Fold

Folds are wavelike deformation patterns in rock layers or other geological

materials that result from the application of stress over a period of time. This
process causes the originally flat or layered rocks to bend and deform, creating
folds that can take on various shapes and sizes. Folds are a commonfeature in
many geological settings and are important in understanding the deformation
history of rocks and the tectonic processes that have shaped the Earth's crust
geometric features of folds:

> Fold Axis: The fold axis is a line drawn along the crest of the fold, which
representsthe maximum curvature of the fold. The orientation of the fold axis
can vary from horizontal to vertical, and can be inclined at different angles
depending on the type of fold.
Axial Plane: The axialplane is a hypothetical plane that divides the fold into two
angle
limbs. The axial plane is perpendicular to the fold axis and bisects the
can vary from horizontal to
between the limbs. The orientation of the axial plane
on the type of fold.
vertical, and can be inclined at different angles depending
are separated by the axial
Limbs: The limbs are the two sides of the fold that
The limbs can have different shapes and orientations depending on the
plane.
away from the axis in an anticline and
typeof fold. In general, the limbs dip
towards the axis in a syncline.
fold axis and the
Fold Plunge: The plunge of a fold is the angle between the
such as horizontal,
horizontalplane. A fold can have different types of plunge,
vertical,or plunging at a specific angle.
information about the type and
The geometry of folds can provide important
For example, the orientation
intensity of deformation that rocks have undergone.
magnitúde of tectonic forces
and shape of folds can indicate the direction and
that have acted on the rocks.
Classification of Folds
Anticlines

Anticlines are definedas those folds in which the strata are uparch ed, that is, these
become CONVEX UPWARDS

tne geologically older rocks occupy a position in the interior of the fold, oldest being
positioned at the core of the fold and the voungest forming the outermost TlankK,
the limbs dip away from each other at the crest in the simplest cases.
Synclines

the strata are down arched, that is. these become CONVEX DOWNWARDS
the geologically younger rocks occupy a position in the core of the fold and the
older rocksform the outer flanks,provided the normal order of superposition is not
disturbed, in the simplest cases in synclines, the limbs dip towards a common
center.
Position of Axial Plane

Depending upon the nature and direction of the stresses the axial plane in a
resulting fold may acquire any position in space, that is, it may be vertical, inclined
or even horizontal. Following main types are recognized on the basis of position of
the axial plane in the resulting fold:

Symmetrical Folds
These are also called normal or upright folds. In such a fold, the axial plane is

essentially vertical.
The limbs are equal in length and dip equally in opposite directions.
when classified, may be described as
it may be an anticline or syncline and
symmetricalanticline/syncline as the case may be.
Asymmetrical Folds
in length and
limbs are unequ
al
All those folds, anticlines or synclines,
in which the
binge line are termed as asymmetrical
on side from the
these dip unequally ether
folds.

Overturned folds
which both the limbs are dipping
inclined axial planes in
These are folds with
essentially in the same general direction.
two limbs may or may not be the same.
The amount of dip of the
very severe degree of folding.
Over folding indicates
comes to occupy the present position
reversed limb)
One of the two limbs (the more than 90 degrees.The other limb is
suffered a rotation through
after having
known as the normal limb.
of very high
may get overturned because
limbs ofafold
In certain cases, both the
lateral compression.
an anticline or a syncline but the
extreme compression
It may be originally either so close to each other that the
in bringing the limbs
from opposite sides results limbs dip towards each other and
may get reversed -anticlinal
usual dipconditions
other.
thesynclinal limbs dip away from each
commonly referred to as
a fan fold
Such a type of fold is

anticlinal tops are said to have opened up into a broad, fan

In such folds, the
lower region.
shaped outline due to intense compression the
in

Isoclinal Folds
are group of folds in which all the axial planes are essentially parallel,
These
meaning. that all the component limbs
are dipping at equal amounts.

They may be made up of series of anticlines and

synclines
 Recumbent Folds
These may be described as extreme types of overturned folds in which the axial
plane acquires an almost horizontal attitude.

Insuch folds, one limb comes to lie exactly under the other limb so that a drillhole
dug at the surface in the upper limb passes through the lower limb also.

The lower limb is often called the inverted limb or the reversed limb.

Symmetrical Folds Asymmetric al Folds

Isoclinal Folds Overturned Folds

Recumbant Folds Chevron Folds

Axlal surlace
Hnge line

Axial
surface
Limb

SyhclIn Anticline Syncline

Anticllne
Importance of folds

Derormation History: Folds are evidence of past

tectonic activity and deformation,
which can provide important insights into
the geological history of a region. Ine
Shapes and orientations of folds can be used to reconstruct
the deformation history
of rocks and to infer the type and direction of stresses
that were applied.
Mineral Deposits: Folds can also be associated with the formation of mineral
deposits, such as gold, silver, and copper. Mineral deposits can occur in folds due
to changes in the physical and chemical conditions caused by folding.

Hydrocarbons: Folds can also be associated with the accumulation of

hydrocarbons, such as oil and gas. Hydrocarbons can accumulate in the crests of
folds where the rocks are compressed and where there isa reduction in pore space
and permeability.

Engineering Applications: Understanding folds is important in engineering and

construction projects. Foldedrocks may have different strengths and properties in
different directions, which can affect the stability and strength of structures built
on or in them.

Overall, the study of folds is important in understanding the geological history ofa
region, identifying potential mineral and hydrocarbon deposits, and ensuring the
stability and safety of engineering projects.

Fault

Fault is a fracture or crack where two rock blocks slide past one to another. If this
movement may occur rapidly, itcan be causes earthquake or slowly, in the form of
creep. Deformation is the change in the shape,size or position of the bed due to
the applied forces. Fault is brittle type of deformation. Due to the effect of
differential stresses we can observe verity of deformation structures. Faults are
rupture along the opposite walls have move past each other. The essential feature
 1S
differential movement parallel to the surface fracture. Caused by the brittle
detormation. Depending upon the nature and magnitude of stresses and the types
OT
the rocks, the rock bodies may get fractured into diferent parts, and relative
displacement of blocks may occur for different distances. These are varying roma
Tew centimeters to many meters and this displacement may occur any
in direction
Types of faults include strike-slip faults, normal faults,
reverse faults, thrust faults, and oblique-slip
faults. It can be small and large
Complex interconnection fault systems and can
replace one type of fault in one
location with another type in another. Many faults are
associated with folds. Faults
are separated, bifurcated, converge, or move away
from distances, sometimes
creating complex fracture systems.
The relative motion of faults (one side to the
other) is described in terms of
relationship of a hanging walland foot wall.
A foot wall is a block under a
fault with a sloping fault plane.
A
hanging wall is a block (rocks) at the top of a sloping fault plane.

The fault plane is where the action is.

It is simplydescribed here- if a fault plane is exposed well enough to see that it is

inclined, the side on which you can stand is called the foot wall. The side where you
can hang your feet without touching the floor is the hanging wall.

There are three types of dip-slip faults: normal, reverse, and thrust.
The character of the movement (offset) along the fracture plane determines what
kind of dip-slip fault it is.

A normal fault appears to be that the suspended wallmoves downward relative

to the foot wall. The dip angle of the sliding surface is between 45 and 90
degrees. Many normal faults in mountainous regions are caused by gravity along
tne edges of the mountains and may be associated with elevation of the head
wall of the slums.

Areverse fault, which the hangine wall moves upward relative to the foot wall.

A tnruSt tault is an dip angle of 459 or less to the extent that the suspended wall
or
dppears to move upward relative to the foot wall. Horizontal compression
rotation shift is responsible for displacement.

A strike-slipfault is a generally vertical fault where the two sides pass horizontally
past each other. If the block opposite an observer facing the fault moves to the
right, the shift style is called "right lateral.. If the block moves to the left, the
movement is called "left lateral.. The San Andreas Fault in California is the mo
famous example of a right lateral impact-slip fault. It produces a variety of floor
shapes including pulse shifts, louver ridges, detachable basins, overhanging pools
and deflected streams.

Oblique slip faults show important components of both horizontal (impact-slip)

and vertical (slip-shift) motion. The oblique slip error combines the impact-slip
motion with significant normal, reverse or push slip.
 À
nomal fault

hanging wall block strike strike-slip fauting A teverse fault

hanging wall block

strike

A strikeslip fault
dip

An oblique fault
nomal fautting dip
dip
footwall block
reverse faulting
footwall block

Fault significance

They significantly improve ground water potential.

This because fractures
not only provide space for strong ground water
but also helps in the
movement of such water
Fault zone are richly mineralized zone. This because
they are highly favorable
place for occurrence of variety of ore minerals formed by
different processes

Dike
A
dike is a sheet of rock that formed in a crack in a
pre-existing rock body. However.
when the crack is between the layers in a layered rock, it is called a sill, not a dike.
It is a type of tabular or sheet intrusion, that either cuts across layers in a planar
wallrock structures, or into a layer or unaltered mass of rock.

Dikes can be either magmatic or sedimentary in origin. magmaticdike is formed A

asa sheet or tubular intrusion.

when magma (lava) flows into a crack and solidifies
 t tnrough layers of rocks or the contagious rock mass. Clastic or
Sedimentary dikes form when sedimentfills a pre-existing
crack in the rock.
Anintrusive dike is an igneous body with a verv high aspect ratio, whiCh e
medls
nness is usually much smaller than the other two dimensions. Thickness can
valy irom sub-centimetre scale to many metres, and the lateral dimensions can
extend over many kilometres.

Cuts Stratification

Bedte DYKE

Dike Vs. Sill

Dike and sills describe the same thing; intrusions or mass of rock that has forcibly
entered, penetrated, and embedded into another rock or landform. However,
there are some differences as well. Dikes and sills are often associated with
volcanoes but are not exclusive to that particular landform.

A dike is a sheet of rock that formed in a fracture in a pre-existing rock body. Dikes
can be either magmatic or sedimentary in origin. Magmatic dikes form when
magma intrudes intoa crack then crystallizes as a sheet intrusion, either cutting
across layers of rockor through an unlayered mass of rock. Clastic dikes are formed
a
when sediment fills pre-existing crack.

Magmatic Dikes

An intrusive dike is an igneous body with a very high aspect means that
ratio, which
its thickness is usually much smaller than the other two dimensions.
Thickness can
 Vary from sub-centimeter scale to many meters, and the lateral dimensions can
extend over many kilometres. A dike is an intrusion into an opening croSs-Cutting
asure, shouldering aside other pre-existing lavers or bodies of rock; this implies
that a dike is alwavs vounger than the rocke that contain it. Dikes are usually hign
se to near-vertical in orientation, but subsequent tectonic deformation may
rotate the sequence of strata throuch which the dike propagates so that the dike
Decomes horizontal, Near-horizontal. or conformable intrusions, along
bedding
planes between strata are called
intrusive sills.

Sometimes dikes appear in swarms, consisting of several to hundreds of dikes

emplaced more or less contemporaneously during a single intrusive event. Ihe
world's largest dike Swarm is the Mackenzie dike swarm in the Northwest
Territories, Canada.
Dikes often form as either radial or concentric swarms around plutonic intrusives,
volcanic necks or feeder vents in volcanic cones. The latter are known as ring dikes.

Dikes can vary in texture and their composition can range from diabase or basaltic
to granitic or rhyolitic, but on a global perspective the basaltic composition prevails,
manifesting ascent of vast volumes of mantle-derived magmas through fractured
lithosphere throughout Earth history. Pegmatite dikes comprise extremely coarse
crystalline granitic rocks-often associated with late-stage granite intrusions or
metamorphic segregations. Aplite dikes are fine-grained or sugary-textured
intrusives of granitic composition.

Sedimentary Dikes
in the Island In the Sky District of Canyonlands
Clastic dike in the Chinle Formation
Taken May9. 2002. Scale bar on notebook is 10
NationalPark, Utah.
Sedimentary dikes or clastic dikes are vertical bodies of sedimentary rock that cut
off other rock layers. They can form in two ways:

coarse
wiien d snalloW unconsolidated sediment is composed of alternating
8ralned and impermeable clav lavers the fluid pressure inside the coarser layers
may reach a criticalvalue due to lithostaticoverburden. Driven by the fluid pressure
the sediment breaks through overlying layers and forms a dike.
When under permafrost conditions the pore water is totally frozen. When
a soil is

Cracks are formed in such rocks. they

may fill up with sediments that fall in Trom

above. The result is a vertical body of sediment that cuts through

horizontal layers:
a dike

Importance
a river, lake, or even
A dike is a barrier used to regulate or hold back water from
the ocean.
Prevent flooding

JOINTS

Joints are cracks or fracture that divide the rocks into parts or blocks and there is
no relative displacement. It occurs in all types of rocks. They are like cleavage in
minerals. Joints occur in all types of rocks. They may be vertical, inclines or even
horizontal. Their dip and strike are measured in the same way as that of
sedimentary strata.

Joints are formed as a result of contraction due to cooling or consolidation of rocks.

They are also formed when the rocks are subjected to compression or tension
during earth movements.
 Classification of
Joints:
IA) On
the basis of the origin ioints mav be classified into tWO groups.

1. Tension joints:

Tension joints are those, which are formed as a result of tension forces. These joints
are relatively open and have rough and irregular
surfaces.
Ine columnar joints in lava flows and longitudinal joints in the anticline that run
parallel to the axis of the fold are the examples of
tension joints.
Anticline showing Strike Joints formed
due to Tension
2. Shear joints:

Shear joints are those, which are due to shearing stresses involved in folding and
faulting of rocks.

These joints are rather clear-cut and tightly closed. Shear joints occur
in two sets
and intersect at a high angle to form a "conjugate joint system"'.
(B) On
the basis of
their altitude and geometrythey may be classified as
follows:
1. Strike Joints:

Joints that are paralel to the strike of rocks are called 'Strike Joints'.
2. Dip Joints:

Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks are called 'Dip Joints.
3. Oblique Joints:

Joints, which run in a direction that lies between the strike and dip direction of the
rock beds, are called 'Oblique Joints'.

4. Bedding Joints:

Joints that are parallel to the bedding planes in a sedimentary rock are called
'Bedding Joints'.
 5. Master Joints:
Insedimentary rocks the joints
usually run in two directions
One set of joints run parallel at nearly right angles.
to the dip direction and
these one set of joints commonly more the other parallel to strike of
strongly developed than the
extends for long distances.Such well-developed other and
joints are called 'Master Joints.
6. Mural Joints:

Granites show three sets of ioints mutuallv at right angles,

which divide the rockS
mass into more or less cubical blocks. Such ioints are called
'Mural Joints'.
7.Sheet Joints:

Sheet Joints are often seen in the exposures of granites. These jointS run in the
horizontal direction and are formed tension cracks during cooling of the rock. These
joints are somewhat curve andessentially parallel to topographic surface. They are
more conspicuous and closer together near the ground surface.
8. Columnar Joints:
masses such as dykes, sills and lava
Columnar Joints are formed in tabular igneous
as shown in Fig. 4.24,
flows. These joints divide the rock into hexagonal columns
are arranged at right angles to the chief cooling surface. In lavas and sills the
which
are more or less horizontal.
columns are vertical, while in dykes they

alany

Importance
 resources, safe design of structures, and in environmental
developing natural in the
a profound control on weathering and erosion of bedrock.
protection. Joints have