machines

Article
Study on the Control Algorithm of Automatic Emergency
Braking System (AEBS) for Commercial Vehicle Based on
Identification of Driving Condition
Jianhua Guo 1 , Yinhang Wang 1,2 , Xingji Yin 3 , Peng Liu 1,† , Zhuoran Hou 1 and Di Zhao 4, *

1 College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130025, China

2 Research Institute, Jilin University, Yibin 644000, China
3 China Society of Automotive Engineers, Beijing 100176, China
4 Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering (Ministry of Education), Jilin University, Changchun 130025, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† Current address: FAW Jiefang Automobile Co., Ltd., Changchun 130013, China.

Abstract: Automatic emergency braking systems (AEBS) significantly improve the active safety
performance of commercial vehicles, but their effectiveness is affected by the vehicle’s driving
conditions, which mainly include the vehicle load and road conditions. In order to improve the
adaptability of the AEBS, an AEBS control strategy with adaptive driving conditions was proposed
and validated using a simulation and experimentation. This AEBS control strategy was designed
based on an estimation of the vehicle mass, the center of gravity position, road grade, and the
tire-road friction coefficient. In the simulation and experimental verification, the braking deceleration
and braking distance under different driving conditions were compared. The results show that the
Citation: Guo, J.; Wang, Y.; Yin, X.;
AEBS control strategy proposed in this paper can avoid collisions in all test scenarios and maintain a
Liu, P.; Hou, Z.; Zhao, D. Study on
parking spacing of approximately 5 m. In an extreme test scenario with a full load and low tire–road
the Control Algorithm of Automatic
friction, as compared with the fixed threshold control strategy, the warning can be issued 0.2 s earlier
Emergency Braking System (AEBS)
and the maximum intensity braking can be carried out 0.5 s earlier.
for Commercial Vehicle Based on
Identification of Driving Condition.
Machines 2022, 10, 895. https://
Keywords: AEBS; mass estimation; road grade; tire-road friction coefficient; least square method;
doi.org/10.3390/machines10100895 longitudinal dynamics

Academic Editors: Xianjian Jin,

Chongfeng Wei, Chao Huang,
Chuan Hu, Guodong Yin and
1. Introduction
Mohammed Chadli
Vehicle braking has long been a hot issue in the field of dynamics. Various scholars are
Received: 24 August 2022 concerned about energy consumption during vehicle braking and have conducted in-depth
Accepted: 29 September 2022 research on braking energy recovery [1,2]. There are also researchers who focus on the
Published: 4 October 2022
safety aspects of vehicle braking. With the increase in vehicle rear-end accidents in recent
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral years [3], automatic emergency braking systems for vehicle safety are becoming increasingly
with regard to jurisdictional claims in important. The AEBS can prevent rear-end collisions or mitigate collision injuries by
published maps and institutional affil- providing early warnings and braking automatically when necessary [4]. Unlike passenger
iations. cars, commercial vehicles have to work in complex and variable driving conditions, with
large mass variations and a high center of gravity [5]. Therefore, when developing an
automatic emergency braking system for commercial vehicles, it is necessary to identify the
driving conditions of the vehicle in order to improve the robustness of the control strategy.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
The AEBS can be generally divided into a sensing layer, a decision layer, and an
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
actuation layer [6]. The parameters acquired by the sensing layer can be divided into three
This article is an open access article
categories: the relative motion parameters of the target vehicle and the host vehicle, the load
distributed under the terms and
parameters of the host vehicle, and the road parameters. The relative motion parameters
conditions of the Creative Commons
include relative speed, relative distance, and relative acceleration, which can be obtained
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
directly by radar or camera sensors [7]. The load parameters of the host vehicle mainly
4.0/).
refer to the mass and center of gravity position. The load parameter estimation method

Machines 2022, 10, 895. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10100895 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2022, 10, 895 2 of 22

based on vehicle sensors requires the additional installation of corresponding sensors [8],
which increases the vehicle upgrade cost and the complexity of the system [9]. In addition,
there are road bumps, suspension deformation, and other factors in the process of vehicle
driving, and the accuracy of parameter acquisition is poor. The load parameter estimation
method based on the vehicle dynamics model does not require additional hardware for
calculations and is therefore more widely used [10].
The road parameters include the road grade and the tire-road friction coefficient. These
two types of parameters cannot be directly obtained by the cost limitation of the sensors, so
they need to be estimated [6]. The instantaneity and accuracy of the parameters acquired
by the sensing layer are crucial to the control decision [11].
The estimation methods of the tire–road friction coefficient are divided into cause-
based and effect-based estimation methods [12], in which cause-based estimation methods
require the direct measurement of the tire-road friction coefficient with sensors or indirect
calculations by measuring the effect of friction [13,14]. Cause-based estimation methods
are predictive in estimating the road surface, but the sensors are sensitive to environmental
changes and are less robust. Effect-based estimation methods estimate the tire-road friction
coefficient by analyzing the response of the vehicle as a result of pavement changes. This
type of method does not generally require additional sensors and does not require an ideal
working environment [15–17].
The use of known vehicle dynamics and kinematic information to determine the
current driving conditions of the vehicle without increasing the complexity of the system
plays a key role in improving control effectiveness.
The decision layer of the AEBS for commercial vehicles makes early warning and
braking decisions based on various types of information obtained from the sensing layer
and sends a brake request to the actuation layer [18]. If the AEBS acts too early, it affects the
normal operation of the driver and makes the driver distrust the AEBS, while intervening
too late may lead to safety problems [19]; therefore, the rationality of the AEBS decision
directly affects the driving experience and the synergistic control effect of safety during
braking. The AEBS control strategy can generally determine whether the system needs to
perform early warning or emergency braking based on a distance scale or time scale [20,21].
The relative distance-based discrimination method uses the relative distance as an indicator
to measure the level of danger, and compares this with the threshold value to guide the
AEBS for collision avoidance operations, e.g., warning and emergency braking [22,23].
This method is simple to implement, but the preset threshold is mainly determined by
parameters such as the speed of the host vehicle, the relative speed of the target vehicle, and
the maximum braking deceleration of the host vehicle [24]. However, real-world driving
scenarios are more complex and variable, so other parameters that have an impact on the
braking distance need to be introduced into the control strategy. Another discrimination
method using the time scale is the time to collision (TTC), which is an indicator of the
hazard status [18]. In the driving process, the driver has a more intuitive feeling of the
remaining collision occurrence time [25,26], but the preset TTC value does not have scenario
adaptability. Therefore, an AEBS control strategy that is based on the actual driving
condition of the vehicle and that combines the safe distance and TTC is the key to ensuring
both a good driving experience and braking safety.
Compared to the current work, this paper proposes an AEBS control strategy that
adjusts the decision parameters in real time according to the actual driving conditions of
the vehicle. The traditional AEBS sensing layer function was optimized by considering
vehicle mass and road conditions, and the vehicle driving information is fully utilized
without changing the system architecture. The estimation module of the load state and
road conditions was added and the dynamics constraints of the actual driving condition
of the vehicle were constructed. These parameters and constraints can be applied to
the real-time adjustment of the control parameters. An AEBS control strategy with a
driving condition adaptation is proposed, which can formulate real-time solutions for
AEBS strategy control parameters under longitudinal dynamics constraints in different
 Machines 2022, 10, 895 3 of 24

Machines 2022, 10, 895 3 of 22

of the vehicle were constructed. These parameters and constraints can be applied to the
real-time adjustment of the control parameters. An AEBS control strategy with a driving
condition adaptation is proposed, which can formulate real-time solutions for AEBS strat-
driving conditions, ensuring the adaptability and control robustness of the AEBS. Finally,
egy control parameters under longitudinal dynamics constraints in different driving con-
the developed algorithm was validated in field tests for various driving conditions. The
ditions, ensuring the adaptability and control robustness of the AEBS. Finally, the devel-
results show that
oped algorithm was the AEBS control
validated in field strategy proposed
tests for various in this
driving paper can
conditions. avoid
The collisions in
results
all test scenarios and maintain a parking spacing of approximately 5 m. In
show that the AEBS control strategy proposed in this paper can avoid collisions in all test the extreme test
scenario with a full load and low tire–road friction, as compared with
scenarios and maintain a parking spacing of approximately 5 m. In the extreme test sce-the fixed threshold
control strategy,
nario with the warning
a full load and low can be issued
tire–road 0.2as
friction, s earlier
comparedandwith
the maximum intensity braking
the fixed threshold
control strategy, the warning
can be carried out 0.5 s earlier.can be issued 0.2 s earlier and the maximum intensity brak-
ing can be carried out 0.5 s earlier.
2. AEBS Control Strategy with Driving Condition Identification
2. AEBS
2.1. Control
Control Strategy
Strategy with Driving
Framework ConditionSettings
and Simulation Identification
2.1. Control Strategy Framework and Simulation Settings
In this paper, a control strategy based on the vehicle driving conditions is proposed.
In this framework
The AEBS paper, a control strategyin
is shown based on the
Figure vehicle
1. The driving
control conditions
strategy is proposed.
is divided into a sensing
The AEBS framework is shown in Figure 1. The control strategy is divided into a sensing
layer and a decision layer. The function of the sensing layer is to obtain driving information
layer and a decision layer. The function of the sensing layer is to obtain driving infor-
in relation to the target vehicle and estimate the driving condition of the host vehicle. The
mation in relation to the target vehicle and estimate the driving condition of the host ve-
function
hicle. The of the decision
function layer includes
of the decision braking
layer includes deceleration
braking decelerationdecisions andbrak-
decisions and braking force
distribution.
ing force distribution. The control strategy outputs the desired braking force of each axisaxis to the
The control strategy outputs the desired braking force of each
vehicle model
to the vehicle and completes
model and completesthethe
closed-loop
closed-loopcontrol.
control.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Control
Controlframework of the
framework AEBS.
of the AEBS.

validatethe
To validate the proposed
proposed estimation
estimation method,
method, a simulation
a simulation platformplatform was constructed
was constructed
using Matlab
using MatlabSimulink
Simulink(MathWorks,
(MathWorks, United
United States of America)
States and TruckSim(Mechan-
of America) and TruckSim(Mechanical
ical Simulation
Simulation Corporation,
Corporation, United
United StatesofofAmerica).
States America).Matlab
Matlab Simulink
Simulink was
was used
usedtoto build the
build the estimation method for the vehicle load state and road conditions.
estimation method for the vehicle load state and road conditions. The vehicle dynamics The vehicle
dynamics model in TruckSim is used to accurately calculate the vehicle motion state and
model in TruckSim is used to accurately calculate the vehicle motion state and parameters
parameters such as the vehicle load, road grade, and the tire-road friction coefficient.
such as the vehicle load, road grade, and the tire-road friction coefficient. Moreover, the
Moreover, the relative motion state of the target vehicle and host vehicle are set in
relative
TruckSim, motion
and thestate of the
relative target
motion vehicle is
information and host vehicle
transferred to the are set strategy.
control in TruckSim,
The and the
relative motion information is transferred to the control strategy.
architecture of the proposed co-simulation platform is shown in Figure 2. The architecture of the
proposed co-simulation platform is shown in Figure 2.
Machines 2022, 10, 895 4 of 24
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Machines 2022,10,
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24

Figure 2. AEBS simulation platform architecture.

Figure2.2.AEBS
Figure AEBSsimulation
simulationplatform
platformarchitecture.
architecture.
The vehicle in this paper is a two-axle van, and the vehicle parameters are shown in
The vehicle in this paper is a two-axle van, and the vehicle parameters are shown in
Table The
1. vehicle in this paper is a two-axle van, and the vehicle parameters are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1.
Table 1.
Table 1. Vehicle
Vehicleparameters.
parameters.
Table 1. Vehicle parameters.
Items Items Values Values Items Items ValuesValues
Mass of vehicleItemsfully loaded (kg)
Mass of vehicle fully
Values
17,000 Items
Tire type Values
275/80R22.5
Massloaded
of vehicle
Vehicle fully
weight loaded
(kg) 17,000
(kg) 17,000
6300 Tire typeTire
Vehicle type
length (mm) 275/80R22.5
275/80R22.5
9000
(kg)
Vehicle
Vehicle weight weight
Wheelbase (kg)(mm) (kg) 6300 6300 VehicleVehicle
5300 Vehicle
length length(mm)
width
(mm) (mm) 90002550 9000
Wheelbase (mm)
Wheelbase
Axle track(mm) (mm) 5300 1943/1860
5300 VehicleVehicle
width
Vehicle (mm)
width(mm)
height (mm) 25503500 2550
Axle track(mm) 1943/1860 Vehicle height (mm) 3500
Axle track(mm) 1943/1860 Vehicle height (mm) 3500
2.2. Sensing Layer
2.2.
2.2.Sensing
Sensing Layer
Layer
The inputs to the sensing layer are divided into two categories. One is the relative
drivingThe inputs
inputsto
information
The tothe
from
the sensing layer
the radar,
sensing are
aredivided
layerincluding into
intotwo
relative
divided twocategories.
velocity, relativeOne
categories. isisthe
distance,
One relative
theand rel-
relative
driving
ative
driving information
acceleration,
information from
which
fromcan the
thebe radar, including
directly
radar, relative
transferred
including relative velocity,
to velocity,
the decision relative
layer.
relative distance,
The second
distance, andandis
rel-
relative
the acceleration,
vehicle’s
ative drivingwhich
acceleration, which can
information,
can bebedirectly
directly
such transferred
astransferred
vehicle totothe
speed, thedecision
decisionlayer.
transmission layer.
ratio,TheThe second
andsecond
engineis
isthe
thevehicle’s
torque, vehicle’s isdriving
which driving used to information, such
estimate thesuch
information, as vehicle
vehicle
as vehicle speed,
load state,
speed,the transmission ratio,
ratio, and
mass center location,
transmission engine
the
and road
engine
torque,
torque, which is used to estimate the vehicle load state, the mass center location, theroad
grade, which
and the is used
tire-road to estimate
friction the vehicle
coefficient. load state, the mass center location, the road
grade,
grade,and
andthethetire-road
tire-roadfriction
frictioncoefficient.
coefficient.
2.2.1. Vehicle Load State and Road Grade Estimation
2.2.1. Vehicle Load State and Road Grade Estimation
2.2.1. Vehicle
Since Load State
the vehicle and is
system Road Gradeeach
complex, Estimation
component affects each other, resulting in
Since the vehicle system is complex, each component affects each other, resulting in
a significant
Since the coupling
vehicle phenomenon between
system is complex, eachthe vehicle system’s
component stateother,
affects each parameters. The
resulting in
a significant coupling phenomenon between the vehicle system’s state parameters. The
vehicle mass and
a significant road grade
coupling are a set between
phenomenon of mutually the coupled quantities,
vehicle system’s so these
state two quan-
parameters. The
vehicle mass and road grade are a set of mutually coupled quantities, so these two quantities
tities
vehiclearemass
estimated successively.
and road grade are aThe schematic
set of mutuallydiagram
coupledof the vehicle
quantities, load two
so these statequan-
and
are estimated successively. The schematic diagram of the vehicle load state and grade
grade estimation
tities are estimated method is shown
successively. in
The Figure 3. First, we need to determine whether
state the
estimation method is shown in Figure 3. schematic
First, we needdiagram of the vehicle
to determine whetherload
the vehicleand
is
vehicle
grade is in the
estimation starting
methodstate,
is and
shown when
in the
Figure vehicle
3. is
First, in
we the starting
need to state,
determinewe
in the starting state, and when the vehicle is in the starting state, we perform an estimation perform
whether an
the
estimation
vehicle
of the mass of
is in theuse
the
and mass
theand
starting use and
state, the result
estimation estimation
when in thetheresult
vehicle in thethe
is in
estimation estimation
of starting
the of thewe
roadstate,
slope. road slope. an
perform
estimation of the mass and use the estimation result in the estimation of the road slope.

Figure 3.
Figure Vehicle load
3. Vehicle load state
state and
and road
road grade
grade estimation
estimation schematic.
schematic.
Figure 3. Vehicle load state and road grade estimation
The vehicle mass only generally changes in the schematic.
starting condition, and can be treated
The vehicle
as a constant massdriving,
during only generally changesmass
so the vehicle in thecan
starting condition,
be estimated and can
based be treated
on the engine
as a constant
The during
vehicle driving,
mass only so the
generallyvehicle
changesmass
in can
the be estimated
starting based
condition, andon the
can be engine
output torque and wheel speed. The vehicle ESC (electronic stability control) system treated
is
as a constant during driving, so the vehicle mass can be estimated based on the engine
Machines 2022, 10, 895 5 of 24

Machines 2022, 10, 895 5 of 22

output torque and wheel speed. The vehicle ESC (electronic stability control) system is
equipped with an acceleration sensor, which can be used to measure the static inclination
equipped with an acceleration sensor, which can be used to measure the static inclination
of the vehicle.
of the vehicle.
The flow of the vehicle start state discernment is shown in Figure 4. When the engine
The flow of the vehicle start state discernment is shown in Figure 4. When the engine
is in the idle scenario, the transmission is in neutral position, and the vehicle velocity is 0
is in the idle scenario, the transmission is in neutral position, and the vehicle velocity is
km/h, it can be determined that the vehicle is currently in the normal stop state. The stop
0 km/h, it can be determined that the vehicle is currently in the normal stop state. The
statestate
stop flagflag
bit bit
is expressed as as
is expressed F = 1=
Fstop ; after a period
1; after
stop
ofoftime
a period time(such
(suchasas22 s), if the
s), if the vehicle
vehicle
velocityexceeds
velocity exceedsa acertain
certainvalue
valueand
andnono braking
braking signal
signal appears,
appears, thethe vehicle
vehicle is considered
is considered to
to be in the starting acceleration state. The transmission cannot be shifted, and the wheels
be in the starting acceleration state. The transmission cannot be shifted, and the wheels do
do slip
not not slip during
during the process.
the process.

Figure4.4.Flowchart
Figure Flowchartof
ofvehicle
vehiclestart
startstate
statediscrimination.
discrimination.

After determining that the vehicle is in the starting state, the vehicle mass is estimated
After determining that the vehicle is in the starting state, the vehicle mass is estimated
by applying the least squares method based on the vehicle longitudinal dynamics equation,
by applying the least squares method based on the vehicle longitudinal dynamics equa-
as shown in Equation (1).
tion, as shown in Equation (1).
Ttq i0 i gTηtqti0igt 11 2 .
r
= mg β+
sinsin
=mg  +2 CC A v 2++ mg
D DAρv cosβ++ δm
mgff cos mv v (1)
(1)
r 2
wheremmdenotes
where denotesthethe
vehicle mass,
vehicle mass, v denotes the vehicle
v denotes longitudinal
the vehicle speed,
longitudinal Iw denotes
speed, I w de-
the rotating inertia of the wheels, I
notes the rotating inertia of the wheels,f denotes the rotating inertia of the flywheel, I denotes
I f denotes the rotating inertia of the 0flywheel,
the final drive gear ratio, i g denotes the vehicle transmission ratio, Ttq denotes the engine
I 0 denotes
torque,
the final drive gear ratio, ig denotes the vehicle transmission ratio, Ttq de-
ηt denotes the transmission efficiency, r denotes the wheel rolling radius, CD
notes the engine torque,  denotes the transmission
denotes the wind resistancet coefficient, A denotes the windward r denotes
efficiency, area, thethe
ρ denotes wheel
air
density, f denotes
rolling radius, CDthedenotes
road rolling
the windresistance coefficient,
resistance β denotes
coefficient, the road
A denotes thegrade,
windwardand
road rolling resistance coefficient, 
2 2
I f i g i0 ηt
∑ Iw
= 1 + m1 denotes
δarea, r2
+ m1 the r2
airdenotes
density,thef rotary
denotes
massthecoefficient.
1 g i0 t
2 2
The vehicle longitudinal dynamics equations
I w 1 I f iare transformed into a least-squares
format as follows:  = 1+ 2
+ 2
denotes the road grade, and m r m r denotes the rotary mass coeffi-
y = φT θ (2)
cient.
whereThe vehicle longitudinal dynamics equations are transformed into a least-squares
.
format as follows: y=v (3)
Thus, . y =  T (2)
.1 Ttq i0 i g ηt − I · ω 1 g
where v= ( − CD Aρv2 ) − sin( β + α) (4)
m r 2 cos α
ω = v1
.
Ttq i0 i g ηt − I ·y
" #
− 2 CD Aρv2 (3)
φ= r (5)
Thus, − cosg α
1
 
θ= m (6)
sin(α + β)
 m r 2 cos 

 Ttq i0 igt − I   1 
 − C D A v 2 
= r 2  (5)
 g 
 − 
cos 
Machines 2022, 10, 895 6 of 22
 1 
 = m  (6)
 
sin( +  ) 

The mass ofThe themass

vehicle
of the was estimated
vehicle on aonhorizontal
was estimated a horizontal road unladen
road unladen andand
withwith
a full a full
load, respectively.
load, respectively. In the simulation,
In the simulation, the vehicle
the vehicle accelerated straight
accelerated straight atat
anan
initial speed
initial of
speed of
0 km/h on a good road surface. The results of the vehicle mass estimation are shown in
0 km/h on a good road surface. The results of the vehicle mass estimation are shown in
Figure 5 and Table 2.
Figure 5 and Table 2.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Mass estimation based on the starting state of the vehicle. (a) Unladen mass estimation
Figure 5. Mass estimation based on the starting state of the vehicle. (a) Unladen mass estimation
results; (b) full load mass estimation results.
results; (b) full load mass estimation results.
Table 2. Summary of vehicle mass estimation results.
Table 2. Summary of vehicle mass estimation results.
True Value(kg) Estimated Value(kg) Relative Error
Unladen True Value(kg) 6300 Estimated Value(kg)
6417 1.85% Error
Relative
Full load 17,000 16,420 3.41%
Unladen 6300 6417 1.85%
Full load As can be seen in17,000 16,420
Figure 5 and Table 2, the least-squares 3.41%
mass estimation method
based on the starting state of the vehicle can be used to estimate the vehicle mass, and the
As can estimation
be seen in results are close
Figure to the
5 and real values.
Table 2, theThe absolute value of
least-squares the difference
mass between
estimation method
the steady-state estimated value and the true value was divided by the true value, as in
based on thethestarting state of the vehicle can be used to estimate the vehicle
error calculation method. The method converged quickly and the steady-state error
mass, and
the estimation results are close to the real values. The absolute value of the
between the estimated value and the actual value was shown to be within 3.5%. The esti- difference
between the mation
steady-state estimated
results were appliedvalue and the true
to the subsequent roadvalue
grade was divided
estimation bytime
in real the and
truetovalue,
the control strategy.
as in the error calculation method. The method converged quickly and the steady-state
Road grade simulations were performed under varying road grades and a fixed ve-
error between the estimated value and the actual value was shown to be within 3.5%. The
hicle gear ratio. The estimation results are shown in Figure 6 and Table 3.
estimation results were applied to the subsequent road grade estimation in real time and to
Machines 2022, 10,thecontrol strategy.
895 7 of 24
Road grade simulations were performed under varying road grades and a fixed vehicle
gear ratio. The estimation results are shown in Figure 6 and Table 3.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Schematic diagram of road height variation with mileage; (b) road grade estimation
Figure 6. (a) Schematic diagram of road height variation with mileage; (b) road grade estimation results.
results.

Table 3. Road Table

grade3.estimation results.
Road grade estimation results.

Real Value of Real

Road Grade (%) EstimatedEstimated
Value of Road Grade (%)
Value of Value
Road of Road (%)
Grade Grade Absolute Error
Absolute Error
(%)
10% 9.69% 0.31%
10% 9.69% 0.31%
0% 0.15% 0.15%
0% 0.15% 0.15%
−10% −9.85% 0.15%
−10% −9.85% 0.15%

As shown in Figure 6 and Table 3, the method proposed in this paper can estimate
the real-time change in road grade, the convergence speed of this method is fast, and the
absolute error is within 0.35%.

2.2.2. Vehicle Mass Center Location Estimation

The load mass of commercial vehicles varies considerably, and the load distribution
Machines 2022, 10, 895 7 of 22

As shown in Figure 6 and Table 3, the method proposed in this paper can estimate
the real-time change in road grade, the convergence speed of this method is fast, and the
absolute error is within 0.35%.

2.2.2. Vehicle Mass Center Location Estimation

The load mass of commercial vehicles varies considerably, and the load distribution is
unpredictable. Thus, it is necessary to calculate the load transfer between the front and rear
axles according to the center of gravity position in order to ensure a reasonable braking
force distribution. Most commercial vehicles are now equipped with air spring suspension.
The pressure sensor in the air spring of the air suspension can measure the air pressure
value, and the load value Gr of the rear axle of the commercial vehicle can be estimated
based on the air pressure.
When the vehicle is driven on a horizontal road, the ground normal reaction force can
be given by:
b . hg 1 ha
Fz f = mg cos β + (mg sin β + mv) − CD Aρv2 (7)
L L 2 L
b . hg 1 ha
Fzr = mg cos β − mg cos β + (mg sin β + mv) − CD Aρv2 (8)
L L 2 L
where L is the wheelbase, Fz f and Fzr are the vertical load of the front and rear wheels,
respectively, a and b are the distances from the center of mass to the front and
Machines 2022, 10, 895 rear
8 of 24 axles,
respectively, h a is the distance from the point of action of the air resistance and other effects
to the ground, and h g is the distance from the center of gravity to the ground.
Equations
In this paper, (7) and of
the center (8) gravity
were transformed
position into isthe standard form
estimated for the
using CKFCKF
filtering. The
method. The
state vector, observation vector, and system expression of the CKF filtering algorithm are
be estimated are the distance b from the center of mass to the back axis and
parametersastofollows:
the height h g of the center of mass.
Equations (7) and (8) were transformedx =into [b the hg ]T standard form for CKF filtering. (9) The
state vector, observation vector, and system 
expression
1 h of the
CKF filtering algorithm are
as follows:  Fzf + CD A v 2 a 
z= 2 T L
 (10)
F x = [b h g ] 1 2 ha 
(9)
 − mg cos  − C A  v
L  #
zr D
" 2
Fz f + 21 CD Aρv2 hLa
z= xk = xk -1 + w(k ) (11) (10)
Fzr − mg cos β − 12 CD Aρv2 hLa
 mg cos  mg sin  + mvx 
 xk = L xk−1 −+ w(kL)  (11)
z = x +v
" k  mg cos  mg sin  +. mv#x  k k (12)
L−
mg cos β mg sin β+mv x
L − 
zk = mg cos β
L L.
mg sin β+mv x
xk + vk (12)
− system
where w(k )  N (0, Qk ) is the L process noise,
L v(k )  N (0, Rk ) is the system obser-
vation noise, w(k ) and v(k ) are Gaussian noise with 0 mean, Q and Rk are covari-
where w(k) ∼ N (0, Qk ) is the system process noise, v(k ) ∼ N (0, Rk )k is the system observation
ance matrices.
noise, w(k) andThe
v(kcenter
) are of
Gaussian noise with 0 mean,
gravity positions unladen and at full
Q and R
k load were are covariance matrices.
k estimated on the hori-
The center
zontalof gravity
road positions
surface. unladen
The estimation andareatshown
results full load were 7estimated
in Figures on as
and 8, as well theTable
horizontal
road surface.
4. The estimation results are shown in Figures 7 and 8, as well as Table 4.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Estimation results of the center of gravity position of the vehicle without a load. (a) Dis-
Figure 7. Estimation results of the center of gravity position of the vehicle without a load. (a) Distance
tance from the center of gravity position to the rear axis; (b) height of the center of gravity.
from the center of gravity position to the rear axis; (b) height of the center of gravity.
 (a) (b)
Machines 2022, 10, 895 Figure 7. Estimation results of the center of gravity position of the vehicle without
8 of 22 a load. (a
tance from the center of gravity position to the rear axis; (b) height of the center of gravity.

Machines 2022, 10, 895 9 of 24

(a) (b)
Table 4. Summary of results of center of gravity position estimation.
Figureresults
Figure 8. Estimation 8. Estimation results
of the center ofof the center
gravity of gravity
position positionatoffull
of the vehicle theload.
vehicle
(a) at full load. (a) Dis
Distance
Vehicle Load Status Parameters from the center of
Truegravity
Valueposition to the
Estimatedrear axis;
Value (b) height of
Relative the center
Error
from the center of gravity position to the rear axis; (b) height of the center of gravity. of gravity.
Distance from the center of
2687
Table 4. Summary of results of center 2700
of gravity position estimation. 0.5%
gravity to the rear axis(mm)
No load
Vehicle Load Status Height of center of gravity
Parameters True Value
1017 Estimated Value
977.3 3.9%Relative Error
(mm)
Distance from the center of gravity
Distancetofrom theaxis(mm)
center of 2687 2700 0.5%
No load the rear
2111 2100 0.5%
gravity toof
Height the rearofaxis(mm)
center gravity (mm) 1017 977.3 3.9%
Full load
Height of center of gravity
Distance from the center of gravity 1537 2111 1461.4 2100 4.9% 0.5%
Full load (mm)
to the rear axis(mm)
Height of center of gravity (mm) 1537 1461.4 4.9%
The distance from the mass center to the rear axle and the height of the mass center
were estimated, respectively. From the results of the center of gravity position estimation,
The distance from the mass center to the rear axle and the height of the mass center
the results are close to the real values, the convergence time is short, and the steady-state
were estimated, respectively. From the results of the center of gravity position estimation,
error between the estimated value and the actual value was shown to be within 5%.
the results are close to the real values, the convergence time is short, and the steady-state
error between the estimated value and the actual value was shown to be within 5%.
2.2.3. Tire-road friction coefficient Estimation
Burckhardt et al. Friction
2.2.3. Tire-Road obtainedCoefficient
the “coefficient of tire-road friction coefficient-slip” rela-
Estimation
tionship curves
Burckhardt et al. obtained the “coefficient ofextensive
for some common pavements through tire-roadtests [27].coefficient-slip” rela-
friction
From Figure 9, in the small slip rate region (  
tionship curves for some common pavements through extensive tests friction
0.05 ), the “tire-road [27]. coeffi-
cient-slip rate”
FromisFigure
approximately linear.
9, in the small slipInrate
theregion
large slip
(λ ≤rate region
0.05), (   0.05 ),
the “tire-road the curves
friction coefficient-
of “tire-road friction coefficient-slip rate” for pavements with different friction coefficients
slip rate” is approximately linear. In the large slip rate region (λ > 0.05), the curves of
differ“tire-road
significantly. Therefore,
friction in this paper,
coefficient-slip rate” for  - model
thepavements withmethod  - coefficients
andfriction
different curve
gradediffer
method are used for
significantly. the estimation.
Therefore, in this paper, the µ − λ model method and µ − λ curve grade
method are used for the estimation.

9.  -9. µrelationship
FigureFigure − λ relationship
curve.curve.

In this study, the longitudinal slip side deflection combination Dugoff tire model was
used to estimate the road friction coefficient at a large wheel slip rate (   0.05 ). The
Dugoff tire model equation is:

F = F C  f ( L) (13)
Machines 2022, 10, 895 9 of 22

In this study, the longitudinal slip side deflection combination Dugoff tire model was
used to estimate the road friction coefficient at a large wheel slip rate (λ > 0.05). The
Dugoff tire model equation is:

λ
Fx = µFz · Cx · f ( L) (13)
1−λ

tan(α)
Fy = µFz · Cy · f ( L) (14)
1−λ
which gives 
L (2 − L ), L < 1
f ( L) = (15)
1, L ≥ 1
(1 − λ )  q 
L= p · 1 − ε · v x · Cx2 λ2 + Cy2 tan2 α (16)
2 C λ2 + Cz2 tan2 α
2

where Fx is the longitudinal force of the tire, Fy is the lateral force of the tire, Fz is the
vertical force of the tire, Cx and Cα are the longitudinal slip stiffness and lateral deflection
stiffness of the tire, respectively, α is the lateral deflection angle of the tire, λ is the actual
longitudinal slip rate, Vw is the longitudinal velocity at the wheel center, ω is the angular
speed of the wheel, and r is the wheel rolling radius.
The tire forces Fx and Fy can be estimated by Kalman filtering [28], and the parameters
to be identified in the Dugoff tire model are Cx , Cα , and µ, Cx and Cα are related to tire
pressure, vehicle velocity, normal load, and tire structure, and the parameters change very
little in a short period of time, so Cx and Cα can be approximated as a constant, and µ can
be estimated using the least squares method.
The Dugoff tire model can be written in the following nonlinear format:

y(k) = f (k, µ(k)) + v1 (17)

which gives
 T
y(k) = Fx , Fy (18)
where f (k, µ(k)) is the expression of the Dugoff tire model, and v1 is the noise during the
measurement.
Linearizing y(k), Equation (17) can be approximated as:

y(k) ≈ F (k)(µ̂(k ) − µ(k − 1)) + f (k, µ̂(k − 1)) (19)

which gives
∂f
F (k) = (20)
∂µ µ=µ̂(k −1)

where µ̂(k ) is the observed value of µ.

We define the variable z(k) as

z(k) = y(k) + F (k)(µ̂(k − 1)) − f (k, µ̂(k − 1)) (21)

then there is
z(k) ≈ F (k)µ̂(k) (22)
The form obtained by simplification meets the requirements of the least squares
parameter estimation, and the tire-road friction coefficient can be effectively estimated
using the least square method.
When the slip rate λ ≤ 0.05, the µ − λ curve is approximately straight. Therefore, the
grade calculation can be used to estimate the tire-road friction coefficient at small slip rates.

k = Fx 0 /Fz 0 /λ


(23)
Machines 2022, 10, 895 10 of 22

µ = k × λ1 × p (24)
where k is the grade of the µ − λ curve, Fx0 and Fz0 are the longitudinal force and vertical
force of the tire at the current slip rate, respectively, and λ1 is the maximum tire slip rate in
Machines 2022, 10, 895 the linear zone, where p is a constant, generally taken as 1.2 ∼ 1.4. 11 of 24

When λ is between 0.05 ∼ 0.08, the estimated value at λ = 0.05 is used as the tire-road
friction coefficient in this range.
The
The tire-road
tire-road friction
friction coefficients
coefficients were
were estimated
estimated under
under flat
flat and
anduniform
uniform pavement
pavement
simulation
simulation conditions
conditionsatatµ ==0.4, 0.6, 0.8, ,and
0.4,0.6,0.8 andthetheresults
resultsare
areas
asfollows:
follows:
As
Asshown
showninin Figure
Figure10 and TableTable
10 and 5, the5,tire-road frictionfriction
the tire-road coefficient estimation
coefficient method
estimation
proposed in this paper
method proposed is relatively
in this accurate, the
paper is relatively estimation
accurate, result is close
the estimation to the
result real value,
is close to the
the
realsteady-state error between
value, the steady-state errorthe estimated
between value andvalue
the estimated the actual
and thevalue is small,
actual value and the
is small,
estimation result could be applied to the control strategy.
and the estimation result could be applied to the control strategy.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Tire-road
Tire-roadfriction
frictioncoefficient estimation
coefficient results.
estimation (a) Estimation
results. resultsresults
(a) Estimation for μ =for
0.4;µ(b)
= esti-
0.4;
mation results for μ = 0.6; (c) estimation results for μ = 0.8.
(b) estimation results for µ = 0.6; (c) estimation results for µ = 0.8.

Table5.5.Tire-road
Table Tire-roadfriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficientestimation
estimationresults.
results.

True
True Value
Value Estimated
Estimated Value
Value Relative
Relative Error
Error
0.4 0.378 5.5%
0.4 0.378 5.5%
0.60.6 0.573
0.573 4.5%
4.5%
0.80.8 0.818
0.818 2.25%
2.25%

2.3. Decision
2.3. Decision Layer
Layer
The function
The function of of the
the AEBS
AEBS control
control strategy
strategy is
is to
toconstruct
constructthe
thelongitudinal
longitudinal dynamics
dynamics
constraints of
constraints of the
the vehicle
vehicle under
under the
the actual
actual driving
driving conditions
conditions based
based on on the
the information
information
output from
output from the
the sensing
sensing layer,
layer,to
tomake
makedecisions
decisionson onthe
thebraking
brakingintervention
intervention timing
timing and
and
braking deceleration, and finally to distribute the braking force of the vehicle.
braking deceleration, and finally to distribute the braking force of the vehicle. The AEBS The AEBS
controlprocess
control processisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure11.
11.

Figure 11. AEBS decision layer control strategy architecture.

 0.8 0.818 2.25%

2.3. Decision Layer

The function of the AEBS control strategy is to construct the longitudinal dynamics
constraints of the vehicle under the actual driving conditions based on the information
Machines 2022, 10, 895 output from the sensing layer, to make decisions on the braking intervention timing and 11 of 22
braking deceleration, and finally to distribute the braking force of the vehicle. The AEBS
control process is shown in Figure 11.

Machines 2022, 10, 895 Figure 11. AEBS decision layer control strategy architecture. 12 of 24
Figure 11. AEBS decision layer control strategy architecture.
In this paper, the safety level of the vehicle is divided into “secure area (SA)”,” level
In this
1 warning paper,
(L1)”, “levelthe safety (L2)”,
2 warning level and
of the vehicle braking
“emergency is divided
(EB)”into “secure
in terms area
(SA)”,” level 1
of time
warning (L1)”, “level 2 warning (L2)”, and “emergency braking (EB)”
and space, as shown as Figure 12. SA means that the AEBS system does not need in terms of time and
to per-
space, as shown as Figure 12. SA means that the AEBS system does not
form any action, L1 means that the AEBS emits an audible sound or flashes an indicator need to perform
any to
light action,
alert L1
themeans
driver that the AEBS
of a possible emitsrisk,
safety an audible
L2 means sound or flashes
that the an indicator
driver does not performlight
to alert the driver of a possible safety risk, L2 means that the driver
a braking operation, and the AEBS brakes with a small deceleration to alert the driver,does not perform
a braking
while operation,
eliminating andinthe
the gap theAEBS brakes
braking systemwith
anda preparing
small deceleration to alertemergency
for the possible the driver,
while eliminating the gap in the braking system and preparing for the
braking that follows. EB means that the vehicle brakes with the maximum deceleration possible emergency
braking
that that follows.
the AEBS EB means
can achieve that
to ensure thethe vehicle
safety brakes
of the with the maximum deceleration
vehicle.
that the AEBS can achieve to ensure the safety of the vehicle.

Figure12.
Figure Vehiclesafety
12.Vehicle safetystatus
statusdivision.
division.

2.3.1. TTC Calculation and Braking Deceleration Decision

2.3.1. TTC Calculation and Braking Deceleration Decision
A combination of the safety time model and safety distance model is used for the
A combination
control of the safety time
of braking intervention. First,model and safety
the safety distance distance
modelmodel is used is used for the
to determine
control of braking intervention. First, the safety distance model
the L2 warning distance from the vehicle, and then the time to collision (TTC) equation, is used to determine the
L2 warning distance from the vehicle, and then the time to collision
which considers the relative acceleration, is used to calculate the current TTC value as the (TTC) equation, which
considers
thresholdthe relative
value acceleration,
for the is usedthe
AEBS to trigger to calculate
secondary the current TTC
warning; this isvalue
usedastothe thresh-
determine
old
the value for the
time point forAEBS to trigger
the braking the secondary
intervention. warning;
The relative motionthis process
is used of tothe
determine the
two vehicles
time point for the braking intervention. The relative motion process
is simplified, i.e., the host vehicle and target vehicle are in linear motion maintaining the of the two vehicles is
simplified, i.e., the host vehicle and target vehicle
current velocity and acceleration until the two vehicles collide. are in linear motion maintaining the
current velocity and acceleration  until the two vehicles collide.
Drel
(vrel > 0, arel = 0)
 √ vrelD


 −vrel + vrel 2 +rel2arel Drel (v  0, arel = 0)



TTC =  arelvrel (vrelrel≥ 0, arel 6 = 0) (25)
 or ( v < 0, a > 0 )

 rel rel
 −vrel + vrel 2 + 2arel Drel


TTC =  c
( rel
v else
 0, arel  0 ) (25)
 arel

 or(vrel  0, arel  0)

 c else

where vrel = vHV − vTV is the relative velocity, arel = aHV − aTV is the relative acceleration,
Machines 2022, 10, 895 12 of 22

where vrel = v HV − v TV is the relative velocity, arel = a HV − a TV is the relative acceleration,

Drel is the relative distance, v2rel + 2 · arel · Drel ≥ 0 , and c is a constant and is greater than
the set TTC threshold value.
In the AEBS emergency braking stage, using the tire-road friction coefficient and the
influence of road grade, the ground can provide the maximum braking deceleration as follows:

abmax = µ · g · cos β + g · sin β (26)

where g is the gravitational constant, µ is the tire-road friction coefficient, and β is the road
grade.
In addition, NHTSA collected data on the driver’s braking deceleration during brak-
ing [26]. From the statistics, it is clear that the average value of driver braking with a
deceleration of 0.55 g(5.5 m/s2 ) cumulatively was 95%.
To take into account the braking habits of the driver, the driving experience, and the
collision avoidance effect of the AEBS, the braking deceleration during emergency braking
of the AEBS is determined as follows (unit: m/s2 ):

ab = min ( abmax , −5.5) (27)

On low friction coefficient roads, the braking deceleration cannot reach 5.5 m/s2 ,
and the braking deceleration at this time is determined as the maximum value that the
ground can provide. On high friction roads, the braking deceleration is determined as
5.5 m/s2 . Since there is a gap in the actuator of the commercial vehicle pneumatic braking
system, which will cause a delay in the deceleration response, a certain brake deceleration
is applied to the vehicle in the L2 stage to make the vehicle eliminate the braking gap
and thus improve the pressure response speed in the emergency braking stage. Here, the
braking deceleration of the AEBS in the secondary warning stage is determined as 1 m/s2 .
The braking deceleration and vehicle status for each stage determined in this paper
are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Braking deceleration and vehicle status in each phase.

EB L2 L1 SA
Braking
deceleration ab −1 0 0
(m/s2 )
AEBS response Light + sound
Braking Light warning Normal driving
status warning

2.3.2. Braking Intervention Decision

According to Table 6, we can divide the decelerated speed–time course curve of the
vehicle during an AEBS system operation into six stages, as shown in Figure 13, in which the
red dashed line is the current target decelerated speed of the vehicle and the green solid line
is the actual decelerated speed of the vehicle. The six stages are OA (brake coordination), AB
(deceleration growth), BC (continuous braking), CD (decelerated growth), DE (continuous
braking), and EF (brake release). The target deceleration, vehicle speed, braking distance,
and time required for each phase are shown in Table 7.
 According to Table 6, we can divide the decelerated speed–time course curve of the
vehicle during an AEBS system operation into six stages, as shown in Figure 13, in which
the red dashed line is the current target decelerated speed of the vehicle and the green
solid line is the actual decelerated speed of the vehicle. The six stages are OA (brake coor-
dination), AB (deceleration growth), BC (continuous braking), CD (decelerated growth),
Machines 2022, 10, 895 13 of 22
DE (continuous braking), and EF (brake release). The target deceleration, vehicle speed,
braking distance, and time required for each phase are shown in Table 7.

Machines 2022, 10, 895 14 of 24

Table 7. List of parameters for each braking phase.

Target
Braking Phase Time Vehicle Speed Braking Distance
Deceleration ( m/s2 )
OA −1 0.2 vSV , A = vSV D1 = vSV  t1
1 1
AB 0.2 deceleration vand
−1 Figure 13. AEBS target = v deceleration.
SV , Bactual ,A + a0  t2 D2 =vSV , A  t2 + a0  t22
Figure 13. AEBS target deceleration and actualSV deceleration.
2 6
(vSV ,C ) − (vSV , B ) 2
2

BC −1 Table 7. List of parameters

0.4 v =phase.
for each braking v SV ,C SV , B + a0  t3 D3 =
2a0
Target
Braking Phase Time Vehicle1 Speed 1
Braking Distance
CD Deceleration (m/s2 )
ab 0.3 vSV , D = vSV ,C + (ab − a0 )  t4 D4 =vSV ,C  t4 + (ab − a0 )  t42
OA −1 0.2 vSV,A2= vSV D1 = vSV 6 · t1
AB −1 vSV , E − vSV
0.2, D vSV,B = vSV,A + 21 a0 · t2 D2 =(vvSV,A )· t22 − + 1 a0 · t22 ) 2
E )2 −(v(6vSV
a SV , E==vSV,B D5 =D3 =SV(v,SV,C 2,D
DE
BC b −1 0.4 vvSV,C vTV +(t a)0 · t3 SV,B )
2(ab − a0 ) 2(a − a )
2a0
CD ab 0.3 vSV,D = vSV,C + 21 ( ab − a0 ) · t4 D4 = vSV,C · t4 + b61 ( ab −0 a0 ) · t24
D5 = D6 2=
vSV,E −vSV,D (vSV,E )2 −(vSV,D )2
DE
EF 0 ab 0 2( a b − a0 )
vSV,E0= v TV (t) 0
( a b − a0 )
EF 0 0 0 D6 = 0

The distance between the host vehicle and the target vehicle in front of the AEBS
HV (t ) = vTV (t ) and the relative distance is
Thebraking
during distanceisbetween
shown inthe host vehicle
Figure 14. When andv the target vehicle in front of the AEBS
during braking is shown in Figure 14. When v HV (t) = v TV (t) and the relative distance is
greater than d , the host vehicle enters a safe state and the AEBS releases the brake.
greater than d0 , 0the host vehicle enters a safe state and the AEBS releases the brake.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Vehicle
Vehicledistance
distancediagram.
diagram.

The L2 distance Dth is defined as follows: when the relative distance between the two
The L2 distance D is defined as follows: when the relative distance between the
vehicles is Dth , the AEBS thenters the L2 stage and brakes according to the braking process
two vehicles
described above. Dth , the
is When theAEBS
speedenters
of the thetwoL2 stage is
vehicles and
thebrakes according
same, the distancetobetween
the braking
the
process
host described
vehicle and theabove.
target When
vehiclethe
is dspeed
0 , and of
D the
th is two
the vehicles
critical L2is the same,
distance. Its the distance
calculation
betweenisthe
equation as host vehicle and the target vehicle is d0 , and Dth is the critical L2 distance.
follows:
Dth = D HV − DTV + d0
Its calculation equation is as follows: (28)
where d0 is the reserved safety distance, DHVis−host
DthD=HV DTV +vehicle
d0 braking distance, and DTV(28) is
the driving distance of the target vehicle during the host vehicle braking process.
whereThedreserved
0 is the reserved
safety distance should beDselected
safety distance, HV is host vehicle braking
moderately. If d0 isdistance,
too large,and DTV
it will
is the driving distance of the target vehicle during the host vehicle braking process.
hinder the efficiency of passage; if it is too small, it will affect collision avoidance. After
The reserved
comprehensive safety distance
consideration shouldsafety
of braking be selected moderately.
and efficiency If d0the
factors, is reserved
too large,safety
it will
distance d0 was
hinder the determined
efficiency to be 5ifm.
of passage; it is too small, it will affect collision avoidance. After
Since the CCRb2
comprehensive conditionofcannot
consideration braking predict
safetythe speed
and of the factors,
efficiency target vehicle v TV (t) safety
the reserved after
braking, in order to improve the
distance d0 was determined to be 5 m.safety of the AEBS, the speed when the brakes are released
Since the CCRb2 condition cannot predict the speed of the target vehicle vTV (t ) after
braking, in order to improve the safety of the AEBS, the speed when the brakes are re-
leased from the vehicle in the CCRb2 condition is set to 0. The speed when the brakes are
released from the AEBS in the rest of the conditions is the same as that of the target vehicle.

0 CCRs/CCRb
vHV (t ) =  (29)
v (t ) CCRm
 Machines 2022, 10, 895 14 of 22

from the vehicle in the CCRb2 condition is set to 0. The speed when the brakes are released
from the AEBS in the rest of the conditions is the same as that of the target vehicle.
Machines 2022, 10, 895 ( 15 of 24
0 CCRs/CCRb
v HV (t) = (29)
v TV (t) CCRm
From the above analysis, the critical L2 distance Dth is determined under different
From the above analysis, the critical L2 distance Dth is determined under different
working conditions.
working conditions.
The The
TTC-based AEBS
TTC-based warning
AEBS andand
warning emergency braking
emergency control
braking flow
control used
flow in in
used this pa-
this paper
per are shown in Figure 15.
are shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. TTC-based AEBS control flow.

Figure 15. TTC-based AEBS control flow.
Therefore, the task of the braking intervention timing decision is to determine the TTC
threshold
Therefore,values for of
the task thethe
primary
braking warning
intervention stage, the L2 distance
timing decisionstage, is to and the emergency
determine the
braking stage.
TTC threshold values for the primary warning stage, the L2 distance stage, and the emer-
gency brakingFrom stage.
the above analysis of the braking distance between the host vehicle and the
target vehicle, it is clear that the AEBS enters the L2 stage and brakes when the relative
From the above analysis of the braking distance between the host vehicle and the
distance between the two vehicles is Dth , and the two vehicles are finally separated by d0 .
target vehicle, it is clear that the AEBS enters the L2 stage and brakes when the relative
Therefore, D is substituted into the TTC calculation equation, and the TTC value at this
distance betweenththe two vehicles is Dth , and the two vehicles are finally separated by
time is the threshold value for the L2 stage of the AEBS.
d0 . Therefore,
The TTC Dth threshold
is substituted valueinto the L2
for the TTC calculation
stage determined equation, by Dthand is asthefollows:
TTC value at
this time is the threshold value for the L2 stage of the AEBS.
The TTC threshold value for Dth determined by D
 the L2 stage (v > 0,isa as = follows:
0)
 rel th rel

√ vrel2
TTCth,II = −vrel + (vrel ) +2· arel · Dth (30)

vrel ≥ 0, arel 6= 0
  D tharel
 =

 (vvrel
rel
< 0,
0, aa rel
rel
>0) 0
vrel

In addition, th ,II = into account braking safety and the driving experience, the warning
TTCtaking (30)
 − v + (v ) 2
time and emergency braking time of the AEBS are specified
rel rel + 2  a rel  D th  v rel  0, a
as follows:
rel  0 
  
When the TTC is greater thana4.4 rel s, the AEBS should  vrel not  0 a collision warning.
0, arelissue
The emergency braking phase should not start before the TTC is greater than 3 s. L2 is
In addition,
0.8 s before the taking
startinto account braking
of emergency braking, safety
withand twothe driving
modes experience,
of acoustic, the warn-
optical, and tactile
ing time and emergency braking time of the AEBS are specified
warning. L1 is 1.4 s before the start of emergency braking, with one mode of acoustic, as follows:
When the
optical, andTTC is greater
tactile warning. than The4.4 s, the AEBS
threshold valueshouldof the not
second issue a collision
level of warning warning.
should be
The emergency braking
less than 3.8 s. phase should not start before the TTC is greater than 3 s. L2 is 0.8
s before the Thestart of emergency
threshold value of braking,
the second with level two of modes
warning of should
acoustic, be optical,
less thanand 3.8 tactile
s.
warning. In L1summary,
is 1.4 s before the start of emergency braking,
on the basis of the warning time defined by the driving experience with one mode of acoustic, and
optical,
the and
TTCtactile
thresholdwarning.
valuesThe for threshold
the L2 stage value of the second
calculated level of warning
using Equation (30), the should be
TTC threshold
less than
values3.8for
s. the primary warning stage, the L2 stage, and the emergency braking stage are
The threshold
determined value ofinthe
as shown Tablesecond
8. level of warning should be less than 3.8 s.
In summary, on the basis of the warning time defined by the driving experience and
Table 8. TTC threshold.
the TTC threshold values for the L2 stage calculated using Equation (30), the TTC thresh-
old values for the primary
Emergency Braking (twarning stage, theL2(t L2 stage, and the emergency L1(t braking stage
th1 ) th2 ) th3 )
are determined as shown in Table 8.
min( TTCth,II , 3.8) − 0.8 min( TTCth,II , 3.8) min( TTCth,II , 3.8) + 0.6
Table 8. TTC threshold.

Emergency Braking ( tth1 ) L2( tth 2 ) L1( tth 3 )

min(TTCth,II ,3.8) − 0.8 min(TTCth,II ,3.8) min(TTCth,II ,3.8) + 0.6
Machines 2022, 10, 895 16 of 24

In summary, this paper uses Dth to invert the TTC threshold value of the L2 stage
Machines 2022, 10, 895 15 of 22
of the vehicle AEBS and finally determines the TTC threshold value of each stage, so as to
improve its working condition adaptability and the driver’s trust in the AEBS.
In summary, this paper uses Dth to invert the TTC threshold value of the L2 stage of
2.3.3. Braking Force Distribution Strategy
the vehicle AEBS and finally determines the TTC threshold value of each stage, so as to
improve Theitsbraking
workingforce distribution
condition between
adaptability andthethefront and rear
driver’s trustaxles
in theaffects
AEBS.the braking
safety of the vehicle. During braking, if the rear wheels are held first, the rear axle may
slip sideways,
2.3.3. and ifDistribution
Braking Force the front wheels
Strategy are held first, the vehicle will lose steering ability.
Therefore, the braking
The braking forceforce distribution
distribution strategy
between the should
front and be reasonably designed
rear axles affects theto ensure
braking
that the front and rear wheels are held at the same time while making
safety of the vehicle. During braking, if the rear wheels are held first, the rear axle may full use of tire–road
friction
slip to improve
sideways, and ifthe braking
the stability
front wheels areand safety
held first,ofthe
thevehicle
vehiclewill
[29].lose steering ability.
Therefore, the braking force distribution strategy should be reasonablydeceleration,
The braking force distribution strategy is based on the desired designed to vehicle
ensure
mass, road grade, the center of gravity position, and other
that the front and rear wheels are held at the same time while making full parameters. Firstly,
use ofthe braking
tire–road
force required
friction by the
to improve thevehicle
brakingis determined
stability andbasedsafetyonofthethedesired
vehicledeceleration
[29]. aexp (aexp  0)
The braking force distribution strategy is based on the desired
, the vehicle mass, and road grade of the AEBS, and then the axle load of the front deceleration, vehicle
and
mass, road grade, the center of gravity position, and other parameters.
rear axles during braking is calculated and the front and rear axle braking force is distrib- Firstly, the braking
uted.required by the vehicle is determined based on the desired deceleration aexp ( aexp < 0),
force
the vehicle mass,
First, the and road
braking forcegrade of theby
required AEBS, and then
the vehicle is the axle load
calculated of the front
according and rear
to Equation
axles
(31). during braking is calculated and the front and rear axle braking force is distributed.
First, the braking force required by the vehicle is calculated according to Equation (31).
Fb = maexp (31)
Fb = maexp (31)
where m is the vehicle mass and aexp is the desired deceleration.
whereFrom m is Figure
the vehicle massthe
16, when aexp is
andwheel the not
does desired
reachdeceleration.
the road friction limit, the brake brak-
ing force is equal to the ground braking force, i.e.,  =the
From Figure 16, when the wheel does not reach
F Fb .road friction
The total limit,
brake the brake
braking force
braking force is equal to the ground braking force, i.e., Fµ = Fb . The total brake braking
can be determined from the total demand ground braking force.
force can be determined from the total demand ground braking force.
F F

Fb ,max Fb Ground braking force

Fb
F Brake braking force

0 p
Figure16.
Figure 16. Relationship
Relationshipbetween
betweenground
groundbraking
brakingforce
forceand
andbrake
brakebraking
brakingforce.
force.

Next,
Next, the
the normal
normal force
force of
of the
the ground
ground onon the
thewheel
wheelisiscalculated.
calculated. From
From the
the vehicle
vehicle
longitudinal
longitudinal dynamics equation, ignoring the effect of air resistance and rolling resistance,
dynamics equation, ignoring the effect of air resistance and rolling resistance,
the
the normal
normal reaction
reactionforce
forceof
ofthe
theground
groundon
onthe
thewheels
wheelsis:
is:

 Fz f =mgb cos  − (mg sin  + maexp )hg

mgb cos β−(mg sin β+maexp )h g
(
 Fzf = mga cos β+(mgLsin β+maexp )hg (32)
L
 Fzr = L (32)
 F = mga cos  + (mg sin  + maexp )hg
where Fz f and Fzr are the normal zr reaction forces ofLthe ground on the front and rear wheels,
respectively.
TheFfront
where zf andandFrear
zr are thebraking
axle normalforces
reaction forces of the
are distributed ground to
according onthe
thenormal
front and
forcerear
of
the ground on the wheels.
wheels, respectively. When the front and rear axle braking force is distributed, it is
necessary to ensure that the front and rear wheels utilize the same road friction.
The front and rear axle braking forces are distributed according to the normal force
of the ground on the wheels. When(the front and rear axle braking force is distributed, it
Fµ f + Fµr = Fµ
is necessary to ensure that the front and
Fµ f
rearFwheels utilize the same road friction. (33)
µr
F = Fzr zf

where Fu f and Fµr are the front and rear axle braking forces at the current brake deceleration.
Finally, in regards to distributing the wheel braking force, the braking force is equally
distributed between the left and right wheels of the same axle, and when braking on special
  F f + F r = F

 F f F r (33)
F = F
 zf zr
Machines 2022, 10, 895 16 of 22
where Fuf and F r are the front and rear axle braking forces at the current brake decel-
eration.
Finally, in regards to distributing the wheel braking force, the braking force is equally
roads, such as opposing roads, the braking force is adjusted by the ABS to ensure the
distributed between the left and right wheels of the same axle, and when braking on spe-
braking
cial roads,safety
such asofopposing
the vehicle asthe
roads, a priority.
braking force is adjusted by the ABS to ensure the
braking safety of the vehicle as a priority.
(
µfr F =F = 1F
 1 µfl 2 µf (34)
=µrr
 F fr F F fl== Fµrl
F f = 1 Fµr
2 2
 (34)
F = F = 1 F
where Fµ f l ,Fµ f r ,Fµrl ,Fµrr ,denote the
  rrbraking
 rl
2force of the four wheels.
r

F F F F
where  fl ,  fr ,  rl ,  rr ,denote the braking force of the four wheels.
3. Construction of Test Platform
3. Construction of Test Platform
Inorder
In orderto to verify
verify the the effectiveness
effectiveness and robustness
and robustness of the AEBS
of the proposed proposed
controlAEBS control
strategy,
strategy, aatest
test platform
platform waswas
built.built.

3.1. Configuration
3.1. Configuration of the
of the TestTest Platform
Platform
The
Theproposed
proposed algorithm
algorithmwaswasembedded
embedded in anin RCP
an unit
RCPbased on Simulink
unit based Real- Real-Time,
on Simulink
Time,the
and and the configuration
configuration of test
of the the test platform
platform is shown
is shown ininFigure
Figure17.17. The
The platform
platform isis divided into
divided into four parts: the host PC, the target PC, the I/O hardware, and the brake system
four parts: the host PC, the target PC, the I/O hardware, and the brake system hardware.
hardware. The initial motion states of the host vehicle and the target vehicle, and the vir-
The initial motion states of the host vehicle and the target vehicle, and the virtual radar
tual radar signals were set in TruckSim. The AEBS control strategy and the vehicle dy-
signals were were
namics model set incompiled
TruckSim. The
in the AEBS
host PC andcontrol
sent tostrategy and
the target PC the
via vehicle dynamics model
the Ethernet,
were
and thecompiled
target PCinwas
theused
hostasPCtheand sentfor
carrier tothe
theI/Otarget PC via
hardware to the Ethernet,
complete and the target PC
the signal
was used as
acquisition the
and carrier
output to for
the the
hostI/O hardware
PC. The to complete
experimental theassessed
data were signal acquisition
in Matlab and output
installed
to the hoston the
PC.host
ThePC.experimental data were assessed in Matlab installed on the host PC.
Host PC Target PC Data acquisition board

Air compressor

24V DC power supply

Optical isolation
drive board

ABS valve

Pressure sensor
Electromagnetic
Double channel
relay valve
axle modulator

Air storage
reservoir

Front brake
chamber

Rear brake
chamber

electrical signal air pressure signal

Figure 17.
Figure 17.Configuration
Configurationof the
oftest
theplatform.
test platform.

The overall structure and components of the test platform are shown in Figure 18.
 Machines 2022, 10, 895 18 of 24

Machines 2022, 10, 895 17 of 22

The overall structure and components of the test platform are shown in Figure 18.

1 Air storage reservoir

2 Double channel axle modulator

3 Rear brake chamber

4 Pressure sensor

5 ABS valve

6 Electromagnetic relay valve

7 Front brake chamber

8 Brake pedal

9 Optical isolation drive board

10 24V DC power supply

11 Target PC

12 11 12 Air compressor

Figure18.
Figure 18.Physical
Physicaldisplay
displayofofthe
thetest
testplatform.
platform.

3.2.
3.2.Test
TestConditions
Conditions
The
The AEBStest
AEBS testwas
wasconducted
conductedunder
underdifferent
differentload
loadstates,
states,road
roadgrades,
grades,and
andtire-road
tire-road
friction
friction coefficients. The host vehicle approached the target vehicle with differentinitial
coefficients. The host vehicle approached the target vehicle with different initial
speeds
speedsandandrelative
relativedistances,
distances,and
andthe
thespecific
specifictest
testscenarios
scenarioswere
weresetsetas
asshown
shownininTable
Table9.9.

Table9.9.HIL
Table HILtest
testconditions.
conditions.
Conditions
Conditions Load State
Load State Friction
Friction Grade
Grade
No load
No load 0.40.4 00
No loadNo load 0.80.8 00
Full loaded
Full loaded 0.40.4 00
CCRs
CCRs Full loaded
Full loaded 0.80.8 00
No loadNo load 0.40.4 −−10
10
No loadNo load 0.40.4 00
No loadNo load 0.40.4 1010
No loadNo load 0.40.4 00
No loadNo load 0.80.8 00
CCRm
CCRm
Full loaded
Full loaded 0.40.4 00
Full loaded
Full loaded 0.80.8 00
No loadNo load 0.80.8 00
CCRbCCRb
Full loaded
Full loaded 0.80.8 00

4. Results and Analysis

4.1. CCRs Scenario
The initial speed of the host vehicle was 40 km/h, the speed of the target vehicle was
0 km/h, and the initial distance was 120 m. The test results are shown in Figure 19.
 Machines 2022, 10, 895 19 of 24

4. Results and Analysis

Machines 2022, 10, 895 18 of 22
4.1. CCRs Scenario
The initial speed of the host vehicle was 40 km/h, the speed of the target vehicle was
0 km/h, and the initial distance was 120 m. The test results are shown in Figure 19.

Machines 2022, 10, 895 20 of 24

Figure 19. Comparison of experimental results for the CCRs scenario.

Figure 19. Comparison of experimental results for the CCRs scenario.
4.2. CCRm Scenario
The initial speed of the host vehicle was 80 km/h, the speed of the target vehicle was
4.2. CCRm Scenario
12 km/h, the initial distance was 120 m, and the road grade was 0%. The test results are
shown in Figure 20.
The initial speed of the host vehicle was 80 km/h, the speed of the target vehicle was
12 km/h, the initial distance was 120 m, and the road grade was 0%. The test results are
shown in Figure 20.
Machines 2022, 10, 895 19 of 22
Machines 2022, 10, 895 21 of 24

Figure 20. Comparison of the experimental results for the CCRm scenario.
Figure 20. Comparison of the experimental results for the CCRm scenario.
4.3. CCRb Scenario

4.3. CCRb Scenario The road grade was 0%,  = 0.8 , the initial distance was 40 m, the speed of the host
vehicle was 50 km/h, the speed of the target vehicle was 50 km/h, and the target vehicle
The road grade
appliedwas
a 4m / s0%, µ = 0.8,
deceleration at t = 4the
2
s. Theinitial
test resultsdistance was21.40 m, the speed of the host
are shown in Figure
Machines 2022, 10, 895 vehicle was 50 km/h, the speed of the target vehicle was 50 km/h, and 22 ofthe
24 target vehicle

applied a 4 m/s2 deceleration at t = 4 s. The test results are shown in Figure 21.

Figure 21. Comparison of experimental results for the CCRb scenario.

Figure 21. Comparison of experimental results for the CCRb scenario.
The performance of the proposed AEBS was evaluated for various load states, road
The performance of the proposed AEBS was evaluated for various load states, road
grades, and friction conditions, and the results are listed in the right part of Figures 19–
grades, 21.
andThefriction conditions,
performance of the fixedand the results
threshold are
strategy is listed
shown in left
in the thepart
right
andpart of Figures 19–21.
is com-
pared with the proposed system.
The desired distance after AEBS activation was set to 5 m from the target. In the CCRs
scenario, the two control strategies were able to ensure that the vehicle did not collide, but
under the condition of  = 0.8 , the distance between the two vehicles when parking for
the fixed threshold strategy was close to 20 m. The proposed AEBS maintained a parking
distance of approximately 5 m regardless of the attachment conditions, which improved
Machines 2022, 10, 895 20 of 22

The performance of the fixed threshold strategy is shown in the left part and is compared
with the proposed system.
The desired distance after AEBS activation was set to 5 m from the target. In the
CCRs scenario, the two control strategies were able to ensure that the vehicle did not
collide, but under the condition of µ = 0.8, the distance between the two vehicles when
parking for the fixed threshold strategy was close to 20 m. The proposed AEBS maintained
a parking distance of approximately 5 m regardless of the attachment conditions, which
improved the utilization rate and traffic efficiency of the road space. In the CCRm test, the
fixed threshold strategy was not able to avoid the occurrence of collisions, as shown in
Figure 20(9). The method proposed in this paper had entered into the early warning state
by 0.2 s, and braked with a maximum deceleration 0.5 s in advance to avoid a collision. In
the CCRb scenario, the control strategy proposed in this paper maintained the maximum
deceleration at 5.5m/s2 , which would ensure a comfortable driving experience for the
driver and passengers.

5. Conclusions
In this study, an analysis of the vehicle driving condition was added to the control
strategy, in which the relevant parameters are estimated and simulated. In our method,
the least-squares estimation method of vehicle mass based on the starting condition was
used to estimate the actual mass of the vehicle, and the current road grade was estimated
in real time based on the mass estimation result. The CKF method was used to estimate
the center of gravity position and the estimation result was applied to the braking force
distribution. The µ − λ model combined with the gradient of the µ − λ curve was used to
estimate the road friction coefficient, and the estimation accuracy of the above parameters
was guaranteed in real time. The µ − λ model and the gradient of the µ − λ curve were
combined to estimate the tire-road friction coefficient. The AEBS control strategy improved
the adaptability to the working conditions and decision-making rationality.
After the AEBS control strategy completed the decision and output the deceleration
demand, the front and rear axle braking force was distributed by combining the current
actual load and the center of gravity position of the vehicle. This ensures the braking
stability of the vehicles, while making full use of the road friction conditions, and improves
the control robustness of the AEBS.
The experimental results show that the proposed AEBS control strategy can guarantee
a good control effect under different load conditions and road conditions. The AEBS
proposed in this paper did not collide in any test scenario. The proposed AEBS maintains a
parking distance of approximately 5 m regardless of the attachment conditions. When the
fixed threshold strategy cannot avoid collision, the AEBS proposed in this paper enters the
early warning state within 0.2 s, and brakes with maximum deceleration 0.5 s in advance
to avoid a collision. The control strategy proposed in this paper maintains the maximum
deceleration of 5.5 m/s2 , which would ensure a comfortable driving experience for the
driver and passengers.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.G. and Y.W.; methodology, software, Y.W. and P.L.;
validation, X.Y.; formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing—original draft
preparation, Y.W.; supervision, writing—review and editing, D.Z.; visualization, Z.H. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Science and Technology Planning Project in Yibin City, grant
number:20YFZCGX00770.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interests.
Machines 2022, 10, 895 21 of 22

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