AP CALCULUS

* topic only on BC
Stuff you MUST know Cold
Basic Derivatives Curve sketching and analysis Approximation Methods for Integration
where u is a function of x, and a is a constant. y = f(x) must be continuous at each: Use Geometry formulas
d n
dx
( )
x = nx n−1 critical point:
dy
= 0 or undefined
Rectangles - Left, Right and Middle
Riemann Sums A = bh
dx
d Trapezoids: A = ½ (b1 + b2)h
( sin x ) = cos x inc/dec. function f(x): f ’ > 0, f ’ < 0
(Effects of inc/dec & cocavity on approx.)
dx concavity ≡ inc/dec slope: f “ > 0, f “< 0 Concave up: M under estimate, T over estimate
d local minimum:
( cos x ) = − sin x
Concave down: M over estimate, T under estimate
dy goes (–,0,+) or (–,DNE,+) or d 2 y >0 Inc: L=under, R=over. Dec: L = over, R = under
dx
d dx dx 2 First Fundamental Th. of Calculus
( tan x ) = sec2 x local maximum: b
dx
d dy goes (+,0,–) or (+,DNE,–) or d 2 y <0 ∫a
f '( x=
)dx f (b) − f (a )
( cot x ) = − csc2 x dx dx 2
dx
d
point of inflection: 2nd Fundamental Th. of Calculus
( sec x ) = sec x tan x f ” = 0 or DNE AND concavity changes
dx d 2 y goes from (+ to –), (– to +), d b( x) f (t )dt =
dx ∫a ( x)
d
( csc x ) = − csc x cot x dx 2
Abs. Max/Min: eval. crit # & endpts.
dx
d 1 du OR discuss “always inc or always dec.” f (b( x)) b '( x) − f (a ( x)) a '( x)
( ln u ) = Intermediate Value Theorem:
dx u dx
d 1 If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b], Solids of Revolution and friends
( log a x ) = for all k between f(a) and f(b), there exists at Disk Method
dx x ln a
V = π ∫ [ R ( x) ] dx
least one number x= c in the open interval b 2
d u
dx
( )
e =e u du

dx
(a, b) such that f (c) = k . a

Extreme Value Theorem: Washer Method

dx
= ( )
d u( x)
a a ( ) ln a ⋅
u x du
dx
If the function f(x) is continuous on [a,=
then there exists an absolute max and min
b],
b

a
(
V π ∫ [ R( x) ] − [ r ( x) ] dx
2 2
)
volume by cross section (not rotated)
d
(sin −1 u =) 1 du
Rolle’s Theorem:
on that interval.
b
V = ∫ Area ( x) dx
dx 1− u 2 dx
a
If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b],
−1
d
(
cos −1 x = ) AND differential on the interval (a, b),
Aeq . lat . ∆ =
s2
3
dx 1 − x2 AND f(a) = f(b), then there is at least one 4
number x = c in (a, b) such that f '(c) = 0
( ) s ∫ 1 + [ f '( x) ] dx
b
d −1 1 du =
2
tan= u ⋅ *Arc Length
dx 1 + u 2 dx Mean Value Theorem: m secant = m tangent a

If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b], *Surface Area

−1
d
dx
(
cot −1 x = )
1 + x2
AND differential on the interval (a, b), then
= SA 2π ∫ radius 1 + [ f '( x) ] dx
b 2

there is at least one number x = c in (a, b) a

d
= (
sec −1 u ) 1
⋅
du such that f '(c) = f (b) − f (a ) .
b−a Distance, Velocity, and Acceleration
dx u u − 1 dx
2

MVT of Integrals i.e. AVERAGE VALUE: velocity = d (position)

−1
d
(
csc −1 x = ) If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b] dt
dx x x2 − 1 and differential on the interval (a, b),
acceleration = d (velocity)
then there exists at least one number dt
x = c on (a, b) such that dx dy
Differentiation Rules
f (c ) ( b − a ) = *velocity vector = ,
b

Chain Rule d  f ( g ( x ))  = f '( g ( x )) g ' ( x ) ∫a f ( x)dx dt dt

 dx  Area rectangle = Net Area Integral
speed =
= v ( x ') 2 + ( y ') 2 *
f ( x ) dx .
d dv du 1 b

Product Rule (=
uv) u +v f (c ) =
(b − a ) ∫
a tf
dx dx dx
This value f(c) is the “average value”
displacement = ∫t v dt
d  u  v − u dv
o
du
of the function on the interval [a, b].
Quotient Rule   = dx 2 dx final time
dx  v  v total distance = ∫ v dt
initial time
Limit Strategies: Factor and cancel,
Some handy INTEGRALS: tf

∫ =
tan x dx ln sec x + C
Rationalize Numerator,
lim
a x u-sub,a HA rules:
= ∫to
( x ')2 + ( y ')2 dt *
2 HA
x →∞
bx 2 + c b
1 b
b − a ∫a
=
− ln cos x + C ax −a Av. velocity = v(t )dt = s(b) − s(a)
lim = b−a
x →−∞
bx + c
2
b
∫ sec x dx= ln sec x + tan x + C 1 b
[ x '(t )] + [ y '(t )]
b − a ∫a
2 2
dt *
To find all HA: Take limit as x → both ± ∞
 BC TOPICS and important TRIG identities and values:
l’Hôpital’s Rule Slope of a Parametric equation Values of Trigonometric
f (a) 0 ∞ Given x(t) and y(t), the slope is Functions for Common Angles
If = = or ,
g (b) 0
f ( x)
∞
f '( x) = dx=
dy dy dt
,
d 2 y Dt dt
dy
( ) θ
0°
sin θ
0
cos θ
1
tan θ
0
then lim = lim dx dt dx 2 dx
x →a g ( x) x → a g '( x ) dt
π 1 3 3
Euler’s Method Polar Curve 6 2 2 3
If given that
dy
= f ( x, y ) and the
For a polar curve r(θ), the
θ
π 2 2
 r (θ )  dθ
dx
∫
AREA inside a “leaf” = 1 2 2 1
solution passes through (xo, yo), 2 θ
1
4 2 2
= xold + ∆x
xnew θ1 and θ2 are the “first” two times that r = 0. π 3 1
dr 3
determines inc/dec and relative max/mins. 3 2 2
Basically Algebra I:
dθ π
y = m(x – x1) + y1
The SLOPE of r(θ) at a given θ is 1 0 “∞ ”
2
π
dy
 dy  d
 r (θ ) sin θ  0 −1 0
dy dθ dθ
=ynew   (∆x) + yold = = Know both the inverse trig and the trig values.
 dx ( x , y )  dx dx d
 r (θ ) cos θ  Careful: tan  3π  = π
 old old  dθ   −1 but arctan ( −1) = −
dθ  4  4
Integration by Parts nth Term: diverges if lim an ≠0 Trig Identities
(u=ILATE=dv) n →∞
Double Angle
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x
∫ udv= uv − ∫ vdu Ratio Test: converges if lim an +1 < 1
n →∞ an
cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x =
1 − 2sin 2 x
∫ ) g '( x)dx f ( x) g ( x) − ∫ g ( x) f '( x)dx
f ( x= If the limit equals 1, you know nothing
so check the endpoints using another test.
Power Reduction
Root Test: converges if lim n an < 1 (1 − cos 2 x )
n →∞
sin 2 x =
Integral of Ln 2
∞

(1 + cos 2 x )
1 converges if p > 1
Use integration by parts and let u = ln x p–series Test: ∑ pn cos 2 x =
∫ = x ln x − x + C n =1
ln x dx 2
Alternating: converges if alt. & lim an = 0
n →∞
∞
Taylor Series Pythagorean
If the function f is “smooth” (continuous
Geometric Series: ∑a r
n=0
1
n
converges if |r|<1
sin 2 x + cos 2 x =
1
and differentiable) at x = c, (others are easily derivable by
then it can be approximated Limit Comparison: If lim an exists and ≠ 0,
bn n →∞ dividing by sin2x or cos2x)
by the nth degree polynomial
what one series does (C or D), so does the other. 1 + tan 2 x =
sec 2 x
f ( x) ≈ f (c) + f '(c)( x − c) + Direct Comparison: If 0 < an < bn and cot 2 x + 1 = csc 2 x
∞ ∞
f ''(c) f ( n ) (c ) if ∑ a diverges, then ∑ bn diverges; Reciprocal
+ ( x − c) +  +
2
( x − c) . n n
1
2! n! ∞
n =1 n =1
= sec x = or cos x sec x 1
∞ cos x
if ∑ bn converges then ∑ a converges.
n 1
n =1 n =1 = csc x = or sin x csc x 1
Maclaurin Series (Taylor Series about x = 0) Error Bound (Remainder) sin x
x 2 x3 xn Alternating Series: Odd-Even
e x =1 + x + + + + + ... N sin(–x) = – sin x (odd)
If S= ∑ ( −1) an is the Nth partial sum of a
n
2! 3! n!
N cos(–x) = cos x (even)
x 2 n ( −1)
n
k =1
x2 x4 tan(–x) = –tan x (odd)
cos x =1 − + − + + ... convergent alternating series,
2! 4! ( 2n )! RN ≤ aN +1 (the next term) Infinite Sums
x ( −1)
2 n +1
3 5 n
x x Lagrange Error Bound of a Taylor Series:
sin x =x − + −  + + ... Geometric Series: S∞ = a1 if |r|<1
3! 5! ( 2n + 1)! Let c = # centered on and x = value you want to 1− r
approximate. There exists a z between x and c, Telescoping Series: Expand & cancel
f n +1 ( z )
1
=1 + x + x 2 + x 3 +  + x n + ... n +1 ∞
1
such that Rn ≤ x−c
1− x
( x − 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 1)
1 2 3
( x − 1) ( −1)
n n +1 ( n + 1)! Special Series: = e1 ∑ n!
n =0
ln(= − + − + + ...
x)
1 2 3 n Find interval of f n +1
( z ) to find error interval.