Project Report 2022-2023 vapour compression refrigeration test rig

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTON

This Refrigerator Works on simple Vapour Compression Cycle.Continuously

circulating, evaporating, and condensing a fixed supply of refrigerant in a closed
system accomplish mechanical refrigeration. Evaporating occurs at a low
temperature and low pressure while condensation occurs at a high temperature and
pressure. Thus, it is possible to transfer heat from an area of low temperature (i. e.
refrigerator cabinet) to an area of high temperature (i.e. kitchen) Beginning the cycle
at the evaporator inlet the low pressure liquid expands, absorbs heat, and evaporates,
changing to a low pressure gas at the evaporator outlet.

The Compressor pumps this gas from the evaporator through the accumulator
increases its pressure, and discharges the high pressure gas to the condenser
accumulator is designed to protect the compressor by preventing slugs of liquid
refrigerant from passing directly into the compressor. An accumulator should be
included on all systems subjected to varying load conditions or frequent compressor
cycling. In the condenser, heat is removed from the gas which then condenses and
becomes a high pressure liquid. In some systems this high-pressure liquid drains
from the condenser into the liquid storage or receiver tank. On other systems, both
the receiver and the liquid line valve are omitted.

A heat exchanger between and the liquid line and the suction line is also an option
item which may or may not be includes in a given system design. Between the
condenser and the evaporator an expansion device is located. Immediately
preceding this device is a liquid line strainer/ drier which prevent plugging of the
valve or tube by retaining scale, dirt and moisture. The flow of refrigerant into the
evaporator is controlled by the pressure differential across the expansion device or,
in the case of a thermal expansion valve, by the degree of superheat of the suction
gas. Thus, the thermal expansion valve shown requires a sensor bulb located at the
evaporator outlet. In any case, the flow of refrigerantinto the evaporator load
increase as the evaporator load increases.

As the high pressure liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator it is subjected to a much
lower pressure due to the suction of the compressor and the pressure drop across the

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expansion device. Thus the refrigerant tends to expand and evaporate. In order to
`evaporate the liquid must absorb heat from the air passing over the evaporator.

Eventually the desired air temperature is reached and the thermostat or cold control
will break the electrical circuit to the compressor motor and stop thecompressor.As
the temperature of the air through the evaporator rises, the thermostat or cold control
remakes the electrical circuit. The compressor motor and starts, and the cycle
continue.

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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Smyth et. al. describes direct expansion (DX) refrigeration technology is almost
exclusively used in multi- temperature transport refrigeration systems. Multi-
temperature systems use up to three evaporators, requiring large refrigerant charges
and system pressure control to operate over a wide range of set-point conditions.
Despite incremental design improvements over the past decade, environmental and
control issues continue to arise with DX systems. Deployment of indirect
refrigeration systems (IDX) offers an alternative approach to address these issues.
Indirect systems can however suffer from performance penalties, where reduced
cooling capacity and COP occur under certain operating conditions. One strategy,
aimed at offsetting the disadvantage of reduced refrigeration capacity, is to
incorporate an economiser circuit into the primary cycle of the IDX system.
Economiser cycles can enhance the refrigeration effect of the primary refrigerant in
the primary to secondary heat exchanger of the indirect system. [1]

Smyth et. al. describes an approach for control of an economiser cycle based on the
use of economiser pressure as the primary control parameter. In the study, the
economiser cycle was used to optimise a multi- temperature indirect (IDX) transport
refrigeration system, where hydronic secondary loops were utilised. Intransport
refrigeration applications, IDX systems can offer the potential to address a number
of important environmental and control issues associated with direct expansion
(DX) systems. IDX systems may also give rise to reduced capacity and COP
through increased compressor pressure ratios associated with the hydronic
secondary circuit and power requirements of the liquid secondary pumps. One
approach by which this issue can be addressed is through use of an economiser
cycle, which provides a mechanism for performance enhancement by augmenting
the refrigeration effect of the primary refrigerant, in the primary to secondary heat
exchanger of these systems. Previous work ascertained that by control of the mass-
flow injection ratio, an economiser cycle can be used to optimise indirect multi-
temperature systems for a wide range of diverse operating conditions.[2]

Finn et. al. describes a mathematical model of the defrost process for a finned-tube
air chiller, utilised as a heat exchanger in a secondary loop multi-temperature
transport refrigeration system, where an antifreeze mixture is deployed as a sensible
secondary working fluid. Two defrost modes are modeled: an electric mode which

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effects defrost by localised resistance heating of the chiller secondary working fluid,
and a hot gas primary circuit mode that indirectly heats the secondary working fluid
by means of a primary to secondary heat exchanger. The model, which was
implemented using the Engineering Equation Solver (EES), is based on a finite
difference approach to analyse the heat transfer from the secondary working fluid,
through a single finned heat exchanger section, to the frost. An iterative scheme is
used to integrate for the overall heat exchanger, taking into account temperature
glide associated with the secondary working fluid. The overall heat exchanger
model is incorporated within a system defrost model, which allows the entire defrost
process to be modeled. [3]

Winkle et. al. has been growing in recent years due to the high direct global
warming potential of common HFC refrigerants. Despite the environment-friendly
characteristics of CO2 as a refrigerant, due to high heat rejection temperatures and
transcritical operation, CO2 cannot match the high energy efficiency associated with
current HFC technology. Thus, additional measures must be taken to achieve high
COP when using CO2. One approach is to use CO2 as one of the fluids in a cascade
system along with a HFC refrigerant as the high side fluid. Such systems may have
roughly 75% less HFC refrigerant charge, and the global warming potential is
reduced compared to a baseline system using only HFC refrigerant. When used as a
second fluid in a cascade system, the CO2 cycle remains in the subcritical region,
thus increasing the cycle’s COP. In this paper an approach to model cascade systems
is presented. The model is validated using experimental data for a R404A/CO2
cascade system and results are discussed. [4]

Yamasaki et. al. describes the transcritical refrigeration cycle utilizing CO2 as
working fluid which is composedwith Gas cooler, Intercooler, Suction Line Heat
Exchanger, Capillary tube and Rolling Piston type 2-Stage CO2 Compressor. The
adoption of the Inter cooler between 1st discharge and 2nd suction reduced the 2nd
discharge gas temperature. The adoption of the Suction Line Heat Exchanger
enabled to have a sufficient superheat of 1stsuction. The adoption of capillary tube
as an expansion device helped the system simplicity. [5]

Pfafferottet. al. presents the current results of the development of a Modelica library
for CO2-Refrigeration systems based on the free Modelica library ThermoFluid.
The development of the library is carried out in a researchproject of EADS Airbus
and the TUHH and is focused on the aim of getting a library for detailed numerical
investigations of refrigeration systems with the rediscovered refrigerant carbon
dioxide (CO2). A survey of the concept of an integrated cooling system on-board of
airliners, the used modelling language Modelica™ and the developed CO2-Library
is given and the modelling of CO2- Heat exchangers is described. A comparison

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Project Report 2022-2023 vapour compression refrigeration test rig

with steady state results of heat exchangers is presented showing a very good
agreement. The presented transient simulation results show the expected trends, but
the models have not yet been validated with transient experimental data. [6]

Zimmerman et. al. s focused on the evaluation of the performance of a single stage
CO2 reciprocating compressor working on a beverage cooler application. A glass
door merchandiser (GDM) was tested to develop a procedure to determine the best
combination of capillary tube and refrigerant charge. Fin and tube heat exchangers
were used both for the evaporator and the gas cooler. The criteria are choosing the
combination was the total energy consumption of the system. The theoretical
optimum discharge pressure was determined point by point during the “ON” period
of the cycle and was compared to the experimental discharge pressure. The results
showed that the closer profile to the optimum profile was the best in terms of energy
consumption. The system was also tested with R134a and the results were compared
showing 26%of energy savings in favor of the CO2 system. [7]

Rogstamet. al. obtained results allow the collection of detailed information on air
and CO2 across the coil. The results have been compared with those obtained on our
laboratory test bench and the agreement between the predictions and experimental
data is very satisfactory. The analysis has been limited to the evaporator coil from
thethermal hydraulics point of view. The recirculation ratio, N has been varied in the
range 1 to 4 and corresponding heattransfer coefficients, internal pressure drop and
saturation temperature variations have been obtained. Despite a substantial
improvement in heat transfer due to recirculation (in the order of 180% for N=4),
the coil capacity remained almost unchanged while pressure drophas considerably
increased and the corresponding saturation temperature dropped. [8]

Z. Aidounet. al. have dictated the identification and the development of substitutes
for the current synthetic refrigerants replacement. Carbon dioxide is a natural
alternative suitable for medium and low temperatures. Heat transfer between the
refrigerant and the refrigerated medium occurs in the evaporator, whose design must
be adapted to take advantage of the favorable properties of carbon dioxide. This
paper presents a mathematical model to study in detail a counter-current type
air/CO2 coil with corrugated fins. The model applies the conservation equations for
mass, momentum and enthalpy on small volume elements. The solution procedure
of these equations is based on the Forward Marching Technique.The computed
results allow for detailed information on the air and refrigerant states in the coil.
Local results can be integrated to obtain global values for engineering purposes. It is
possible to qualify tube rows by determining their individual capacities in terms of
their location in the coil. Experiments have been performed on an experimental
facility in CTEC-V Laboratories. Results from this installation as well as those

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collected from the open literature have been used to validate the developed model.
[9]

Kemal et. al. proposed during the last 25 years automotive air conditioning (AAC)
systems have significant development introduced by the industry and research
institutes in the world to minimize the global warming threat to the environment.
This paper reports the results of a study on the performance of an AAC system with
measuring the compressor driving speed and the refrigerant leakage. For this
purpose an experimental set up is designed and constructed to investigate the system
performance. Although, the manufacturer’s recommended amount for the tests with
R-134a as refrigerant was 750 g, the experiments were also carried out by selecting
different amount of the same refrigerant charges to analyse the coefficient of
performance (COP), the cooling capacity and the compressor power change with
respect to the rotating speed of the compressor. The evaluation of experimental data
revealed that the best cooling capacity was achieved at 500 g refrigerant charge.
Although, whilethe charge level decreased 40% below or increased 20% above the
500g of the charge amount, cooling capacity loss increased up to 25% when
optimum value of 500 g of the cooling refrigerant was utilized. The test results
proved in each case that increasing the compressor driving speedcause almost a
linear change in the corresponding power level. [10]

Brown et. al. evaluates performance merits of CO2 and R134a automotive air
conditioning systems using semi-theoretical cycle models. The R134a system had a
current- production configuration, which consisted of a compressor, condenser,
expansion device, and evaporator. The CO2 system was additionally equipped with
a liquid- line/suction-line heat exchanger. Using these two systems,International
Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395 -0056
Volume: 03 Issue: 08 | Aug-2016 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 © 2016, IRJET |
Impact Factor value: 4.45 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1148 an effort
was made to derive an equitable comparison of performance; the components in
both systems were equivalent and deference in thermodynamic and transport
properties were accounted for in the simulations. The analysis showed R134a
having a better COP than CO2 with the COP disparity being dependent on
compressor speed (system capacity) and ambient temperature. For a compressor
speed of 1000 RPM, the COP of CO2 was lower by 21% at 32.2 C and by 34% at
48.9 C. At higher speeds and ambient temperatures, the COP disparity was even
greater. The entropy generation calculations indicated that the large entropy
generation in the gas cooler was the primary cause for the lower performance of
CO2. [11]

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Yang et. al. performed for the trans critical carbon dioxide refrigeration cycles with
a throttling valve and with an expander, based on the first and second laws of
thermodynamics. The effects of evaporating temperature and outlet temperature of
gas cooler on the optimal heat rejection pressure, the coefficients of performance
(COP), the energy losses, and the energy efficiencies are investigated. In order to
identify the amounts and locations of irreversibility within the two cycles, energy
analysis is employed to study the thermodynamics process in each component. It is
found that in the throttling valve cycle, the largest exergy loss occurs in the
throttling valve, about 38% of the total cycle irreversibility. In the expander cycle,
the irreversibility mainly comes from the gas cooler and the compressor,
approximately 38% and 35%, respectively. The COP and energy efficiency of the
expander cycle are on average 33% and 30% higher than those of the throttling
valve cycle, respectively. It is also concluded that an optimal heat rejection pressure
can be obtained for all the operating conditions to maximize the COP. [12]

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CHAPTER-3
REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration is any of various types of cooling of a space, substance, or system to
lower and/or maintain its temperature below the ambient one (while the removed
heat is ejected to a place of higher temperature). Refrigeration is an artificial, or
human-made, cooling method.

Refrigeration refers to the process by which energy, in the form of heat, is removed
from a low-temperature medium and transferred to a high-temperature medium.
This work of energy transfer is traditionally driven by mechanical means (whether
ice or electromechanical machines), but it can also be driven by heat, magnetism,
electricity, laser, or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including
household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning. Heat
pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be
designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units.

Refrigeration has had a large impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture, and

settlement patterns. The idea of preserving food dates back to human prehistory, but
for thousands of years humans were limited regarding the means of doing so. They
used curing via salting and drying, and they made use of natural coolness in caves,
root cellars, and winter weather, but other means of cooling were unavailable. In the
19th century, they began to make use of the ice trade to develop cold chains. In the
late 19th through mid-20th centuries, mechanical refrigeration was developed,
improved, and greatly expanded in its reach Refrigeration has thus rapidly evolved
in the past century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars,
refrigerator trucks, and ubiquitous refrigerators and freezers in both stores and
homes in many countries. The introduction of refrigerated rail cars contributed to
the settlement of areas that were not on earlier main transport channels such as
rivers, harbors, or valley trails.

These new settlement patterns sparked the building of large cities which are able to
thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston,
Texas, and Las Vegas, Nevada. In most developed countries, cities are heavily
dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets in order to obtain their food for daily
consumption.The increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of
agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of farms. Farms today have a
much larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s.This has resulted in

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new food sources available to entire populations, which has had a large impact on
the nutrition of society.

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Project Report 2022-2023 vapour compression refrigeration test rig

CHAPTER-4
METHODS OF REFRIGERTIONS
Methods of refrigeration can be classified as non-cyclic, cyclic, thermoelectric and
magnetic.
4.1 Non-cyclic refrigeration

This refrigeration method cools a contained area by melting ice, or by sublimating

dry ice.Perhaps the simplest example of this is a portable cooler, where items are put
in it, then ice is poured over the top. Regular ice can maintain temperatures near, but
not below the freezing point, unless salt is used to cool the ice down further (as in a
traditional ice-cream maker). Dry ice can reliably bring the temperature well below
water freezing point.

4.2 Cyclic refrigeration

This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-temperature

space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the help of external
work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is
supplied from a high-temperature source to the engine, part of the heat being used to
produce work and the rest being rejected to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies
the second law of thermodynamics.

A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it
alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also
applied to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVACR work, when describing
the "process" of refrigerant flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged
or split system.

Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space or
storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher
temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and energy needed to
achieve and maintain a lower temperature in the cooled space. The operating
principle of the refrigeration cycle was described mathematically by Sadi Carnot in
1824 as a heat engine.

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The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle, although absorption heat pumps are used in a
minority of applications.

Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as:

1. Vapor cycle, and

2. Gas cycle

Vapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:

1. Vapor-compression refrigeration
2. Sorption Refrigeration
1. Vapor-absorption refrigeration

2. Adsorption refrigeration

4.2.1 Vapour compression cycle

The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in

many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a
schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration
system.

The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram[77] as shown in

Figure 2. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as a low boiling hydrocarbon or
hydrofluorocarbons enters the compressor as a vapour. From point 1 to point 2, the
vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a
higher temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that temperature. From
point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels through the condenser which
cools the vapour until it starts condensing, and then condenses the vapor into a
liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature. Between
points 4 and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a
throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and
auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid.

That results in a mixture of liquid and vapour at a lower temperature and pressure as
shown at point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator
coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space
being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or tubes. The
resulting refrigerant vapour returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the
thermodynamic cycle.

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The above discussion is based on the ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle,

and does not take into account real-world effects like frictional pressure drop in the
system, slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the compression of the
refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior, if any. Vapor compression refrigerators
can be arranged in two stages in cascade refrigeration systems, with the second
stage cooling the condenser of the first stage. This can be used for achieving very
low temperatures.

4.2.2 Gas cycle

When the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded but does not
change phase, the refrigeration cycle is called a gas cycle. Air is most often this
working fluid. As there is no condensation and evaporation intended in a gas cycle,
components corresponding to the condenser and evaporator in a vapor compression
cycle are the hot and cold gas-to-gas heat exchangers in gas cycles.

The gas cycle is less efficient than the vapor compression cycle because the gas
cycle works on the reverse Brayton cycle instead of the reverse Rankine cycle. As
such, the working fluid does not receive and reject heat at constant temperature. In
the gas cycle, the refrigeration effect is equal to the product of the specific heat of
the gas and the rise in temperature of the gas in the low temperature side. Therefore,
for the same cooling load, a gas refrigeration cycle needs a large mass flow rate and
is bulky.

Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, air cycle coolers are not often
used nowadays in terrestrial cooling devices. However, the air cycle machine is very
common on gas turbine-powered jet aircraft as cooling and ventilation units,
because compressed air is readily available from the engines' compressor sections.
Such units also serve the purpose of pressurizing the aircraft.

4.3 Thermoelectric refrigeration

Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the
junction of two types of material. This effect is commonly used in camping and
portable coolers and for cooling electronic components and small instruments.
Peltier coolers are often used where a traditional vapor-compression cycle
refrigerator would be impractical or take up too much space, and in cooled image
sensors as an easy, compact and lightweight, if inefficient, way to achieve very low
temperatures, using two or more stage peltier coolers arranged in a cascade
refrigeration configuration, meaning that two or more Peltier elements are stacked

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on top of each other, with each stage being larger than the one before it, in order to
extract more heat and waste heat generated by the previous stages. Peltier cooling
has a low COP (efficiency) when compared with that of the vapor-compression
cycle, so it emits more waste heat (heat generated by the Peltier element or cooling
mechanism) and consumes more power for a given cooling capacity.

4.4 Magnetic refrigeration

Magnetic refrigeration, or adiabatic demagnetization, is a cooling technology based

on the magnetocaloric effect, an intrinsic property of magnetic solids. The
refrigerant is often a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium nitrate. The
active magnetic dipoles in this case are those of the electron shells of the
paramagnetic atoms.

A strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic
dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a state
of lowered entropy. A heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant due
to its loss of entropy. Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the
system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched off. This increases the heat
capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of
the heat sink.

Because few materials exhibit the needed properties at room temperature,

applications have so far been limited to cryogenics and research.

4.5 Other methods

Other methods of refrigeration include the air cycle machine used in aircraft; the
vortex tube used for spot cooling, when compressed air is available; and
thermoacoustic refrigeration using sound waves in a pressurized gas to drive heat
transfer and heat exchange; steam jet cooling popular in the early 1930s for air
conditioning large buildings; thermoelastic cooling using a smart metal alloy
stretching and relaxing. Many Stirling cycle heat engines can be run backwards to
act as a refrigerator, and therefore these engines have a niche use in cryogenics. In
addition, there are other types of cryocoolers such as Gifford-McMahon coolers,
Joule-Thomson coolers, pulse-tube refrigerators and, for temperatures between 2
mK and 500 mK, dilution refrigerators.

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4.5.1 Elastocaloric refrigeration

Another potential solid-state refrigeration technique and a relatively new area of

study comes from a special property of super elastic materials. These materials
undergo a temperature change when experiencing an applied mechanical stress
(called the elastocaloric effect). Since super elastic materials deform reversibly at
high strains, the material experiences a flattened elastic region in its stress-strain
curve caused by a resulting phase transformation from an austenitic to a martensitic
crystal phase.

When a super elastic material experiences a stress in the austenitic phase, it

undergoes an exothermic phase transformation to the martensitic phase, which
causes the material to heat up. Removing the stress reverses the process, restores the
material to its austenitic phase, and absorbs heat from the surroundings cooling
down the material.

The most appealing part of this research is how potentially energy efficient and
environmentally friendly this cooling technology is. The different materials used,
commonly shape-memory alloys, provide a non-toxic source of emission free
refrigeration. The most commonly studied materials studied are shape-memory
alloys, like nitinol and Cu-Zn-Al. Nitinol is of the more promising alloys with

output heat at about 66 J/cm3 and a temperature change of about 16–20 K.Due to
the difficulty in manufacturing some of the shape memory alloys, alternative
materials like natural rubber have been studied. Even though rubber may not give

off as much heat per volume (12 J/cm 3 ) as the shape memory alloys, it still
generates a comparable temperature change of about 12 K and operates at a suitable
temperature range, low stresses, and low cost.

The main challenge however comes from potential energy losses in the form of
hysteresis, often associated with this process. Since most of these losses comes from
incompatibilities between the two phases, proper alloy tuning is necessary to reduce
losses and increase reversibility and efficiency. Balancing the transformation strain
of the material with the energy losses enables a large elastocaloric effect to occur
and potentially a new alternative for refrigeration.

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4.5.2 Fridge Gate

The Fridge Gate method is a theoretical application of using a single logic gate to
drive a refrigerator in the most energy efficient way possible without violating the
laws of thermodynamics. It operates on the fact that there are two energy states in
which a particle can exist: the ground state and the excited state. The excited state
carries a little more energy than the ground state, small enough so that the transition
occurs with high probability. There are three components or particle types
associated with the fridge gate. The first is on the interior of the refrigerator, the
second on the outside and the third is connected to a power supply which heats up
every so often that it can reach the E state and replenish the source. In the cooling
step on the inside of the refrigerator, the g state particle absorbs energy from
ambient particles, cooling them, and itself jumping to the e state. In the second step,
on the outside of the refrigerator where the particles are also at an e state, the
particle falls to the g state, releasing energy and heating the outside particles. In the
third and final step, the power supply moves a particle at the e state, and when it
falls to the g state it induces an energy-neutral swap where the interior e particle is
replaced by a new g particle, restarting the cycle.

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CHAPTER-5
TYPES OF REFRIGERANTS

Table 5.1 .Types of refrigerants

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CHAPTER-6
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM

figure 9.1 Schematic diagram of VCRS

Vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which

absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that
heat elsewhere. Figure 9.1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system.
All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a metering
device or thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve), and an evaporator.
Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a
saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher
temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state
known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can
be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or
tubes.

The superheated vapor then passes through the condenser. This is where heat is
transferred from the circulating refrigerant to an external medium, allowing the
gaseous refrigerant to cool and condense into a liquid. The rejected heat is carried
away by either the water or the air, depending on the type of condenser.

The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated

liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt

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reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash

evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the
adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor
refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space
to be refrigerated.

The cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes
in the evaporator. Air in the enclosed space circulates across the coil or tubes due to
either thermal convection or a fan. Since the air is warmer than the cold liquid
refrigerant, heat is transferred which cools the air and causes evaporation of the
liquid, returning it to a gaseous state whilst absorbing heat. While liquid remains in
the refrigerant flow, its temperature will not rise above the boiling point of the
refrigerant, which depends on the pressure in the evaporator. Most systems are
designed to evaporate all of the refrigerant to ensure that no liquid is returned to the
compressor.

To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is
again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor. Over time, the
evaporator may collect ice or water from ambient humidity. The ice is melted
through defrosting. The water from the melted ice or the evaporator then drips into a
drip pan, and the water is carried away by gravity or a condensate pump.

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CHAPTER-7
HISTORY
In 1805, the American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. Heat would be
removed from the environment by recycling vaporized refrigerant, where it would
move through a compressor and condenser, and would eventually revert to a liquid
form in order to repeat the refrigeration process over again. However, no such
refrigeration unit was built by Evans.

In 1834, an American expatriate to Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first
working vapor-compression refrigeration system in the world.It was a closed-cycle
that could operate continuously, as he described in his patent:
I am enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of producing the cooling or
freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time constantly condensing such volatile
fluids, and bringing them again into operation without waste.

His prototype system worked although it did not succeed commercially.

A similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie, who built
a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander
Twining took out a British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used
ether.

The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James
Harrison, a British journalist who had emigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was
for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a
mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky
Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed
in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to
breweries and meat packing houses and, by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in
operation in Australia and England.
The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in
water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France
in 1859 and patented in 1860. Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the
Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of
liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible using gases such as

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ammonia, sulfur dioxide SO2, and methyl chloride (CH3Cl) as refrigerants and they
were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s.

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CHAPTER-8
EXPERIMENT ON VAPOUR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION TEST RIG

Description of Test rig:

The experimental refrigeration cycle test rig consists of a compressor unit,

condenser, evaporator, cooling chamber, expansion devices and measuring
instruments those are fitted on a stand and a control panel, The Refrigerant used is
R134a.

Theory:

The coefficient of performance of refrigeration plant is given by the ratio of heat

absorbed, by the refrigerant when passing through the evaporator or the system, to
the work input to the compressor.

Calculation of Actual COP

1. Refrigerating effect= m Cp x change in temprature/Time taken for temnerature

change

Where,

m = mass of water kept in cooling chamber = 3.14/4 x d² x h x p water (Kg)

d=diameter of evaporator vessel(m)

h=height of water in evaporator vessel

P water= 1000 kg/m³

Cp-specific heat of water= 4.2Kj / K gK

change in Temperature= temperature difference of cooling water = initial -final

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2. Power input in KWH =Total energy meter reading =Final value initial value of
energy meter

Note: If using manual energy meter, Power input = 3600 / t x k of energy meter and
energy meter constant (rev/Kw/hr)) (kW), Where t time for n revolution

3. COP (actual)= Refrigerating Effect / Power input

Calculation of Theoretical COP

The coefficient of performance of refrigerator is obtained from Pressure Enthalpy

chart (Ph Chart) of the refrigerant (r * 134a) Convert pressure gauge reading into
bar, plot the corresponding points on p-h chart against temperature. Find out
enthalpy at these points. Let hl.h2.h3 and h4 be enthalpies

Figure 8.1 . pressure-enthalpy diagram

Figure 8.1 p-h diagram

COP (Theoretical) = h1-h4 / h2-h1

Procedure:

1. Check the level of water inside evaporator vessel. If it is find less fill it up to top
and measure the height of water using steel rule

2. Start the Test rig by switching on mains power supply.

3. Switch on the compressor.

4. Note the start time using stop watch and note the initial Wh reading of energy
meter

5. Tabulate initial water temperature against initial time

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6. After running for 15 minutes, once stabilized, note all temperature and pressure
readings.

7. Check the final water temperature in the evaporator vessel

8. Repeat the experiment for another level of water in the evaporator vessel

9. Tabulate reading and make calculation as above

Note: If using manual energy meter, time required for 5 rotation of compressor
energy meter is to be noted for finding power input

Observation

1. Diameter of evaporator vessel, d... m

2. Initial water level,h = .... m

3. Time taken for reaching xº temperature = ... Sec

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CHAPTER-9
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM

Figure 10.1 Temprature - Entropy Diagram

The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a

temperature versus entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 10.1. At point 1 in the
diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as a low-temperature,
low-pressure saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is isentropically
compressed (compressed at constant entropy) and exits the compressor as a high-
pressure, high-temperature superheated vapor. Superheat is the amount of sensible
heat added to the vapor above its saturation point, i.e. its boiling point.

From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser which
removes the superheat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4, the vapor
travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into a high-
temperature, high-pressure subcooled liquid. Subcool is the amount of sensible heat
removed from the liquid below its maximum saturation. The condensation process
occurs at essentially constant pressure.

Between points 4 and 5, the subcooled liquid refrigerant passes through the
expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process results

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in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the liquid

(typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash evaporation
process is isenthalpic (occurs at constant enthalpy).

Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through
the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air
(from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil or tubes in
the evaporator. The evaporator operates at essentially constant temperature and boils
off all available liquid after adding pressure to the refrigerant in order to make sure
the liquid has evaporated completely. This is a safeguard for the compressor, as it
cannot pump liquid.

The resulting superheated vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to

complete the thermodynamic cycle.

The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in the
system, slight internal irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant
vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).

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CHAPTER-10
EXPLANATION OF REFRIGERANT R-134a
R134a (1,1,1,2-Tetrafluorethane) was introduced in 1991 under a number of
different trade names such as Klea 134a, Suva 134a, Freon 134a, Forane 134a,
Genetron 134a, Florasol 134a or simply just HFC 134a.

R134a was developed as a non-ozone depleting replacement for the CFC

(Chlorofluorocarbon) R-12 after it was discovered that the chlorine element had a
deleterious affect on the ozone layer.

HFC’s (hydrofluorocarbons) contain no chlorine so are non-ozone depleting,

making them better for the environment.

R134a is also non-toxic and non-flammable though it is classed as a greenhouse gas

meaning it contributes towards global warming when released to the atmosphere.

R134a has a GWP (global warming potential) 1,430. When measuring GWP CO 2 is

used as the benchmark which has a GWP of 1.

Main applications for R134a include but are not limited to automotive air-
conditioning, medium temperature refrigeration, aerosol and pharmaceutical.

R134a was banned for use in technical aerosol after the end of 2017 though this is
exempt under certain military & medical applications.

Today the largest consumers of R134a are in pharmaceutical as the propellant in

asthma inhalers and in the automotive aftermarket industry for re-gassing air-
conditioning systems in cars manufactured before 2017.

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CHAPTER-11
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
TEST RIG
The REFRIGERATION test rig works on simple vapour compression refrigeration
cycle and uses R134a as a refrigerant. It is environment friendly. The experimental
refrigeration cycle test rig consist of a compressor unit, condenser, evaporator,
cooling chamber, controlling devices and measuring instruments those are fitted on
a stand and a control panel. The apparatus is fabricated in such a way; to
refrigeration system hermetically sealed compressor is fitted on stand with the help
of flexible foundation bolts to minimize vibrations. Electric power input to the
compressor is given through thermostatic switch. The system is fabricated such that
students can observe and study vapor compression cycle, its component principle &
working. The arrangement of parts such that, all the parts are visible and working
can be easily understood

Figure 11.1 Vapour compression refrigeration test rig

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CHAPTER-12
PARTS OF VAPOUR
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION TEST RIG

A Vapour compression refrigeration test rig is a machine that consists of various

parts

and components. They are: -

• CHILLER : The purpose of a chiller is to utilize the power of outside air and

water to maintain the target temperature at a constant level. Therefore, it can

be used to cool or heat. Because it is necessary to keep the temperature
constant at all times, it is not limited to cooling.

• COMPRESSOR : A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the

pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air compressor is a specific type

of gas compressor.

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• CONDENSER : In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a heat

exchanger used to condense a gaseous substance into a liquid state through

cooling.

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• FILTER DRIER : A filter dryer is an efficient way to separate solids from

liquids,whether the product is the solid or liquid. The liquid slurry is

transferred from reactorsinto the filter dryers and through mechanical
agitation, pressure and heat – the resultingproduct is left behind or transferred
onward.

• SUCTION PRESSURE ENERGY METER : It is a reduction in the

diffusion pressureof solvent in the solution over its pure state due to the
presence of solutes in it and forcesopposing diffusion. Thus it is DPD that
tends to equate and represents the water-absorbing ability of a cell, it is also
called suction force (SF) or suction pressure (SP).

• DISCHARGE PRESSURE ENERGY METER :Discharge pressure (also

called highside pressure or head pressure) is the pressure generated on the

output side of a gascompressor in a refrigeration or air conditioning system.

• TEMPARETURE INDICATOR : Temperature indicators. Temperature

indicators are installation instruments which can process signals from

temperature sensors and show them on the display. Temperature indicators
enable easy and economic valuation of resistance sensors, such as Pt100 or
different thermo element types.

• CAPILLARY TUBE : Capillary tube is one of the commonly used throttling

devices in the refrigeration and the air conditioning systems. The capillary
tube is made up of copper tube of very small internal diameter. It is of very
long length and it is coiled to several turns so that it occupies less space.

• CAPILLARY OPERATING VALVE : Capillary valves are burst valves, i.

e. once the liquid passes through them they no longer function as valves.
Resetting a capillary valve requires the formation of the liquid–liquid or
liquid–gas interface at the location of hydrophobic interaction.

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• THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE : The primary function of the

thermostatic expansion valve is to regulate and reduce the pressure of the

refrigerant from the condenser pressure to the evaporator pressure. The
refrigerant is usually at high pressure when inside the condenser.

• ROTAMETER 134A : A rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of

liquid or gas in a closed tube. Fix this equipment in the section where you
want to calculate the flow. You could use a Rotameter.A rotameter is a device
that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube.

• ENERGY METER FOR COMPRESSOR : A power meter, or energy

meter, is a measurement device, which is able to measure the voltage and the
current of an electrical consumer, for example a compressor. By measuring
these values, the power meter is able to calculate the power consumption of
the consumer.

• SOLENOID VALVE : A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated

valve. Solenoid valves differ in the characteristics of the electric current they
use, the strength of the magnetic field they generate, the mechanism they use
to regulate the fluid, and the type and characteristics of fluid they control.

• SOLENOID VALVE ON : On valve operates only in two modes- it is either

fully open or fully closed. A tap to fill overhead tank is a good example of on-
off valve. The tap is either fully open or fully closed. In case of on-off valve,
there is no provision to control the flow at some intermediate level.

• MAIN SWITCH : The main Switch allows us to turn off and on the

electricity supply to our home. The Main switch distributes the current all
over the house and takes care of all the fuses and wires in it. It is the main
connecting link between external supply and household wiring. We might
have more than one mains switch.

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CHAPTER-13
EXPLANATION OF MAIN COMPONENTS
IN VCR TESTRIG
13.1 COMPRESSOR

Figure 13.1.compressor

The refrigerator compressor is one of the four main components located inside your
fridge that makes your refrigeration system work. The compressor works directly
with the condenser and evaporator coil, along with the expansion valve. Your
refrigerator's compressor controls and compresses the flow of liquid refrigerant,
playing a crucial role in your refrigeration system. Compressors fundamentally
work the same for air conditioning systems, but will differ in some big ways, and
this article focuses on how a refrigerator compressor works.

Refrigeration compressors act as the heart of the refrigeration cycle. To begin the
refrigeration cycle, the evaporator takes refrigerant in a liquid form, and converts it
into a low pressure gas. The compressor's job is to receive this lower pressure
refrigerant gas from the evaporator and convert it into a higher pressure gas. When
this high pressure gas gets compressed, it generates a lot of heat, increasing the
pressure and temperature inside the compressor. This high pressure gas moves into

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the condenser where it condenses back into a liquid, giving off more heat as the
cooling cycle begins in your refrigerator. This newly converted liquid refrigerant
then moves into the expansion valve, which provides and controls the flow of
refrigerant in a low pressure liquid form.

13.2CONDENSER

Figure 13.2.condensor

A condenser (or AC condenser) is the outdoor portion of an air conditioner or heat

pump that either releases or collects heat, depending on the time of the year.

Both split air conditioner and heat pump condensers are made of the same basic
parts. The condenser cabinet contains the condenser coil, a compressor, a fan, and
various controls. The condenser coil can be made of copper tubing with aluminum
fins or all-aluminum tubing so heat can be rapidly transferred.

The condenser fan is a vital component and circulates the air across the coil to
facilitate heat transfer. The compressor is the heart of the system since it compresses
the refrigerant and pumps it to a coil in the form of a hot gas.

In air conditioners, the refrigerant is cooled at the condenser into a warm liquid, and
passes through a pipe into the evaporator coil where it expands and cools. In heat
pumps, the hot gas is pumped directly to the evaporator coil to provide heat.

The concept behind condensers is heat transfer. That is, the thermodynamic
principle describing how heat always moves from warmer to cooler environments.

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Three different phases happen in condenser. The first phase is called the de super
heating. The vapor entering in the condenser is superheated and super pressurized.

13.3 THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE

Figure 13.3. expansion valve

The expansion valve is a passive orifice through which the liquid refrigerant is
forced by the pressure difference between the condensing and the evaporating
conditions. If a system could always operate at fixed conditions, correctly charged, a
simple restriction would fulfil the requirement. In practice this is never the case and
control is necessary.
Capacity ratings are given in the catalogues of manufacturers and suppliers.
Troubles can arise with the selection of thermostatic expansion valves of the type
generally used in custom-built systems. It is usual to select a thermostatic expansion
valve for the maximum duty and at the summer condensing condition, taking into
account the pressure drop through a liquid distributor in the case of a multiple-feed
coil. Valve ratings are given for a range of pressure differences, that is for a range of
condensing conditions for a specific refrigerant and evaporating condition, as in
Table 10.3. It might be thought that the duty varies with pressure difference
according to fluid flow laws, but this will not be the case because phase change
occurs as the pressure falls. This means that the valve may be able to pass more
liquid at low condensing pressures. Conversely, if the valve is selected at a lower
pressure difference (possibly corresponding to a condensing condition in the United
Kingdom of 20–25°C), the valve will not be grossly oversized at the maximum

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summer condition. Although no standards exist for valve rating conditions it is

conventional to state a nominal capacity at 38°C condensing, 4°C evaporating with
1 K sub-cooling and 3–4 K superheat. Sometimes the data takes the form of nominal
capacity and tabulated correction factors.

13.4 FILTER DRIER

Figure 13.4 .filter drier

A filter drier is a piece of process equipment used during the filtration and drying
phase of a pharmaceutical, bio pharmaceutical or chemical process for an active
pharmaceutical ingredient (API) or other compounds production. Filter dryers are
designed for washing and isolating solids with or without integrated containment
systems.

Several actions have to be undertaken as part of the filtration and drying process
including:

• slurry charging

• pressurized and / or vacuum filtration

• controlled heating and cooling

• cake smoothing and drying

• contained discharging and sampling

• vapor trap column, to trap solids particles ( fines ) carrying over with vapors

• Clean-In-Place (CIP)

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An agitated nutsche filter dryer (ANFD) is one class of such filter dryers that has
been specifically designed so all these operations can take place within one vessel.

A Turbo Filter-Dryer is another class of filter dryer which also incorporates the
listed operations, but works on a different set of filtration principle.

The ANFD class of filter dryer consists of a main insulated jacketed vessel and
filtration base which can be lowered for inspection and replacement of the filter
media. The vessel base is secured to the main vessel body via manually operated c-
clamps or an automated bayonet locking system. The vessel is sealed with an O-ring
sealing system utilizing FDA approved materials such as perfluoroelastomer.

The charging of slurry, solvent or water is carried out via nozzles mounted in the
head of the vessel and the filtration process is performed under pressure using
nitrogen purge and vacuum from beneath the filter base.

Different manufacturers use different heating technology, ANFDs should have a

heating jacket on the walls as standard, on the top dome if necessary and heated
agitator shaft and blade options for direct contact with the cake if required. One
method of drying is through direct under-plate heating systems that are located in
the filter plate at the bottom of the vessel.

13.4 CHILLER

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid coolant via a vapor-
compression, absorption refrigeration, or absorption refrigeration cycles. This liquid
can then be circulated through a heat exchanger to cool equipment, or another
process stream (such as air or process water).

A chiller is a cooling system that removes heat by circulating a heat-absorbing

refrigerant through a series of mechanisms from which the heat is released. The
essential components of an industrial chiller are a compressor, condenser, expansion
valve, and evaporator.

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CHAPTER-14
RAW MATERIALS
14.1 STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel is a type of steel alloy that is highly resistant to corrosion, staining,
and rust. It is composed primarily of iron, with varying amounts of chromium,
nickel, and other elements added to enhance its properties. The main characteristic
of stainless steel is its corrosion resistance, which is achieved by the formation of a
thin, transparent oxide layer on its surface. This oxide layer, known as the passive
layer, protects the underlying steel from environmental factors that would typically
cause rust or corrosion. The chromium content in stainless steel is primarily
responsible for the formation and maintenance of this passive layer.

14.1.1 S.S. Square Tube

Figure 14.1.1: S.S. Square Tube

An S.S square tube typically refers to a stainless steel square tube. S.S. square tubes
are commonly used in various industries, including construction, manufacturing,
and transportation, due to their desirable properties. When selecting an S.S. square
tube, it is essential to consider factors such as the grade of stainless steel, wall
thickness, and dimensions to ensure it meets the specific requirements.

14.1.2 S.S. Flat

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Figure
14.1.2: S.S. Flat

A stainless steel flat, commonly referred to as a stainless steel flat bar, is

along,rectangular shaped piece of stainless steel with a flat surface. Stainless steel
flat bars are available in different grades and finishes to suit different applications.
The most common grades include 304 and 316, which offer high corrosion
resistance. Finishes can range from a smooth,polishedsurface to a brushed or matte
finish. They are often utilized where strength, durability, and resistance to
environmental factors are essential.

14.1.3 S.S. Pipe

Figure 15.3: S.S. Pipe

S.S. pipe typically refers to a pipe made of stainless steel. Stainless steel is a
versatile and durable material that is widely used in various industries and
applications, including plumbing, construction, manufacturing, and more. Stainless
steel pipes come in various grades and sizesto suit different requirements. Common
grades include 304 and 316, which offer different levels of corrosion resistance and
strength.

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It's important to note that specific considerations, such as the intended application,
pressure requirements, temperature range, and chemical exposure, should be taken
into account when selecting the appropriate stainless steel pipe for a particular
project or use case.

14.2 MILD STEEL

Mild steel, also known as carbon steel, is a type of steel that contains a low amount
of carbon (typically less than 0.25%). It is one of the most commonly used
materials in various industries due to its affordability, versatility, and relatively good
mechanical properties. It is strong and durable, making it an ideal choice for a
variety of applications, such as beams, columns, and support structures. Mild steel is
also often used in the construction of machinery. Its strength and durability make it
an ideal material for a variety of components, such as gears, shafts, and bearings.
Mild steel is very reactive and will readily revert back to iron oxide (rust) in the
presence of water, oxygen and ions. The readiness of steel to oxidize on exterior
exposure means that it must be adequately protected from the elements in order to
meet and exceed its design life.

14.2.1 M. S. Sheet Metal

Figure 14.2.1: M. S. Sheet Metal

Sheet metal is metal formed into thin, flat pieces, usually by an industrial process.
Sheet metal is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking, and it can be cut
and bent into a variety of shapes. Mild steel sheet metal, also known as M.S. sheet
metal, refers to sheets made from mild steel. Mild steel is a low-carbon steel alloy
that contains a relatively low amount of carbon (typically less than 0.25%) along

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with other elements such as manganese, silicon, and trace amounts of other
elements. M.S. sheet metal is widely used in various industries due to its favourable
mechanical properties, versatility, and affordability.

14.3 GALVANIZED IRON

Galvanized iron refers to iron or steel that has been coated with a layer of zinc to
protect it from corrosion. The process of galvanization involves immersing the iron
or steel in a bath of molten zinc or applying a zinc coating using an electroplating
method. Galvanizing iron or steel is done primarily to prevent rust and extend the
lifespan of the material. The zinc coating acts as a sacrificial layer, corroding in
place of the iron or steel beneath it. This helps to maintain the structural integrity of
the underlying metal. Galvanized iron is widely used in the construction industry for
roofing, fencing, structural supports, and other building materials. It provides
protection against the elements, including moisture and oxidation.

14.3.1 G.I Square tube

Figure 14.3.1: G. I. Square Tube

The term "GI square tube" refers to the material (galvanized iron) and the shape (square) of the
tube. Galvanized iron refers to steel that has been coated with a layer of zinc to protect it from
corrosion. This zinc coating helps to extend the life of the tube and makes it more resistant toCrust
and other environmental factors.G.I. square tubes come in various sizes, thicknesses, and lengths
to accommodate different

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project requirements. They are typically measured by their outside dimensions, such as 1 inch x 1
inch or 2 inches x 2 inches, and their wall thickness, which can range from a few millimeters to
several inches.

14.4 COPPER

Copper is a reddish metal with a face-centered cubic crystalline structure. It reflects

red and orange light and absorbs other frequencies in the visible spectrum, due to its
band structure, so it as a nice reddish color. It is malleable, ductile, and an extremely
good conductor of both heat and electricity.

14.4.1 Copper Tube

14.4.1:copper tube

Copper tube is one of the components that is needed in air conditioning and
refrigerant system. The tube is used as a path for the refrigerant to flow between
system components and to contain it from escaping to the atmosphere.

It works of its high level of corrosion resistance, it is used for water distribution
systems, oil fuel transfer lines, non-flammable medical-gas systems, and as a
refrigerant line in HVAC systems. Copper tubing is joined using flare connection,
compression connection, pressed connection, or solder.

14.4.2 Copper Coil

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A copper intrauterine device (IUD), also known as an intrauterine coil or copper coil
or non-hormonal IUD, is a type of intrauterine device which contains copper. It is
used for birth control and emergency contraception within five days of unprotected
sex.

14.4.2:Copper Coil

The copper IUD works immediately after it has been fitted. The copper in the IUD
stops sperm from surviving in the cervix or womb. This means that the sperm is
unable to travel to fertilise an egg in the fallopian tubes. Rarely, sperm survives the
presence of copper and reaches the egg.

14.5 POLYCARBONATE SHEET

Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic that comes in a transparent sheet and offers unique

durability and is resistant to water and impact damage with its tough quality and
minimal moisture absorbance. They also have excellent heat resistance, stability and
are flame-retardant and chemical resistant.

14.5 Polycarbonate Sheet

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Polycarbonate also scores highly in terms of sustainability. It has a long service

lifespan and the panels are fully recyclable. Our polycarbonate sheets are also
resistant to UV rays, making them suitable as a sheet material for exterior
applications.

Polycarbonate is commonly used in eye protection, as well as in other projectile-

resistant viewing and lighting applications that would normally indicate the use of
glass, but require much higher impact-resistance. Polycarbonate lenses also protect
the eye from UV light.

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CHAPTER-15
MATERIALS
15.1ELECTRIC WIRE

15.1Electric Wire

An electrical wire is the electro technical component used to transport electricity to

transmit energy and information. It is made of a conductive material, single or
multiple strands, often surrounded by an insulating envelope. The inside of the
electrical wire is called the “core” of the wire.

Electrical wire is used for power distribution to transmit electricity from a

transformer or other source to an outlet, appliance, device, cable, switch,
distribution board, socket, and light fitting. They conduct electricity and provide a
low-resistance path for electricity to flow through.

15.2 ROTAMETER 134A

A rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed
tube.A rotameter is used to measure the rate of liquid or gas flowing through a
system of pipes at any given time.

They provide a constant flow rate measurement and can also offer optional
switching capabilities to control the flow in a system or process.Accurate density
rotameters are also used for effective measurement. Furnaces and gas burners in

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industrial sites need to be controlled not to damage equipment; therefore, rotameters

are used for monitoring. This equipment is also used in industries for refrigeration
flow control.

15.2:Rotameter

A rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of fluid in a closed tube. It is a
variable area type of flow meter. In this, a float rises inside a conically shaped glass
tube, as the flow increases, its position on a scale can be read off as the flow rate.

15.3 SOLENOID VALVE

15.3 :Solenoid Valve

Solenoid valves are electromechanically operated valves that convert electric energy
into mechanical energy. Their main purpose is to regulate the movement of gas or
liquid and eradicate the need for an engineer to manually control the valve, saving

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time and money.The solenoid's purpose is to provide a nearly uniform magnetic

field similar to the magnetic fields produced by permanent magnets. Magnetic fields
produced by permanent magnets are constant and challenging to vary, making
solenoids more convenient to use for a variety of purposes.

Solenoid works on the principle of electromagnetism. When the electric current

passes through the coil, the magnetic field is generated. When a metal core is placed
inside the coil, the magnetic lines of flux are concentrated on the core. This
increases the induction of the coil as compared to the air core.

15.4 D.P /MAIN SWITCH

15.4:D.P / Main Switch

DP Switch or Double Pole Switch. DP switches are exclusively designed to control

two different electrical circuits at the same time, allowing appliances to isolate in a
safe and reliable manner.

The main Switch allows us to turn off and on the electricity supply to our home. The
Main switch distributes the current all over the house and takes care of all the fuses
and wires in it. It is the main connecting link between external supply and
household wiring. We might have more than one mains switch.

15.5 ENERGY METER FOR COMPRESSOR

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An electricity meter, electric meter, electrical meter, energy meter, or kilowatt-hour

meter is a device that measures the amount of electric energy consumed by a
residence, a business, or an electrically powered device.

15.5 Energy Meter

A basic meter records your energy usage as you go, on a dial or display on the
meter. It requires regular reading to understand your usage amounts between given
periods of time. It's calculated by adding up the kWhs (electricity) or megajoules
(natural gas) between two meter read dates.

15.6 CAPILLARY OPERATING VALVE

15.6: Capillary operating valve

The capillary pressure control valve (CPCV) is a kind of passive valve that relies on
the Laplace pressure generated by the change of the liquid front meniscus concavity.
It may also be referred to as the Laplace pressure control valve or capillary valve.

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Definition. Capillary force valves are fluid control structures that use superficial
tension at the interface between different fluids to block and/or restore the entrance
of fluids in micro channels filled with a second immiscible fluid.

15.7 SUCTION&DISCHARGE METER GAUGE

15.7 Suction&Discharge Meter Gauge

The energy meter is a measuring device that can be used to measure the quantity of
electricity or energy according to a period of time. This measurement can also be
described as the total electrical energy consumed for a certain time period.

Pressure Gauges on the discharge of a pump are of a type which displays pressures
in set ranges, for example between 1-10 bar, or 1-15 bar. Gauges on the suction part
of the pump are typically a compound gauge meaning they read both positive and
negative pressures.

15.8 TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

15.8 Temperature Indicator

A temperature indicator is a very easy to use and cost-effective control device that
helps to determine and display, e. g., the duration of exposure to excessive
temperatures.

After connecting the thermocouple to the multimeter a working thermocouple will

produce a beep (or no beep if your multimeter works the opposite way). The screen

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will display resistance in Ohms, which could be zero. If there is a break it will
display OL or similar.

15.9 TEMPERATURE SELECTOR SWITCH

15.9: Temperature Selector Switch

Temperature switches are used in a variety of industrial and technical processes. If a

preset temperature is reached, then the temperature switch opens or closes a
corresponding switch contact. Depending on the requirements, mechanical or
electronic switches can be used.

Temperature switches can be set to react to a certain temperature. When the sensing
probe of the switch detects an increase of temperature, it opens the electric contacts.
When the temperature decreases, the electrical contacts close

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CHAPTER-16
OPERATIONS PERFORMED
16.1 WELDING

Welding is a process of joining two or more metal pieces together by melting and
fusing them. It involves the application of heat and pressure to create a strong and
permanent bond between the materials. Welding is widely used in various industries,
including construction, manufacturing, automotive, aerospace, and more. The basic
principle of welding involves creating a molten pool of metal at the joint, typically
by using an electric arc or a gas flame. The heat generated by the arc or flame melts
the base metals, and a filler material is often added to facilitate the bonding process.
As the melted metal cools and solidifies, it forms a solid joint, resulting in a
continuous piece of material.

16.1.1 Classification of Welding

16.1.1.1 Arc Welding:

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): Also known as stick welding, it uses a

coated consumable electrode and an electric arc to create a weld.

• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): Commonly referred to as Metal Inert Gas

(MIG) welding, it uses a continuously fed wire electrode and a shielding gas
to protect the weld.

• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): Also known as Tungsten Inert Gas

(TIG) welding, it uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and a shielding

gas to create the weld.

• Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW): Similar to GMAW, but uses a tubular

electrode filled with flux, which generates a shielding gas.

16.1.1.2 Resistance Welding:

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• Spot Welding: Joins metal parts by applying heat and pressure at specific

points.

• Seam Welding: Creates a continuous weld along the length of overlapping

metal sheets.

• Projection Welding: Joins metal parts by applying heat and pressure at

specific projections or embossed areas.

16.1.1.3 Gas Welding:

• Oxy-Fuel Welding (OFW): Uses a mixture of fuel gases (acetylene, propane,

etc.) and oxygen to create a flame that melts the metal and forms the weld.

16.1.1.4 Solid-State Welding:

• Friction Welding: Applies heat and pressure to join two metal parts by

frictional heat generated between them.

• Ultrasonic Welding: Joins metal parts by applying high-frequency vibrations

and pressure.

16.1.1.5 Energy Beam Welding:

• Laser Beam Welding (LBW): Uses a highly focused laser beam to melt and

join metal parts.

• Electron Beam Welding (EBW): Utilizes a high-velocity beam of electrons to

melt and join metal parts.

16.1.1.6 Thermite Welding:

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• Uses a thermite mixture to produce an exothermic reaction that generates high

heat to weld metal parts, typically used for joining railway tracks.

16.1.1.7 Other Welding Processes:

• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): Utilizes a highly concentrated plasma arc for

welding.

• Induction Welding: Uses electromagnetic induction to heat and join

conductive materials.

• Explosive Welding: Joins two metal surfaces by the high-velocity impact

produced by an explosion.

16.1.2 ARC WELDING:

Arc welding is a welding process that uses an electric arc to create a fusion between
metals. It is one of the most common and widely used welding techniques. In arc
welding, an electrical current is passed through an electrode, which creates an arc
between the electrode and the workpiece. This arc generates intense heat, which
melts the metal and forms a weld joint when the molten metal cools down.

Figure 16.1: Arc Welding Set Up

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Arc welding is a group of welding process where in coalescence is produced by

heating with an electric arc or arcs, mostly without the application of pressure and
with or without the use of filler metal depending upon the base plate thickness. Heat
required for welding is obtained from the arc stuck between a coated electrode and
the work piece. The arc temperature produced by the heat is about 4000°C and thus
the arc heat can be increased or decreased by employing higher or lower arc
currents. A high current with a smaller arc length produces a very intense heat. Both
DC and AC may be used. For current over 750 amperes A.C equipment is preferred
as it has high efficiency negligible loss at peak load and minimum maintenance.

The arc melts the electrode end and the job. Material droplets are transferred from
the electrode to the job, through the arc, and are deposited along the joint to be
welded. The flux coating melts produces a gaseous shield and slag to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.

Figure 16..1.2: Arc Welding Process

Power Source: Arc welding requires a power source to generate the electric current.
The most commonly used power source for welding is AC supply. The equipment
used is a Transformer, which changes high voltage, low amperage power to low
voltage, high amperage welding power. The transformer used can be connected to
single, two and three phase connections. They are either air-cooled or oil cooled
depending upon their ampere rating. Generally current is in the range of 150 – 400
Amps with open circuit voltage varying from 30 to 100 volt.

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Welding Electrodes: Arc welding uses different types of electrodes based on the
process and the metal being welded. Consumable electrodes are used in processes
like SMAW and FCAW, where the electrode material melts and becomes part of the
weld. Non-consumable electrodes, such as tungsten electrodes, are used in processes
like GTAW, where the electrode does not melt

Shielding Gas: Some arc welding processes, like GMAW and GTAW, use a
shielding gas to protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The gas
forms a protective shield around the arc and the weld pool, preventing oxidation and
other defects.

16.2 GRINDING

A grinding operation refers to a machining process in which material is removed

from a workpiece using abrasive particles. This process is commonly used for
precision finishing of surfaces or shaping of hard materials. During a grinding
operation, a grinding wheel or abrasive belt is used to remove small chips of
material from the workpiece. The grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles
bonded together in a matrix. The wheel rotates at high speed, and the workpiece is
fed against it, causing the abrasive particles to remove material through cutting and
rubbing actions.

Grinding operations can be performed on a variety of materials, including metals,

ceramics,plastics, and composites. It is commonly used in industries such as
manufacturing, automotive,aerospace, and toolmaking.

Figure 16.2: Grinding

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Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating abrasive

tool, called “grinding wheel”. Grinding is the most common form of abrasive
machining. It is a material cutting process which engages an abrasive tool whose
cutting elements are grains of abrasive material known as grit. Grinding is used to
finish workpieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low surface roughness)
and high accuracy of shape and dimension. Commonly grinding wheels made of
aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, cubic boron nitride, and diamond. Grinding
machines fall into five categories: surface grinders, cylindrical grinders, centerless
grinders, internal grinders and specials. The grinding process can be very precise
and produce very smooth finishes. However, it can also be very time-consuming and
expensive, depending on the type of grinding machine and the materials being used.
Abrasive conditions of use are determined by the type of material being worked on,
the type of abrasive being used, the speed of the abrasive, and the amount of
pressure being applied.

16.3 CUTTING

A cutting operation typically refers to the process of physically dividing or

separating a material or object into two or more pieces using various tools or
techniques. Cutting operations are commonly performed in manufacturing,
construction, crafts, and many other fields. There are numerous methods and tools
available for cutting, depending on the type of material being cut and the desired
precision of the operation.

Figure 16.3: Cutting

A cutting operation using a cutter typically refers to a process where a specialized

tool, known as a cutter, is used to remove material from a workpiece to create a
desired shape or to separate it into smaller parts. The specific type of cutter used
depends on the material being cut and the desired outcome. Milling, Turning,
Shearing, Laser cutting etc. are some examples.

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16.4 SAWING

Sawing is a cutting operation that uses a saw blade to remove material from a
workpiece. It is a widely used process in various industries, including woodworking,
metalworking, construction, and more. There are different types of sawing
operations and sawing machines available, each designed for specific applications
and materials.

Figure 16.4: Horizontal Band Saw

16.4.1 Classification of Sawing operation

16.4.1.1 Straight Cutting

• Band Saw: A band saw consists of a continuous loop of toothed blade that

rotates on two pulleys. It is versatile and can perform straight, curved, or

irregular cuts. Band saws are commonly used in woodworking,
metalworking, and other industries.

• Circular Saw: Circular saws have a toothed blade that rotates in a circular

motion. They are often used in woodworking, construction, and metalworking

applications.

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• Table Saw: Table saws feature a circular saw blade mounted on an arbor that

protrudes through a flat table surface. They are commonly used in

woodworking for straight and precise cuts.

16.4.1.2 Miter Cutting:

• Miter Saw: A miter saw, also known as a chop saw, is used for making

accurate crosscuts and miter cuts at various angles. It is commonly used in

woodworking and construction projects.

• Compound Miter Saw: This type of saw allows for both miter cuts and bevel

cuts simultaneously. It is widely used in woodworking and carpentry for

making angled cuts.

16.4.1.3 Rip Cutting:

• Rip Saw: A rip saw is designed specifically for cutting along the length or

parallel to the grain of the material. It is commonly used in woodworking for

ripping boards and making long, straight cuts.

16.4.1.4 Scroll Cutting:

• Scroll Saw: A scroll saw features a thin, reciprocating blade that moves up

and down. It is primarily used in woodworking to create intricate curved cuts

and patterns.

16.4.1.5 Jig Sawing:

• Jig Saw: A jig saw, or sabre saw, has a narrow, reciprocating blade that allows

for cutting curves, irregular shapes, and patterns in various materials. It is

commonly used in woodworking and metalworking.

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16.4.1.6 Metal Cutting:

• Hacksaw: A hacksaw is a manual saw with a fine-toothed blade used for

cutting metal, plastic, or other materials.

• Bandsaw: Bandsaws equipped with metal-cutting blades are used for cutting

metal stock, pipes, and profiles in metalworking applications.

16.4.1.7 Abrasive Cutting:

• Abrasive Saw: Abrasive saws use a rotating abrasive wheel or disc to cut

through materials such as metal, concrete, and masonry. They are commonly
used in construction and metalworking.

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16.5 DRILLING

Drilling is an operation of predicting cylindrical hole by removing metal by rotating

cutting edge of drill is known as drilling. Drilling operations typically refer to the
process of creating holes or wells in various materials, such as soil, rock, or metal,
using specialized drilling equipment. These operations are commonly used in
several industries, including oil and gas exploration, mining, construction, and
geothermal energy extraction. The drilling process involves the use of a drill bit,
which is attached to a drilling rig or a handheld drilling tool. The drill bit rotates and
applies downward pressure to penetrate the material and create the hole. Various
drilling techniques and equipment are utilized depending on the specific application
and the type of material being drilled.

Figure 16.6: Drilling

A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting lips and usually one or
more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluid. Drilling
operations require careful planning, expertise, and adherence to safety protocols to
ensure successful and safe outcomes. They often involve multiple steps, including
site preparation, well design, drilling fluid management, and casing installation.
Environmental considerations, such as proper waste disposal and minimizing
ecological impacts, are also important aspects of drilling operations.

The operations that are commonly performed on drilling machines are drilling,
reaming, lapping, boring, counter-boring, counter-sinking, Spot facing, and tapping.
This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from
the job by a rotating,cutting tool called drill.

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16.6 LATHE

A lathe is a machine tool used in metalworking and woodworking to shape and cut
materials. It operates by rotating the workpiece on its axis while various cutting
tools are applied to it. Lathes can be manually operated or computer-controlled
(CNC) for precision and automation.

Figure 16.6:Lathe

The main components of a lathe include: -

• Bed: The base of the lathe that provides support and rigidity. It typically has

guide ways or V-shaped channels to guide the movement of other

components.

• Headstock: Located at one end of the bed, the headstock houses the main

spindle. It provides rotational motion to the workpiece and is driven by an

electric motor. The headstock may also contain a gearbox for adjusting the
speed of the spindle.

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• Tailstock: Positioned at the opposite end of the bed, the tailstock provides

support for long workpieces. It includes a quill that can be extended or

retracted to hold the workpiece in place.

• Carriage: The carriage moves along the bed and carries the cutting tool. It

consists of the saddle, which slides along the guide ways, and the cross-slide,
which moves perpendicular to the bed.

• Chuck: The chuck is a device attached to the spindle of the lathe that holds

the workpiece securely in place. There are different types of chucks, such as
three-ja chucks or four-jaw chucks, which can grip the workpiece with
adjustable jaws.

• Tool post: The tool post is mounted on the carriage and holds the cutting

tools. It can be adjusted and locked in position to control the depth and angle
of the cuts.

• Apron: The apron is located on the carriage and contains various controls for

operating the lathe, such as feed rate, direction, and thread cutting.

Lathes are versatile machines used for a wide range of operations, including turning
(creating cylindrical shapes), facing (smoothing the end of a workpiece), drilling,
boring, threading, and tapering. They are widely used in industries such as
manufacturing, automotive, aerospace, and woodworking for producing precise and
symmetrical components.

16.6.1 FACING

Facing in a lathe refers to the machining operation of creating a flat and smooth
surface on the end or face of a workpiece. It involves removing material from the
workpiece to achieve the desired dimensions, surface finish, and perpendicularity to
the lathe axis. The facing operation is typically performed using a lathe machine and
a cutting tool called a facing tool or lathe tool bit. The facing tool is mounted on the
tool post of the lathe and positioned perpendicular to the workpiece surface.

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During the facing process, the lathe is set to rotate the workpiece at a specific speed,
and the facing tool is fed into the rotating workpiece to remove material gradually.
The feed rate and depth of cut are controlled to achieve the desired facing results.

Figure 16.6.1: Facing

Facing is commonly used to create flat end surfaces on cylindrical workpieces, such
as shafts, bolts, or discs. It ensures that the end surfaces are smooth, perpendicular
to the axis of rotation, and suitable for subsequent operations or joining with other
components.

16.6.2 PLAIN TURNING

Turning on a lathe is a common machining process used to create cylindrical shapes,

tapered surfaces, and other geometries on a workpiece. It involves rotating the
workpiece while a cutting tool removes material to achieve the desired shape and
dimensions. In plain turning, the workpiece is turned straight throughout the entire
length when it is made to rotate about the lathe axis, and the cutting tool is fed along
the lathe axis. The plain or straight turning produces a cylindrical surface after
machining.

Figure 16.6.2: Plain Turning

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16.6.3 THREAD CUTTING

Thread cutting is a common machining operation performed on a lathe to create

external or internal threads on a workpiece. It involves cutting a helical groove on
the surface of the workpiece, allowing it to engage with a corresponding threaded
part. This is performed by taking successive cuts with a threading tool bit the same
shape as the thread form required.

Figure 16.6.3: Thread Nomenclature

16.6.4 EXTERNAL THREADING

External threading in a lathe is a machining process used to create threads on the

outside surface of a workpiece. It is commonly used to produce screws, bolts, and
other threaded components. The process involves rotating the workpiece while a
cutting tool, known as a threading tool or tap, engages with the material to cut the
threads. Cutting an external thread is achieved through the use of a die, held in a
stock. Dies are manufactured from carbon steel or high speed steel, hardened and
tempered. The stock is usually manufactured from mild steel. The most common
form of die, is the 'circular split die', seen opposite.

Figure 16.6.4: External Threading

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16.6.5 INTERNAL THREADING

Internal threading refers to the process of creating threads on the inside surface of a
cylindrical object, such as a hole or a tube. The purpose of internal threading is to
provide a way to fasten or connect other components, such as screws, bolts, or
fittings, into the threaded hole. Internal threading is typically achieved through the
use of taps. For internal thread cutting, the piece is\ held in a chuck. The tool moves
across the piece linearly, taking chips off the workpiece with each pass. Usually, 5 to
7 light cuts create the correct depth of the thread.

Figure 16.6.5: Internal Threading

16.7 ELECTRICAL WIRING

Electrical wiring is an electrical installation of cabling and associated devices such

as switches, distribution boards, sockets, and light fittings in a structure. Electrical
symbols for wiring. Wiring is subject to safety standards for design and installation.

When you're doing wiring installation, you need to identify the parts of the wiring
cable, the non-metallic electrical cable: the outer sheathing (the jacket) and the inner
wires. The colored “wire” you see—the green, black, red, blue or white—is actually
the sheathing that covers the inner copper wires.

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16.7 electrical wiring

Prepare the system for the provision of fixings and supports known in the trade as
“first fix activities”. Install the electrical wire systems within the area. Test wiring
systems to check for faults or damage. Install and connect the necessary equipment
and appliances.

16.8 REFRIGERANT RECHARGE

Refrigerant charge is another term used to describe the refrigerant levels in your
system. An overcharged unit has too much refrigerant. An undercharged unit has too
little. Believe it or not there is a range for refrigerant that is universally just right.

16.8 refrigerant recharge

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For the measured ambient temperature (28°C), find out till what value should the
HP gauge needle should climb from the R134a temperature pressure reference chart.
It should be between 190 - 230 psi. Open the LP valve to charge the refrigerant in
short intervals so the HP gauge needle climbs up to this value and stop.

Effect on suction & discharge Temperature of compressor with and without Nano
Refrigerant The discharge temperature for pure R134a is 84 0 C. It is decreased by
2.8% in R134a + 0.5% Al2O3. And for R134a+1 % Al2O3 it is increased by 3.557.
The suction temperature for pure R134a is 52 0 C.

16.9 PAINTING

Painting is an art form and a process of applying colour to a surface using various
tools such as brushes, rollers, or sprayers. It involves the application of paint, which
is a liquid mixture of pigments, binders, solvents, and additives, onto a surface to
create images, designs, or to protect and enhance the appearance of the surface.

16.9 painting

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