CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTERS
This chapter introduces the student to what a computer is, classifies computers into
different categories, compares the different classes of computers and also
introduces the keyboard as a basic input device.

Definition of a computer
Classification of computers
Physical size
The way they process data
By purpose
By use
Acquisition of Keyboard skills
Layout of keyboard
Summary
Questions

1.1 DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER

Before we attempt to define a Computer, there are a number of associated terminologies
that the learner needs to know beforehand. These are: Data, Information, and Programs.

Data is the name given to facts. For example, in a school, the number of students in a
class, the number of teachers, names of students, the name of customers in a business.
Information is result from processed data. For example adding some numerical values
like the numbers 14 and 17 into the computer will give you the result of 31. The later
is information you required. Information can be defined as data computed into a more
useful form than raw form.

Program is a series of instructions written in the language of the computer for them to
obey and perform specific tasks as outlined by the instructions.
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A Computer can therefore be defined as “an electronic machine that takes in data
(facts) in the raw form, processes the data to give out in another form called
information”.

When a computer is fed with data, it passes through four basic steps before the data
can be displaced;
(i) Input Process – the user will type the data from say the keyboard (to be
introduced later in the chapter) and the computer will accept the dame and store
within it.
(ii) Storage Process – the data that is fed into the computer at the same time is held,
even during the time of processing and after processing; it can further be stored for
further reference. These data are held in computer memory.
(iii) Processing – the computer will manipulate the data held within it to a more useful
form – results (information).
(iv) Output Process – the user is given the information he desired.

The four basic processes can be summarized in the following way by looking at the
same terms of information processing cycle.
Organizing data for processing – to get quality results (information) you must have
quality data to start with. Unreliable original data generates unreliable results. If you give
a computer garbage, you get garbage in return. Its called GIGO – Garbage In – Garbage
Out.

Information Processing Cycle - Information Processing Cycle includes a series of

steps for transforming data into meaningful information for people.

A cycle is defined as a sequence of activities performed in an order that it produces

expected and meaningful results.

A Processing Cycle is repeated, it means, if the same resources are used in the same
way, the same outcome will result. The standard cycle followed to process data and
deliver information comprises of 4 major functions:
(i) Input Function - the input function gathers and collects stored data items and
enter them into the system for processing. Input can come from many sources, for
example from files kept in the office, banking institutions and accounts.
(ii) Storage Function – this function allows the user to store data being processed in
the memory of the computer as well as to store the information for future use.
(iii) Processing Function – the desired operation by the user is carried out on the data
keyed in and stored in the memory so as to turn it into meaningful information.
(iv) Output Function – the data stored is processed and then output into files, printed
as hard copies or displayed on the screen for the user.

Note: For any information processing system to run smoothly on a day-to-day basis, the
processing activities must be organized. A system has little work if it provides helpful
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information on one day and useless information the next day. Output should be useful
the first time and every time for the system.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

There are four basic ways by which computers can be classified:
(i) Physical size i.e how large the computer is.
(ii) By the way they process data
(iii) By purpose
(iv) By use

1.2.1 Physical Size

The following computer systems are categorized by how large they are:
a) Monster Computer
Sometimes it is referred to as Super computers or Maxi computers. These are
computer of enormous power and are very large in size. Its installation requires
special floors to carry its weights and it also needs special plumbing to carry a fluid
known as fluorocarbon needed to cool it.
One unique feature of maxi computers is that when you purchase it, the purchase
price will include the services of 2 permanent engineers to maintain it forever. They
are typically used for scientific research and military applications, petroleum
engineering, nuclear physics and meteorology.
Examples of monster computers include CYBER and CRAY computers. For example,
the whole globe needs only one monster computer to forecast weather at once.
b) Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are second in size to monster computers. These computers
perform more data processing work than any other type of computers. For this reason
they form a large portion of installation in most organization.
As does the monster computers, mainframe computers also have some special
requirements, for the reason, they are housed in special rooms brought about by the
special power that they posses together with environmental control requirements.
Mainframe computers can be used by more than one person at a time since they
can support a large network of other computers organizations that employ mainframe
computers alongside other computers are banks, government agencies, commercial
and industrial agencies.
c) Minicomputer
Also called Medium sized computers. These computers compared to mainframe
are smaller, slower and less expensive.
A minicomputer has an advantage over the previous two in the sense that it does not
have any special power or environmental control requirements. For this reason, the
medium sized computer can always be located anywhere within the organization.
Minicomputers can do the work that the mainframe does but on a small scale.

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d) Microcomputers
Of the types of computers, microcomputers are the slowest. However, they
counteract this disadvantage because they are easy to use and the cost of purchase is
also low.
A microcomputer gets its name from the fact that its main computing component,
the microprocessor (to be introduced later) is located in one integrated circuit (IC) or
what we call a Chip. Microcomputers fit nicely on desktops, for that reason they are
sometimes known as Desktop Computers. They are also referred to as Personal
Computers since many individuals purchase them for personal use.

1.2.2 Type of data processed

Classification of computers by the way they process data falls into 2 main types
with the third being a combination of the two:
(i) Analog and (ii) Digital Computers
(iii) Hybrid
(i) Analog Computers
These computers process data that vary continuously, for example variations in
temperature, amount of current flowing through an electrical conductor and so on. The
flow of such data is in the form of wave like movement i.e. not predictable. Such
computers are used for a wide variety of industrial and scientific applications that
require the processing of data that are measured continuously.
In conclusion, we say that analog computers measure things.
(ii) Digital Computers
As opposed to analog computers, these type count things. Data passed to a digital
computer is usually operated on in steps i.e. form of discrete numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, (a
discrete operation). It is like counting on one’s fingers (1, 2, 3, 4…). Most computers in
use today are digital. This is because there are more counting applications than there are
applications than there are applications that require continuous measurements.
(iii) Hybrid Computers
These computers possess features of both digital and analog computers meaning
both counting and measurement operations in one computer.

1.2.3 By Purpose
Classification by purpose falls into 2 categories:
a) Special Purpose Computers
These are computers that are single task oriented. In other words, they are
designed to solve only a particular type of problem. Examples include embedded
computers in our common digital watches.
b) General Purpose Computers
These are computers that can perform a vast number of operations or solve
problems of different varieties. Most of the computers in use today are general purpose.
However, it is wise to note that general-purpose computers can always be adapted with
special programs to do a job specified hence becoming special purpose computer.
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c) Embedded Computers
These are computers attached to other computers that help in operating them. E.g.
computers embedded in lifts, petrol pumps, digital watches and so on.

1.2.4 By Use
It is worthy noting that we categorize these computers according to what it is used
for and when it is used. Under this category, the list is endless. For this reason we will
limit ourselves to only five main types.
(i) Personal Computers or Desktop Computers
These are also known as Microcomputers. They get their name from the fact that they
fit nicely on the desktop. They can also be used on the desk in the office environment
or for personal use at home.
(ii) Home based Computers
These computers are those designed to be used at home. An individual may install
only games program in it or a word processor to enable them write letters, still some
would install accounting packages to enable them budget and control their finances at
home.
(iii) Lap top Computers
These computers get their name from the fact that you can place them on your
laps while using. They are very small computers that have the structure of a briefcase
i.e. you open and close the same way. These have a keyboard attached to them and a
flat screen together with a mouse ball and chargeable batteries. This means that you
can use them in the rural areas where the is no electricity.
Laptop computers also have ports (small slots) through which you can attach an
external keyboard, mouse or external drive like drive A:.

1.3 ACQUISITION OF KEYBOARD SKILLS

There are many ways to enter data into the computer. However, keyboard still
remains the predominant input device for the many users.
A computers keyboard is used much like a typewriter keyboard. A keyboard has
alphabetic, numeric, and special characters found on a typewriter. The only difference
is that data keyed in, is recorded in the computer systems’ data coding scheme and is
stored in the memory. The traditional format of a computer or terminal keyboard
follows the organization prescribed by the typewriter keyboard. This is known as
QWENTY keyboard because of the sequence of the six letters on the upper left corner
of the alphabet position of the typewriter keyboard.

1.3.1 Layout of Keyboard and Functions of Keys

A typical keyboard takes the form of a normal typewriter keyboard. A keyboard
usually has standard keys; that is letters of the alphabet plus special characters e.g. ?,
‘, @ e.t.c.
In addition to the standard keys, one finds a numeric keypad which is essential for
applications that require entry of large amounts of numerical information.

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 Function Keys are identified as F1 through F12, they can be programmed to ease
the work of frequently used operations. Cursor control keys of direction keys ( ) the
ones with arrows, move the cursor on the CRT (screen).
Other special keys Delete keys and backspace keys which deletes
characters. Delete key deletes a character that is in front of the cursor whereas
backspace key delete characters before the cursor. Insert key will insert characters
from text. Others e.g home key will take you to the top of the document and end key
to the end of the document.
Computer keyboard employ one or more control keys. Control works just like the
shift key on a keyboard in that they cause other keys to perform functions different
from their normal operations. Example, if you hold shift key down and press the letter
“e”, you get a different character “E”. Holding down the control key while you press
any of the other keys causes still another character to be sent to memory.
Like the control keys, the escape key is used to cause other keys to perform special
functions. Unlike the control keys, however, it is not held down while pressing
another key. Once sending a signal to the computer system, for that purpose. If you
press another key following Escape, it will cause the computer to execute a function
established by the program in use.

Fig. 1.3.1 Layout of the Keyboard

1.3.2 SUMMARY

A computer is a device that takes data in one form and processes it to give out in another
form called information.

Data is the name given to facts.
 Information is processed data.

Program is a set of instructions written in the language of the computer indicating what the
computer is to perform.
 4 basic functions of a computer: Input, Storage, Processing and Output.

 Computers can be classified by: Size, The way they process data, By Purpose and by use.

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
Typical keyboard is the same as a typewriter keyboard, has: standard keys,
Numeric Keypad, Function keys, Cursor Control keys or Direction keys, Control
Keys, Alternate keys, Escape keys e.t.c.

1.3.3 QUESTIONS:

i. Define a Computer.

ii. Differentiate between Data and Information.

iii. What is a Computer Program.

iv. What are the 4 basic functions a Computer will perform on data.

v. Discuss in detail how computers can be classified.

vi. Discuss the layout of a typical keyboard and functions of the different keys

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 CHAPTER 2
COMPUTER COMPONENTS
This chapter introduces the student to the computer hardware system. At the end of
the chapter, the student should be able to: differentiate between hardware and
software, identify the elements of a computer systems’ hardware, explain the
functional organization of the elements of a computer system, describe the central
processing unit, describer the types of input and output devices, describe the types of
secondary storage devices and media and finally be able to distinguish between
system software and application software.

Diagrammatic Representation of Divisions of a Computer System.

Distinction between Hardware and Software.
The Complete Computer System.
Elements of a Computer Hardware System.
Functional Organization of the Elements of a Computer System.
Description of Central Processing Unit.
Description of types of Input Devices.
Description of types of Output Devices.
Description of types of Secondary
Storage Devices and Media.
Distinction between System Software and Application Software.
Summary.
Questions.

2.1 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION

OF DIVISIONS OF A COMPUTER
The following diagram shows the basic physical computer breakdown that will serve
as a reference throughout the chapter.

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 Fig. 2.1
KEY:
C.P.U - Central Processing Unit
A.L.U - Arithmetic Logic Unit
DOS - Disk Operating System
ROM - Read Only Memory
RAM - Random Access Memory
DBMS- Data Base Management System

2.2 DISTINCTION BETWEEN HARDWARE AND

SOFTWARE
A Computer hardware from the simplest point of view is the physical or tangible
parts of a computer whereas software are the intangible parts that help the computer to
do its task. From a technical stand point, the following are the valid definitions and
hence the distinction between the two terms.

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A hardware is a name that describes all the electronic, electrical and mechanical
components of a computer together with its peripheral devices.
A software is the name that describes all the programs that are used to run the
computer or do a specific task together with its documentation.

Explanation of the terms

Peripheral devices referred to above are: input devices e.g keyboard, mouse or output
devices e.g monitor, printer. These are devices that are used at the periphery or at the
side or alongside the computer.
Documentation refers to, in its simplest form, the manual that helps the user to know
how the different parts of the software work, how to install it, uninstall, trouble shoot
or as a reference book. The definition of software is not complete until documentation
is included.

2.3 THE COMPLETE COMPUTER SYSTEM

Because of the recent advances in hardware technology, people have thought of
computers as hardware devices only. This is far from the truth. The fact is, the hardware
is only one part of the complete system. Without programs to tell the computer what to
do, they remain immobile and unproductive, just like an automobile without fuel.
A computer system is therefore defined as a combination of hardware devices
and programs assembled to accomplish specific tasks. The broad categories of
programs are often employed by computer’s operation. One category of program is
known as Operating system. As the name suggests, the operating system controls the
basic aspects of the computer’s operation. It is the driver of the computer.
The other category consists of the Application program which instructs the
computer to perform those procedures necessary to get some jobs done; for example
Word-processing, Accounting programs; as a group are often called Software.
Therefore, the three components of a complete computer system are: Hardware, the
Operating System and Application Software. The following diagram (fig. 2.3) shows
the relationship between these three components.

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 APPLICATION
INPUT SOFTWARE OUTPUT

OPERATING SYSTEM

HARDWARE

FEEDBACK

Fig. 2.3

2.4 ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER HARDWARE SYSTEM

The hardware components of a computer system consist of a set of
interconnected electronic and mechanical devices. All computing machines be it a
calculator, a microcomputer or a mainframe has the same parts.
The parts of a hardware system are: Input devices e.g Keyboard, Output devices
e.g Monitor, Printer and the Central Processing Unit which comprises of Control Unit
(CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Memory.
The figure 2.5 shows the parts of a computer hardware system.

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 Processor

Control Unit Arithmetic/Logic Unit

Input Input Devices

Devices

memory

C.P.U

Fig. 2.5: Components of a Computer Hardware System

2.5 Functional Organization of the Elements of a Computer

System

Fig. 2.6 below shows the major physical components of a computer system

Monitor

C.P.U.

Disk Drive

Mouse
Keyboard

Fig. 2.6

2.6 DESCRIPTION OF THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

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 The Central Processing Unit is the main component of a computer hardware
system. It is usually referred to as the CPU. It consists of three parts. The main part of
the CPU is the memory or primary storage, where data being processed and the
programs controlling the computer are contained.

Arithmetic Logic Unit forms the second part of the CPU. The ALU performs the
calculations and makes comparisons between units of data. The last component is the
Control Unit (CU), the work of which is to control the operations of the hardware for
example by issuing commands to all elements of the computer as per the dictations of
memory. (e.g from the input devices to memory, from memory to output devices, etc).
The Central Processing Unit determines the power of a computer hardware
system which is described in terms of :
(i) Size of Memory, which is measured by the number of characters of data it can
store
(ii) Speed of the Control and Arithmetic Logic Unit, which is measured in millions of
instructions per second (MIPS).
The work of the various input devices such as terminal keyboard, disk storage
units and tape storage units is to send data into the CPU, whereas the work of the
output devices such as printers, visual display units, disk and tape units is to give out
the results from the processing operations.
The Central Processing Unit also “houses” Registers. The latter is a small part in
the CPU that holds data before processing or probably after. They store data to be
processed and thereafter partial results. Registers are of different kinds performing
different functions:
(i) Ordinary Counter Register (OC) – This register addresses the next instruction to
be expected or we could say it contains the addresses of the next instruction to be
executed.
(ii) Instruction Register (IR) – This register contains the actual instruction under
execution.
(iii) Accumulator Register – This register stores data to be processed or the results of
a partial execution.
The processor communicates with the main memory through 2 registers:
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(a) Memory Address Register (MAR)
(b) Data Address Register (DAR)
When reading a word from the memory, the CPU stores the address of that word in
MAR and sends a read signal to a main memory. After one memory cycle, the value
of the word is in DAR from where the CPU will search for it.
When reading a word, the CPU stores in MAR the address of where the write
operation will take place. The value to be written will be stored in the DAR and then
it sends the write signal to the memory.

Execution of an Instruction
The execution of an instruction of the central processing unit is performed through the
following steps:
(i) Storage of the next instruction to be executed from the main memory to the
instruction register (IR);
(ii) Modification of the contents of the OC registers the address of the next instruction;
(iii) Recording of the instruction recently stored;
(iv) Localization of the data needed by the instructions in the memory;
(v) Storage of data if necessary into the internal registers of the CPU generally the
accumulator;
(vi) Execution of the instruction;
(vii) Storage of the results in the appropriate place;
(viii)Return to step (i) for the execution of the next instruction.

The Processor
The Control and Arithmetic/Logic Units are usually considered as a hardware
device separate from the memory. This is because the size of the memory may vary
independently from the Control and Arithmetic/Logic Units. As separate devices they
are known as Processor.
Processors used in microcomputers are known as microprocessors (refer to chapter
1), but conceptually they are the same processors found in larger computer systems.

Memory
A computer’s memory stores data before, during and after processing as well as
the application program in use at the time. These data are stored in cells of the
memory. Each memory cell contains one byte of data (a byte = 8 characters: a
character is say a letter of the alphabet, or a number). Therefore, one cell will contain
eight characters called a byte.
The size of the computer memory is measured in terms of “Kilobytes” or
“Megabytes” or “Gigabytes”. Since “Kilo” stands for 1,000 and “Mega” for
1,000,000, computer memory is measured by the thousands or millions of bytes that
can be stored in memory at one time.
In computer usage, the prefix “Kilo” actually stands for 1024 bytes and “Mega”
for 1,048,576 bytes (explanation later in form 2 – Number systems).
Computer memory is sometimes known as Primary memory Storage, Main
Memory and RAM (Random Access Memory).

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Primary Memory
Primary storage or RAM is the computer’s working bench. All data to be
processed must first be recorded in it and all output of results draws data from it.
Primary storage has 2 crucial characteristics. The first is that data can only be stored
temporarily, and two, it cannot store a great deal of data.

Secondary Storage
These characteristics of primary storage give rise to the requirements to store
large quantities of data in machine readable form that can be fed into RAM in small
segments for processing. Units that do this are called secondary storage devices also
referred to as Auxiliary Storage or Backing Storage. (Description of these devices
latter in the chapter).
The two most prevalent of these are disks and magnetic tapes. These media offer
the ability to store data off line, meaning that data can be processed from time to time
by the computer system and are not stored permanently as part of the hardware
configuration. When needed, they are mounted on data reading and writing device,
called drops, as required by their application programs.
(i) The processor receives data from main storage, performs operations on them,
then the result is given back to the same.
(ii) Data then goes to the main memory comes from input devices or secondary devices,
and data from the main memory goes to backing storage or output devices.
(iii) The ALU and CU combine to form the processor as discussed.

2.7 DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF INPUT DEVICES

Input devices in whatever form as the name suggests are devices that help the
user to communicate with the computer by issuing commands in different ways which
the computer obeys.

2.7.1 Keyboard
Please refer to 1.4 for full keyboard explanations. Using the keyboard is a
matter of knowing which command you want to issue to the machine or what entries
in the form of characters you want to make; then simply type in the right characters
from the keys of the keyboard.

2.7.2 Mouse
This is another type of input device but as opposed to the keyboard, it doesn’t have
keys. A mouse has usually two buttons (but not always). When installed in your machine,
a pointer is always seen on the screen. Underneath the mouse is a rotating ball which with
the slight movement of the device on a pad, the pointer will correspondingly move on the
screen by the same distance and to the right direction. To issue an instruction to the
system, the user simply needs to click (press the mouse button once –
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usually the left) a menu and choose a command he wishes to issue or click a command
he would want to use. You can use a mouse also to draw different shapes of your style
apart from simply clicking commands. A mouse (mice – plural) is usually employed
in Windows Applications without which the Windows Operating System become
incomplete.

Fig. 2.7.2 Mouse

2.7.3 Light Pens
Looks like an ordinary pen but its tip is a light sensitive detector. When you
touch the tip of the pen to the display screen, the computer locates what are called the
x-y - ray coordinates of that point. By touching the screen at various points, or by
moving the pen across the surface of the screen, you can write and draw.
Normally used with palm tops. Since palm tops are very small light pens replace
mouse.

Photoelectric Cell Cable link to computer

terminal

Fig. 2.7.3 Light Pen

2.7.4 Joy Stick

This is a device that permits you to move a picture, line, word, or cursor from
point to point in a display screen. Used normally in playing computer games.
Fig. 2.7.4 Joy Stick

You operate a joystick by moving it in various directions. It caries out the same
functions as the locate keys (cursor control) on the keyboard. But it is faster and lets
you move in 8 directions instead of four.

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2.7.5 Graphic Tablet
It lets you draw a design just as you might do on paper. You use a special pen or
your finger to do the drawing on a flat, table like surface. Your drawing appears
immediately on the display screen.
Fig. 2.7.5 Graphic Tablet

2.7.6 Laser Scanner

This input device is used to scan a picture or other documents from print onto the
screen and hence can be available for storage in the computer memory for processing
or future reference. Some printers come with inbuilt scanners. However, we have
small scanners (manual) that are held in the hand while scanning an object to the
monitor into the memory. You can scan for example your photograph,
signature, and logo on other documents. Another scanner is known as flat bed which
is used by placing the document to be scanned on it.
Fig. 2.7.6 Laser Scanner

2.7.7 Voice Input

Voice input systems require that the user pronounce the vocabulary of voice command
several times while the system does the “listening” and analyses the voice patterns of
the various words. After this, using an airplay of the voice patterns, the system will
respond to the commands as dictated. Once the computer has been initialized with the
voice pattern of the person, such system will always not respond to anyone else.
Example is voice dialing in a mobile phone.

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 2.7.8 Voice Input
Voice input systems require that the user pronounce the vocabulary of voice
command several times while the system does the “listening” and analyses the voice
patterns of the various words. After this, using an airplay of the voice patterns, the
system will respond to the commands as dictated. Once the computer has been
initialized with the voice pattern of the person, such system will always not respond to
anyone else. Example is voice dialing in a mobile phone.

2.7.9 Optical Character Reader (OCR)

This device along with others to be discussed shortly after, have been developed to
make data input to computer systems independent of any human operations. Optical
Character Readers (OCR) accept data input optically or with machines that respond to
magnetic ink or magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).

2.7.10 Optical Mark Readers (OMR)

This device will place marks placed on forms for data gathering purposes. Such marks
will then be translated into the computer by the device as input data.

2.7.11 Bar Code Readers (or Line Code Readers)

Bar Code Readers will read price and inventory codes printed on products that are
frequently purchased such as in supermarkets. This code is usually referred to as
Universal Product Code (UPC). Such Bar Code Readers employed in supermarkets
are one type of remote date entry terminals. They are known as Point-Of-Sale (POS)
terminals. Remote data entry terminals promote entry of data directly into the
computer system for the purpose of updating, inventing files and preparing customer’s
bills and other similar tasks. They are often used in manufacturing and distribution in
warehouses, retail stores, bank teller counters and other business offices. Workers and
executors in the field usually use portable data entry terminal to enter and retrieve data
directly into and from the main computer control via telephone lines.
Fig. 2.7.10 Bar Code

2.7.12 Key to Tape / Key to Disk

This is a system of data entry normally employed when processing spiral

documents usually in batches. In any key to disk system, there must be a microcomputer
that is used as the processing computer or server. There will be a special computer
terminals, each with a different operator in front of it. Provision for a fixed disk drive

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where data is stored when keyed in is made, and finally there is a tape drive where
after completing a given batch of data, then you re-locate. One of the terminals is
usually dedicated for a supervisor to the system that oversees the whole operation.

2.7.13 Key to Disk Operation

Each operator loads the program usually employed to enable data entry of batches.,
then keys in the data from the original documents usually source documents. The
program in use will validate the data entry and incase of any error; this will be given
on the screen and then will enable the operator to correct. Once this is corrected, the
data is stored on disk and the second operator is given the same source document to
verify using the same process to the terminal and program. Once a batch is verified as
compact, the data is transferred from the disk to the tape drive and finally physically
transferred to the server (minicomputer) for processing.

DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF OUTPUT DEVICES

There are several output devices that are available within the current technological
advancement. For our level, we will limit ourselves to the following: Printers,
Monitors, Plotters, Sound Output and Microfiche /Microfilm devices.

2.7.14 Printers
Printers are necessary when hard copies of displayed work on the monitor have to
be sent to customers, report prepared by the Management and the Board of Directors and
so on must be printed. It’s not disputable the fact that other electronic means of
transmitting information are now available. Printed-paper, however, still remains the most
popular means of communicating the same information. Printers fall into three main
categories classified by the amount of printed work the device is able to produce
in one operation.
a) Page Printers
These printers print a whole page at once. They are sometimes known as image
printers. They produce the images by laser or electrostatic means. The quality of
output from such printers is sufficiently high for business correspondence. They use
toners just like a photocopy.

Fig. 2.8.1 (a)

b) Line Printers
These type of printers produce a whole line of a text at ago. They are very fast but
the quality of the output is always low.
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 It is important to note that the length of a line is not standard as it differs with the
requirement of the application in use. However, most of the printers will print between
120 and 144characters per line. This will require approximately paper width of about
14 inches so as to accommodate the said character scale. 132 characters are often the
most common width. These use cartridges.
c) Character Printers
Form or print one character as a time on the paper. This rate of printing varies
between 20 and 600 characters per second depending on the mechanism or use in the
different makes employed. These printers make use of ribbons.
There are many different types of character printers. The first is called Daisy
Wheel Printer, which creates fully formed letters much like a typewriter sometimes
called Letter Quality Printer. The output is often good enough for business
correspondence.

a) The Whole

The Whole Daisy Wheel

b) Detail of the Daisy

Daisy Wheel wheel Spokes
Fig. 2.8.1(c) (i) Daisy Wheel Printer

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The second is Dot Matrix Printer, which creates characters as spools of dots in a
rectangular matrix. The speed of the dot matrix printer is much higher than that of a
daisy wheel but the quality of the former is not sufficient enough for business
correspondence. A dot matrix printer has a print head consisting of a number of small
pins between 9 and 24 depending on the make. A printer with a 9 pin print will give a
poor quality print compared to that of a 24 pin print head since the dots in the former
are widely spaced apart. If a dot matrix is to produce a better quality output,
sometimes referred to as Near Letter Quality (NLQ), then a line is printed twice with
the print head being moved along very slightly in the second printing so that those
moved spaces between the dots are filled into ensure continuity. One advantage with
the dot matrix printers is that they can print from either side, meaning the print head
does not have to move say to the left side of the paper in order to begin printing but
begin from the right as well. With the dot matrix printer you simply need to change
the ribbon of different colour to get a colored output.

Fig. 2.8.1(c) (ii) Dot Matrix Printer

How Character printer operates:
A paper is passed through a printer that has a moving belt or a chain containing a
complete character set – as seen from the keyboard. A paper is then hit from behind
by a set of hammers, which are aligned for each printing position on the line. This will
then pass a paper against an inked ribbon behind which is the character to be printed.

Another way to categorize printers is by whether or not the print head strikes the
paper. If it does, it is called Impact Printer and if it does not it is called a Non-
Impact Printer. Dot matrix and Daisy wheel printers fall in the former category; all
strike the paper while printing.
Non-impact printers are usually the fastest since they minimize the amount of
physical movement required during the printing process. Examples of non-impact
printers include Thermal Printers, Inkjet and Electrostatic Printers.
Impact Printers are usually noisy given the physical motion involved during the printing
process when the printing device strikes the paper. To get multiple copies from impact
printers, all you need to do is interlace a carbon paper between the papers.

How Non-Impact Printers work

a) Thermal Printers

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The slowest of all non-impact printers, form characters by burning them on specially
treated paper. They operate at about 30 characters per second.

Thermal Printer

b) Electrostatic Printers
They form characters by charging the paper electrically. The paper is then passed
through a toner solution. Particles of the toner solution (ink) stick to the electrically
charged areas of the paper. When the paper is heated, the particles melt thus
producing the characters. They are quite fast; some print about 300 pages per minute.
c) Ink Jet Printers
These printers “spit” streams of ink to the surface of the paper. The ink then drips
almost immediately. They are fairly slow. They produce from about 50 to 100
characters per second. These printers offset their relative disadvantage of slowness by
their low cost and multiple colour printing.
2.7.15 Voice Output
Computer voice output is common place. For example a computer could be
programmed to offer telephone information service, like directory help. Others let you
know if you dialed a wrong number or if the number you are calling is out of order or
busy and the like.

2.7.16 Plotter
This is an output device used to produce graphical output like drawing graphs, charts,
maps or electric circuits. The design of the graph, circuit is done on the computer then
the output is sent to the plotter. Plotters are of two types: one that has a single sheet
sometimes called Flat Set Plotter and the second uses a continuous sheet which rolls
continuously on drum like cylinders: also known as Drum Plotters.

2.7.17 Microfiche/Microfilm
Microfiche and Microfilm are both better known collectively as microform. The later is a
document photographed and hence stored in a film. Microfiche is a sheet of film that

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measures 105mm x 148mm whereas a microfilm is actually a 16mm roll film. A
typical 16mm will hold the equivalent of 3,000 A4 Pages. One typical microfiche will
hold the equivalent of about 98 A4 Pages.
Usually this technique of giving output to a microfilm/microfiche or microform
is usually referred to as COM (Computer Output to a Microform). The technique is
simple, a machine called a microfilm Recorder reads output that is relayed onto a
magnetic tape for the computer, once read, the output is copied out on
microfilm/microfiche. The application of COM is suitable where an organization has
to store data over a long period of time or where backup copies need to be made.
Records that need to be out a long time would include: receipts and invoices of an
organization or say catalogues in a library or a bookstore.

2.8 DESCRIPTION OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES AND

MEDIA

As mentioned earlier, secondary storage or backing storage provide supplementary

memory to main memory of the computer. The following auxiliary media and devices
will be discussed: Magnetic tape Drive and Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Disk Drive and
Magnetic Disc, Magnetic Diskette Unit and Magnetic Diskette, Optical Disk Unit and
Optical Disk, Mass Storage Devices and Media.

2.8.1 Magnetic Tape Drive and Magnetic Tape

The concept of storage in magnetic tape device used by computers is identical
to tapes you may have in your home video or audiotapes recorder. As a matter of fact,
most microcomputers can use exactly these devices to store data. Magnetic tape
consists of a large strip of plastic that has been coated with iron oxide compound that
can be magnetized. This strip is typically wound on a 10½ inch for mainframe and
microcomputer applications. Microcomputers employ audiotape cassettes. Data is
recorded on and read from the tape using a tape drive. The latter has a “read head” for
reading the information stored on the tape that’s for transforming data from the tape
into main memory. It also has a “write head” for recording the information. Usually,
to read from, write to an individual tape, you have to mount it on a tape drive.
In processing data is read from the tape into main memory (or RAM) where
processing takes place. The results are given out only as a written report or as another
tape file written on another drive. Because RAM capacity is limited, only a small
amount of data is used for the input tape or written to the output device at one time.
Data that is stored on magnetic tape as well as other auxiliary storage devices
are usually organized into records. A record for now should be understood as a unit of
data consisting of characters about someone or something. How data processing uses
records is a matter of loading one or more records into RAM for an output device.
Processing those records and sending the result to an output device.
This technique of sorting records on tape in the form of groups that are read
into or written from RAM all at once giving rise to a number of technical terms that
are used in all types of secondary storage media. See fig. 2.9.1 below.

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Fig. 2.9.1: Magnetic tape with a Blocking Factor of 100

I I I
I
R G100 Logical R G 100 Logical 100 Logical R 100 Lo
Records Records R GReco
Records
G

Physical Record

I I I
R 100 Logical Records
R 100 Logical Records
R 100 Logical Records
G G

Physical Record

A group of records is called Physical Records or Block. Each record in the

group is known as a Logical Record. The number of logical records in a physical
record is referred to as the Blocking Factor. A blocking factor of ten will indicate that
ten logical records make up one physical record or block. The term block refers to a
group of logical records, all of which are read onto or written from RAM at once. The
physical records, or block, are suspended from each other by blank spaces on the tape
known as Inter-record Gap (IRG). Sometimes known as Interlock Gap.
Magnetic tape is a sequential medium, this means that records appear on it in
sequential order for example personal records will appear by: employee number,
account number and so on. Because data is stored on tape sequentially, they must also
be processed sequentially. If a tape file has only 60,000 records, access to record
number 50,747 can be had only by reading through all of the proceeding 50,746
records. This is usually a very slow way of accessing data.

2.8.2 Magnetic Disk Drive and Magnetic Disk

Magnetic disk storage is the preferred medium for most secondary data storage
today. As opposed to magnetic tape files, disk files need not be processed sequentially,
although they may be if the application calls for it. Any record stored on disk may be
retrieved without having top process through all of the proceeding records on the file. For
this reason, a disk is usually referred to a Direct Access Storage Device (DASD). This
factor is what makes a magnetic disk faster and more flexible than the tape.
Physically a magnetic tape consists of circular platters of non-magnetic such as
aluminium and plastic, which is combined with the same sort of non-oxide coating
used on magnetic tape. As with, characters are recorded by magnetizing microscopic
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magnetic fluids on the disk surface using the usual data coding schemes.
Magnetization in one direction represents a zero in the other direction a one.
To use a disk one has to mount it on a spindle that causes it to rotate. A
read/write head, similar to that of magnetic tape, moves back and forth across the disk
radius rotating and storing data as required. The read/write head can move to different
sections of a record without necessarily having to write or read this section; only when
the instruction was prompted!
Disk Drive is the device on which the disk is mounted when used to store and
retrieve data. The device can position the read/write head in a number of portions
along the disk radius. As the disk rotates past the read/write head, data is recorded in a
circular track. This means therefore, that there are as many concentric tracks displayed
on the surface of the disk, as there are positions for read/write head. This is illustrated
in Fig. 2.9.2 (a)
Each track is divided into sections or blocks, similar to the blocks of data in
magnetic tape. Each sector has an address. To store/retrieve data, the system finds the
disk address used to contain data by moving the read/write head to the appropriate
track where it waits until the desired sector passes by.
Fig. 2.9.2 (b) shows how a track is divided into sectors and how the sector
contains an address used to locate where data is stored on the disk. A hard disk with a
capacity of 300k for example contains forty tracks (40) of nine sectors each; having a
total of 360 sectors available on each side; of a two-sided disk for a total of 720
sectors. Each sector contains 512 bytes or 4096 (512 x 8)characters, so the disk offers
a total data storage capacity of 368,649-bytes. Such a disk is said to be a 360k disk
following the conception that “k” equals 1,024 (360 x 1024= 368640).

Read/Write
Head
Track Disk

Access
Rotation Arm

Spindle

Fig. 2.9.2(a)

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 Address Data

Fig. 2.9.2(b)
Disk storage media take different forms. Hard disks are rigid in nature. They
contain the most data. Hard disks may be fixed in their devices or may be removed.
They are usually 14” in diameter, although it is unusual to the smaller had disks in
microcomputers. One such system is known as Winchester, so named because its
prototype makes use of two drops of thirty million bytes each has effectively the “30-
30”. It uses a 14” plotter. Later versions called Mini-Winchester or Mini-winns” used
8” or 6” and one-quarter inch plotters, which are stored in the drives and can store up
to 85,000,000 bytes.

2.8.3 Magnetic Diskette Unit and Magnetic Diskette

This is another form of disk storage media. Flexible disks or simply diskettes
often called floppy disks or floppies because they use a thin sheet of plastic as their
case. They are an important data storage medium for micro and mini computers.
Diskettes range in size from 3 ½” to 8”. They offer the advantages of ease of
transport and low cost. They are encased permanently in a protective envelope, which
is insulated in the disk drive. The entrance to the drive is a narrow slot in front of the
drive. This slot has a small flap over it, which must be clipped shut once the disk is
inserted.

2.8.4 Optical Disk Unit and Optical Disk

Optical disk is a kin to audio compact disk or CD that you might have in your home.
The device is made of plastic cover, which has transparent material. The principle of
work is the same as that of the CD; sound is recorded in them in digital form.
Data is recorded beneath the transparent layer that cover the surface of the CD by
burning a permanent pattern into the surface of the disk by means of a laser beam.
Reading the data is also by a laser beam in an optical disk recorder.
The capacity of a CD is usually about (600 – 750MB). 1 Gigabyte, which is
made up of 40,000 tracts each divided into 25 sectors. 1 GB is equal to 1 million
characters-(1 GB).

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 One advantage of CDs to magnetic disks is that loosing of data is not as rampant
as with the latter. One disadvantage is that some (i.e CD-R) CDs are not reusable.
They are usually referred to as WORM, which stands for Write Once Read Many
times. Reading from the CDs tends to be slower than that of the magnetic disks.
However, with the advert of CD-RW (Re-writable CDs) you can use a CD writer to
delete obsolete work and write new data.

2.8.5 Mass Storage Media

A great need for machine-readable data storage in industries has prompted
computer equipment manufacturers to develop storage devices with even higher
capacities. The top of the time disk unit manufactured by IBM doe example, stores
more than 2.5 billion bytes of data. Data Car-tridge System store data in series of 50
MB cartridges. These devices provide up to half a million bytes of on line storage.
The operation is similar to that of other secondary storage devices. A cartridge is
loaded into the read/write mechanism, the data is processed and then the cartridge is
replaced in its honeycomb-the storage bin. Then the read/write mechanism moves
onto find the next catalogue to be processed. Cartridge systems are slower than disk
systems because they involve more physical movements.
2.9 SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE

2.9.1 System Software

System Software are programs with their associated documentations that control
the entire operation of the computer. It is what tells the computer what to do when you
issue a command or when you switch on the computer. Within the set of system
software, we find a set of programs called Operating Systems. The latter is usually
defined as a set of programs that standardize the way a computer’s resources are made
available to the user and to applications software. The resources here refer to the
hardware components of the computer.
The system software command imprinted on a type of memory called ROM
(Read Only Memory). Such memories are usually reserved for such data of the
operating system that the user must not modify or inadvertently delete. It is usually
protected by the manner in which it is manufactured. ROM is used to store programs
and data that are essential for the proper operation of the computer system and of the
application program that are integral parts of the operation. ROM is non – volatile;
this means whatever is stored in such memory remains whether or not the power is on.
(RAM – discussed earlier is volatile). Programs such as operating systems and
application programs stored in ROM are often called Firmware, meaning software that
is engrained / fixed into the hardware.
System software also has what we refer to as Utility Programs for File
management, editing files, management of disks and so on. These are commands
resident in system software.

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 2.9.2 Application Software
This is a program that is usually applied on one area of operation only – not as
all encompassing as system software. Application software is usually divided into 2
categories:
(i) Standard Packages or Application Packages (General Application Software)
These are packages that are designed to be used to solve a particular type of problem
for example Lotus 123, Ms Excel are all spreadsheet packages meant to be applied in
accounting operation only. Word perfect, Ms-Word are all word processors. D-base 4,
Ms Access are database packages and so on.
(ii) User Developed Software (or Specialist Application Packages)
These are suites of programs with their associated documentation that are tailor made
to solve specific tasks only. Usually, a user will give a specification to a programmer
of the suite he wants to be developed to meet his business or individual needs. This
kind of software is only restricted to solving problems to which it is programmed to
solve. Tailor made software is sometimes known as Bespoke Packages.

2.10 SUMMARY

Computer Hardware is defined as all the electrical, electronic and mechanical components of
the computer together with their devices used at the peripheral.


Software are programs that are used to run the computer together with the associated
documentation.


Computer hardware comprises of Input devices, Output devices and the Central Processing
Unit.


A complete computer system comprises the operating system, system software, application
program and hardware.


CPU is consisted of Arithmetic and Logic Unit which performs arithmetic and
logic comparisons, the control unit which coordinates the activities of the
hardware (I/O operations) as per the dictates of the memory, memory which stores
data being processed, results and the application in use, registers which are slam
areas in the CPU that holds data before processing and probably after.

Storage Devices are in two forms: Primary Storage devices, the Main Memory and Secondary
Storage devices which supplements the main memory.

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
Input devices include: Keyboard, mouse, paper scanner and magnetic ink holder.
Other data capture methods include: speech, magnetic, optical character readers
and optical mark reader.

Output devices include: Printers – which could be line, page or character printers, they are
also categorized by whether the print head strikes the paper while printing
– impact and non-impact printers, visual display Unit, (or monitor) – displays the
text/graphics for the user to see and plotters for plotting graphical output, electric
circuits, charts etc.

Secondary storage media and devices include: Magnetic tapes and disks, optical disks and
mass storage media.


System software are programs that control the entire operation of the computer
together with the associated documentation. An application program is software
that is usually applied on one area of operations only. They could be standard
packages or user developed packages.

2.11 QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between hardware and software in a computer.

2. What does computer hardware consist of:

3. Discuss the functions of components of a computer hardware system.

4. A complete computer system comprises of which components?

5. Discuss any 4 input devices.

6. Discuss any 4 output devices

7. What do you understand by secondary storage devices?

8. Discuss any three backing storage media and devices.

9. Distinguish between System Software and Application Software.

10. What is an Operating System?

11. What are Utilities?

12. What is Firmware?

13. What are the two types of Application Software? Discuss

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 CHAPTER 3
SAFE USE AND CARE OF COMPUTERS
This chapter lets the student to be aware of the computer, its safety rules and how to
apply them. The safety rules to be observed regard personnel, materials and
equipment in the computer laboratory. The student is also expected to state correctly
safety precautions required in the lab and be able to identify possible causes of loss of
data and their precautions.

Behaviour in the Computer Lab.

Handling of Materials and Equipment.
Fire and Accidents.
Chemicals and Combustible Materials.
Ventilation in the Computer Lab.
Safety Precautions and Practices.
Possible Cause of Loss of Programs and Data.
Precautions.
Summary
Questions

3.1 BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LAB

Computer lab forms a very important section of an organization or school and
therefore strict rules in terms of behaviour of personnel/students working/studying in
the lab needs to be put in place and adhered to.
One factor to be taken into consideration is the cost involved in setting up the lab
including the cost of equipment. This should not be taken for granted and computers
and other peripherals damaged in the short run could result in great losses to the
organization.
Cleanliness is a factor that stands out in the lab. The personnel need to be clean
while in the lab. Dust in the hands, oil on fingers is not allowed among
personnel/students. Foodstuffs to the lab is not allowed as the broken pieces from such
will ultimately find their way into the peripherals e.g keyboards, disk drive and so on.
Depending on what material cover is on the floor, certain shoes tend to cause a
lot of distraction by making noise to the rest of the seated personnel. This slows down
the work process as attention will definitely be shifted. External disks into the lab are
not recommended as this may result in virus infection to the system in the lab from
outside sources.
Internal disks should not be allowed to leave the room. Some stringent procedures
should be laid down to check the personnel who ignore the rule. If this is not observed,

Page | 31
it may lead to data from the organization being exposed to rivals or would be “hackers”
– those who gain access to the system without authority.
Any mechanical or technical faults noted should always be reported to the
technical personnel immediately for attention. Non-technical personnel should never
attempt to deal with such a fault!
It is important also that every personnel make routine backup copies of every
work done in the lab as this will save the organization from any data loss in the event
of disaster.
Shutting down and booting of computers is very important. Strict procedures
depending on the operating system specification should be adhered to, otherwise
damages to the disk in the long run and fragmentation of files and storage in the
storage location will happen. This will cause delays in reading and writing to the
same. All equipment should not be moved around the lab rather they should always be
used where they are installed!
Changing of peripherals from one machine to another is not an encouraged
practice. Let a mouse meant for machine A remain the machine; if it does not work,
please ask a technical personnel to attend to it, but do not interchange it with another!

3.2 HANDLING OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Handling of some materials and equipments in the lab should be a privilege. In
other words, some disks and special machines like a server (in the case of a network)
should not be for everyone, only those authorized should be allowed for example to
keep installation disks and so on.
Generally the computers and peripherals in the laboratory should always be
handled with care since all of them have soldered electronic parts within them that
when poorly handled and perhaps dropped then such parts will always either break or
be dislocated. This will mean the equipment is damaged. It is recommended that every
movement to machines in the lab be done using a trolley. No equipment should ever
leave the lab unless with direct authority from the right person.
Computer cables should, if detached, be properly returned each to the right
machine. Technical operations in the lab should be left for only technical personnel. If
every Tom, Dick and Harry in the lab assume to repair every damaged equipment,
then more will be worse off than they were.
Disks should be kept from natural hazards like excessive temperatures, water and
dust places and a way from magnets if data integrity is to be maintained.

3.3 FIRE AND ACCIDENTS

Fire and other accidents in the lab are possibilities. Such accidents would include
electrocution of an employee/student, slipping and falling on a slippery floor.
Fire is a big threat to data loss and equipment. Every lab should always offer
training of how to handle fir in thee event of such calamity and of course fir-fighting
equipment like fire extinguishers for example hand held CO 2 and BCF extinguishers
should always be available.

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 Data should also always be kept in fireproof safes to avoid loss of data loss in
such event. Insuring of equipment and software in the organization with insurance
firms will help since after such an accident, the firm is paid.

3.4 CHEMICALS AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL

Chemicals and combustible materials should always be located on special places.

False floors and ceilings should always be available for chemicals like fluorocarbon
fluid used as a cooling agent for mainframe. Such pipes and ducts should pass either
up on false ceilings or below false floors.
Combustible materials like fire extinguishers should be located in places visible
to everyone but with strict instructions to be touched only in the event of a fire break
out. Other materials that could be harmful to the environment should be transmitted
through properly located ducts.

3.5 VENTILATION IN THE COMPUTER LAB/WORKING AREA

Windows provide adequate ventilation in labs. Such windows must not be very
wide as such will always be vulnerable to entry by intruders. Any ventilation apart
from the window should always be higher up and very small in size. Every ventilation
again, mostly windows, should have a well-dropped curtain so as to keep private the
operations in the lab.

3.6 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND PRACTICES

3.6.1 Cabling
Cables in the lab should be properly located either on false floor or ceiling or
along the walls so as to avoid interference for example with communication coolers in
the lab. Cables put haphazardly may result in possible power disconnection if stepped
on or pushed around.

3.6.2 Stable Power Supply

Provision for stable, adequate and independent power supply is very important.
Fluctuation in voltage frequency, sudden cut in power supply and spikes cause
damages to the computer system. Interruption of power supply for example will
damage disks, damage the processor and spikes will cause loss of data and
fluctuations, voltage frequency will cut off other areas from the return.
As a precaution, large batteries, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) and
generators should always be on standby to such a crisis.
3.6.3 Burglar Proofing Counter
All doors to the computer lab should be burglar proof. This is a physical security
measure since this will avert any attempts by intruders to break in and interfere with
data and equipment in the lab.

3.6.4 Ventilation

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 It is a good practice to include ventilation in a computer room but the same
should not provide an entrance to hackers to tamper with data.

3.6.5 Floor space

The space on the floor should be wide enough to provide a thorough route for
equipment installation and other movements of the trolley to transfer equipment. It
should also provide for an emergency exit.
NB: Slippery floors are not recommended in a computer lab. Such a floor if there is,
should be covered with mats and the like.

VDU LEGISLATION
This is a legislation (British) that was passed in 1990 for frequent users of
computer screens in the lab. It states as follows:
1. One should not use a computer for more than one hour continuously.
2. While using the VDU, the eyes should not look at the screen directly but at an
angle of 30-60.
3. The distance from the screen should be between 300mm-480mm.
4. While using the keyboard, the arms and elbows should be at right angles and
parallel to the ground.
5. The seats and desks in the lab should be adjustable to the users height this is to aid
(iv) and avoid Repetitive Strains Injuries (RSI) of the fingers and wrists. The seats
should have backrests!
6. All seats in the lab should be fitted with castors – to make them mobile and less
noisy.

NB: An Anti-glare screen is still recommended.

COMPUTER LAB DESIGN

Before we look at the safety regulations in the lab, it is vital to look at what
factors must be put into consideration when designing a computer room. Constraints
of Computer Room
The following requirements must be observed in any computer room design:

The need for air conditioning
 The dimensions of size of the lab
 The need to observe cleanliness
 Equipment sitting in the lab
 Accessibility for machinery maintenance and media re-supply.
 Consideration for health and safety
 Consideration for noise

Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is very essential in the computer room where main frames are
housed or some minicomputers together with their associated peripherals. Most
devices however, usually contain their own environmental controls that are automatic
for example fans, filters and sealed units.

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 Air conditioning is done to enable control the following:
(i) Temperature – for equipment should be between 18C and 24C.
(ii) Humidity – this helps to avoid moisture precipitation and build up of
electrostatic charges. Recommended humility should be 45% - 55%.
(iii) Dust control – disk media require high level of cleanliness. Processors with
highly packed electronics require high levels of cleanliness. To help keep high
level of cleanliness, the lab should have positive pressure, air lock and sticking
nuts on the floors.
Dimensions of the Lab
The size of the computer room should take into account the following:
 Requirements specified by the equipment supplier
 Operating conditions and
 The need for future expansion.
The height should be enough to provide for false floors and ceiling to help
spread equipment loads provide safe cable paths and air ducts.

Accessibility
While installing equipment in the lab, there must be a provision for a through
route, which is also important for emergency exit. Only for security purposes should
such a route be closed.
Corridors of the lab must be high enough with double doors and floors, stairs or
lifts must be strong enough t bear the load of equipment. It is often recommended that
ground floor should be used but this again has many security risks.
Reception should always be spacious enough to allow for storage of trolleys
(used for moving equipment around the lab).

Equipment Sitting
Design of the sitting equipment should always be such that it ensures the
workflow of the operator and minimizes the walking distance from one equipment to
another. This means for example that the location of a stand-alone computer and the
printer should be close enough to ease the work!

Health and Safety

For the sake of health and safety of the staff and equipment, the following
should be observed:
a) Lighting
There should be a provision for large lighting so as to avoid minimized reflections
and glare. A further provision should be for emergency lighting.
b) Alarms
Fire alarms in the lab must be very clear (audible) and visible from any angle you are
placed. This will allow for quick action and reaction in the event of a fire break out.
c) Communications
To avoid noise in the lab, telephone lines should be strategically placed with
visible indicators for quick response.
d) Physical security

Page | 35
 General:
 Only authorized personnel should be allowed into the computer room.
 The lab should not have any outside walls to keep off intruders.
 The lab should have small windows’ provision for ventilation.
 Video cameras should be on to monitor the activities of the personnel and
intruders.

e) Fire
Alarms should be in place as discussed earlier. Automatic detection of smoke and
electrocuting system should be provided for. In the computer room, there should be
hand held Co2 and BCF extinguishers. The personnel should be given evacuation
training in the event of the fire break out.
f) Flooding
Computer labs should never be sited in basements where they are vulnerable to
floods. No water pipes should be placed under, over or in the computer rooms. This is
because water is likely to destroy equipment, programs and data in the lab.
g) Power
The computer room should have independent power supply, stable and adequate with
shrouded panic off button. Problems with power supply come in three main forms:
(i) Supply interruption – is caused by a number of factors that include transformer
failure, cutting of supply lines by accident, by people, lightening and so on.

(ii) Spike – this is a voltage level imposed onto the supply by interface source such
as switches, electro-mechanical devices and so on.
The problem caused by spikes is generally loss of data as soon as power is
removed. Disk files also get corrupted when store cycles are interrupted by
removal of power.

(iii) Voltage Frequency Variation – this is variation or fluctuation in the voltage

frequency of electricity supply. Such fluctuations normally do not have effect
since in most computers, there are power supply units that are designed to
adequately cope with any small fluctuations
Problems caused by voltage frequency variations is generally loss of users in the
sense that terminal links get broken in those parts of a network whose power is
interrupted or destroyed. So this problem is normally experienced when
computers are networked.
When designing a computer lab, it is important to have a stand by generator,
large batteries or other uninterrupted power supply (UPS) units so that in the
event of power failure, the data is not lost, or users disconnected or disk media
damaged etc.
3.6.6 Dust/Dump Proof
Disk storage media and processor require a high level of cleanliness and standard
temperature in order to maintain the data stored and of course for power to adequately
function.

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 The lab should therefore have a positive pressure, suitable building materials to
reduce dust, special floor covering to reduce the dumpness and so on.

3.6.7 Lighting
The computer lab should have adequate lighting. This lighting should be large
enough to minimize reflections and glare on the part of the user. There should also be
a provision for emergency lighting.

3.6.8 Standard Furniture

The furniture used in the lab, that is the table on which the machine is placed
should be stable and firm with enough room under for the user’s legs and clearance to
allow posture changes. The surface of desk should be spacious enough to allow
flexible arrangements of items, it should be glare free.
The chair should be adjustable as to allow different personnel of different heights
to use the desk.

3.6.9 Fire Fighting Equipment

Provision for the fighting equipment in the lab is vital. Fire extinguishers like
hand held BCF and Co2 extinguishers should never miss.
Supply equipment should always be located in visible places for staffs. More
important is the adequate training of how to handle such equipment and precaution
techniques for the personnel.

3.7 POSSIBLE CAUSES OF LOSS OF PROGRAMS AND

DATA
Loss of programs and data to the organization results in loss of information that
may not be put in monetary value. Some of the causes include:

3.7.1 Power Supply

Power supply problem result in two forms:


Power supply interruption - is one form which can be caused by transformer
failure, cutting of supply lines, by accident, by people, lightening and the like,
inadvertent switching off of the machine also could interrupt power supply.

Spike – is the second form of power supply problem, this is a situation where a
voltage level is imposed onto the supply by interference source such as switches,
electromechanical devices and so on.

All these forms of power problems especially supply interruption and spikes result in
damage to disk heads which often crush when power is suddenly removed. This will
mean loss of data since it will be hard to read or write to such a disk. Spikes often
result in serious loss of data since RAM being volatile losses data immediately power
supply is cut off.
Disk files also get crumpled when stores are interrupted by removal of power.
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 3.7.2 Virus
A virus is a peace of software (program) that replicates itself without the user
intending it or noticing it. Viruses often affect our computers having been brought
about by hardware/software engineers who move from one computer to another
carrying out demonstrations or through external infected disks, which are brought into
the lab. Such disks are often infected with boot sector virus (boot sector is the first
partition of the hard disk/floppy). When it (infected disk) is put into the drive, it will
be loaded into memory. The disk is now infected since the memory to which it must
be loaded first is now infected.
A virus usually has many effects for example replication where a virus divides
itself repeatedly thus spoiling the data on the screen/memory/or disk.
Viruses have so many effects they cause to data/information and to the user.
What we need to note here is simply the fact that viruses will change or modify the
data that was stored to take a different format that is never useful to the operator.

3.7.3 Accidental Erasure

It is possible that the user without him wanting it, could erroneously erase data.
This usually comes about for instance while using a delete command say in Ms –
Dos(next chapter), one happens to delete a whole directory while the intention was to
delete a single file in the directory. As will happen, one uses a disk command like disk
copy without identifying the source diskette from the destination disk. If the two are
mixed, then it is possible to wipe the contents of the source disks erroneously.

3.7.4 Crashing Disks

Disk heads, as mentioned earlier, often crush when there is sudden power supply
disconnection. Data is often lost since reading from one disk and writing to them is
not possible. This means that data in that disk was lost.

3.7.5 Poor Storage of Disks

We said that the disks require very high levels of cleanliness above any other.
Dusts will clog the disk head. That causes a problem in reading and writing to the
disk. Storing disks in dump places and very dry places have effects on the disks,
surface will either become too delicate or fold away from its shape. All these
minimize the reading and writing processes to data in the disk.

3.7.6 Unauthorized Access

Only authorized personnel should always be allowed into the lab. It is possible
that hackers could gain access to the room and “steal” data/information, which could
be tampered with in some way or even a virus infected into the system.
Also unauthorized persons could perform some fraud with the data for say personal
gain at the expense of the organization. A hacker could gain access to for example change
an existing invoice to reflect a higher or lower bill, clear an invoice, etc.

3.8 PRECAUTIONS
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 The following precautions should be put in place to avert the possible loss of
data through the risks identified above.

3.8.1 a) Power Failure

Power failure is a risk to data in the organizations. Precautions to be taken include:
b) Regular Saving of Documents/Files
The user of the system should always ensure that the work is saved as regularly as
possible, say after every 5 to 10 minutes. Some application will always do this
automatically for the user. If you don’t save your work periodically, then any power
interruption/spike will mean all the work you did will be lost.
c) Use of UPS
UPS in short for Uninterrupted Power Supply. This is a simple device that consists
of suitable sized strapped across the input supply. Its size is dependent upon the
capacity of the system it is required to support and for how long. This method can be
interrupt driven from a simple hardware dictation circuit which automatically locks
the user out as soon as an interruption is detected and all data is automatically stored
and also safely packed before the system is switched off.
d) Use of Batteries and Generators
Standby generator systems together with large batteries are necessary to sustain
the continuity of computer facilities in such organizations as hospitals, military
installations, factories and some offices. In the event of power interruption, what
happens is that the system is first maintained by the battery while the generator is
started up.
3.8.2 Virus
The following precautions should be adhered to so as to guard against virus:
a) Write Protection Disks
Every floppy 3½ disk contains a physical write protect tab on the left hand corner
that slides down to indicate its “on”. When the disk is write protected, it means you
cannot be able to write anything or change a word in it, you can only read! This will
protect you against virus since it cannot allow any external data of any form!
b) Restriction of Disk Movement
Strict procedures should always be put in place and adhered to by all IT staff. Such
software will ask the user to “repair” hard disks and floppies as well as the boot sector
from viruses. Such a procedure should be for the sake of data integrity, no disk from
the organization should leave the computer room and at the same time any external
disk should not be used in the system unless “sheep dipping” is carried out. The term
simply means scanning the disk for viruses first before being used.
c) Disable Disk Drives
Another viable alternative to virus protection would be to physically remove all
the disk drives once the normal working hours are over. This should be done by the
technical staff only. When this is done, it means that even if you had your disk to use
you cannot because the disk drive to let you read and write to the disk is not there.
This will help protect the organization against boor sector virus and the like.
d) Anti Virus Software

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 Software are available in the market today that help to disinfect diskettes (disks)
and of course the main memory from the virus infection. Since new viruses come up
often, it is always recommended that such software installed into your system should
be regularly updated or a newer more powerful one installed. Such software is often
easy to use once installed.
Examples of such software include: Norton Anti-virus, Dr. Solomon Anti-virus
Tool Kit, F-Prot Professional etc. Such software will scan and ask the user to “repair”
hard disks and floppies as well as the boot sector from viruses.

3.8.3 Accidental Erasure

When a file, document, software is accidentally erased, it is possible that you can
put in place some recovery procedures provided for in the form of utilities by the
operating software. Depending on the operating system in use, and the application
software, the user can be able to undelete an “already deleted file” or document by
simply evoking the utility. If the data was lost as a result of formatting a disk, a utility
to unformat the same could be provided. These utilities will therefore help to recover
such accidental lost data.
Another precaution to put in place would always be to use backup copies of the
information lost. A backup copy is simply the alternative copy that was made of the
information contained in a particular disk. This as the explanation states will help the
organization to continue working without any hitches.
Another option is to use fireproof safes (heat-resistant safes). Heat is a threat to
backup copies made on diskettes. Diskettes tend to fold under excessive heat. To
avoid the loss of data in this way, it is recommended that such disks be kept in heat
resistant safe always.

3.8.4 Crashing Disks

Power interruption, we said, causes the disk heads to crash. This causes a
problem in reading and writing to the same disks. A precaution here would be to use
backup copies of the same disks in the event of such a crash.
To avoid such a crash, it would be important to observe precautions for power
failure.

3.8.5 Poor Storage and Handling Disks

Disks are very sensitive storage media and a lot of care needs to be taken to
ensure that the data/information stored in them is safe and that the disk can be read
and written to. Most floppy disks are covered by plastic material which react easily to
excessive temperatures like direct sunlight or very cold dump situations. Therefore, to
preserve the disks, keep them away from sunlight as this is likely to cover the plastic
envelope covering the disk which will ultimately affect reading and writing; keep
them away from water which would make the disk surface dump and hence affect the
storage layers (sectors, tracks and cylinders) where data is stored.
Disks should also be kept away from dust environment, as those again will make the
disk drive heads. This will cause loss of data if the disk heads cannot read and write.
The mode of storage to these magnetic disks is by magnetism of the positive and
the negative charges of the data to be stored. If disks are kept next to magnets, it is
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possible that the demagnetization of this sequence could be altered. This will of
course destroy the data stored in the disk.

3.8.6 Unauthorized Access

Access to the computer room should be a privilege. Only those personnel
working there should be allowed in. when access to the lab is not restricted, then it
becomes easy for hackers to gain access to the system and hence destroy or “steal”
information. Fraudulent activities by the employees on information like leaking
confidential information to rivals for payment is also possible. Other intruders could
also gain access to the system and hence destroy or carry out ridiculous acts like
literally stealing the equipment.
Some files attributes should also be put in place to avert access to data stored.
For example, the use of passwords should be encouraged; data encryption method
should also be adopted.
Passwords could be a number(s) or a word that is only known to one person or
some “trusted” personnel in a department or a sector that will enable the user to gain
access to the system or a particular document or file. The use of passwords will ensure
that only those people who know the password could gain access to those files in the
system. Passwords if to be used, should always be changed periodically in case it has
been leaked to someone who is not authorized to know it.
Data encryption is a way of writing a particular information using a given grid
that could only be deciphered by you or a group of personnel authorized to for
example: to encrypt the following statement in a 5 x 4 grid (i.e a row is 5 and a
column is 4 letters) would be:
The statement: MEET ME TONIGHT AT 8
MEET .
ME.TO
NIGHT
.AT.8
The statement to be stored as data is MMN.EEIAE.GTTTH..OT8

The statement LICENCED TO KILL could be encrypted

as LCOLIE..CDK.E.I.NTL. in a 5 x 4 grid i.e.
LICEN
LICENCED.T
O.KILL
NB: Note that a word to be encrypted in full as you move along the row. Separate
each space by a dot. To read, read the first letter in the first column and move down
the column. Each dot is a space.

3.9 SUMMARY

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
Factors to consider when designing a computer lab are the following: Dimension,
accessibility, sitting of equipment, health and safety of personnel, lighting, power
supply, physical security and noise.

Strict rules to the lab concerning behaviour as outlined should be observed.

For safety precautions on the lab, the following should always be considered: Fire
fighting equipment, standard furniture, proper lighting, dust/dump-proof lab,
proper installations, stale power supply and burglarproof doors.


Possible causes of data loss and programs are the following: power failure, viruses,
accidental erasure, erasing of disks, poor storage and handling of disks and
unauthorized access by hackers and other intruders.


The following are precautions to be taken in the event of data loss from such risks mentioned.

Use UPS, large batteries and generators in the event of power failure.
 Use of anti virus software, write protecting disks.
 Movement restrictions.
 Disabling disk drives to protect against viruses or accidental erasure.
 Use of undeleted and unformatted utilities.
 Use of backup copies and heat resistant safes.

Disks should be stored away from water, fire or excessive temperatures and away from
magnets and should be kept in dust free environments.

Use of passwords and encryption methods to protect files against unauthorized access by
people.

3.10 QUESTIONS

1. List factors to consider while designing a computer lab.

2. What points would be observed in the computer lab as far as behaviour of

personnel is concerned?

3. Handling of materials and equipment in the lab is vital. Discuss.

4. What safety precautions and practices should be put into place in a computer lab?

5. What are desirable and possible causes of data loss in an organization?

6. List and discuss the factors to be put in place as recovery measures to the above
data threats to an organization

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 CHAPTER 4
OPERATING SYSTEMS
This chapter will introduce the student to what operating terms are, the functions and
types. It will also serve to explain how disk Operating System (DOS) organizes
information. The student is expected to use some DOS commands for file and disk
management and be able to list external and internal DOS commands at the end of the
chapter.

Definition of the term Operating System.

Functions of Operating System.
Types of Operating Systems.
How DOS organizes information.
List of DOS commands.
File Management Commands.
Disk Management Commands.
Summary.
Questions.

4.1 DEFINITION OF THE TERM:

‘OPERATING SYSTEM’

Operating System as defined earlier, is a set of programs available within the

system software that standardizes the way a computer’s resources are made available
to the user and to applications software.

4.2 FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

The following functions are identified as common to all Operating Systems:

4.2.1 Memory Management

An Operating System allocates memory to itself and to its resident system
programs, sets aside areas of application programs and user partitions, arranges the
input and output buffers (areas on RAM where input data and output data are
temporarily stored) and reserves storage for specialized purposes.

4.2.2 Input/Output (I/O) Management

The Operating System controls reading of data coming in from the various input
devices into the memory and writing of data to output devices such as printers.

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 The Operating System will ensure that each time the user types in commands those
inputs are accepted into the memory, and if the latter is busy the it holds the same
temporarily on buffers until the memory is free and also does the same to output data
awaiting to be displayed on the monitor or to be sent to the printer if the same are busy.

4.2.3 Resource Allocation

Operating System load programs into the computer memory and starts them running
after receiving instructions from the user, at the same time, operating systems must have
ability to divide resources available to different users, memory and of course the
peripherals to different processors going on at the same time so that none of the users gets
“stuck” or “deadlocked” during the operation for lack of a computer resource.
4.2.4 Error Handling
Any Operating System must have the ability to handle errors in the computer
system be it hardware or software faults and be able to provide routines to correct
these errors.

4.2.5 Provision for User Interface

Any Operating System should have the ability to receive commands from the
user and respond to them accordingly.

4.2.6 Interrupt Handling

An interruption could be caused by software errors, mechanical faults of a
machine or by the operator by pressing the Break key for example which halts the
system. The operating system should always be able to handle such interrupts without
causing any malfunctions as a result.

4.3 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are majorly two types of Operating Systems that we will discuss in this
section.

4.3.1 Single User System

In this type of Operating System, only one user can use the machine at a time,
load one program at a time in the main memory and process only that one program.
Most of the small microcomputers employ single user systems. Examples are Ms-
DOS, Pc-DOS and Windows.

4.3.2 Multi User System

This system as the name suggests is for multi user, as opposed to the single user
system. This system is employed by larger microcomputers and minicomputers. More
than one program can be loaded into the main memory by different users and
processed at the same time in an interactive manner. Examples of such an operating
system are UNIX and Windows NT

4.4 FILE MANAGEMENT

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 Medium of storage employed by most microcomputers is often disk. Data that is
stored on disks are often held in a file. The latter is often referred to as a group of related
records. The records may hold data about customers, employees of the organization and
names of students in a school and the like depending on the organizations.
Therefore, the file as a group of program instructions is actually a computer
program. When files are stored on such storage media, then the term “file” refers to
anything stored on the medium, be it a program or data file.

4.4.1 File and Directories

The work of the Operating System is to keep or maintain a directory of the
address of the files on disk. Each file on the storage media is assigned a name called
filename (one word). The directory is a list of filenames and the disk addresses at
which the file may be found. When the user refers to a particular filename, it causes
the operating system to consult its directory of filenames, locate the address of the
required file and make it ready for use.
Let us have a look at a directory listing of files of a system disk using Ms DOS.
All of the files in this directory are programs. A system disk is so called because it
contains the directory system. We shall list directory for system drive A:
Volume in drive A: has no label.
Directory of A:
COMMAND COM 18107 13-12-97 13.00PM
SYS COM 7407 13-12-97 13.00PM
DIRECTORY COM 1307 13-12-97 13.00PM
FIND EXE 1278 13-12-97 13.00PM
4 FILE(S) 142890 BYTES FREE

What the list shows:

(i) the name of the file e.g. COMMAND
(ii) Filename extension e.g. COM
(iii) The number of bytes contained in this file
(iv) Date and time on which it was printed into the directory.
(v) The total figure at the bottom of this directory listing show the number of bytes
remaining for storing other files.
MS-DOS has certain rules for formation of filenames for example;
A filename must not exceed 8 characters in length and in some cases requires
filename extensions, which is 3- character in addition to the filename. In the above
example, COM and EXE are extensions. Although not visible, there is usually a full
stop between the filename and the extension e.g. Diskcopy.COM is the complete
name for the above file. The user has to type in the computer name of the file
including the period in order to effectively use some file maintenance utilities like
copying or deleting. Filename extensions usually indicate the type of file for example
“COM” and “EXE” above will refer to program files.

4.4.2 Directory Hierarchy -75-

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 Files stored on a disk can always be organized into subdirectories. Directory
hierarchy refers to a “tree” like structure formed by directory – subdirectories – files.
For example, we could have a directory called KENYA with subdirectories of towns
NAIROBI, MOMBASA, NAKURU and files of Estates within each town, e.g.
Hurlinghum, Nyali and Milimani. The figure below shows the directory hierarchy.

KENYA

NAIROBI MOMBASA NAKURU

HURLINGHUM NYALI MILIMANI

Fig. 4.4.2

To be able to specify which file to open, the user has to specify to the operating
system the data path or path to that file. For example, to open a filename Milimani, the
following path must be specified: Kenya\Nakuru\Milimani.
A path is often defined as a logical, sequential list of directories and
subdirectories leading to a filename. The names of directories and subdirectories are
separated from each other by determinates which could be a backslash(\) or a hyphen
(-) or a slash (/) depending on the Ms-Dos version in use.
The directory names have extension DIR wheras the files have TXT. The
directory named Kenya under which the subdirectories Nakuru, Mombasa and Nairobi
are stored is called root directory.

4.4.3 Volume Lables and Directories

A labels is a name given to a disk to enable you identify the contents from those
of other disks when it’s off-line in that if it’s not mounted on a drive.
Since the use could have multiple disk drives on-line (mounted) at one time, the
operating system must have a way of determining when disks are actually mounted on
the driver. To do this, we use volume labels or volume directory, which simply a
name assigned to each disk used in the computer installation. The difference between
volume labels identifies a storage medium as physical unit while the latter two
identify data stored on disk. Suppose we gave a volume label country to the hierarchy
above, the complete name for reaching Milimani file will be:
COUNTRY\KENYA\NAKURU\MILIMANI

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 The operating system will ensure that disk on a volume label Country is located
first if it is the one mounted, before it searches for the actual file in the specific
directories.

4.4.4 Tab Control

Computers and their operating systems can perform a great number of different
tasks, not just one job as say a stand-alone word processor or a calculator. Therefore,
the user of the system must be prepared to tell the operating system what particular
task to perform at the moment.
When the computer system is complete, usually the application program is
what the user communicates with the program when a particular task is desired. When
the application program finishes, it is no longer a part of the system.
The user therefore must communicate with the operating systems to tell it what
to do next. He or she does this through the use of what we call OS’s Tab Control
Language or TCL. TCL consists of a number of operating system commands also
called system commands that control the operating system.
How does one know that the application program has finished its work and it is
no longer loaded by the operating system? The operating system will display that by
displaying its prompt; it could be a character or two that will signal the user it awaits
further system commands.
The MS-DOS Operating System, uses the prompt C:\> or C>. The “C” in the
prompt indicates the disk drive in which the operating system will look for any files
referred to by the next TCL instructions. The disk drive attached to the system are
usually identified by letters of the alphabet through a system with four drives could
have drive identifiers A: through D. Any reference to a drive must include the colon in
the drive identifier. The drive identifier displayed by the dos prompt is known as a
logged drive, the default drive or the active drive.

4.5 MS-DOS COMMANDS

Using system commands is quite easy. It is a matter of knowing the right
commands key, key it in and press enter key for the command to be accepted. System
commands help us to manage our files and directories for example; we can copy a file
from one disk to another, delete files or change names. We can also manage our disks
for example to format a disk, label a disk or copy disks.

The Syntax of a Dos Command

A Dos command usually has a command name (i.e the system command the
user intends to use) and an argument which is information required by the command.
An argument used with a Dos command will indicate the disk drive on the file to be
used by the command
Example: COPY ANN 1 TO ANN 2
The command has a command name COPY. The arguments are ANN 1 and
ANN 2. This command copies a file known as ANN 1. The new copy is named ANN
2.
N/B: ANN 1 and ANN 2 are arguments and are separated from each other by a blank
space. They are also separated from the command name by a blank space.
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4.5.1 Running a Program
It is important to note that a Dos Command represents a program. A command
name is just like a file name of any other program. To be able to run a program using
Dos, first the operating has to be loaded. Loading the operating system is simply
switching on the computer, it will open a program loaded in ROM to check if the
operating system is loaded in drive A or any other and load, other wise it will load
from the hard disk.
To run a program with filename extension COM, BAT, TXT, simply enter its
filename without the extension for example to a Basic Program simply enter BASIC.
Its filename is BASIC.COM.
When you want to execute a program that is not stored on a disk in the logged
drive, the first thing would be to change the logged drive to the disk containing the
program. For example, suppose you wanted to run a program with the filename
MILO.EXE which is on the disk in drive B:, and the logged drive is A:, to specify the
drive on which Dos should look for the program, proceed with the filename with the
drive identified with no blank in between the colon and the filename.
B:MILO

4.6 FILE MANAGEMENT COMMANDS

4.6.1 Changing the Logged Drive
To change the logged drive from the active one, simply enter the letter of the
alphabet for the new drive at the prompt of the active drive followed by the colons and
then press Enter key.
For example, if the active drive is C:\>, simply type A: at the prompt and press
Enter.
C:\> A:\>
A:\> or A:\>

4.6.2 Determining the Contents of a Diskette

To determine the contents of your disk, Dos provides a program command DIR
(Directory) that will display the files stored in your disk with the exception of the
hidden files.
The files are usually listed one per line with their filenames, filename
extension, size and the date and time they were last saved.
If you have many files than can be displayed on the screen, then Dos passes
them so fast over the screen that you cannot be able to read or identify a particular
program. There are two solutions to that program:

(i) /P (Pause) Switch

To see the files with all the relevant information i.e. filename, filename
extension, size and date and time, then /P switch does the work. The files will be
shown one screen at a time and tests the user to see the files with instructions to “press
any key to continue…” The format is DIR/P <ENTER>

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(ii) /W (Wide) Switch
This command will display filenames and their extension only for the entire
directory at once. They will be displayed in rows five files wide. The format is DIR/W
<enter>.

To see only a particular file on Disk

Simply use the filename of that file as the argument, thus:
DIR B:FILENAME.TXT

In this case, Dos will display the particular information about that file or tell
you that it is not on disk.

To see Directory files with similar extensions.

If your files have the following extensions; BAS for Basic Programming files,
DBS for Database files, to see their directory of all the Basic programming files, enter:
DIR*.BAS or DIR/P.BAS or DIR/W*.BAS
The asterisk is called a wild card. What it means is that you “substitute the
position with any characters.” For instance in the command DIR*.BAS will list all the
files with the .BAS extension.

Directory of files with similar names and different extensions

Suppose your filenames are the same but have different extensions, all that you
need to do is:
DIR Same.*
All files called “Same” will be displayed.
Suppose you decided to identify your files as Same 1, Same 2 and so on, and
therefore you wanted to only display a filename Same but with specific extension
DBF, you would enter:
DIR Same*.DBF
To see all same files you would enter:
DIR Same*.*

The asterisk wildcard is a many character wild card. It fills out a filename or
extension from its position to the end of the name in the above EXE file, the asterisk
is the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth character if they exist in the filename beginning
with SAME.
Another wild card used in the Dos command if? It is usually called a one
character wild card. When it appears in a command, you can substitute it with one
character e.g.
DIR ?AME*.DBF, will substitute ? with any character as long as the next line
i.e AME is part of that filename. So if it is a command, like DIR SAME*??? Would
be the same as DIRD SAME*.* when the three questions marks in the former stand fir
three character.

4.6.3 Changing Directories

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 Let us go back to the example we gave with root directory KENYA. Suppose
you wanted to make Hurlinghum your current directory, you simply need to enter to
command:
CD C:\NAIROBI\HURLINGHAM. <ENTER>
If you are already in C: as the logical drive, you do not need to enter it again,
simply type: CD. If you wanted to move up one level of the directory i.e. to Nairobi,
type:
CD.. <ENTER>

Suppose you were to go straight to the root directory i.e. KENYA, all you need
to type in at the prompt is:
CD\ <ENTER>
If you want to see the subdirectory of a current directory, type DIR. <ENTER>.

For example if you have made Nakuru your current directory, to see
subdirectory like Milimani simply enter the latter command!

4.6.4 Making Directories

Suppose you wanted to make a subdirectory of your current directory Nakuru,
what you need to do is enter that command MD (Make Directory) and the name you
intend to call the subdirectory, thus:
MD LANGA <ENTER>
If towards creating the directory named LANGA you want to work in it, simply
use the CD command to place yourself in it, thus:
CD LANGA <ENTER>

4.6.5 Removing Directories

To remove a directory, first ensure that the directory to be removed is empty. You
can empty a directory by using DEL command after making back-up copies of the same.
To effect the command to remove a directory like NYALI, ensure you place
yourself in MOMBASA directory first, thus:
CD MOMBASA <ENTER>
RD NYALI <ENTER>
4.6.6 Copying a File
It is often necessary to make a copy of a file. All important files should always
be copied so as to guard yourself against the loss of data. Data loss often occurs if you
accidentally erase a file, Power goes off before you save your files, store data under an
incorrect name, do physical damages to a diskette.
When you copy a file to protect against loss of data we say you are backing up a
file. The copy command requires 2 parameters/arguments to accomplish the task. It is
a resident command.
(i) The first argument is the name of the file to be copied.
(ii) The second argument is the filename for the copy. If the file is not on the
logged drive, then drive identification must be included.
4.6.6.1 Copying from the same Drive
Thus: Copy SAME1.DBF ZAME2.DBF
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 The above command will copy file named SAME1 on the same drive and give it
a new name ZAME2.DBF. it is important to note that if you are copying within the
same drive, then the new file must have a different name.

4.6.6.2 Copying from one Drive to another

To copy a file from one drive to another giving it the same name. Enter:
COPY SAME1.DBF B:
New file name is not necessary on the target drive (B:) since it is the same as that
of the source drive.

4.6.6.3 Copying a range of Files.

To copy a range of files, we employ wildcards for example:
Copy same*.*B will copy all files on the logged drive that start with same onto
the diskette in drive b: irrespective of filename extension.
To copy the entire contents of drive A: to B, we can use the following command:
COPY A:*.*B:
N/B: Ensure that the destination diskette is formatted before the operation is started
since this command COPY doesn’t copy formatting information as does DISKCOPY
command (4.7.4).

4.6.7 Renaming Files

For the sake of clarity, the user can rename an old file with a new name. The
command is RENAME or simply REN. The format of this resident DOS command is:
At the prompt of the logged drive containing the disk with the old filename type:
RENAME OLDNAME.TXT NEWNAME.TXT
This DOS internal command will not allow you to change a file name to one
already existing in the diskette.
Notice the single space left between the arguments themselves and between Dos
command and the argument oldname.
The use of wildcard is important here as they could help rename a wide range of
files, for instance:
RENAME SAME*.DBF SAME*.WPF
This will change all the filename extensions of all the SAME files to Word
Processing Files (WPF). To rename a file on a different drive, you would do this:
RENAME B: SAME.DBF ZAME.DBF to rename a file in B:

4.6.8 Deleting Files

Two Dos commands available for deleting files are DEL and ERASE. The format
is:
DEL ZAME.DBF <ENTER>
This will delete only a file named ZAME. To delete the entire directory of
ZAME (that is plus the subdirectories), enter:
DEL *.* <ENTER>
That is if you are placed inside the directory ZAME.

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4.6.9 To Display the Contents of a File
To be able to simply display the contents of a file on the monitor. The command
type is provided. The format is:
TYPE Filename.EXT
Indicate the filename that is plus extension if you intend to display the contents
on the screen. NB: You can press CTRL + S to stop the contents on the screen from
passing too fast for you.

4.6.10 To print the Contents of a File

If you need a hard copy of the contents of a file, then enter the format below:
TYPE Filename.EXT>PRN

N/B: You could also use the command PRESS CTRL + P which will sent everything
on the CRT to the printer. To stop printing pre CTRL + P again.

4.7 DISK MANAGEMENT COMMANDS

Under Disk Management commands, we will examine the following commands:

Formatting a Floppy Disk
 Inserting a Floppy Disk
 Copying disks
 Adding Dos to a formatted disk

4.7.1 Formatting a Diskette

Formatting is a process of preparing new diskettes for data storage. The system
command is FOMART.
What formatting does: it organizes the disk so Dos can store data, keep track of
them and retrieve them from disk. It also ensures that there are no defective areas on
the new disk. If at all the defective areas are found, FORMAT will mark them so Dos
does not store data in them.
Formatting usually takes two ways: A disk can be formatted to include Dos or
not. Disks that include the operating system or Dos are called system disks or boot
disk or command disk and can be used to start the computer (or load the operating
system). Disks that do not have the operating system stored in them have more room
to store data than the former.

Procedure:
(i) To Format a non system or data disk
Simply enter FORMAT followed by a drive identification if the new disk is not to be
in the logged drive i.e.
FORMAT or FORMAT B:
This command will prompt Dos to load format program and display the
following message:
INSERT NEW DISKETTE FOR DRIVE A: and strike any key when ready. In
the file case or

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 INSERT NEW DISKETTE FOR DRIVE B: and strike any key when ready in
the second case.
Simply put the new diskette in the indicated drive and press any key. Dos will
display:
Formatting …
After a few minutes, Dos repeats

Formatting……Format Complete
362496 bytes total disk space
362496 bytes available on disk
Format another (Y/N)

To which you will answer “Y” or “N” press Y if you want to format another
otherwise press N key from the keyboard.

(ii) Formatting a disk so that it includes the systems.

Simply follow the above procedures with addition of letter S for system thus:
FORMAT /S or FORMAT/S B:

The messages displayed are the same as the ones above with addition of the
ones indicating that system transferred and how much space it required.
A disk with the system includes some hidden files the names of which do not
appear when you look at the contents of the disk, and a file called COOMAND.COM.
These files form the resident portion of Dos.

4.7.2 Adding Dos to a Formatted Diskette

Adding Dos to a formatted diskette is a two-step process:
(i) With the target diskette in B: and a system disk in the logged driver, copy the
hidden files to the diskette with the SYS command:
SYS B:
SYS is a non-resident program (or transmit) i.e. it is not kept in RAM. It
generates the following messages:
SYETEM TRANSFERRED
(ii) After the above process, copy COMMAND.COM from your system disk t the
disk you are modifying by entering
COPY COMMAND.COM B:
NB: you can add Dos to any diskette as long as there is enough space to store the
three files. If a disk already has hidden files and you try to use SYS command to place
them on the disk anyway, you will get an error message indicting that there is no room
on the disk for the system. The only way to replace the hidden files once installed is
only by formatting the disk again.

4.7.3 Labeling a Disk

A volume name is used to identify disks just as you identify them by writing
identification information on a label placed on the disk envelope. The volume name

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however, is recorded on the disk itself and can be checked by the operating system to
ensure that the correct disk has been installed in the disk drive.
Volume label (11 characters; ENTER for None)? MYDISKETTE
362496 bytes total disk space
362496 bytes used by the system
321536 bytes available on disk
Format another (Y/N)
A>
NB: Always have some formatted disks with you because some application programs
will not give the leeway to format a disk while working on it.

4.7.4 Copying Disks

There is a utility called Diskcopy that is often provided for in most versions of
Ms-Dos and Pc-Dos. What this utility does is that it copies the entire contents of the
source disk to the destination disk. It also transfers the operating system and formats
the destination document as well.
What this utility does not do is to check for errors in the destination disk and
mark them so that data is not stored in by the Dos. While using the diskcopy
command, care must always be taken to clearly identify which disk contains data (i.e.
the source disk) and which disk is empty (i.e. the destination disk). If this is not done,
then it is possible to wipe out everything on the source disk because you inadvertently
copied the contents of a blank disk to the data disk you intended to reproduce.

Procedure:
The format for DISKCOPY includes two parameters:
(a) Source Drive and
(b) Destination Drive.
To be able to execute the command, enter the following:
DISKCOPY A:B:

This command will copy the contents of the entire drive A: to the one in drive
B:.
NB: Everything on the disk in B:, the destination drive, will be destroyed by the
operation. After the command, Dos will prompt you to insert the disks.
You can as well specify DISKCOPY B:A: if you intend to copy from drive B:
to drive A:.
This method is often effective for disks that are full, otherwise we would use
the command:
COPY A:*.*B:
To copy all the files in drive A: with any extension to a disk in drive B. this
command as opposed to diskcopy, will always check for faulty areas on the
destination drive and mark them so that no data is kept in them.

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4.8 SUMMARY

An Operating System is a set of program “housed” within the system software that
standardizes the way the computer’s resources are made available for the user to
applications software.


The functions of an operating system are the following: Memory management,
Input/Output management, Resource allocation, Error handling, Provision for user
interface, Interrupt handling, File management and Job control.


Operating Systems could be single user of multi user. Ms-Dos commands can be
divided into File Management Commands and Disk Management Commands.
Some Dos commands are internal (or resident) and some are external (non-resident
or transient) which means they have to be logged first before they can be used.


Examples of file management commands are: Deleting, copying and renaming
files, viewing, changing and creating directories. Examples of Disk Management
commands are: Copying disks, labeling disks and formatting disks.

Resident Dos commands include: DIR, COPY and DISKCOPY, RENAME.

Non-resident Dos commands include: FORMAT, SYS.

4.9 QUESTIONS

1. Define the term Operating System.

2. State and discuss functions of an Operating System.

3. What are the two types of Operating Systems? Explain.

4. List commands under the following headings:

(i) File management;
(ii) Disk management;

5. What is the syntax of a Dos command?

6. List some of the internal and external Dos commands that you know.

7. What will the following Dos commands do?

(i) COPY DATA1 DATA2
(ii) COPY DATA1 B:
(iii) MD DATA3
(iv) RENAME OLDNAME.TXT NEWNAME.TXT

8. What is a Wildcard? Differentiate between Wildcard and Asterisk(*) and (?).

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9. Explain what the following Dos Commands will do:
(i) COPY DATA *.*A:
(ii) DISKCOPY A:B:
(iii) DEL DATA*.DBF
(iv) ERASE ?ATA*.*
(v) TYPE DATA*.*
(vi) TYPE DATA*.DBF>PRN
10. (i)What is formatting? Why is it important

(ii) How would you format a Diskette? How can you include an Operating
System to a formatted diskette?

(iii) What are the two ways of Adding Dos to a formatted disk?

(iv) Write down the command for Adding Volume Label to Disk.

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