Types of Bricks-Bricks can be of many types depending on –

(a)Quality(b)Building Process(c)Manufacturing Method(d)Raw Material

Classification of Bricks-(1)First class bricks are those which strictly conform
to the standard size of modular bricks, i.e. 19cm x 9cmx9cm actual size, such
that ten layers of bricks laid in mortar will form masonry of 1 meter height.
Good bricks are manufactured from good quality plastic earth which is free
from saline deposits.Second Class Bricks-Second class bricks also conform
to the standard size, but they are slightly, irregular in shape and colour. They
are also fully burnt, and ringing sound is emitted when two bricks are struck
together.Third Class Bricks-These are quite irregular in their size, shape and
finish. They are not burnt fully, due to which they are reddish – yellow colour.
These bricks have low crushing strength. They are not used for quality brick
masonary.
Manufacturing process of bricks-There are four different operations
are involved in the process of manufacturing of bricks:(a)Preparation of
clay(b)Molding(c)Drying(d)Burning
(A)Preparation of clay for brick manufacturing:-Preparation of clay for
bricks manufacturing is done in six steps: Unsoiling of clay We need pure
clay for the preparation of bricks.
(B) Molding of clay for brick manufacturing-In the molding process,
prepared clay is mold into brick shape (generally rectangular).
(C)Drying of raw bricks-After molding process the bricks contain some
amount of moisture in it. So, drying is to be done otherwise they may
cracked while burning.(D)Burning of bricks-In the process of burning, the
dried bricks are burned either in clamps (small scale) or kilns (large scale)
up to certain degree temperature. In this stage, the bricks will gain
hardness and strength so it is important stage in manufacturing of bricks.

Estimate and its types-Estimating or estimating is the process of

calculating the quantities of various items of works involved in the
project.Estimation is the technique of calculating or computing the various
quantities and the expected expenditure to be incurred on a particular work or
project.Types of Estimate:-(a)Preliminary or approximate estimate(b)Detailed
estimate(c)Supplementary estimate(d)Rough cost estimate based on cubic
contents(e)Complete estimate(f)Rough cost estimate based on plinth
area(g)Annual repair estimate(h)Special repair estimate(i)Revised estimate.

Substructure-The purpose of the substructure of a building is to transfer

loads of the superstructure to the soil that is underneath. This is why the
substructure is right against the soil that supports it.all support beams,
columns, and foundations are incorporated properly to ensure that nothing
will collapse within the substructure.Superstructure-The superstructure of
a building is where people will spend most of their time. This area includes
the first and second floors inside a home and any number of floors in larger
buildings. The superstructure includes beams, columns, finishes,
windows, doors, the roof, floors, and anything else.
MERITS OF PLINTH ROOF-Protection against Environmental
Hazards-Shaped like a triangle, they are stable and far more effective when
dealing with excessive weather, including heavy rain and snowfall.Thermal
efficiency-The natural ventilation underneath the top roof layer significantly
improves the thermal efficiency of a building.
Energy savings-The building envelope is responsible for around 25-35%
loss of energy within a building.
Sustainability-Some roofing tiles have sustainable credentials to integrate
solar panels within the structure of pitched roofs. .
Longer lifespan-Flat roofs require constant maintenance of their drainage
systems to avoid leaking. Rainwater reuse-The pitched roof makes it
easier to reuse rainwater than flat roofs.
Versatility-Pitched roofs can be converted to house substantial extra living
space inside.
Demerits of plinth roof (a)Pitched roofs place a greater burden on the
foundations of the building and demand a greater depth of the footings.
Replacing a flat roof with a pitched roof on an existing structure is not always
feasible(b)Not feasible for buildings with multiple levels or complex plans.
Cannot be done as much with a pitched roof regarding architecture.(c)More
expensive to install and maintain.
Hardness-The hardness of a material is defined as the resistance of that
material to an indentation or plastic deformation. Hardness is hence a
measure of the resistance of the material towards abrasion, cutting, and
scratching.Hardness test is commonly used to determine the permanent
deformation caused in the material due to a concentrated load. The higher the
hardness of the material, the higher its ability to retain its shape under an
external load application.Mohs Hardness Test-The Mohs hardness test
measures the hardness of the material by determining the resistance of the
material against scratches. Here, a material of known hardness is scratched
on the specimen surface, and the extent of scratches on the specimen is
observed.The Mohs Hardness Example:talc whose Mohs hardness
is1.observationvery easily scratched by the fingernail; has a greasy
feel.diamond whose Mohrs hardness is 10 is used as a glass cutter

Objectives of Seasoning of Timber-The main objectives of seasoning

of wood are to:(a)Maintain the size and shape of timber.(b)Improve strength,
hardness and stiffness of timber.(c)Make it suitable for receiving various
treatments like paints, preservatives, varnishes etc.(d)Allow the wood to burn
quickly if it is used as fuel.(e)Reduce the tendency of the timber to crack,
warp, shrink and bend.(f)Improve the working properties of timber so that it
can be smoothly worked on during conversion.(g)Improve the resisting power
of timber so that it becomes less prone to fungal and insect attacks.
(h)Decrease theweight of timber and as a result the cost of transportation and
handling is reduced.
Building components- 1. Plinth:The part of the structure above ground
and below ground level is called plinthFloor:The floor is a horizontal
surface for the use of occupants in each room.Wall as Building
Components:Walls are vertical building components that can support
the roof or act as a partition wall or compound wall.Column:Column is
the vertical member or component of a framed structure made
of reinforced cement concrete.Beam:Beam is the horizontal components
of the building structure made of steel, reinforced cement
concreteRoof:A roof is building components cover at the top of a
building designed to protect from elements such as rain, sun, and
wind.Doors and windows:Doors: These are openings that allow entry
into the building and circulation through various rooms.Windows: These
are usually built into the outer wall providing air and light inside the
rooms.Lintel:The lintel is a small horizontal building component acts as
a beam always provided over openings such as doorSill as building
components:The lower structure of a window or door opening is called a
sill.Staircase:Staircase is a tilt passage with steps connected to the floor
at various levelsParapet as building components:Parapet is a part of a
low height wall built along the edge of the roof.

Methods of Seasoning of Timber-There are two methods of Seasoning

of timber which are explained below(a)Natural seasoning(b)Artificial
seasoningNatural Seasoning of Timber-Natural seasoning is the process
in which timber is seasoned by subjecting it to the natural elements such
as air or water. Water Seasoning Water seasoning-is the process in
which timber is immersed in water flow which helps to remove the sap
present in the timber. Air Seasoning-In the process of air seasoning
timber logs are arranged in layers in a shed. The arrangement is done by
maintaining some gap with the ground.Artificial Seasoning of Timber-
Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. Here also
different methods of artificial seasoning are there and they are as follows.
(a)Seasoning by Boiling(b)Chemical seasoning©Kiln
seasoning(d)Electrical,seasoning
(1)Seasoning by Boiling-Seasoning of timber is also achieved by boiling
it in water for 3 to 4 hours. After boiling timber is allowed to drying.
(2)Chemical Seasoning-timber is stored in suitable salt solution for some
time. The salt solution used has the tendency to absorb water from the
timber. (3)Kiln Seasoning-In this method timber is subjected to hot air in
air tight chamber. The hot air circulates in between the timber logs and
reduces the moisture content.(4)Electrical Seasoning-In the method of
electrical seasoning timber is subjected to high frequency alternating
currents. The resistance of timber against electricity is measured at every
interval of time.
ROCKS AND STONES-Stone is an essential and more permanent
building material in construction than other natural building materials.
Based on the type, stones can be used in buildings for flooring, roofing,
masonry, paving roads and also as aggregates for concrete.
Based on Geology, stones or rocks are classified into three types:
(a)Igneous Rocks - Basalt, Trap, Andesite, Rhyolite, Diorite, Granite.
(b)Sedimentary Rocks - Lime stones, Dolomite and Sandstones.
(c)Metamorphic Rocks - Gneiss, Quartzite, Marble, Slate. Types of
Building Stones-Some of the common building stones which are used for
different purposes in India are as follows:Granite-It is a deep-seated
igneous rock, which is hard, durable and available in various colours.
Granite is used for bridge components, retaining walls, stone columns,
road metal, ballast for railways, foundation, stonework and for coarse
aggregates in concrete. Limestone-It is a sedimentary rock formed by
remnants of seaweeds and living organisms consolidated and cemented
together. It contains a high percentage of calcium carbonate.Limestone is
used for flooring, roofing, pavements and as a base material for
cement.Marble-It is a metamorphic rock which can be easily cut and
carved into different shapes. It is used for ornamental purposes, stone
facing slabs, flooring, facing works etc. Uses of Building
Stones-(a)Fine-grained granite and gneiss stones are used for Heavy
engineering works such as building bridge piers, breakwaters, monuments,
etc.(b)Granite, quartzite and compact sandstones are used for masonry
works in industrial areas exposed to smoke and fumes.(c)Marble, granite
and sandstone are used for facing work of buildings.(d)Limestone and
sandstone are used for general building works.(e)Fine-grained granite,
marble, and soft sandstone are used for Carvings and ornamental works.

TYPES OF TILES- Types of Tiles-(a)Roofing tiles,(b)Flooring tiles,©Wall

tiles, and(d)Partition tiles.
The roofing tiles are earthenware that is baked products. Its manufacture is
similar to that of brick. The wall tiles as well as the floor tiles, are employed
in the interior as well as the exterior of the building. This is mainly employed
based on the requirement of decoration or aesthetics. These belong to the
class of ceramics and are called as white wares. Tiles that are used on walls
and floor are available in both glazed and in the unglazed forms. Mostly the
wall tiles are glazed by a thin layer of glazing when it is available in the
market. Floor tiles are too designed to bring the beauty of flooring and
movement. But it is subjected to higher load, pressure and other undesirable
material action. So, these tiles are made more durable, abrasion resistant,
water impervious and easy clean form. Floor tiles along with the mentioned
properties should also provide good aesthetics. The degree of burning is the
parameter that differentiates the wall and the floor tiles. When compared to
floor tiles, the wall tiles burned at a lower temperature. After this, it is glazed
and re-fired at a lower temperature.

Lime is one of the basic building material used mainly as lime mortar. The
non-hydraulic lime is called as quick lime, fat lime or white lime or as lump
lime. Hydraulic lime sets under water and non-hydraulic lime do not set under
water. Quick Lime is a form of lime is manufactured by the burning of stone
that has calcium carbonate within it. The burning temperature varies, say 900
degree Celsius and above for several hours. This process is called as
calcination. The solid product that remain after the removal of carbon dioxide
in the calcium carbonate is called as the quicklime.
CaCO3-->CaO+CO2
Advantages of Lime in Construction-(1)Provides building breathing
property- .(2)Renders Comfortable Environment- (3)Ecological Benefits-
(4)Protection of adjacent materials
Properties of Lime for Use in Construction-(a)Cementing capability-
This is obtained by their carbonation with carbon dioxide. Lime is used as
lime mortar for brick masonry construction.(b)Have a higher acid
resistance- due to its alkaline nature(c)Gain Pozzolanic activity- this
gives cementitious products(d)Sealing of micro cracks-

Plywood is an engineered wood sheet material made up of fine layers or

flimsy strands of wood veneers attached together placing wood grains 90
degrees to one another. It is one type of manufactured board which can be
described as a mixture of Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) and Chip Board
(Particle Board). It is a complex material and attaches resin and fiber sheets
of wood.
Manufacturing of PLYWOOD--Selection of Log-The first step is the
selection of a good log from selected tree wood according to the demand of
the type of plywood to be manufactured.(B)Layer Formation-The large blade
is used for the processing of thin layers inside sawmill and made sheets of
veneers.(c)Exposure to Heat-The sheets are then exposed to heat for
removing water content from those.(d)Gluing-After drying the sheets those are
glued together maintaining the system of a different type of plywood. In this
step, caution is maintained to get the best result. After patching and grading
this gluing takes place.(e)Baking-The glued plywood primary sheets are sent
for baking and pressing at required temperature and pressure.(f)Finishing-
Finally, defects of manufactured plywood sheets are solved. Holes, pits or any
unfinished edges are given finishing.

Lintel beams-(Chajja)are constructed on the top of openings in the wall like

windows and Doors. These are designed based on the dimensions of the
openings above which it is built. Among different types of lintels, RCC lintel is
the most commonly used lintel due to its ease of design and construction.
RCC lintels can be designed for any combination of loads and also for any
span.Loads on RCC Lintel Beams-The different types of loads taken into
consideration for the design of RCC lintel beam are:(1)Self-weight or the
dead-load of the lintel(2)The dead load of the wall above the lintel(3)The dead
load and the live load transferred from the roof or the floor slabs above.
Weather shed Chhajja attachment with Ferrocement plates • Attachment
by innovative anchoring system • Joint with building totally waterproof •
Integrates with building • Brackets generally
provided for conventional are eliminated
Followings are the function of lintel beams:
(a)Lintel supports the walls above the
openings like doors, windows, etc. (b)Lintels
provide a safeguard of the windows
and doors. (c)Lintel withstands the imposed
loads coming from above bricks or block
including the roofing members. (d)The lintel
is used to transfer all imposed loads to the
side walls. (e)Sometimes lintels are used as
a decorative architectural element.
Foundation based on different types of soil-Foundations are
recommended based on the different soil types which are provided below:
(1)Rocks(2)Uniform firm and stiff clay(3)Soft clay(4)Peat
Soft clay-This category includes soft clay, soft silty clay, soft sandy clay,
and soft silty sand.
Recommended foundations-The following types of foundations are valid
option for this type of soil:(1)Wide strip footing(2)Raft foundation(3)Pile to
firmer strata below(4)For smaller projects use pier and beam foundation to
firm strata
Factors to be considered-(a)wide strip footing is used when bearing
capacity is sufficient and predicted settlement is acceptable.(b)Strip footing
shall be reinforced based on the thickness and projection beyond wall face.
(c)Services entries to the buildings should be flexible.(d)Frequently, Sub-soil
can be improved using vibro treatment, and it would an economical solution if
employed in conjunction with strip or raft foundation.
Different types of agricultural buildings
(a)Farmhouses(b)Livestock barns and shelters(c)Buildings for machinery
and supplies(d)Crop storage

FARM BUILDING any of the structures used in farming operations, which

may include buildings to house families and workers, as well as livestock,
machinery, and crops.The basic unit of commercial agricultural operation,
throughout history and worldwide, is the farm. Because farming systems differ
widely, there are important variations in the nature and arrangements of farm
facilities. The buildings on a farm generally consist of the farm family’s house,
the dwellings of any resident hired workers, and the various structures and
facilities for farming operations. This article deals with farmhouses and service
buildings that can be classified as follows: livestock barns and shelters;
machinery- and supply-storage buildings; buildings and facilities for crop
storage, including fodder; and special-purpose structures.
General layout-The location of the farmstead and the relative position of its
different buildings are influenced by several factors, external and internal.
Among the external factors, mainly natural, are soil conditions, climatic
conditions, and access facilities to the main road and to the fields.Internal
factors depend on the type of business enterprise suitable to the farm. Among
general principles that must be taken into account are the necessity of
some partition between the farmhouse and service buildings, minimizing of
transportation between buildings, the possibility of enlarging buildings, and
security against fire. Four general layouts may be defined: large crop farms,
large stock farms, farms in underdeveloped areas, and small to medium
mixed farms.
TYPES OF FARMS(a)Large crop farms(b)Large stock farms(c)Farms in
underdeveloped areas(d) Mixed farms

Q.. Plastering- Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns,

ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is termed as plastering. Mortar used for
plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or limecement mortar. Lime
mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1: 3 or 1: 4. If hydraulic lime is
used mix proportion (lime: sand) is 1 : 2. Cement mortar of 1: 4 or 1: 6 mix is
very commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for outerwalls
Objectives of Plastering and Pointing(1)Plastering conceals defective
workmen ship and covers up unsound and cheap quality material.
(2)Plastering on external walls is done with the object of improving the
resistance of the surface to rain water penetration and other atmospheric
influences.(3)Plastering protects surfaces against vermin.
(4)Plastering is required to provide a satisfactory base for decorating the
surface by white – washing, color washing, distempering or paining.
Method of Plastering:- The plastering could be done on the surfaces either
in one, two and three coats. The plasterings for two coats are as follows:
(a)The mortar joints are racked out to a depth of 20 mm and surface is
cleaned and well watered. If it is found that the surface to be plastered is very
rough and uneven, a primary coat is applied to fill up the hollows before the
first coat of plaster is put on the surface. (b)The first coat of plaster is now
applied on the surface. The usual thickness of first coat for brick masonry is 9
mm to 10 mm. In order to maintain uniform thickness, the screeds are formed
on the wall surface by fixing dots.(c)The cement mortar is placed between
successive screeds and surface is properly finished. The second coat is
applied after six hours and thickness of second coat is 3 mm to 2 mm.
Estimating the cost:- of construction of proposed building is one of the most
important exercise. The conceptual cost estimate is important to owners,
architects and builders. It is a tool for determining required funding and to
gauge the needs of a project. Cost estimates fall into two categories as 1.
conceptual estimates and 2. detailed estimates Conceptual estimating or
parametric estimating is the process of establishing a projects cost, often
before any graphical representation of a facility has been developed. Detailed
construction estimate is the process whereby the cost of a proposed
construction project is predicted.
Building Components For Cost Estimation-For cost estimation the total
construction project is broken down into different sections, which can be
referred as components. For cost estimation component format can be used.
Components are basic parts of construction or groups of building systems
performing a specific function or functions. Construction costs are segregated
by components for comparison and analysis. (a)Foundations Basement
excavation, from general site subgrade to subgrade for lowest floor, and
disposal of excavated material or backfill.(b)Vertical structure-All coloumns,
pilasters or hangers with the roughest finish acceptable as structurally sound .
(c)Floor and Roof Structure-Floor slabs on grade including supporting rock
base, sand cushion and vapor barriers(d)Exterior cladding -Any non-
structural skin, finish color or curtain wall added to the structure to enclose or
finish the sides or soffits of the building (e)Roofing and waterproofing-
Waterproof membranes on floors or walls and skylighting, below grade or
concrete admixtures and joint waterstops(f)Interior partitions,Doors and
Glazing-Non load bearing partitions including framing and minimum finish
(paint) to both sides(g)Floor, Wall and Ceiling Finishes-Floor covering of
all types over structural decks including any necessary supports,
underlayments or membranes(h)Function Equipment and Specialties Any
built in fixed shelving , cabinetry, appliances, accessories or equipmentStairs
and (I)Vertical Transportation Staircases and ramps complete including
landings, finishes, balustrades and wall rails- enclosing walls.(j)Plumbing
Systems a. All sanitary , service, laboratory and special institutional
fixtures(k)Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning a. Heating, cooling and
air cleaning equipment and controls located within the building

Mortar-in technology, material used in building construction to bond brick,

stone, tile, or concrete blocks into a structure. Mortar consists
of inert siliceous (sandy) material mixed with cement and water in such
proportions that the resulting substance will be sufficiently plastic to enable
ready application with the mason’s trowel and to flow slightly but not collapse
under the weight of the masonry units. Slaked lime is often added to promote
smoothness, and sometimes colouring agents are also added. Cement is the
most costly ingredient and is held to the minimum consistent with desired
strength and watertightness.Mortar hardens into a stonelike mass and,
properly applied, distributes the load of the structure uniformly over the
bonding surfaces and provides a weathertight joint

FOUNDATION-The low artificially built part of a structure which transmits the

load of the structure to the ground is called foundation.OR,A foundation (also
called a ground sill) is a structure that transfers loads to the earth.
Purpose of Foundation :(a)To distribute the load of the structure over a
large bearing area so as to bring intensity of loading within the safe bearing
capacity of the soil lying underneath.(b)To load the bearing surface at a
uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.©To prevent the lateral
movement of the supporting material.(d)To secure a level and firm bed for
building operations.(e)To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
Types Of Foundations Foundations are broadly classified into two
categories:1) Shallow Foundations-Spread footing or open trench
foundations,Grillage foundations,Raft foundations,Stepped
foundations,Inverted arch foundations2) Deep Foundations-Pile
foundations,Well foundations,Caisson foundations.
METHODS OF SITE EXPLORATION.-The various methods of site
exploration may be grouped as follows:
1. Open excavations. Trial pits are tho cheapest method of exploration in
shallow deposits, since these can be used in all types of soils.2. Borings. The
following are the various boring methods commonly used:(i) Auger boring.(ii)
Auger and shell boring.(iii) Wash boring.(iv) Percussion boring.(v) Rotary
boring 3. Sub-surface soundings. The sounding methods consist of
measuring the resistance of the soil with depth by means of penetrometer
under static or dynamic loading.4. Geo-physical methods. Geo-physical
methods are used when the depth of exploration is very large, and also when
the speed of investigation is of primary importance.

Water Distribution System-water distribution system is a part of a water

supply network with components that carry potable water from a
centralized treatment plant or wells to water consumers in order to
adequately delivered water to residential commercial, and industrial, fire
fighting requirements.Methods of water distribution system (a)Gravity
system(b)Combined gravity and pumping system. (c )Pumping
system.
(a) Gravity system –In the gravity system, the source of water supply is
so located with respect to the area of distribution that water is available
with sufficient pressure at various points of the area. No pumping is
normally required. (b)Combined
gravity and pumping system –This
system is the most common system
adopted in most cases. Generally,
the water purification works are
located almost at the same level as
the area of distribution. The water
from the elevated reservoir then
flows under gravity, as illustrated.
(c)Pumping system in water
distribution system-In this system,
water is pumped directly into the
distribution system to achieve the
required pressure. Such a system is
not desirable.

Cement-in
general, adhesive substances of all
kinds, but, in a narrower sense, the binding materials used in building and civil
engineering construction. Cements of this kind are finely ground powders that,
when mixed with water, set to a hard mass. Volcanic ash mined near what is now
the city of Pozzuoli, Italy, was particularly rich in essential aluminosilicate
minerals, giving rise to the classic pozzolana cement of the Roman era.Portland
cement is a successor to a hydraulic lime that was first developed by John
Smeaton in 1756.Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime
(calcium oxide, CaO) mixed with silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2)
and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained from a calcareous
(lime-containing) raw material, and the other oxides are derived from an
argillaceous (clayey) material. Additional raw materials such as silica sand, iron
oxide (Fe2O3), and bauxite—containing hydrated aluminum, Al(OH)3—may be
used in smaller quantities to get the desired composition.There are four stages
in the Manufacture of portland cement: (1) crushing and grinding the raw
materials, (2) blending the materials in the correct proportions, (3) burning the
prepared mix in a kiln, and (4) grinding the burned product, known as “clinker,”
together with some 5 percent of gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement).
(1) Crushing and grinding-All except soft materials are first crushed, often in
two stages, and then ground, usually in a rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills
containing a charge of steel grinding balls.(2)Blending-A first approximation of
the chemical composition required for a particular cement is obtained by selective
quarrying and control of the raw material fed to the crushing and grinding plant.
(3)Burning-The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were bottle
kilns, followed by chamber kilns and then by continuous shaft kilns(4)Grinding-
The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine powder in
horizontal mills similar to those used for grinding the raw materials.

(WET PROCESS)
(DRY Process)