GRAMMAR LESSONS FOR THE DIGITAL SAT

by Jonathan Schiffman

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson 1: Sentence Structure p. 2

Lesson 2: The Comma p. 10

Lesson 3: Other Punctuation p. 20

SAT Exercise (lessons 1-3) p. 26

Lesson 4: Apostrophes p. 36

Lesson 5: Verbs p. 43

Lesson 6: Parallelism p. 55

Lesson 7: Modifiers p. 62

Lesson 8: Pronouns p. 68

Lesson 9: Logical Connection Words p. 75

1
 Lesson 1: Sentence Structure

This lesson will teach you about the basic components of sentences. You’ll need to master
these concepts for all subsequent lessons.

1. WORDS
There are 9 types of words in English:

A. Articles (a, an, the)

B. Nouns (any person, place, thing, or idea. i.e. Jennifer, Venezuela, spaceship, intelligence)
C. Pronouns (stand in for nouns. i.e. he, him, who, whom, what, it, this, us, they)
D. Verbs (represent an action, ie. to predict, memorized, have been, will be, am jumping)
E. Adjectives (words that modify nouns or noun phrases. i.e. glad, loud, small, good)
F. Adverbs (words that modify adjectives, verbs or other adverbs. i.e. gladly, loudly, well, not)
G. Prepositions (show spatial, temporal or semantic relationships. i.e. for, in, of, under, over, after)
H. Conjunctions (connect phrases and clauses together. i.e. and, but, if, although, because, since)
I. Interjections (spontaneous utterances. i.e. wow, oh, ah, ugh)

Exercise 1: Label the underlined words in the following sentences.

Sample: I like wearing yellow pants.

I (pronoun) yellow (adjective)

1. The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.

2. How shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?

3. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

4. I made him an offer he could not refuse.

5. Keep your friends close but your enemies closer.

6. I have always depended on the kindness of strangers.

7. Wow, you have really grown!

2
 2. PHRASE = a group of two or more words that function as a single grammatical unit.
A. A group of students from Italy is visiting our school this week. (noun phrase)
B. We have been waiting outside for two hours. (verb phrase)
C. Faster than a speeding bullet, Superman saved the day. (adjective phrase)
D. The news had already leaked well before the official announcement. (adverbial phrase)
E. I left the book under the table. (prepositional phrase)

Note: A phrase doesn’t express a complete idea on its own. It never contains a subject/verb pairing.

3. SUBJECT = a noun or noun phrase that performs an action

A. Tina drank tea.
B. Tina and Luke drank five cups of green tea.
C. Some very noisy students just exited the library.

4. OBJECT = a noun or noun phrase onto which an action is performed

A. Tina drank tea.
B. Tina and Luke drank five cups of green tea.
C. Some very noisy students just exited the library.

Note: * All sentences contain subjects. In imperative sentences, a “you” subject is implied.
* Not all sentences contain objects. (“I slept.”)

Exercise 2: Label any and all subjects, objects, and phrases.

Sample: The rain in Spain falls on the plain.

Subject phrase Prepositional phrase

1. My friend’s younger sister likes to wear short skirts.

2. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

3. I have always depended on the kindness of strangers.

4. Leave this room immediately!

5. My mother will mail the letter after her lunchbreak.

6. By the river stand three oak trees.

7. Her I admire.

8. Whom will you pick?

3
 5. CLAUSE = the basic building block of sentences. Unlike a phrase, a clause always
contains a subject paired with a verb. Here are some examples:

A. I slept badly

B. Every time the man with two briefcases enters the store

C. Who are you?

D. If there is a pencil on the desk

E. Because she never came home last night

F. Do your homework!
(The subject “you” is implied because this clause is an imperative.)

Exercise 3: Determine whether the following are phrases or clauses.

Sample: The Pirates of Penzance

phrase (since there’s no subject/verb pairing)

1. Never having attended the theatre

2. Although Bob hates swimming

3. The adventure of a lifetime

4. A little ways beyond the city

5. Playing basketball is tiring

6. When in Rome

7. Inside of the second to last shoe drawer

8. Behind the corner lurks an evil monster

4
6. Clauses are classified as either DEPENDENT or INDEPENDENT. Independent clauses
express complete thoughts and can function as sentences on their own. Dependent
clauses express incomplete thoughts. Let’s take another look at the examples on the
previous page:

A. I slept badly (independent clause)

B. When the man with two briefcases enters the store (dependent clause)

C. Who are you? (independent clause)

D. If there is a pencil on the desk (dependent clause)

E. Because she never came home last night (dependent clause)

F. Do your homework! (independent clause)

Examples B, D and E are dependent clauses because they begin with “when”, “if”,
and “because”. These words are called SUBORDINATING CONJUCTIONS. Removing
them would make the clauses independent. A dependent clause is a thus formed by
placing a subordinating conjunction in front of an independent clause.

There are hundreds of subordinating conjunctions in English. Some of the most

common ones are when, while, because, if, although, before, and after. You don’t
need to memorize them; you just need to be able to recognize whether a clause is
dependent or independent.

Question: Is the clause “I like it” considered independent if we don’t know what the
“it” refers to?

Yes. To turn “I like it” into a dependent clause, you would need to add a
subordinating conjunction. For example,“Although I like it” is a dependent clause.

7. SENTENCES must contain at least one independent clause. Therefore, when a

dependent clause appears in a sentence, it needs to be attached to an independent
clause.

Example:

Because my wife prefers Italy to Greece, we’re going to Rome this summer.

(or you can flip the order)

We’re going to Rome this summer because my wife prefers Italy to Greece.

Important note: If the dependent clause comes first, you need to insert a comma. If the
independent clause comes first, then no comma is necessary. (more about this in lesson 2!)

5
Exercise 4: Identify whether the following clauses are dependent or independent. If the clause is
dependent, attach it to an independent clause of your own invention.

Sample: Because my wife prefers Italy to Greece

(dependent clause due to the subordinating conjunction “because”.)

Because my wife prefers Italy to Greece, we’ve decided to holiday in Rome this summer.

1. Although I speak Spanish fluently

2. She left

3. Before she leaves

4. I never noticed it

5. Ever since I learned how to juggle

6. After we ran six miles

7. Until I finish reading the book

8. Whenever the temperature drops below 50F

9. It upsets me

10. Be still

6
 8. There are four basic types of sentences: SIMPLE, COMPLEX, COMPOUND, and
COMPLEX-COMPOUND. Most good writing features a mix of all four.

1) A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains a single independent clause (with or without

supplemental phrases). In these examples, independent clauses are in bold and
supplemental phrases are in italics.

A. The man went to the store.

B. Before operating on the patient, the doctor spent five minutes thoroughly washing her
hands.

C. Last week we visited Norwich, my father’s hometown.

2) A COMPLEX SENTENCE contains at least one independent clause and one

dependent clause. In these examples, dependent clauses are underlined.

A. When we returned home, we found a bear snooping around our backyard looking for food.

B. I’ll call you if I decide that I want to borrow your sweater.

C. Because of the storm warning, we decided to postpone the party.

3) A COMPOUND SENTENCE has two or more independent clauses connected by a

coordinating conjunction. There are 7 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so. You can use the acronym “FANBOYS” to memorize them.

A. The show was all sold out, so we decided to watch a movie at home.
B. I drove Sofia to school, and my wife took Jake to the dentist.
C. After a long trip, I like to go jogging, but my sister prefers to take naps.

4) A COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE contains one or more dependent clauses

and two or more independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction.

A. I set my alarm clock for 7 a.m. because I had made a resolution to go to the gym early, but I
didn’t manage to get out of bed until nearly 10 a.m.
B. While the snow fell, the kids played in the living room, and the adults remained gathered
around the kitchen table.
C. If it rains, we’ll stay home, but if it snows, we’ll go skiing.

TIP: The key to acing SAT punctuation questions is being able to quickly break down a
sentence into its basic components. Many students try to answer punctuation questions simply
by what feels right. This strategy will not result in a top score.

7
Exercise 5: Identify whether each sentence is simple, complex, compound, or complex-compound.
Also label all clauses (IC for independent clause, DC for dependent clause), supplemental phrases
(PHR), and coordinating conjunctions (CC).

Sample: After completing the course, I felt confident enough to drive alone, so I asked my parents if I could
borrow their car.

Complex-compound sentence:

After completing the course, I felt confident enough to drive alone, so I asked my parents if I could
borrow their car.

1. Although utterly exhausted, John pulled one last all-nighter to prepare for the physics exam.

2. The politician ran unopposed even though her approval ratings were abysmal.

3. Before embarking on a cross-country trip, it’s important to plan out an itinerary.

4. If the referee disqualifies the reigning champion, there will be widespread protests, and a rematch will
probably be quickly announced.

5. Don’t call me unless it’s urgent.

6. The king ruled with an iron fist, and although his subjects despised him, they lacked sufficient motivation to
overthrow him.

7. The store was closed because it was Sunday, so we went home.

8. Six months before moving to France, I enrolled in an intensive French language course because I wanted to
have a sufficient understanding of the language.

9. A ruthless mob boss on The Sopranos, Tony Soprano was beloved by fans of the show.

8
REVIEW

Exercise 6: answer the following questions.

1. Do all clauses contain objects?

2. What is the most common 2-letter ending for adverbs?

3. Does the subject always come before the verb in a sentence?

4. Do independent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions?

5. When combining independent and dependent clauses into a single sentence, do you always need to use a
comma?

6. Can a clause contain a phrase?

7. What is the difference between complex sentence and a complex-compound sentence?

8. What are the seven coordinating conjunctions?

9. How would you categorize most words ending in either “ic” or “ical”? (i.e., academic, dramatic, energetic,
magical, diabolical)

10. How would you categorize most words ending in “ness”? (fondness, happiness, ruthlessness)

11. How would you categorize the word “hard” in each of the two sentences:
I studied hard for the test. This mattress is too hard.

12. How would you categorize the word “close” in each of the three sentences?
Close the door. She and I are close friends. Don’t stand close to me.

9
 LESSON 2: THE COMMA
The comma is undoubtedly the most difficult punctuation mark to use correctly because it
serves so many different functions. For SAT purposes, there are only 4 key functions that you
need to understand. However, you need to understand them well! Here they are:

1. Commas are used to separate lists of three or more items.

A. My four favorite flavors of ice-cream are chocolate, vanilla, strawberry and coffee.

B. My hobbies include playing piano, learning Mandarin, and building model airplanes.

C. We ate pizza and salad for dinner.

(only two items so no comma!)

Important note concerning “The Oxford Comma”: Consider the two following lists:
X, Y, and Z and X, Y and Z. Should there be a comma after the Y? In America, it’s
often omitted. In the UK, it’s often included. Because there’s no uniform agreement,
the SAT won’t ever test you on this!

Exercise 1: Add commas where appropriate.

1. I enjoy horseback riding miniature golf and tennis.

2. Would you like to eat fish or chicken for dinner tonight?

3. A picture frame two telescopes a stamp collection and three grey pillows were left in the attic.

4. We sent wedding invitations to my parents Brad Pitt and Sylvester Stallone.

10
 2. Commas are placed after introductory words, introductory phrases, and
dependent clauses.

A. Well, she still needs some more time to decide.

(“Well”, “yes”, “no, “however”, “indeed”, “furthermore”, “rather”, and “therefore” are some
common introductory words.)

B. Having finished dinner, I returned to my bedroom.

(Remember from lesson 1, phrases are groups of words functioning as a single unit and without a
subject/verb component. “Having finished dinner” lacks a subject.)

C. While Paul waited for the bus, Melanie read a novel.

(If you flip the order, then there’s no comma: Melanie read a novel while Paul waited for the bus.)

Remember these two constructions:

1. Dependent clause + comma + independent clause

(If I study all weekend, I’ll definitely ace the test.)

2. Independent clause + dependent clause (no comma)

(I’ll definitely ace the test if I study all weekend.)

Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences and add punctuation when necessary.

1. _______________ I already set the table. (add introductory word)

2. With over thirty colors to choose from _____________________________________________________ .

3. ________________________________________________________________ he was still sent to prison.

4. I won the bet. Therefore ____________________________________________ .

5. You need to go to the supermarket ______________________________________. (add dependent clause)

6. Before operating on the patient ____________________________________________________________ .

7. I like movies. _________________ my sister prefers Broadway musicals. (add introductory word)

11
 3. Commas are placed before COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English:

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

You can easily remember them with the acronym FANBOYS. Coordinating
conjunctions are used to link two complete sentences together. Let’s look at some
examples:

A. I like skiing, but my friends prefer snowboarding.

(“I like skiing” is an independent clause. “My friends prefer snowboarding” is also an independent
clause.)

B. I didn’t think you’d ask me out to the prom, nor did I expect you to offer me flowers.

C. We know you’re tired, so we’ll let you sleep because it’s important that you be well rested.

D. My mom repeated the question even louder, yet my father still didn’t hear her.

Careful: These seven words serve many other functions. Use a comma before these
words only when they connect two complete sentences!
E. Laura ate the carrots but not the string beans.
(Why no comma here? “Laura ate the carrots” is indeed an independent clause. “Not the string
beans”, however, is merely a phrase since it doesn’t contain a subject/verb pairing. Therefore, no
comma!)

F. I like the sound of my mom’s voice and the way she dresses.
(This sentence contains a list of two items. Think of it as “I like X and Y”. The function of “and” is
to separate these two items.)

Helpful hint: to check if one of the seven FANBOYS is being used as a coordinating conjunction, make
sure that there’s a complete sentence on each side of the coordinating conjunction.

Exercise 3: Complete the following sentences with a FANBOYS and punctuation when necessary.

1. Neither complaining __________ sulking helps our desperate situation.

2. My uncle visited Turkey __________ Greece last summer.

3. We waved through the window __________ Michael didn’t see us.

4. Roses are red ___________ violets are blue.

12
5. My friends were very thirsty ___________ I went out and bought some soda.

6. She entered the basement ___________ switched on the lights.

7. The baseball game was cancelled __________ the soccer game was postponed until next weekend.

4. Commas are used to offset non-essential information.

How do you know if information is non-essential? By checking to see if at least one

of the following three conditions are met:
1. Removing the information doesn’t change sentence’s meaning.
2. If the information interrupts the sentence’s flow.
3. If you can move the information to a different position in the sentence without changing the
sentence’s meaning.

Non-essential information can range from a single word to an extremely long phrase
or clause.
a. Bill, my uncle, lives in Toledo.
b. The carpet, which Bill procured for me while vacationing in Morocco, is beautiful!
c. We visited Scranton, my father’s hometown.

If non-essential information occurs in the middle of a sentence, it should be bracketed

by a pair of commas. If it occurs at the end of a sentence, a single comma suffices.

Here are some examples:

A. My brother, a life-long lover of animals, owns three cats and two dogs.

B. My mother loves wearing scarves, especially wool ones.

C. Truck drivers who speed risk losing their license.

(Why no comma? “who speed” is essential information since it specifies which truck drivers risk
losing their license. Clearly not all truck drivers face this risk, just the ones who speed.)

D. The book that I leant you is excellent.

(Why no comma? Because “that I leant you” is essential information. It specifies which particular
book is excellent.)

13
 VERY USEFUL TIP:

You almost never use a comma before “that”. You almost always use a comma before “which”.

1) Tom refused to eat the mango that fell on the floor.

(“that fell on the floor” is essential information because it specifies which mango Tom refused
to eat.)

2) Mangos, which are one of my favorite fruits, are very healthy for you.
(“which are one of my favorite fruits” is non-essential information.)

When offsetting nonessential information, you actually have three options. You can
use commas, dashes, or parenthesis. All three examples are perfectly valid:
My brother, a life-long lover of animals, owns three cats and two dogs.

My brother – a life-long lover of animals – owns three cats and two dogs.

My brother (a life-long lover of animals) owns three cats and two dogs.

What you cannot do is mix and match:

My bother – a life-long lover of animals, owns three cats and two dogs.
(This is incorrect and a common SAT trap!)

Exercise 4: Add commas where appropriate to offset non-essential information.

1. Thomas Jefferson one of America’s founding fathers served as president for two terms.

2. The house that we rented lasted year is no longer available.

3. Austrian writer Thomas Bernhard is one of the most important writers of the 20th century.

4. The company nearly doubled its workforce. Its stock price however continued to decline.

5. The child who fell off the bike was taken to the hospital.

6. Anna Wintour editor-in-chief of Vogue Magazine always wears sunglasses.

14
TWO BIG TRAPS TO AVOID ON THE SAT:

1) The dreaded COMMA SPLICE. A comma splice occurs when two complete sentences
are separated by just a comma. Although you often see comma splices in novels and
poetry, according to the rules of standard English, this is considered a mistake. Look
at the following example:

I went to the store, you stayed home.

(Comma splice)

Here are three possible fixes:

A. I went to the store. You stayed home.

(Simply break up the two independent clauses into two separate sentences.)

B. I went to the store, but you stayed home.

(Insert an appropriate coordinating conjunction.)

C. I went to the store while you stayed home.

(Insert an appropriate subordinating conjunction and remove the comma. If you flip the
order of the clauses, you’ll need a comma: “While you stayed home, I went to the store.”)

2) The SENTENCE FRAGMENT is another big SAT trap. Sentence fragments are
incomplete sentences. To determine whether or not a sentence is complete, don’t
be influenced by the number of words! You can have one-word complete sentences
and thirty-word sentence fragments. Look at these examples:

Although the candidate exhibits the sort of character traits one comes to expect from a forty-
year career in politics.
(“Although” makes this a dependent clause, and a dependent clause all alone is a sentence
fragment)

Run!
(This is a complete sentence. “Run” is the verb, and the subject “you” is implied by the
imperative form.)

The greatest film that I ever saw.

(This is a noun phrase. Solution: “Seven Samurai is the greatest film that I ever saw” or “The
greatest film that I ever saw is Seven Samurai”.)

Who volunteered? Evan.

(“Evan” counts as a complete sentence since it’s shorthand for “Evan volunteered”.)

15
 Useful tip:

Become a master at recognizing comma splices and sentence fragments. Most SAT
punctuation and sentence structure questions propose one or two answer options
containing these mistakes!

Exercise 6: (Comma splices and sentence fragments) Determine whether or not the following
sentences are grammatically correct. If they aren’t, identify the problem and propose a solution.

1. Did you finish dinner? Not yet.

2. Whenever I feel like I’m being ignored.

3. I have several fond memories of the time we spent in Greece, we should plan another trip.

4. It’s true.

5. My mother is a lawyer, my father is a doctor.

6. The first set of homework assignments that my teacher assigned.

THREE FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS:

Question #1: Can sentences begin with coordinating conjunctions?

Yes! It’s actually quite common and perfectly acceptable for sentences to begin with
any of the seven “FANBOYS”, especially “and” and “but”.
But there was one crucial piece of the puzzle he still hadn’t figured out. (good)

And then the princess fell into a deep sleep. (good)

16
Question #2: Do you always need to use commas with quotation marks?

If it’s direct dialogue, then yes. Look at these examples:

Paul said, “please pass the salt.”

Sarah asked, “how many stars are there in the sky?”

“My parents aren’t home,” she answered, “but I’ll be happy to tell them you stopped by.”

If the quote is syntactically part of the sentence, then no comma is necessary.

Please stop calling me “the world’s worst-dressed boy”. I’m not!

The so-called “missiles” we launched in the food-fight were actually meatballs.

Question #3: Do you need to use commas when describing people’s professions?

It depends on whether the information is essential or non-essential. Here are two

examples:

1) Civic engineer Melanie Saft solved the design problem with an ingenious trick.

(“Melanie Saft” is essential information. Afterall, not just any civic engineer solved the design
problem. Moreover, the sentence wouldn’t make grammatical sense if “Meredith Saft” were
removed. Have a look: Civic engineer solved the design problem with an ingenious trick. To
fix this sentence, you’d need to add an article before “Civic engineer”: The civic engineer
solved the design problem with an ingenious trick.

2) Melanie Saft, a civic engineer, solved the design problem with an ingenious trick.

(In this sentence, “a civic engineer” is being treated as non-essential information, hence the
pair of commas.)

17
REVIEW

Exercise 7: In the sentences below, identify and label each comma using the following number
scheme :

1 = comma used to separate lists of three items or more

2 = comma used after introductory words, introductory phrases or dependent clauses
3 = comma used to precede one of the seven FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
4 = comma used to offset nonessential information

1. While I was on the phone, my brother, a life-long meat lover, ordered 2 hamburgers, 3 hot-dogs, and five
steaks, but my sister, a strict vegetarian, ordered salad.

2. We didn’t much care for the food, nor did we appreciate the rude waiters.

3. If you stay in Chicago, I’ll spend the weekend in Cedar Falls, my father’s hometown.

4. Yes, please leave the dusty book on my desk, but don’t turn off the light.

5. I know you’re feeling sad, scared, and exhausted, so I’m going to let you rest.

6. Because my old alarm clock ran out of batteries, I missed the bus.

7. If she were just being judged by her performance on the uneven bars, she would have won the competition.

8. Carter, like any politician and any person, is complex, and his addition to the ticket comes with pros and
cons.

Exercise 8: In the following sentences, add commas where appropriate and label them according to
the number scheme used in the previous exercise.

1. However it would be a mistake not to acknowledge a connection between the city’s recent political unrest its
growing unemployment rate and the spate of unusually hot weather.

2. Against the advice of his staff Jake Birner the host of the event offered sandwiches chips and cake to his
guests.

3. If we miss the train we can either call my aunt my uncle or your sister’s friend for a ride home.

18
4. Her new novel which comes out next month is a work of genius.

5. When a food-fight broke out in the cafeteria two boys both in my brother’s chemistry class were promptly
sent to the principal’s office.

6. It is often difficult to convince people to try new activities and that is especially true when it comes to
windsurfing a sport that demands balance strength and patience.

7. After losing the match Sam overcome with frustration smashed his tennis racket to the ground and ran off the
court.

8. Upon landing at JFK airport in the middle of a heavy rainstorm Adam Brown the groom’s father and Meghan
Frank the bride’s mother decided to share an Uber to the hotel.

19
 LESSON 3: OTHER PUNCTUATION
(PERIOD, COLON, SEMICOLON, QUESTION MARK, AND DASH)

1. PERIOD

The period is used to mark the end of a complete sentence.

A. I’m going out to the store.

B. Did you clean your room yet? No.

(“No.” counts as a complete sentence since it’s short for “No, I did not”)

C. Ever since I was five years old. I’ve loved listening to Beethoven symphonies.
(This is incorrect. “Ever since I was five years old” is a dependent clause and therefore a sentence
fragment. To fix this, replace the first period with a comma: “Ever since I was five years old, I’ve
loved listening to Beethoven symphonies.” Now we have a dependent clause connected to an
independent clause, which is correct.)

2. SEMICOLON

The semicolon has 2 very specific functions:

1) A semicolon can substitute for a period between two closely related, complete
sentences.

Example:
I went to the store. My sister went to the movies.

This can be rewritten as:

I went to the store; my sister went to the movies.

(The semicolon helps suggest that these two sentences are closely related. Whether you use
a semicolon or a period is purely a stylistic choice. Both are grammatically correct.)

2) A semicolon can separate lists of three or more items when commas are already
in use in one or more of the items. Compare these two examples:

A. I’ve lived in Hartford, Connecticut; San Francisco, California; and Boston, Massachusetts.
(The use of semicolons in this sentence clarifies the difference between cities and
states.)

B. I’ve lived in Hartford; San Francisco; and Boston.

(This is incorrect. Use commas instead: I’ve lived in Hartford, San Francisco, and Boston)

20
 Helpful tip: on the SAT, words like however, rather, furthermore, and therefore are often preceded by
a semicolon and followed by a comma. When used this way, they act as adverbial conjunctions (you’ll
learn more about this in lesson 9). In the meantime, here are some examples:

I love spaghetti; however, the mere mention of pasta makes my sister lose her appetite.

I wasn’t able to repair my bicycle; therefore, we’re going to have to postpone our trip.

Symphony orchestra don’t often perform works by Puccini; rather, that’s the domain of opera
houses.

Question: Can you replace the semicolons in these examples with periods?
Yes. If so, the words “however”, “therefore”, and “rather” act as introductory words:

I love spaghetti. However, the mere mention of pasta makes my sister lose her appetite.

Question: Can you replace the semicolons in these examples with commas? No. That would
create the dreaded comma splice (see lesson 2).

Exercise 1: Correct the punctuation when necessary.

1. Although I offered her a slice of cake; she politely declined.

2. We flew to Los Angeles with a stopover in Denver, however my parents managed to fly direct.

3. Those in attendance included Dr. Gordan, chief of surgery, Dr. Hu, chief of pediatrics, and Dr. Alloula, chief
of neurology.

4. It’s not the company that’s the problem, it’s the entire industry.

5. I twisted my ankle last night, therefore, I’m going to skip basketball practice.

6. The three people I’d most like to meet are Tim Cook; CEO of Apple, Jeff Bezos; CEO of Amazon, and Mark
Zuckerberg; the founder of Facebook.

21
 3. COLON

The colon is used in two types of situations:

1. BEFORE LISTS
a. I have three favorite flavors of ice-cream: chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry.

2. BEFORE EXPLANATIONS
Note: explanations can either be single words, phrases, or complete sentences.

a. I think I know why all our furniture is missing: we’ve been robbed!
b. There’s a reason you keep hitting the tennis ball into the net: too much topspin.
c. After three weeks of deliberation, the jury finally reached a verdict: guilty.

Extremely Important:

A colon can only come after a complete sentence.

Here’s a common SAT trap:

My three favorite flavors of ice-cream are: chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry.

This is incorrect because the colon is not preceded by a complete sentence. To fix this
sentence, just eliminate the colon: My three favorite flavors of ice-cream are chocolate,
vanilla, and strawberry.

Exercise 2: Correct the following sentences.

1. Two words come to mind when I think of you. Smart and witty.

2. The two things I’ve been meaning to tell you are that: I’m married and nearly six-months pregnant!

3. On March 22, 1832, Goethe uttered his famous two last words; “more light”.

4. My athletic older brother is: a professional distance runner, skier, and mountain biker.

5. Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet: the six colors that make up a rainbow.

22
4. QUESTION MARK

Question marks are used to end sentences that contain direct questions.
a. Did you finish your homework?
b. How many marbles can fit in that jar?
c. Can you hand me that bag?

Careful, don’t use a question mark when the question isn’t stated directly.
a. She asked me if I had ever visited Toronto.
(This is an indirect question, so it takes a period.)
b. I’m trying to figure out whether or not this shirt needs to be washed.
(This is an indirect question, so it takes a period.)

Helpful hint: indirect questions are always contained within larger sentences and are usually
set up with the words “if” or “whether”.

5. DASH

The dash serves several functions, but the SAT only tests the following two:

1. The dash as a substitute for a comma.

a. My Paris flat— the one you’ve seen — has now been completely renovated.
(In this sentence, a pair of dashes is used to offset non-essential information. A pair of
commas or parenthesis would also work perfectly well.)

b. I went to the movies — but my sister went to the park.

(In this sentence, “but” acts as a coordinating conjunction [see chapter 2]. Although it’s
more common to precede “but” with a comma, a dash technically works.)

Important note: Whether you use a comma or a dash is often a question of stylistic choice.
Keep in mind, however, that commas are used more frequently than dashes. Also, there are
certain cases where it would be inappropriate to replace a comma with a dash. For example:
“I went to the store to buy some milk — juice — eggs — and cookies.” This is wrong. Use
commas instead.

2. The dash as a substitute for a colon.

a. There are three vegetables that I particularly love — olives, capers, and beets.
(Or you could write: “There are three vegetables that I particularly love: olives, capers,
and beets”)

b. After years of indecision, I finally decided on a career — graphic design.

(Or you could write: “After years of indecision, I finally decided on a career: graphic
design.”)

23
Exercise 3. Correct the punctuation when necessary.

1. I’d really like to know where the artist buys his paints?

2. We’re going to stay with my uncle next weekend, you should call us!

3. Both my brother, an investment banker, and my sister a corporate lawyer live in California.

4. Sam seemed like he was immensely enjoying his: burrito — nachos — and soda — so we left him alone.

5. This little piggy went to the market; and this little piggy stayed home.

6. We need to ask you a very important question, did you forget to flush the toilet upstairs.

Final Tip:

There’s a lot of functional overlap between periods, semicolons, and colons. Likewise, the
dash can replace either a comma or a colon. SAT punctuation questions, however, never
leave any room for ambiguity. In other words, you’ll never be forced to choose between two
correct answers.

Review

Exercise 4: Fill in the missing punctuation with either commas, semicolons, colons, question marks,
dashes, or periods.

1. Leaks from the forthcoming book confirmed what many had already suspected ( ) Eric Greene had
engaged in corporate espionage.

2. Mozart’s genius is firmly displayed in his symphonies, of which he wrote forty-one; his piano concertos ( )
of which he wrote twenty-seven ( ) and his violin concertos ( ) of which he wrote five.

24
3. My jacket ( ) the one you bought me for my birthday – isn’t hanging in the upstairs closet ( ) it’s on the
table downstairs.

4. This morning my uncle – still jetlagged from his trip to Alaska ( ) asked me how many times I watered his
yard while he was away ( )

5. I was a star wrestler in high school ( ) however ( ) my career was cut short due to a rotator cuff injury.

6. When it comes to 19th century German philosophy ( ) there are three towering figures ( ) Immanuel Kant ( )
author of A Critique of Pure Reason ( ) Friedrich Nietzsche ( ) author of Thus Spake Zarathustra ( ) and
Arthur Schopenhauer ( ) author of The World as Will and Representation.

7. Before leaving for school this morning, my father asked me one of those impossible questions ( ) “what do
you want to do with your life ( )”

8. The new public prosecutor is highly capable. Given the long-standing tradition of corruption and kickbacks in
the waste management industry ( ) however ( ) his goal of “cleaning house” won’t be easy.

Exercise 5: Rewrite the following sentences by replacing each correct punctuation (indicated in red)
with an acceptable alternative.

1. I own three pairs of sneakers. My younger sister owns at least twenty.

2. We used to spend hours listening to Radiohead songs — but now we listen mainly to jazz.

3. My jacket (the one with a broken zipper) is at the dry cleaners.

4. Purchasing a fine string instrument, especially a Stradivarius violin, is always a good financial investment;
furthermore, it’s a way of showing support for the arts.

5. There’s a special ingredient I sometimes add to my mother’s lasagna recipe: pumpkin.

6. I only own two pieces of furniture — a couch, given to me by my great-grandfather, and a king-sized bed.

25
 30 SAT-STYLE EXERCISES FOR LESSONS 1-3

1.

In a groundbreaking new book, American ______________ attempts to reject the “origins of

inequality” as a framework for understanding human history.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) anthropologist, David Graeber

B) anthropologist David Graeber,
C) anthropologist, David Graeber,
D) anthropologist David Graeber

2.

The Portuguese Empire originated at the beginning of the Age of _______ the power and influence
of the Kingdom of Portugal would eventually expand across the globe.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) discovery, and,
B) discovery and
C) discovery, and
D) discovery and,

3.

The Berlin Philharmonic and the Los Angeles Philharmonic are two examples of _____ Berlin Digital
Concert Hall showcases over a decade’s worth of Berlin Philharmonic concerts, while Sound/Stage is
a free online concert series that features performances by the Los Angeles Philharmonic and guest
artists from around the world.

A) orchestras that have their own streaming platforms. The

B) orchestras that have their own streaming platforms and the
C) orchestras that have their own streaming platforms, the
D) orchestras, that have their own streaming platforms, and the

26
4.

In Jordan, the thousands of fragments of ancient pottery abundantly scattered around Petra create
an unforgettable sight that awes _____tourists take these fragments home as souvenirs, however,
they contribute to the desecration of an important archeological site.

A) tourists, when
B) tourists and when
C) tourists when
D) tourists. When

5.

In North America, NAFTA is a trade agreement between Canada, the United States, and _____ in
Europe, the EEA aims to strengthen trade between 30 countries, 27 of which are members of the
European Union.

A) Mexico and
B) Mexico
C) Mexico,
D) Mexico;

6.

Dr. Osuna-Mascaró, a scientist who previously studied chimpanzees, adapted a fishing task
experiment for a group of cockatoos. Instead of bugs, the grand prize was a cashew, the cockatoo’s
favorite food. Getting the treat out of the box required two _______ short, sharp tool that had to
first cut a membrane blocking the bird’s access to the nut, and a long, flimsy pole that had to be
stuck into the hole to fish out the cashew.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) tools. A
B) tools; a
C) tools: a
D) tools, a

27
7.

An isolated population of polar bears has been discovered in southeast Greenland, which is free of
sea ice for most of the year. Polar bears typically need sea ice to ______ the discovery is raising
hopes that some members of the species might survive the loss of ice caused by climate change.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) survive
B) survive,
C) survive so
D) survive, so

8.

Chris Graf, research-integrity director at Springer Nature, claims that two Molecular Cancer papers
flagged in a 2021 analysis have been _______ although one was corrected after typographical errors
in two reagent sequences were verified, the “errors’ flagged in the second paper turned out to
match the intended gene and species.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) investigated, and
B) investigated; and,
C) investigated and
D) Investigated and,

9.

Ancient Roman scientists understood the varying duties of worker _________ inside the hive, their
primary task is to feed the queen, but outside the hive, they gather pollen from flowers.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) bees,
B) bees:
C) bees, while
D) bees

28
10.

In chaos theory, the “butterfly effect” is the dependence on initial conditions in which a small
change in one state can result in large differences in a later state. Chemical combustions
demonstrate this _____ the high energy required for initiation is surpassed, a chain reaction ensues.

A) phenomenon:
B) phenomenon;
C) phenomenon if
D) phenomenon: if

11.

Chitosan is made from chitin, the main component of crustacean shells, using a simple chemical
process. Chitin and chitosan are both polysaccharides - polymers made up of chains of sugar
molecules, akin to cellulose and starch. Some insects and fungi also make ______ either the second
or third most abundant natural polymer.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) chitin which is thought to be

B) chitin, which is thought to be
C) chitin; which is thought to be
D) chitin. Which is thought to be

12.

Engravings found deep inside a cave in Gibraltar might be a Neanderthal masterpiece. At more than
39,000 years old, the etchings rival in age the oldest cave art in _____ they are the first to be
unquestionably done by a Neanderthal.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Europe and
B) Europe and,
C) Europe; and
D) Europe—and

29
13.

A military conflict is known either as a _______ depending on the size of the fighting and the
geographical areas in which the conflict occurs.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) battle or a war,
B) battle, or a war;
C) battle, or a war,
D) battle or, a war,

14.

Jean Sibelius is widely regarded as Finland’s greatest composer. The core of his oeuvre is his set of
________ like his other major works, are regularly performed and recorded in Finland and countries
around the world.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) seven symphonies which—

B) seven symphonies; which
C) seven symphonies, which,
D) seven symphonies; which,

15.

The King Arthur story is derived mainly from a mix of Welsh mythology and English folklore. Because
historical documents from the post-Roman period are ________ to the question of Arthur's
historical existence is unlikely.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) scarce a definitive answer

B) scarce, a definitive answer
C) scarce; a definitive answer
D) scarce. A definitive answer

30
16.

A philippic is a fiery, damning speech delivered to condemn a particular political actor. The term is
most famously associated with two noted orators of the ______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) ancient world. Demosthenes of ancient Athens and Cicero of ancient Rome.

B) ancient world: Demosthenes of ancient Athens, and Cicero of ancient Rome.
C) ancient world: Demosthenes of ancient Athens and Cicero of ancient Rome.
D) ancient world; Demosthenes of ancient Athens and Cicero of ancient Rome.

17.

A sea cucumber does not require a ______ all of its life-sustaining functions are programmed into a
ring of neural tissue surrounding its oral cavity.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) brain,
B) brain for
C) brain, for
D) brain, because

18.

Games employing shuttlecocks have been played for centuries across _____ the modern game of
badminton developed in the mid-19th century among the expatriate officers of British India as a
variant of the earlier game of battledore and shuttlecock.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Eurasia, however,
B) Eurasia; however
C) Eurasia, but
D) Eurasia, but,

31
19.

Melons are known to have been grown by the ancient ______ recent discoveries of melon seeds
dated between 1350 and 1120 BCE in Nuragic sacred wells have shown that melons were first
brought to Europe by the Nuragic civilization of Sardinia during the Bronze Age.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Egyptians, however,
B) Egyptians; however
C) Egyptians. However,
D) Egyptians. However

20.

A zoning commission is a local elected or appointed government board charged with recommending
to the local town or city council the boundaries of zoning districts. Zoning commissions do not have
free reign to completely overhaul preexisting boundaries and __________ each recommendation
must first be put to a vote and receive approval from various other regulatory governing bodies.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) regulations; however,
B) regulations, however;
C) regulations, however,
D) regulations however

21.

The red and purple colors of some Selenicereus fruits are due to betacyanins, a family of pigments
that includes betanin, the same substance that gives beets, _______ their red color.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Swiss chard, and amaranth

B) Swiss chard and, amaranth
C) Swiss chard and amaranth,
D) Swiss chard, and amaranth,

32
22.

Daniel Barenboim is a multi-faceted artist who divides his time performing as ______ conducting
orchestras; and teaching masterclasses to young students.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) a pianist, both as soloist and chamber musician,

B) a pianist both as soloist and chamber musician,
C) a pianist, both as soloist and chamber musician;
D) a pianist; both as soloist and chamber musician,

23.

A recipe for mustard appears in De re coquinaria, an anonymously compiled Roman cookbook from
the late fourth or early fifth _______ a mixture of ground mustard, spices, and oil, and was intended
as a glaze for spit-roasted boar.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) century. The recipe calls for:

B) century, the recipe calls for
C) century, the recipe calls for:
D) century; the recipe calls for

24.

Michel de Montaigne was one of the most significant philosophers of the French Renaissance. His
work is noted for its merging ________

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) of casual anecdotes and autobiography.

B) of casual anecdotes, and autobiography.
C) of: casual anecdotes and autobiography.
D) of: casual anecdotes, and autobiography.

33
25.

The thousands of satellites that orbit the Earth are interfering with the Hubble Space Telescope. A
study, published in the ________ reveals an increase in the percentage of images recorded by the
Hubble that are spoiled by passing satellites.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) journal Nature Astronomy

B) journal, Nature Astronomy
C) journal Nature Astronomy,
D) journal, Nature Astronomy,

26.

All anemonefish are protandrous _______ they first develop into males and then become females
later in life.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Hermaphrodites, in other words

B) Hermaphrodites, in other words:
C) Hermaphrodites; in other words,
D) Hermaphrodites, in other words,

27.

Although its reviews and events listings often focus on the cultural life of New York City, The New
Yorker has a wide audience outside of _______ is read internationally.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) New York and

B) New York, and
C) New York—and
D) New York, and,

34
28.

Alfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of
prizes for those who confer ________ in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine, and
literature.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) the "greatest benefit on mankind"

B) the, "greatest benefit on mankind"
C) the, "greatest benefit on mankind,"
D) the: "greatest benefit on mankind"

29.

The Rubik’s Cube is a 3-D combination puzzle originally invented in _________

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik.

B) 1974, by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik.
C) 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture, Ernő Rubik.
D) 1974 by, Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture, Ernő Rubik.

30.

In 1856 William Henry ________ accidentally produced the organic dye now known as Perkin’s
mauve.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A) Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine

B) Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine,
C) Perkin while trying to manufacture quinine,
D) Perkin while trying to manufacture quinine

35
 LESSON 4: APOSTROPHES

The apostrophe serves two main functions that you need to know for the SAT:

1. CONTRACTIONS

Over time, certain words and phrases in English have dropped one or more letters.
An apostrophe is used to replace the missing letters. Below is a list of the most
common.

Aren’t = are not Can’t = cannot

Could’ve = could have Couldn’t = could not
Don’t = do not / does not Hadn’t = have not
Hasn’t = has not Haven’t = have not
He’d = he had / he would He’ll = he will
I’d = I had / I would I’ll = I will
I’m = I am I’ve = I have
Isn’t = is not It’ll = it will
It’s = it is Let’s = let us
She’d = she had / she would She’ll = she will
She’s = she is Should’ve = should have
Shouldn’t = should not That’s = that has / that is
There’s = there has / there is They’d = they had / they would
They’ll = they will They’re = they are/ there were
Wasn’t = was not We’d = we had / we would / we did
We’ll = we will We’re = we are
We’ve = we have Weren’t = were not
What’s = what has/ what is/ what does Where’s = where has / where is /where does
Who’d = who would/ who had / who did Who’s = who has / who is / who does
Won’t = will not Would’ve = would have
Wouldn’t = would not You’d = you would
You’re = you are You’ve = you have

Important: be careful not to confuse the following “tricky twins”:

• it’s – its
• let’s -- lets
• they’re -- their -- there
• who’s -- whose

Exercise 1: Choose the correct option.

1. ( Its / it’s ) about time we let the cat out of ( its / it’s ) cage.

2. ( Thats / that’s ) one of the nicest gifts that anyone has ever given me.

36
3. (Who’s / whose) in charge here?

4. (Their / they’re / there ) suitcases were left over ( their / they’re / there )

5. ( Lets / let’s ) not get into trouble before mom ( lets / let’s ) us out of the house.

6. ( Their / they’re / there) never going to leave ( their / they’re / there ) home.

7. ( Whats / what’s ) inside of ( your / you’re ) briefcase ?

8. I ( could of / could have ) been a contender!

2. POSSESSION

There are 3 rules concerning possession that you need to know for the SAT:

1) Possessive of a singular noun: add apostrophe + s.

a. My cousin’s car is in the garage.

b. My cousin’s cars are in the garage.

(Whether the cousin has only one car or multiple cars doesn’t affect the apostrophe + s.)

c. The painting that hangs in the dining room is my sister’s.

(It’s not uncommon for the object under possession to precede the possessor.)

d. The wax’s shininess doesn’t bother me.

(The apostrophe + s can come after any letter of the alphabet, no exceptions!)

e. Tess’s pet hamster died yesterday.

(Even though Tess ends in ss, we still add apostrophe + s.)

f. We spent the night at my aunt and uncle’s house.

(In cases of joint possession, it helps to think of “aunt and uncle” as a single entity.
Therefore, you only need to add apostrophe + s after uncle.)

37
 2) Possessive of a plural noun ending in s: add an apostrophe after the s.

a. The boys’ soccer team won the state championship last year.
(This phrase implies several boys. For a single boy, you’d write, “The boy’s soccer team won
the state championship last year.”)

b. My lawyers’ fees are exorbitant.

(This phrase implies multiple lawyers. For a single lawyer, you’d write, “my lawyer’s fees are
exorbitant”.)

c. The teachers’ classrooms are in a state of disrepair

3) Possessive of a plural noun not ending in s: add an apostrophe + s.

a. The alumni’s fundraising goal was not met this year.

(Recast in the singular, this sentence becomes, “The alumnus’s fundraising goal was not met
this year.”)
b. We must respect the people’s decision.
(Recast in the singular, this sentence becomes, “We must respect the person’s decision.”)
c. The geese’s nesting grounds are preserved by law.
(Recast in the singular, this sentence becomes, “The goose’s nesting grounds are preserved
by law.”)

Exercise 2: Rephrase the following sentences using possessive apostrophes.

Sample: The brother of my uncle is visiting us next week.

My uncle’s brother is visiting us next week.

1. The handlebars of my bicycle are rusty.

2. The growth rates of the bacterial fungi are alarmingly high.

3. The dressing rooms of the actors come equipped with showers and sinks.

4. The prom dance of the students was cancelled this year.

5. The picture album of my mother and father is in the closet.

38
6. The ice-skating finals of the women will begin at 2:00 pm.

7. The amplification of the electric bass doesn’t seem to be working.

8. The bottom two vertebrae of Ted’s coccyx suffered slight fractures.

9. The greatest sin of the acolytes was to offer their unwavering devotion to the corrupt master.

10. The early sketches of Picasso and Kandinsky are on display at the Guggenheim Museum.

11. The stamp collection of Chriss is worth more than his house.

Exercise 3: Fix any and all apostrophe mistakes in the following sentences.

1. My sister’s best friends cousin lives with us.

2. The book’s page’s weren’t formatted properly.

3. Its a shame that were unable to locate your parents car.

4. Jazzes most defining feature does’nt have anything to do with rhythmic syncopation.

5. The Italian sculptors statue’s were featured in this months’ edition of Architectural Digest.

6. The student’s exams reflected poorly on they’re efforts.

39
Exercise 4: Select the correct multiple-choice answers.

1.

Equipped with a pair of camouflaging wings, the insect escapes the gaze of predators by resembling
an oak trees thin branch.

A) NO CHANGE

B) an oak tree’s thin branch.

C) an oak tree’s thin branches’.

D) oak trees’ thin branch.

2.

Volume, velocity, and angle of inclination are the chief factors that determine whether a meteorite
achieves impact or disintegrates in the upper atmosphere of a planet.

A) the upper atmosphere of a planet’s

B) a planets’ upper atmosphere

C) a planet’s upper atmosphere

D) a planets upper atmosphere

3.

Audiences were impressed by the films action scene, which featured virtuosic camera work and
complex choreography.

A) NO CHANGE

B) films action scenes

C) film’s action scene’s

D) film’s action scenes

40
4.

Gilbert and Sullivin’s final operatic collaboration, “The Last Duke”, was initially lambasted by critics
and disliked by the public.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Gilberts’ and Sullivins’ final operatic collaboration,

C) Gilbert and Sullivin’s final operatic collaboration’s,

D) Gilbert’s and Sullivin’s final operatic collaboration,

5.

This companies product’s would sell well in Asia, assuming demographic trends continue along a
similar path.

A) NO CHANGE

B) company’s products

C) companies products

D) companies’ product

6.

The missiles’ newly designed defense mechanisms are the product of cutting-edge technological
advances.

A) NO CHANGE

B) missile’s newly designed defense mechanisms’

C) missiles newly designed defense mechanisms

D) missile’s newly designed defense mechanism’s

41
7.

Last March, the linguist travelled to Morocco to study regional dialect’s in Berber villages and the
condition’s necessary for their preservation.

A) NO CHANGE

B) dialects in Berber villages and the conditions

C) dialect’s in Berber villages and the conditions

D) dialects in Berber villages and the condition’s

8.

As a precautionary measure, seconds before it’s engine’s are ignited, portions of the rocket are
doused with flame retardant.

A) NO CHANGE

B) it’s engines

C) its’ engines

D) its engines

42
 Lesson 5: VERBS

After punctuation, the next biggest grammar topic tested on the SAT is proper verb use.
There are two issues to consider: subject-verb agreement and tense.

I. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

1. Subjects and verbs must always agree in number.

a. My cat purrs when she is happy.
b. My cats purr when they are happy.

2. Prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses that appear between the subject and
verb do not affect subject-verb agreement.
a. My set of golf clubs is in the garage.
(“My set” is the subject and is singular; “of golf clubs” is a prepositional phrase and has no effect
on subject-verb agreement. Think: My set is in the garage.)
b. My friend, who recently broke both legs, speaks six languages.
(“My friend” is the subject; “who recently broke both legs” is a subordinate clause and has no
effect on subject-verb agreement. Think: My friend speaks six languages.)
c. Industrial waste that is harmful to humans is usually subject to strict regulations.
(“Industrial waste” is the subject; “that is harmful to humans” is a subordinate clause and has no
effect on the subject-verb agreement. Think: Industrial waste is usually subject to strict
regulations.)

Useful Tip: subordinate clauses that appear between the subject and verb are always bracketed by
commas and function as “non-essential information” (see lesson 2).

Here are two common SAT traps to look out for:

• A singular subject followed by a plural prepositional phrase (or vice versa).

a. This bunch of bananas looks particularly ripe.

(Think: This bunch looks particularly ripe.)
b. Three presents under the Christmas tree were for me.
(Think: Three presents were for me.)

• Cases when the subject comes after the verb:

a. Here are the books you asked for.

(When sentences begin with here or there, the subject always comes after the verb.)
b. Never was I so mad!
(Think: I was never so mad!)

43
EXERCISE 1: select the correct verb conjugation.

1. A herd of two-hundred sheep (inhabit / inhabits) the neighboring farm.

2. Behind the two chairs (stand / stands) an old, unused lamp.

3. The mathematical proof developed by Professors Stanley Martins and Kenny Huang (contain / contains)
some minor errors.

4. Beyond the enchanted forest (lie / lies) a lot of buried treasure.

II. VERB TENSE

The English language has 12 different verb tenses. Many verbs also have irregular “simple
past” and “past participle” forms.

Good news: If you speak English fluently, then you probably use the verb tenses and
irregular verb forms correctly without much thought.

More good news: The SAT doesn’t test you on the subtleties of each of the twelve tenses or
on obscure irregular verbs.

In fact, virtually all SAT questions concerning verb tense come down to one of three things:

CONSISTENCY, CONTEXT and INFINITIVES VS. GERUNDS

1. CONSISTENCY

In most cases, you’ll want to keep the tense of the verb in question consistent with the
tense of the other verbs in the sentence or passage. In other words, past tense goes with
past tense, present tense goes with present tense, future tense goes with future tense, etc.

Consider the following example:

The rain turns to snow when the temperature dropped below freezing.

To fix this sentence, both verbs should be in the same tense.

Solution #1: The rain turned to snow when the temperature dropped below freezing.
Solution #2: The rain turns to snow when the temperature drops below freezing.

44
Exercise 2: Correct the tense of the underlined verbs.

1. Yesterday, when I felt the urge to snack, I go to the kitchen.

2. It’s about time you began learning how to play guitar.

3. The last time I run a marathon, I didn’t dress warmly enough.

4. As soon as my alarm clock went off, I had taken a shower.

5. The audience was still talking when the curtain had risen.

2. CONTEXT

Sometimes, the meaning of a sentence overrides the need to preserve verb tense
consistency. Consider the following two examples:

a. By attempting to cross the Atlantic ocean on a wooden raft, the intrepid adventurer faces
many of the same challenges and risks that earlier generations have to deal with.
(It makes more sense to write “that earlier generations had to deal with” )

b. I predict that thirty years from now, it is possible to vacation on the moon.
(It makes more sense to write “it will be possible to vacation on the moon”)

Exercise 3: Correct the tense of the underlined verbs.

1. If you study hard today, you receive a good grade on tomorrow’s test.

2. Even though they had arrived in America penniless, my grandparents now own two homes.

3. By the time dinner was served, we will have already finished our homework.

4. This morning, my brother left for India, where he resided for the next six months.

5. By the time you turn sixteen, your sister will already graduate from college.

45
 3. INFINITIVE / GERUND FORM

If you are a native English speaker, then you can usually determine whether to put a verb
in the infinitive or gerund form simply by trusting your ear. Nevertheless, it’s helpful to
remember the following 4 things:

1. Certain verbs and expressions are followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
a. We need to buy a new house.
b. It’s a pleasure to welcome you into our home.

2. Certain verbs and expressions are followed by a verb in the gerund form.
a. I miss talking to you on the phone.
b. He apologized for showing up to the meeting thirty minutes late.

3. Certain verbs and expressions cab be followed by a verb in either the

infinitive or the gerund forms.
a. I began studying for the exam / I began to study for the exam.
b. It’s an honor to be here / It’s an honor being here.

4. Gerunds often appear as nouns. Infinitives can also be used as nouns, but it’s
less common.
a. Skiing is one of my favorite sports.
b. I like reading.
c. To run a marathon demands months of training. (rare)

Exercise 4: Choose the correct form.

1. I just called ( to say / saying ) I love you.

2. We’ve been advised to avoid ( to order / ordering ) the seafood platter at this restaurant.

3. My goal is ( to finish / finishing ) my chemistry exam at least twenty minutes in advance.

4. I delayed ( to travel / traveling ) to Miami because of the Hurricane warning.

5. She doesn’t want to have to wait ( go / to go / going ) home.

6. You should let me ( sign / to sign / signing ) the birthday card.

46
Exercise 5: Choose the correct multiple-choice answer.

1.

In order to avoid postal delays, it’s crucial that the envelopes were being properly addressed and stamped.

A) NO CHANGE

B) being

C) to be

D) be

2.

Hegel’s writings may not achieve the same level of lucidity and polish as Schopenhauer’s or Nietzsche’s, but
neither were they as incoherent and sloppy as is often purported.

A) NO CHANGE

B) is it

C) are they

D) will they have been

3.

Since it’s only a matter of weeks before the restaurant permanently closes, we are in need of making a
reservation immediately.

A) NO CHANGE

B) need to make

C) are needing to make

D) will be needing to make

47
4.

The private soirées Count Levin hosted last year are attracting increasingly large crowds.

A) NO CHANGE

B) attracted

C) will attract

D) have been attracting

5.

All episodes of next year’s podcast (unconventional stories ranging from a young girl’s solo trek across
Northern Canada to a professional basketball player’s passion for classical ballet) were delivered by engaging
storytellers.

A) NO CHANGE

B) being

C) will be

D) had been

6.

The remaining participants in Dr. Harrington’s study was each given a lined sheet of paper and asked to jot
down thirty random words.

A) NO CHANGE

B) was each being

C) were each

D) has each been

48
7.

Investigation of currents in the Indian and Pacific oceans reveal global temperature increases of nearly 0.11
degrees Celsius over the course of the past decade.

A) NO CHANGE

B) have revealed

C) are revealing

D) is revealing

8.

Wittgenstein’s refusal to accept honorary professorships from both Oxford and Cambridge universities were
chiefly due to his disinterest in titles and awards.

A) NO CHANGE

B) have been

C) was

D) are

9.

An analysis of readings compiled by the RDS and IPBS indicate that mercury levels in southern Wisconsin’s
water supply are slightly elevated.

A) NO CHANGE

B) indicating

C) indicates

D) have indicated

49
10.

Tasked with the responsibility of training the owner’s six Golden Retrievers were Paul Frank, an experienced
handler of dogs, cats and possums.

A) NO CHANGE

B) have been

C) was

D) are

11.

Traditional recipes for noodle pudding calls for anywhere between six and ten eggs.

A) NO CHANGE

B) had called for

C) does call for

D) call for

12.

The gradual disappearance of rain forests and barrier reefs put mankind’s future at risk.

A) NO CHANGE

B) have put

C) puts

D) are putting

50
13.

Musicologists often claim that the sound of the Vienna Philharmonic’s oboes has helped to preserve the
orchestra’s distinctiveness.

A) NO CHANGE

B) have helped

C) are helping

D) were helping

14.

The toppling of three governments within the span of only six days suggest that the entire region is on the brink
of collapse.

A) NO CHANGE

B) have suggested

C) suggesting

D) suggests

15.

The two teenagers who managed to safely land the damaged Boeing 747 plane in a heavy rainstorm was each
awarded medals of bravery.

A) NO CHANGE

B) was each being

C) were each

D) has each been

51
16.

While the country’s leader continues to refuse to step down from power, it’s suspected that a group of
military leaders are planning a coup d’état.

A) NO CHANGE

B) were

C) is

D) have been

17.

The eerie special effect is created from lights arranged in a semi-circle that both flashes on and off repeatedly
and emits strange crackling noises.

A) NO CHANGE

B) flash on and off repeatedly and emit

C) flash on and off repeatedly and emits

D) has flashed on and off repeatedly and has emitted

18.

Further applications of fractals include predicting growth rates of bacteria and image compression.

A) NO CHANGE

B) includes

C) including

D) had included

52
19.

Many furniture-store chains like Ikea offers the same item in a variety of colors and materials with little
variance in price.

A) NO CHANGE

B) has offered

C) is offering

D) offer

20.

The proliferation of computer malware that can spy on unassuming web users and even infiltrate and corrupt
secure hard drives have crippled entire industries.

A) NO CHANGE

B) has crippled

C) are crippling

D) were crippling

21.

However, the restaurant’s sixteen-course tasting menu with no less than eight different main-course options
highlight the “over-the-top” extravagance that has come to dominate fine dining.

A) NO CHANGE

B) have highlighted

C) highlights

D) are highlighting

53
22.

For many, the lessons from the collapse of FTX are clear: There’s something deeply wrong with cryptocurrency
that makes it too dangerous to be included in the mainstream of finance. And the people operating
cryptocurrency systems and the exchanges where cryptocurrencies are bought and sold are crooks, not
visionaries. Neither of these conclusions is correct, however.

A) NO CHANGE

B) are

C) were

D) have been

54
 Lesson 6: Parallelism

Parallelism in grammar is the technique of using similar grammatical constructions within a

single sentence or across several sentences. Writers use parallelism to create balance and
consistency. The SAT tests four types of parallelism:

I. PARALLELISM IN VERBS

When two or more verbs occur in a list or a comparison, they need to be in the same
form. Consider the following two examples:

1. He likes to play football, swim in the ocean, and reading spy novels.

This sentence lacks parallel structure because the verbs “play” and “swim” are in the infinitive form
while “reading” is in the gerund form (the “ing” form of a verb). Here are two possible solutions:

a. He likes to play football, swim in the ocean, and read spy novels.
(All verbs are now in the infinitive form.)

b. He likes playing football, swimming in the ocean, and reading spy novels.
(All verbs are now in the gerund form.)

2. To sing an opera aria is harder than acting in a film.

Once again, this sentence lacks parallel structure because “to sing” is an infinitive and “acting” is
a gerund. Here are two possible solutions:

a. Singing an opera aria is harder than acting in a film.

(Both verbs are in the gerund form.)

b. To sing an opera aria is harder than to act in a film.

(Both verbs are in the infinitive form.)

II. PARALLELISM IN LISTS

Items in a list always need to appear in the same form. That can mean one of three
possibilities:
1. The items are all nouns (I ate cake, cookies, and ice-cream).
2. The items are all verbs (The dog runs, barks, catches a frisbee, and stands on its hind legs.)
3. The items are all gerunds (She spent her days studying, practicing piano, and playing chess.)

55
Exercise 1: Fix the following sentences.

1. To philosophize means more than pondering over the fact that dog spelled backwards is god.

2. The politician spent the afternoon calling supporters, asking for donations, and prepared for the debate.

3. To study for a chemistry test is nearly as fun as going to the dentist.

4. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and testing atomic weapons can all trigger seismic reactions.

5. Being brave is not as important as honesty.

6. Leonardo Da Vinci was a polymath who achieved renown as a painter, naturalist, and an inventor.

III. PARALLELISM WITH PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

If a comparison is set up between two phrases containing prepositions, then the two
things being compared need to correspond to one another perfectly, at least on a
grammatical level. This is a common SAT trap! Consider the following two
examples:
1. Some of the musical themes in Star Wars sound similar to Indiana Jones.

This sentence creates a false comparison. Here are two solutions:

a. Some of the musical themes in Star Wars sound similar to the musical themes in Indiana
Jones.
(We now have a parallel structure: the A in B sounds similar to the C in D.)

b. Some of the musical themes in Star Wars sound similar to those in Indiana Jones.
(pronouns are an elegant way of maintaining parallelism while avoiding overly repetitive
phrasing)

2. The number of unwashed dishes I left in the sink is far fewer than the dishes I’ve already washed.

Once again, this sentence creates a false comparison. Here are 2 solutions:

a. The number of dishes I left in the sink is far fewer than the number of dishes I’ve already
washed.
(We now have a parallel structure: The A of B is far fewer than the C of D.)

b. The number of dishes I left in the sink is far fewer than the number I’ve already washed.
(Does this solution still maintain a parrelel structure? Yes. Remember, this sentence isn’t
comparing “dishes”; it’s comparing “number of dishes”.)

56
 IV. PARALLELISM WITH ONE/YOU

“One” and “you” are pronouns that can be used to describe people in general. They
need to be used in a consistent manner. In other words, they should never be mixed
and matched. Consider the following two examples:

1. You should brush one’s teeth twice a day.

This sentence lacks parallel structure because it switches from “you” to “one”. Here are two possible
solutions:

a. You should brush your teeth twice a day.

b. One should brush one’s teeth twice a day.

2. One of the things I like best about you is your smile.

Although this sentence contains both “one” and “you”, these pronouns don’t refer to the same thing.
Therefore, the sentence is correct.

Exercise 2: Fix the following sentences.

1. My school’s decision to ban computers is much more drastic than my sister’s school banning smartphones.

2. The windows in my kitchen are in worse shape than in my bedroom.

3. When you’re lost in the woods, one mustn’t lose one’s bearings.

4. The level of difficulty of basic trigonometry isn’t as bad as geometry.

5. If the weather’s nice, one can stroll through Central Park; if it rains, you can visit a nearby museum.

6. The calories in this hot-fudge sundae are, to my great surprise, fewer than your Caesar salad.

57
Exercise 3: Select the correct multiple-choice answer.

1.

Thanks to renewed interest in period performance techniques, young musicians today perform Mozart with
far less vibrato than do most older classical music performances.

A) NO CHANGE

B) older musicians

C) older classical music performances

D) older performances

2.

Injustice and inequality in America remain serious problems – from underpaying women, to incarcerating
minorities, to the denying of healthcare to millions of uninsured.

A) NO CHANGE

B) to the denial of healthcare to millions of uninsured.

C) and the denying of healthcare to millions of uninsured.

D) to denying healthcare to millions of uninsured.

3.

The hunting grounds of hammerhead sharks are larger and deeper than great white sharks.

A) NO CHANGE

B) those of great white sharks

C) the great white shark

D) great white shark’s hunting grounds

58
4.

In 2019, teachers’ annual salaries averaged $29,434, which is nearly 12% lower than those of mailmen and
prison guards.

A) NO CHANGE

B) that of mailmen and prison guards.

C) annual salaries of mailmen and a prison guard.

D) mailmen and prison guards.

5.

The eclectic apartment was painted in alternating shades of aquamarine blue, olive green, and with light pink.

A) NO CHANGE

B) painted in light pink.

C) of light pink.

D) light pink.

6.

Most frequent flier programs offer perks such as last-minute cancellations, itinerary changes, and upgrading to
business class.

A) NO CHANGE

B) to upgrade

C) upgrades

D) the upgrade

59
7.

It’s sometimes hard to believe that my normally uptight parents not only listen to but even seeming to
appreciate heavy metal music.

A) NO CHANGE

B) but even their seeming appreciation of

C) but even seem to appreciate

D) but how they seemingly appreciate

8.

The real secret to preparing a delicious salad is buying fresh, seasonal greens and then serve them with a
simple vinaigrette.

A) NO CHANGE

B) then to serve

C) to serve

D) then serving

9.

The table arrangements were organized in the following manner: diplomats from Russia and Turkey seated to
the right, diplomats from Greece and Italy seated to the left, and Slovenia’s newly elected foreign ministry
seated in the center.

Which choice most closely matches the stylistic pattern established earlier in the sentence?

A) NO CHANGE

B) and Slovenia’s newly elected foreign ministry was seated in the center.

C) and seated in the center was Slovenia’s newly elected foreign ministry.

D) and seated in the center was Slovenia’s foreign ministry, newly elected.

60
10.

Giorgio Vasari, in his work, Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, describes the
painter Giotto both as making a decisive break with the prevalent Byzantine style and to have initiated "the great
art of painting as we know it today, introducing the technique of drawing accurately from life, which had been
neglected for more than two hundred years".

A) NO CHANGE

B) initiating

C) as initiating

D) for initiating

11.

Revealing a key plot point without generating sufficient suspense is as unsatisfying as a person deflating a half-
filled balloon.

A) NO CHANGE

B) someone who deflates

C) the deflation of

D) deflating

61
 Lesson 7: Modifiers

A MODIFIER adds description to an element within a sentence.

A modifier can be a single word:

The pink shirt.

(The adjective pink modifies the noun shirt)

A modifier can also be an entire phrase or dependent clause:

Overwhelmed by the town’s beauty, I decided to lengthen my stay there by an extra week.
(The introductory phrase “overwhelmed by the town’s beauty” modifies “I”, the sentence’s
subject.)

Remember: commas always offset introductory phrases and dependent clauses (see lesson 2).

A MISPLACED MODIFIER or a DANGLING MODIFIER occurs when it’s not 100% clear
what or whom the modifier is actually referring to. Here are some examples:

a. Sam wore a yellow tuxedo to the winter ball, which, unfortunately, no one liked.
(No one liked Sam’s yellow tuxedo or no one liked the winter ball?

b. Flying at an altitude of 36,000 feet, Marc had trouble spotting the plane.
(Is it Marc or the plane that’s flying at an altitude of 36,000 feet?)

c. Evan heard the news about the election results in his bed.
(Were the election results really in Evan’s bed?)

d. The man walked his dog in pajamas.

(Who was wearing the pajamas, the dog or the man?)

The easiest way to fix these sentences is simply to put the modifier and the thing it modifies
next to one another. Here are possible solutions to the four previous examples:
a. To the winter ball, Sam wore a yellow tuxedo, which, unfortunately, no one liked.
b. Marc had trouble spotting the plane flying at an altitude of 36,000 feet.
c. Evan, in his bed, heard the news about the election results.
d. The man in pajamas walked his dog.

62
Exercise 1: Fix the following sentences.

1. Awaiting an important delivery, the front door was left ajar by Rachel.

2. We handed out little toys to the children wrapped in red packaging.

3. I nearly watched TV yesterday for ten hours in a row.

4. Beni spotted a strange-looking bird on the way to the library.

5. He offered a dog to his daughter named Rover.

6. Last week, it was reported that six banks in Chicago were held-up by the police.

IMPORTANT TIP:

Almost all SAT questions containing modifying errors are constructed in the following
manner:

Introductory phrase (or dependent clause), independent clause.

In cases like these, you just need to make sure that whatever the long introductory phrase (or
dependent clause) modifies comes immediately after the comma. Take a look at the following
problematic sentence:
Although originally told that they would not have to remember any specific dates for the exam,
requiring the students to write down the years of the most important Civil War battles was nonetheless
done.

What is the opening phrase modifying? If you’re unsure, focus in on the verb “told” and the
pronouns “they”. Now ask yourself the following question: who was originally told that they
would not have to remember any specific dates for the exam? The students! Therefore, the
best way to rewrite the sentence is with “the students” directly after the comma:

Although originally told that they would not have to remember any specific dates for the exam, the
students were nonetheless required to write down the years of the most important Civil War battles.

63
Exercise 2: Select the correct multiple-choice answers.

1.

Having been asked to prepare a class on medieval French poetry, how to make this subject relatable and
enjoyable to American teenagers was what the teacher struggled to figure out.

A) NO CHANGE

B) American teenagers would have this subject made relatable and enjoyable to them in a way that
the teacher struggled to figure out.

C) the teacher struggled to figure out how to make this subject relatable and enjoyable to American
teenagers.

D) this subject had to be made relatable and enjoyable to American teenagers in a way that the
teacher struggled to figure out.

2.

After thoroughly revising the second draft of his novel, several book publishers were contacted by Albert, but
none showed much interest in his manuscript.

A) NO CHANGE

B) contacting several book publishers is what Albert did,

C) Albert contacted several book publishers,

D) the contacting of several book publishes was done by Albert,

3.

After nearly six days of deliberation, the jury’s decision shocked everyone who had been following the case.

A) NO CHANGE

B) the decision of the jury shocked everyone who had been following the case.

C) the jury gave a decision that shocked everyone who had been following the case.

D) everyone who had been following the case was shocked by the jury’s decision.

64
4.

Unable to support himself from musical activities alone, instead, as a successful insurance broker was how the
great American composer Charles Ives made his living.

A) NO CHANGE

B) successfully brokering insurance was how the great American composer Charles Ives made his
living instead.

C) making his living as a successful insurance broker was what the great American composer Charles
Ives did instead.

D) the great American composer Charles Ives made his living as a successful insurance broker instead.

5.

Put in charge of collecting the pay and distributing it amongst his bandmates, the nickname Bruce Springsteen
acquired was “The Boss”.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Bruce Springsteen acquired the nickname “The Boss”.

C) “The Boss” was the nickname that Bruce Springsteen acquired.

D) Bruce Springsteen’s acquired nickname was “The Boss”.

6.

Living many miles from rural centers and having scant financial resources, procuring fancy musical instruments
for their weekend hoedowns was not an easy task for these farmers.

A) NO CHANGE

B) procuring fancy musical instruments was not an easy task for these farmers for their weekend
hoedowns.

C) these farmers could not easily procure fancy musical instruments for their weekend hoedowns.

D) for their weekend hoedowns, it was not an easy task for these farmers to procure fancy musical
instruments.

65
7.

Wound from the lining of sheep intestines, the luthier repaired the 17th century cello and replaced the
instrument’s original strings.

A) NO CHANGE

B) The luthier, wound from the lining of sheep intestines, repaired the 17th century cello and replaced
the instrument’s original strings.

C) The luthier wound from the lining of sheep intestines repaired the 17th century cello and replaced
the instrument’s original strings.

D) The luthier repaired the 17th century cello and replaced the instrument’s original strings, wound
from the lining of sheep intestines.

8.

After graduating from law school in the top 10% of her class, Sandra’s decision to train as a commercial
airline pilot came as quite a shock to her parents.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Sandra’s decision of training as a commercial airline pilot came as quite a shock to her parents.

C) Sandra decided to train as a commercial airline pilot, which came as quite a shock to her parents.

D) Sandra’s parents were shocked be her decision to train as a commercial airline pilot.

9.

An advocate of anarchism and libertarian socialism, Noam Chomsky’s political views have remained
surprisingly consistent since the 1960s.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Tirelessly advocating anarchism and libertarian socialism,

C) An anarchist and a libertarian socialist,

D) Founded upon anarchic and libertarian socialist principles,

66
10.

After thoroughly disinfecting the surface, the strip of metal was placed under ultraviolet light by a team of
trained technicians.

A) NO CHANGE

B) surface, a team of trained technicians placed the strip of metal under ultraviolet light.

C) surface, the strip of metal was placed by a team of trained technicians under ultraviolet light.

D) surface by a team of trained technicians, the strip of metal was placed under ultraviolet light.

67
 Lesson 8: Pronouns

Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns. If the noun is singular, the pronoun is
singular; if the noun is plural, the pronoun is plural. There are many different types of
pronouns: personal pronouns (I, he, you), possessive pronouns (my, his, your), relative
pronouns (which, that, whose) etc.

The SAT generally only tests a small handful of pronouns, usually in conjunction with
contractions (see lesson 4). Here’s what you need to know:

1. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS:

A. ITS vs. THEIR

The possessive pronoun its replaces a thing, not a person. The plural form of its is their.
Careful: don’t confuse these words with their “tricky twins”. (its / it’s, their / they’re / there)
a. It’s a pity that the store lost nearly half of its customers.
b. It’s a pity that the stores lost nearly half of their customers.

B. HIS, HER, THEIR, and ONE’S

The possessive pronouns his and her replace people, not things*.
a. She put her arm around his waist.
* This rule is not ironclad. Sometimes, inanimate objects are personified. Example: The
ship let out her sails.

The plural form of his and her is their.

b. My three friends showed up with their backpacks.

Their can also be used in the singular to substitute for the phrase “his or her”.
c. Each camper is responsible for bringing their own tent.

One’s is used when referring to people in general or to the personal pronoun one.
d. One mustn’t forget one’s belongings.

EXERCISE 1: select the appropriate word.

1. During hard times, people more readily lose ( one’s / their / his and her ) tempers.

2. While rummaging in the yard, Cathy spotted a kitten with a mouse dangling out of ( her / its / it’s ) mouth.

68
3. The ability to tie (his or her / one’s / their ) shoelaces should be a prerequisite for all ten-year-old children.

4. The committee of professors is about to announce ( their / its / one’s ) decision.

2. WHO versus WHOM

Who and whom are personal pronouns. Who functions as a subject; whom as an object.

a. Who are the five people that just walked into the room?
b. Whom did you invite to the party?
c. From whom did you receive this package?
d. She couldn’t remember who her favorite teacher was.
e. He is the doctor whom we adore
f. To whom should I send this letter?

Tip #1 : who never comes after a preposition, only whom. (ie. examples c and f)

Tip #2 : If you’re unsure whether to use who or whom in a sentence, test out the sentence
with he or him. If he works, use who; if him works, use whom.

Note: If the sentence is a question, first rephrase it as a declarative statement:

(Who/whom) did you meet? → You met (who/whom) → You met (he/him). Therefore,
“whom” is the correct pronoun.

3. WHICH, THAT, WHO, WHOM and WHOSE

These five words often function as relative pronouns. Relative pronouns connect a noun or
noun phrase to a modifying clause or phrase.

Which and that generally refer to things.

a. The coffee-table book that my uncle gave me is fantastic.

b. My bike, which I often used to lend to my younger sister, was stolen last week.

Important note: “which” – unlike “that” – is usually used to designate non-essential

information. This explain why “which” is preceded by a comma. (see lesson 2)

Who / Whom refer exclusively to people.

c. Paul, who never married, is coming over for dinner tonight with his new girlfriend.
d. The actors whom I interviewed all won Academy Awards.

Whose indicates personal possession. Careful not to confuse it with “who’s”, which is the
contraction for “who is”.

e. Carol, whose children are my age, is also coming to dinner.

69
EXERCISE 2: select the appropriate word.

1. This ice-cream sundae is for ( who / whom ) ?

2. ( Who / whom ) am I speaking with?

3. Now that we’ve defeated the one person ( which / who ) was actually good at this game, ( whose / who’s )
turn is it to go next?

4. I often buy spices ( that / which ) are imported from India.

5. Yesterday I photographed the soccer team ( that / who ) won second place in the tournament.

6. ( In which / Whose ) vase shall I put these flowers?

7. Sarah, ( who / who’s / whose ) marrying my cousin next week, is an Olympic gold medalist.

8. For the head librarian, ( who / whom / which ) the board assigns the task of verifying all purchases and
orders, deciding whether to order the new controversial novel won’t be an easy matter.

EXERCISE 3: select the appropriate answer choice.

1.

The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued
for a society based upon reason as in ancient Greece.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Jean-Jacques Rousseau, arguing

C) Jean-Jacques Rousseau, they argued

D) Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who will argue

70
2.

The majority of Madame de Sevigny’s letters, celebrated for it’s wit and vividness, were
addressed to her daughter.

A) NO CHANGE

B) celebrated for her wit and vividness

C) celebrated for their wit and vividness

D) celebrated for its wit and vividness

3.

The sorority chapter was shut down for unruly behavior, and several of their members were
promptly expelled.

A) NO CHANGE

B) his or her

C) its

D) one’s

4.

Uninterested in it’s vast collection of art, many tourists visit the Louvre Museum only to snap
a few photos of The Mona Lisa and then to post them to Instagram.

A) NO CHANGE

B) its

C) their

D) there

71
5.

Realizing that the measure lacked sufficient support in congress, senator Garcia contacted
Barbara Warden. Warden’s powerful contacts in the oil industry were sure to help sway a few
votes.

Which choice most effectively combines the sentences at the underlined portion?

A) Warden of whom

B) Warden, from who her

C) Warden, while Warden’s

D) Warden, whose

6.

Although one’s commercial failure was chiefly the result of a poorly executed advertising
campaign, the company nevertheless decided to reimagine the videogame’s entire user
interface and replace it with something much simpler – one that didn’t require such a steep
learning curve.

A) NO CHANGE

B) each one’s

C) it’s

D) its

7.

As an adolescent, the composer Richard Wagner was so mesmerized by Beethoven’s Ninth

Symphony to where he spent a sleepless week transcribing the entire work for piano.

A) NO CHANGE

B) so that

C) which

D) that

72
8.

Highly specialized and full of technical jargon, many of the philosophy papers that early 20 th
century Harvard professors wrote were only intended to be comprehended by a dozen or so
of our fellow colleagues.

A) NO CHANGE

B) one’s

C) his or her

D) their

9.

The botanist postulated that the elongated pedals of bellis perennis, along with its short,
creeping rhizomes, is chiefly what helps them flourish in a wide variety of soils and climates
throughout North America.

A) NO CHANGE

B) it

C) these

D) that

10.

Displeased by the orchestra’s lack of familiarity with his earlier works, Pierre Boulez decided
to have one’s more recent compositions performed exclusively by ensembles that specialize
in contemporary music.

A) NO CHANGE

B) his

C) his or her

D) their

73
11.

Many professional piano tuners are accomplished pianist themselves and are more than
happy to show off their skills to clients.

A) NO CHANGE

B) pianists themselves

C) pianist oneself

D) pianists him or herself

12.

The more excessive the people’s demands, the less likely those are to pass into law.

A) NO CHANGE

B) it is

C) one is

D) they are

13.

Although once written-off by academics as mere acts of vandalism, street art is now
considered a serious form of artistic expression and a medium capable of posing serious
questions to it’s viewership.

A) NO CHANGE

B) its

C) their

D) they’re

74
 Lesson 9: Logical Transitions

You’re likely to encounter 2-3 logical transition questions on any given SAT English section.
Logical transition questions test your ability to use conjunctions correctly – both in terms of
grammar and meaning.

I. GRAMMAR

In lessons 1-3, you learned about the three types of conjunctions with respect to
punctuation, so consider this a quick review:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
• There are exactly 7: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS)
• They are used to connect two independent clauses. Don’t forget the comma!
I like strawberries. Tom like bananas. → I like strawberries, and Tom likes bananas.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions
• There are hundreds of subordinating conjunctions (because, although, since, while, when,
etc.)
• They turn independent clauses into dependent clauses.
I went to the supermarket (ind. clause) → Because I went to the supermarket (dep. clause)
• A dependent clause can’t exist on its own. It needs to be attached to an independent clause
to form a complete sentence.
The fridge is full because I went to the supermarket. (When ind. clause comes first, no
comma)
Because I went to the supermarket, the fridge is full. (When dep. clause comes first, comma)

3. Adverbial Conjunctions
• There are hundreds of adverbial conjunctions (however, furthermore, instead, moreover,
etc.)
• They generally connect two independent clauses in one of two ways:
I like reading; however, I prefer going to the movies. (semicolon + adv. conj. + comma)
I like reading. However, I prefer going to the movies. (period + adv. conj. + comma)

Question #1: It’s easy to spot one of the seven coordinating conjunctions, but how can you
tell if a conjunction is subordinate or adverbial?

Here are two easy tricks:

Trick 1: Say the sentence out loud. If you feel the need to make a slight pause after the
conjunction, then it’s probably an adverbial conjunction.

Trick 2: With subordinating conjunctions, the meaning doesn’t change if you reverse the
order of the two clauses. Here’s an example:

75
 I like toast although my sister prefers rolls. (good)
Although my sister prefers rolls, I like toast. (good)

With adverbial conjunctions, you don’t have this flexibility:

I like toast; however, my sister prefers rolls. (good)

However, my sister prefers rolls; I like toast. (nonsensical)

Question #2: Is it necessary to know whether a conjunction is coordinating, subordinating,

or adverbial?

Yes! Each type of conjunction demands different punctuation. Knowing these rules
will often allow you to eliminate one or two answer choices on SAT questions.

EXERCISE 1: select the appropriate conjunction based on the punctuation provided.

1. I went to the movies, ( however / but / although ) my sister stayed home.

2. I went to the movies ( however / but / although ) my sister stayed home.

3. I went to the movies; ( however / but / although ), my sister stayed home.

4. A heatwave severely impacted Florida’s citrus crops; ( as a result / so / while ), the price of
oranges increased by nearly $2.50.

5. A heatwave severely impacted Florida’s citrus crops, ( as a result / so / while ) the price of
oranges increased by nearly $2.50.

6. A heatwave severely impacted Florida’s citrus crops ( as a result / so / while ) the price of oranges
increased by nearly $2.50.

7. Epistemology is the study of knowledge, ( and / whereas / however ) ontology is the study of the
nature of being.

8. Epistemology is the study of knowledge ( and / whereas / however ) ontology is the study of the
nature of being.

9. Epistemology is the study of knowledge; ( and / whereas / however ), ontology is the study of the
nature of being.

76
10. John is a professional musician, ( yet / however / despite the fact that ) he always seems to sing
out of tune.

11. John is a professional musician; ( yet / however / despite the fact that ), he always seems to sing
out of tune.

12. John is a professional musician ( yet / however / despite the fact that ) he always seems to sing
out of tune.

EXERCISE 2: add commas and/or semicolons where needed.

1. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders furthermore it attempted to establish a

lasting peace.

2. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders and attempted to establish a lasting peace.

3. Attempting to establish a lasting peace the Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders

4. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders while also establishing a lasting peace.

5. Although the Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders it failed to establish a lasting peace.

6. The Treaty of Versailles while redefining European borders failed to establish a lasting peace.

7. Despite failing to establish a lasting peace the Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders.

8. The Treaty of Versailles failed to establish a lasting peace although it did manage to redefine
European borders.

9. The Treaty of Versailles failed to establish a lasting peace nevertheless it managed to redefine
European borders.

10. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders however it failed to establish a lasting
peace.

77
11. However much it failed to establish a lasting peace the Treaty of Versailles did manage to
redefine European borders.

12. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders though it failed to establish a lasting peace.

13. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders yet failed to establish a lasting peace.

14. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders but it failed to establish a lasting peace.

15. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders moreover it attempted to establish a lasting
peace.

16. The Treaty of Versailles didn’t attempt to establish a lasting peace instead it merely redefined
European borders.

17. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders but did not establish a lasting peace.

18. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders yet it failed to establish a lasting peace.

19. The Treaty of Versailles redefined European borders as a result it managed to establish a lasting
peace.

20. The Treaty of Versailles neither redefined European borders nor established a lasting peace.

78
II. MEANING

Consider the following SAT question:

In the 1960’s, in certain scientific circles, the concept of a gigantic elevator-like structure was
considered a more economical way of sending man into space. However, unlike accident-prone,
hydrogen-fueled rockets, a “space elevator” was imagined to be a far safer option.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Therefore,

C) Instead,

D) Moreover,

In cases like this — where all four answer choices are grammatically correct — you have to
determine which answer choice makes the most logical sense.

This is where many students get into trouble.

Here’s a good piece of advice:

STEP 1) Ignore the answer choices.

STEP 2) Ask yourself what relationship the two sentences have to one another.

There are really only three general possibilities:

• The two sentences express similar or supplementary ideas.

Common connecting words/phrases : and, also, additionally, furthermore, likewise, indeed,
similarly, in the same way, moreover, what’s more, in conclusion…

• The two sentences express contrasting ideas.

Common connecting words/phrases: but, yet, even so, alternatively, conversely, however,
instead, while, otherwise, nevertheless, on the other hand, whereas, be that as it may…

• The two sentences have a cause-and-effect or sequential relationship.

Common connecting cause-and-effect words/phrases: as a result, resultingly, because,
therefore, thus, since, so, for these reasons…
Common connecting sequential relationship words/phrases: next, afterwards, subsequently,
previously, meanwhile…

STEP 3) Once you’ve determined the basic relationship between the two sentences, see
which of the four answer choices creates the best logical fit.

STEP 4) Double-check that the answer works grammatically.

79
 Helpful hint: A lot of conjunction words/phrases have very similar meanings (ie.
however, nevertheless, nonetheless, be that as it may). If you see two answer choices
that are synonymous and demand the same punctuation, then you can probably
eliminate them as options since there can never be more than one correct answer!

Now, try using this method with the sample question on the previous page.

EXERCISE 3: choose the appropriate word.

1. We need to check out of our hotel immediately; ( otherwise / indeed / then ), we’ll be charged for
an additional night.

2. I completely forgot to study for my French test; ( furthermore / however / instead ), I still
managed to ace it.

3. The Franks didn’t go away for the holidays. ( Moreover / But / Instead ), they chose to stay home.

4. Linda wants a new microwave oven for Christmas; ( therefore / meanwhile / but ), her three
children are hoping for toys.

5. Adam is a great skier and snowboarder; ( likewise / subsequently / however ), his younger sister
excels in winter sports.

6. Carolina won the 1-mile race with a time of 5:08; ( thus / by the same token / nevertheless, ) she’s
disappointed that she wasn’t able to break 5:00.

7. Three years ago, my mom’s cousin won the New York State lottery and received a $17 million cash
payout. ( Similarly / Ever since / Subsequently ), she quit her job and bought a mansion in
Westchester.

EXERCISE 4: choose the correct answer choice.

1.

Until now, the only organisms besides humans known to domesticate other animals have been
insects; moreover, ants farm aphids, protecting them from predators in exchange for their nutritious
excretions.

A) NO CHANGE

B) for example,

C) however,

D) furthermore,

80
2.

Some newspapers reported that most guests at the fundraising gala were not wearing masks;
however, event organizers adamantly claimed that strict mask-wearing protocols were successfully
enforced.

A) NO CHANGE

B) indeed,

C) therefore,

D) furthermore,

3.

The preliminary data suggests that automobile traffic is the main culprit; indeed, more experiments
are probably needed before these results can be published.

A) NO CHANGE

B) however,

C) but,

D) alternatively,

4.

Severe shortages of basic goods were reported in several cities, so experts suspected that
the country’s harvest yields had plummeted. Accordingly, there wasn’t yet enough empirical
data for the experts to confirm that assumption.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Similarly,

C) As a result,

D) However

81
5.

The campaign to reduce fossil fuels mobilized thousands of teenagers in Paris; and, it
increased general global awareness to this pressing issue.

A) NO CHANGE

B) while

C) nevertheless,

D) furthermore,

6.

As George Santayana once wrote: “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned
to repeat it.” By comparison, the study of history plays a crucial role in determining future
events.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Instead,

C) However,

D) Consequently,

7.

From 2007 to 2010, the company managed to cut down on frivolous expenditures and improve the
efficiency of its workforce. As a result, profit margins nearly doubled within this short time span.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Instead,

C) However,

D) On the other hand,

82
8.

The airline’s official policy was to not permit passengers to travel with pets weighing over 10
kilograms; indeed, Marlin often managed to bring his six-year-old Golden Retriever on board.

A) NO CHANGE

B) otherwise,

C) nevertheless,

D) subsequently,

9.

The mouse figured out how to escape from the labyrinth in less than 5 minutes; then in accordance
with the researchers’ predictions, the mouse proceeded directly into the feeding chamber to receive
a food pellet.

A) NO CHANGE

B) 5 minutes; then, in accordance with the researchers’ predictions

C) 5 minutes, then in accordance with the researchers predictions,

D) 5 minutes; then, in accordance with the researchers’ predictions,

10.

Within the first twenty-four hours of its release, the song was downloaded over 240,000 times. By
then, the song received substantial radio play throughout the country, which, after a week, helped
push the song’s rate of daily downloads to nearly half a million.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Moreover,

C) Still,

D) However,

83
11.

The conductor mounted the podium, bowed, and turned to face the orchestra. Indeed, the audience
sat in rapt attention, waiting for the symphony’s famous opening notes to sound.

A) NO CHANGE

B) However,

C) Moreover,

D) DELETE the underlined portion, adjusting the capitalization as needed.

12.

Greg Magee, an evolutionary biologist at Stanford University, remains reluctant to embrace Ivan Yi’s
theory that Neanderthals living in northern Europe some four-hundred thousand years ago
hibernated during the cold winter months. By the same token, Professor Magee admits that the idea
is quite fascinating and should be further tested by means of DNA analysis.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Consequently,

C) In effect,

D) Nevertheless

13.

The distinction between literary fiction and genre fiction is not always clear-cut. Afterwards, major
writers of literary fiction, like David Mitchell and C.S. Lewis, have also published fantasy and science
fiction.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Sometimes

C) However,

D) For example,

84
14.

Shortly before the outbreak of war, many children were evacuated to the English countryside in
anticipation of attacks on London and other major urban areas by Nazi Germany. However, three
young girls came to live at The Kilns in Risinghurst, far removed from Oxford’s city center.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Additionally,

C) Nevertheless,

D) As a result,

15.

Both dictionaries and encyclopedias are generally researched and written by educated, well-
informed experts; moreover, they tend to differ significantly in structure.

A) NO CHANGE

B) experts; however,

C) experts, and

D) experts; consequently,

16.

Occasionally, eruptions from Mount Vesuvius have blanketed the whole of southern Europe in ash;
as a result, in 472 and 1631, Vesuvian ash fell on Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), over 1,200
kilometers away.

A) NO CHANGE

B) DELETE the underlined text

C) moreover,

D) however,

85
17.

Thomas Bernhard was reviled by many Austrians for his outspoken and harsh views of his homeland.
Furthermore, he was also highly acclaimed in Austria, winning a number of major awards, and was
seen by many as the pre-eminent writer of the time.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Moreover

C) Consequently

D) Nevertheless,

18.

George Lucas immediately fell behind schedule on the first day of shooting Star Wars due to
malfunctioning props and electronic breakdowns. However, a rare Tunisian rainstorm struck the
country, which further disrupted filming.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Moreover,

C) Previously,

D) Consequently,

19.

IBM has risen to the challenge of creating the world’s first handheld quantum device. It weighs
nearly 9 pounds, costs $14 million, and demands a team of two dozen technicians to execute even
the simplest of tasks. Indeed, in due time, there is reason to believe that it will one day become an
affordable household product.

A) NO CHANGE

B) Although

C) However,

D) Consequently,

86
20.

Although the study had convincingly shown that daily exercise for a duration of twenty minutes
provides numerous health benefits – loss of weight, increased muscle tone, improved mood – but
the advising committee wanted to also study the effects of daily exercise for shorter time durations
before publishing the results.

A) NO CHANGE

B) as well as

C) however,

D) DELETE the underlined portion

21.

Overuse of antibiotics in agriculture is thought to be a major driver of the rise in humans of

bacterial infections that cannot be treated with antibiotics. Many governments have
struggled to make or enforce rules to decrease antibiotic usage in livestock. ________
although a number of countries, including the United States and much of Europe, ban the
use of antibiotics that promote growth, manufacturers can just say they are marketing the
drugs to prevent disease.

A) For instance,

B) In general,

C) Therefore,

D) However,

87