: and Dennis, S.C. (1996). E V ects of m edium-chained tri-
E & FN Spon. glyceride ingestion on fuel metabolism and cycling. Jour nal
Tsintzas, K.O., Liu, R., W illiam s, C., Cam pbell, I.G. and of Applied Physiology , 80 , 2217± 2225.
Gaitanos, G. (1993). The e V ect of carbohydrate ingestion Varol, R., Karam izrak, O. and Onat, T. (1990). Universite
during exercise on performance during a 30 km race. Inter - ogrencisi basketbolcu, futbolcu ve v  cut gelistirm ecilerin
nation al Jour na l of Sports N utrition , 3 , 127± 139. serum lipid deglerleri ve aerobik kapasiteleri (Serum lipid
Tucker, A.M . (1997). Com mon soccer injuries: Diagnosis, levels and aerobic capacities of university basketball
treatm ent and rehabilitation. Sports M edicin e , 23 , 21± 32. players, football players and body builders). Turkish Jour nal
Tum ilty, D. (1993). Physiological characteristics of elite soccer of Sports M edicin e , 25 , 53± 61.
players. Sports M edicin e , 16 , 80± 96. Verstappen, F. and Bovens, F. (1989). Interval testing with
Turunen, H., Tenhonen, S., Sen, C.-K. and Hanninen, O. football players at a laboratory. Science of Football , 2 , 15± 16.
(1996). Activation symm etry of right and left femoris Von Jergas, M ., U V mann, M ., W ittenberg, R., M  ller, P. and
m uscles in untrained students, soccer players and elite K ” ster, O. (1992). U ltraschallgeschwindigkeitmessungen
runners. C oaching and Spor t Science Jour nal , 1 , 20± 24. an belastungstragenden und nicht-belastungstragenden
Ueno, Y., Watai, E. and Ishii, K. (1988). Aerobic and anaer- Stellen des peripheren Skeletts. Der Ein X uû k ” rperlicher
obic power of rugby football players. In Science and Football Aktivit„t bei Fuû ballspielern (Ultrasound transmission
(edited by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), velocity at weight-bearing and non-weightbearing skeletal
pp. 201± 205. London: E & FN Spon. sites: E V ects of exercise in soccer players). Fortschritte auf
Valiant, G.A. (1988). Ground reaction forces developed on dem G ebiete der R ”ntgenstrahlen und der N uklear m edizin , 157 ,
artiW cial turf. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, A. 420± 424.
Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 406± 415. London: Wagenmakers, A.J.M ., Brookes, J.H., Coakley, J.H., Reilly, T.
E & FN Spon. and Edwards, R.H.T. (1989). Exercise-induced activation
Van de Beek, E.J. (1991). Vitam in supplementation and phys- of the branch-chain 2-oxo acid dehydrogenase in hum an
ical exercise performance. Jour nal of Sports Sciences , 9 m uscle. European Jour nal of A pplied Physiology , 59 , 159± 167.
(suppl.), 77± 90. Walton, P. and Rhodes, E.C. (1997). The e V ects of solid
Vandebuerie, F., Vanden Eynde, B., Vandenberghe, K. and and liquid carbohydrate ingestion on high-intensity inter-
Hespel, P. (1998). E V ect of creatine loading on endurance m ittent exercise performance. B iology of Sport , 14 , 45± 54.
 786 Shephard

Waterhouse, J., Reilly, T. and Atkinson, G. (1998). M elatonin Wislù V , U., Helgerud, J. and Ho V , J. (1998). Strength and
and jet lag. B ritish Jour na l of Spor ts M edicin e , 32 , 98± 100. endurance of elite soccer players. M edicine and Science in
Watson, A.W.S. (1995). Sports injuries in footballers related Sports and Exercise , 30 , 462± 467.
to defects of posture and body m echanics. Jour nal of Sports Withers, R.T., W hittingham , N.O., Norton, K.I., La Forgia, J.,
M edicine and Physical Fitness , 35 , 289± 294. Ellis, M .W. and C rockett, A. (1987). Relative body fat
Wenger, C.B. (1988). Human heat acclimatization. In H um an and anthropometric prediction of body density of fem ale
Perfor m ance , Physiology and Environm ental M edicine at athletes. E uropean Jour na l of Applied Physiology , 56 , 169±
Ter restrial E xtrem es (edited by K .B. Pandolf, M .N. Saka 180.
and R.R. Gonzalez), pp. 153± 197. Indianapolis, IN : Wurtman, R.J. (1982). Nutrients that m odify brain function.
Benchm ark Press. Scienti W c Am er ican , 246 , 50± 59.
White, J.E., Em ery, T.M ., Kane, J.L., G roves, R. and Rism an, Yam anaka, K., Haga, S., Shindo, M ., Narita, J., Koseki, S.,
A.B. (1988). Pre-season W tness pro W les of professional Matsuura, Y. and Eda, M. (1988). Time and motion analy-
soccer players. In Science and Football (edited by T. Reilly, sis in top class soccer gam es. In Science and Football (edited
A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 164± 171. by T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids and W.J. M urphy), pp. 334±
London: E & FN Spon. 340. London: E & FN Spon.
Williams, C . (1994). Nutritional aspects. In Footb all (Soccer ) Zakas, A., M androukas, K., Vam vakoudis, E., Christoulas, K.
Downloaded by [Eastern Kentucky University] at 15:44 16 March 2013

(edited by B. Ekblom), pp. 139± 157. Oxford: Blackwell and Aggepoulou, N. (1995). Peak torque of quadriceps
ScientiW c. and ham string muscles in basketball and soccer players of
Williams, C.A. and Singh, M . (1997). Dynamic trunk strength diV erent divisions. Jour na l of Sports M edicine and Physical
of Canadian football players, soccer players, and m iddle to Fitness , 35 , 199± 205.
long distance runners. Jour na l of Orthopaedic and Sports Zawadzki, K.M ., Yaspelkis, B.B. and Ivy, J.L. (1992).
Physical Therapy , 25 , 271± 276. Carbohydrate± protein complex increases the rate of glyco-
Willich, S.N. (1995). C ircadian in X uences and possible gen storage after exercise. Jour na l of Applied Physiology , 72 ,
triggers of sudden death. Sport Science R eview , 4 , 31± 45. 1854± 1859.
Winter, F.D., Snell, P.G. and Stray-Gunderson, J. (1989). Zeederberg, C ., Leach, L., Lambert, E.V., Noakes, T.D.,
E V ects of 100% oxygen on perform ance of professional Dennis, S.C. and Hawley, J.A. (1996). The e V ect of carbo-
soccer players. Jour nal of the A m er ican M edical A ssociation , hydrate ingestion on the m otor skill pro W ciency of soccer
262 , 227± 229. players. Inter nationa l Jour na l of Sport N utrition , 6 , 348± 355.