Unit-4
Modes of Heat Transfer:
Normally there are three modes of transfer of heat from one place toanother viz., conduction, convection and
radiation.
Conduction: Conduction refers to the heat transfer that occurs across the medium. Medium canbe solid or a
fluid.
Convection: It is the process in which heat is transferred from hotter end to colder end by theactual movement
of heated particles.
Radiation: In radiation, in the absence of intervening medium, there is net heat
transfer between two surfaces at different temperatures in the form ofelectromagnetic waves.
Thermal conductivity:
Thermal conductivity is a property that describes a material’s ability to conduct heat. It is often denoted as k
and has the SI units of W/m·K (Watts per meter Kelvin).
Thermal conductivity of good conductor Forbe’s method
Metals are good conductors of both heat and electricity. To account for their
heat conductor capacity, a quantity called “Thermal conductivity” is defined; higher
the value of thermal conductivity more is the heat conduction. For example, copper is avery good conductor of
heat followed by iron, aluminium etc. in decreasing order.One of the oldest methods of determining the
thermal conductivity of metals isbeing Forbes. In this method, a long rod of a metal with uniform cross section
is heatedat one of its ends. The entire length of the rod is left exposed to the surrounding air at
the ambient room temperature.
As the rod gets heated up, it starts losing the acquired heat from its exposed
surface to the surroundings. After a certain period a steady state is reached in, whichthe entire heat supplied to
the rod is lost to the surroundings. Let us consider crosssection of the rod along its length at a distance ‘x’ from
the heated end, as shown in
figure.
Theory
Before steady state is reached, the amount of heat conducted through a particular
point say B, per second can be written as,
𝑄1 = KA(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑥)𝐵---------------(1)
Here K is the thermal conductivity of the material
A is the area of cross section of the material
(𝑑θ𝑑𝑥)𝐵 is the change in temperature per unit length of the rod at B
The total heat lost from the point B to E is,
𝑄2 = 𝜌𝑆𝐴∫EB(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑡)dx
S – Specific heat capacity,
ρ – Density
In a steady state condition, 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
K(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑥)𝐵 = 𝜌𝑆𝐴∫EB(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑡)dx
Thermal conductivity
K =ρSA∫EB(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑡)dx
----------------------
K(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑥)𝐵
From equation (4), K can be calculated by measuring𝑑θ𝑑𝑥and 𝑑θ/𝑑𝑡
Procedure:
In the experimental set up, heater is switched on and the rod is allowed to rise to
steady state temperature. At this state the temperature at points A, B, C, D etc.
remains constant without any variation with time.
The temperature at the points A, B, C, etc. are noted and tabulated. The distance of
the points A, B, C, etc. from the hot end is also noted. A graph is plotted by taking
distance alone x-axis and temperature along y-axis as shown in figure
To find (𝒅𝛉/𝒅𝒙)𝑩:
Find the slope of the curve at any two points. From the slope (𝑑θ/𝑑𝑥)𝐵 has beenfound.
Heat the sample rod using a heater or boiling water bath for a sufficient time to
reach a steady state. Take out the sample rod, hang it using a string and stand.
Measure the temperature as a function of time at regular interval, using a
stopwatch and the thermometer. Tabulate them as suggested in below table. A
graph is plotted by taking time along x-axis and temperature along y-axis as shown
in figure.
To find 𝑑θ/𝑑𝑡
Mark two points x and y on the graph corresponding to the position B and E.
Determine the area under the curve X, Y. BXYE in figure.
Area of 𝐵𝑋𝑌𝐸 = ∫EB(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑡)dx -----------------------(5)
Thermal conductivity K can be calculated using equation (4) and (5).
K =ρSArea of BXYE
–---------------------------
(𝑑θ/𝑑𝑥)𝐵
--------------------(6)
Note that instead of B and E, any two pair of points can be taken and accordingly the
equation (6) can be modified.
Drawbacks:
1. Time consumption is long to complete the experiment.
2. It is bore to draw three graphs.
3. Distribution of heat is not the same all over the rod.
Black body:
A body which absorbs all the wavelength of radiation and emits all wavelength of radiation
is called black body. Sun is a perfect black body.
Black body radiation:
The radiation emitted by a black body is called black body radiation.
Wien’s Displacement Law
Statement:
The wavelength corresponding to maximum energy density is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the black body.
(ie) m α
We know that the Wien’s displacement law holds good only for shorter wavelengths.
Since, 𝑒ℎ/ 𝐾𝐵𝑇 ≫ 1, By neglecting 1
we can write
𝑒ℎ / 𝐾𝐵𝑇-1 = 𝑒ℎ / 𝐾𝐵𝑇
Therefore, equation (8) becomes =---------(9)
Equation (9) represents the Wien’s displacement law from Planck’s radiation law usingQuantumtheory o
black body radiation
Rayleigh-Jean law
Statement:
The energy density of a black body is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
We know that the Rayleigh-Jeans law holds good only for longer wavelength.
If λ is greater; 1/λ will be lesser.
hc. hc hc ² hc³ hc³
```````=1 ````` . ````` `````` `````
eλKT. λKT λKT λKT λKT
Neglecting higher terms
Eλ=8πKT
---------
λ⁴
Stefan–Boltzmann Law
Stefan–Boltzmann law, states that the total radiant heat energy emitted from a surface is proportionalto th
fourth power of its absolute temperature. Therefore, if E is the radiant heat energy emitted froma unit area in
one second and T is the absolute temperature (in degrees Kelvin),then E = σT4
Here, the Greek letter sigma (σ) representing the constant of proportionality, called the Stefan–Boltzmann
constant. This constant has the value 5.6704 × 10−8 watt per m2K4.
The spectral distribution of the thermal energy radiated by a blackbody (i.e. the pattern of the intensity o
the radiation over a range of wavelengths or frequencies) depends only on its temperature.
The characteristics of blackbody radiation can be described in terms of several laws:
Planck’s Law of blackbody radiation, a formula to determine the spectral energy density of the emission a
each wavelength (
) at a particular absolute temperature (T).
Wien’s Displacement Law, which states that the frequency of the peak of the emission (
) increases linearly with absolute temperature (T). Conversely, as the temperature of the body increases, th
wavelength at the emission peak decreases. Stefan–Boltzmann Law, which relates the total energy emitted (E
to the absolute temperature (T).In the image above, notice that:
The blackbody radiation curves have quite a complex shape (described by Planck’s Law).
The spectral profile (or curve) at a specific temperature corresponds to a specific peak wavelength, and vic
versa.
As the temperature of the blackbody increases, the peak wavelength decreases (Wien’s Law).
The intensity (or flux) at all wavelengths increases as the temperature of the blackbody increases.The tota
energy being radiated (the area under the curve) increases rapidly as the temperature increases (Stefan
Boltzmann Law).Although the intensity may be very low at very short or long wavelengths, at an
temperature above absolute zero energy is theoretically emitted at all wavelengths (the blackbody radiation
curves never reach zero).
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
UNIT – 3 (THERMAL PHYSICS)
CONTENTS
3.4. Thermal conductivity of bad conductors – Lee’s disc method
3.4.1 Principle
3.4.2.Apparatus
3.4.3.Experiment
3.4.Thermal conductivity of bad conductors – Lee’s disc method
3.4.1 Principle
In the steady state, the quantity of heat flowing across the bad conductor in one second is
equal to the quantity of heat radiated in one second from the lower face area and edge area of the
metal disc in the Lee’s disc apparatus.
Fig 3.4.1 Lee’s disc apparatus-
3.4.2.Apparatus
A flat cylindrical steam chamber ‘S’ and a disc D of equal diameters are arranged to
sandwich the given bad conductor B taken in the form of a thin sheet of uniform thickness and
having same diameter. There are holes in S and D into which thermometers T 1 and T2 can be
introduced. The bad conductor B is placed above the disc D and the steam chamber is placed
above B. The whole set up is suspended by means of strings and a stand (figure3.4.1)
3.4.3.Experiment
Steam is passed through the steam chamber. The heat flows across the bad conductor from
its upper surface to the lower surface. The upper surface of B is raised to the temperature of steam.
Due to poor thermal conductivity of bad conductor, the lower surface will be at lesser temperature.
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When the steady state is reached, the heat flowing across B is taken up by D and radiated away at
the same rate from its lower face and its edges. When the thermometers show steady
temperatures, their readings θ1 and θ2 are noted.
The heat flowing across the bad conductor ‘B’ in one second,
(𝜃1 − 𝜃2)
𝑄=
𝑥
The heat radiated by metal disc ‘D’ in one second
𝑄′ = (𝜋𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝑟h)
In the steady state, 𝑄 = 𝑄′
(𝜃1 − 𝜃2)
= (𝜋𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝑟h)𝐸
𝑥
Since the area A of the bad conductor is πr2, the same as that of D
(𝜃 𝜃 )
( )
𝑥
(𝑟 + 2h)
= … … … . . (1)
(𝜃1 − 𝜃2)
Now the steam chamber is lifted up and the bad conductor B is removed and the steam
chamber is placed directly on the metal disc D. When the temperature of the disc D is 100C above
its steady state temperature, the steam chamber is removed and the disc D is allowed to cool. The
time is noted for every 10C fall of temperature from about 50C above and below its steady state
temperature T2.
The emissivity is,
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 h𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐸=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑀𝑆 𝑑𝜃
𝐸= 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝑟h
Substituting the value of E in equation (1), we get
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𝑀𝑆 𝑑𝜃 (𝑟 + 2h)
= 𝑑𝑡
𝜋𝑟2 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2)2(𝑟 + h)
Where
K – Thermal conductivity of bad conductor B M – Mass of the disc D
S – Specific heat capacity of disc D
– Rate of fall of temperature
x – Thickness of bad conductor B
r – Radius of the metallic disc D
h – Thickness of the metallic disc D
θ1 – Steady temperature of steam chamber
θ2 – Steady temperature of metallic disc D
Fig 3.4.2 variation of temperature with time
A graph of 2temperature against time is drawn (figure) and the slope of graph at the
temperature θ is measured. Let it be . Thus, substitute the above values in equation (2) we
can find out the thermal conductivity of bad conductor.
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NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING OR HEATING
Let
T = temperature of an object,
M = temperature of its surroundings, and
t = time.
If the rate of change of the temperature T of the object is directly proportional to the
difference in temperature between the object and its surroundings, then we get the following
equation where k is a proportionality constant.
dT
= k(M − T ), k > 0.
dt
As the differential equation is separable, we can separate the equation to have one side
solely dependent on T , and the other side solely dependent on t:
dT
= kdt
M −T
Integrating both sides then gives the following:
Z Z
dT
= kdt
M −T
−ln|M − T | = kt + C
ln|M − T | = −kt − C
eln|M −T | = e−kt−C
|M − T | = e−kt−C
Now here is where we need to be careful. We want to drop the absolute value signs to
solve for T . To do so, we need to figure out whether M − T is positive or negative. This
depends on whether the object is cooling down to the surrounding temperature (in which case
T > M and M − T is negative) or is warming up to the surrounding temperature (T < M
and M − T is positive).
For cooling, as M − T is negative, |M − T | = −(M − T ). So we get
|M − T | = e−kt−C
−(M − T ) = e−kt−C
M −T = −e−kt−C
T = M + e−kt−C
T = M + Ae−kt , A = e−C
1
2 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING OR HEATING
Since the object is cooling down to the surrounding temperature, T will always be greater
than M so A will be a positive value. This agrees with the fact that A = e−C must be a
positive value.
For heating, M − T is positive, and so |M − T | = (M − T ) and we get
|M − T | = e−kt−C
M −T = e−kt−C
T = M − e−kt−C
T = M − Ae−kt , A = e−C
This time, as the object is warming up to the surrounding temperature, T is always less
than M so A is again a positive value.
