• What are Nanomaterials?

a) The term nanoscale refers to the dimension of 10-9 meters. It is the one billionth part of a meter. So, the
particles whose any of the external dimensions or internal structure dimension or surface structure
dimension lies in the range of 1nm to 100nm are considered as Nano materials. These materials are
invisible to the naked eye.
b) The material science-based approach of nanotechnology is considered for nanomaterials. At this scale,
these materials have unique optical, electronic, mechanical and quantum properties compared to their
molecular-scale behaviour.
c) A nanomaterial can be a nano object or a nanostructured material. Nao objects are the discrete pieces
of material, on the other hand, Nanostructured materials have their internal or surface structure in the
nanoscale dimension.
d) Nanomaterials can be of natural existence, artificially manufactured or incidentally formed. With the
advance in the research, nanomaterials are being commercialized and are being used as commodities

• What is surface to volume ratio

The surface area to volume ratio for a material or substance made of nanoparticles has a significant effect
on the properties of the material. Firstly, materials made up of nanoparticles have a relative larger surface
area when compared to the same volume of material made up of bigger particles.

For example, let us consider a sphere of radius r

The surface area of the sphere will be 4πr2
The volume of the sphere = 4/3(πr3 )
Therefore the surface area to the volume ratio will be 4πr 2 /(4/3πr3 ) = 3/r

a) It means that the surface area to volume ratio increases as the radius of the sphere decreases and vice
versa.
b) It also means that when a given volume of material is made up of smaller particles, the surface area of
the material increases. Therefore, as particle size decreases, a greater proportion of the particles are
found at the surface of the material.
c) For example, a particle of size 3 nm has 50% of its particles on the surface; at 10 nm, 20% of its
particles are on the surface; and at 30 nm, 5% of its particles are on the surface. Therefore, materials
made of nanoparticles have a much greater surface area per unit volume ratio compared with the
materials made up of bigger particles. This leads to nanoparticles being more chemically reactive.
d) As chemical reactions occur between particles that are on the surface, a given mass of nanomaterial
will be much more reactive than the same mass of material made up of large particles. This means that
materials that are inert in their bulk form are reactive when produced in their nanoparticle form

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• WHAT ARE PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS ?
Optical Properties

• When light is incident on the material, it can be absorbed or scattered.

• If the size of material is less than 20 nm, absorption is significant and if the size greater than 100 nm, scattering
is significant.
• Thus by designing the nanoparticle of different sizes, optimal amount of absorption or scattering can be
achieved.
• This may result different colour for the particles of different sizes of nanoparticles.
e.g. Opaque substances at the bulk level, become transparent at nano level (copper)
Gold nanospheres of 50 nm are green in colour and of and at bulk level it is yellow.
Electrical Properties

• Electrical conductivity of material is altered when it is reduced to nano size.

• It is possible to invent nano materials having desired conductivity.
e.g. In ceramics, the electrical conductivity increases with decrease in nanoparticle size and
In metals, electrical conductivity decreases with decrease in nanoparticle size.
Magnetic Properties

• Nanomaterials are more magnetic than bulk material.

• Even non-magnetic solids are found to show magnetic properties when reduced to nano level.
• Magnetic properties of the materials can change when reduced to nano level.
e.g. Sodium, Potassium which are paramagnetic at the bulk level become ferromagnetic at the nano level.
Iron, Cobalt, Nickel which are ferromagnetic at the bulk level become superparamagnetic at the nano level.
Structural Properties

• In nanoparticles surface area to volume ratio is very large.

• Atoms on the surface of a material are often more reactive than those in the centre, so a larger surface area
means the material is more reactive.
• Forces of attraction between surfaces can appear to be weak on a larger scale, but on a nanoscale they are
strong.
• This may lead to different surface morphology, changes in crystal structure etc.
Mechanical Properties

• The mechanical properties like hardness, elasticity, adhesion, friction improve as the material size is
decreased to nano scale.
• Lubrication improves at the nanoscale.

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 • Ductility of nanomaterial may be high at high temperatures.

• What are Application of Nanomaterials?

Applications in Mechanical Engineering
(1) Since they are stronger, lighter etc., they are used to make hard metals.
(2) Smart magnetic fluids are used in vacuum seals, magnetic separators etc.
(3) They are also used in Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) spin valves.
(4) Nano MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) are used in optimal switches, pressure sensors, mass
sensors.

Applications in Electrical, Electronic and Communication Engineering

(1) Orderly assembled nano materials are used as quantum electronic devices and used in photonic
crystals.
(2) Some of the nano materials are used as sensing elements. Especially the molecular nano materials are
used to design robots, assembler etc.
(3) They are used in energy storage device such as hydrogen storage device in ionic batteries.
(4) In magnetic recording devices.

Applications in Computer Science Engineering and IT

(1) To make CDs, and semiconductor LASER.
(2) To make smaller chips few information storage.
(3) In mobile phones, Lap - tops etc.
(4) Nano dimensional photonic crystals and quantum electronic crystals and quantum electronic devices
play a vital role in recently developed computers.

Applications in Bio - Medical and Chemical Energy

(1) Consolidated state nano particles are used as catalysts, electrodes in solar and fuel cells.
(2) Bio- sensitive nano particles are used in the production of DNA chips, bio-sensors etc.
(3) Nano - structured ceramic materials are used in synthetic bones.
(4) Few nano materials are used in absorbents, self cleaning glass fuel additives, drugs, ferro fluids etc.
(5) Nano metallic colloids are used as film precursors.

• Explain with neat diagram principle and working of SEM.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that scans surfaces of
microorganisms that uses a beam of electrons moving at low energy to focus and scan specimens. The
development of electron microscopes was due to the inefficiency of the wavelength of light
microscopes. electron microscopes have very short wavelengths in comparison to the light microscope
which enables better resolution power.

Principle of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Unlike the Transmission Electron Microscope which uses transmitted electrons, the scanning electron
Microscope uses emitted electrons. The Scanning electron microscope works on the principle of applying
kinetic energy to produce signals on the interaction of the electrons. These electrons are secondary
electrons, backscattered electrons, and diffracted backscattered electrons which are used to view
crystallized elements and photons. Secondary and backscattered electrons are used to produce an image.
The secondary electrons are emitted from the specimen play the primary role of detecting the morphology
and topography of the specimen while the backscattered electrons show contrast in the composition of
the elements of the specimen.

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 How does the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) work?

• The source of the electrons and the electromagnetic lenses are from tungsten filament lamps that are
placed at the top of the column and it is similar to those of the transmission electron Microscope.

• The electrons are emitted after thermal energy is applied to the electron source and allowed to move in
a fast motion to the anode, which has a positive charge.

• The beam of electrons activates the emission of primary scattered (Primary) electrons at high energy
levels and secondary electrons at low-energy levels from the specimen surface. The beam of electrons
interacts with the specimen to produce signals that give information about the surface topography and
composition of the specimen.

• The specimen does not need special treatment for visualization under the SEM, even air-dried samples
can be examined directly. However, microbial specimens need fixation, dehydration, and drying in order
to maintain the structural features of the cells and to prevent collapsing of the cells when exposed to the
high vacuum of the microscope.

• The samples are mounted and coated with thin layer of heavy metal elements to allow spatial scattering
of electric charges on the surface of the specimen allowing better image production, with high clarity.

• Scanning by this microscope is attained by tapering a beam of electrons back and forth over a thin
section of the microscope. When the electrons reach the specimen, the surface releases a tiny staw of
electrons known as secondary electrons which are then trapped by a special detector apparatus.

• When the secondary electrons reach and enter the detector, they strike a scintillator (a luminescence
material that fluoresces when struck by a charged particle or high-energy photon). This emits flashes of
light which get converted into an electric current by a photomultiplier, sending a signal to the cathode

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 ray tube. This produces an image that looks like a television picture that can be viewed and
photographed.

• The quantity of secondary electrons that enter the detector is highly defined by the nature of the
specimen i.e raised surfaces to receive high quantities of electrons, entering the detector while
depressed surfaces have fewer electrons reaching the surface and hence fewer electrons enter the
detector.
• Therefore raised surfaces will appear brighter on the screen while depressed surfaces appear darker.
Parts of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The major components of the Scanning Electron Microscope include;
• Electron Source – This is where electrons are produced under thermal heat at a voltage of 1-40kV. the
electrons condense into a beam that is used for the creation of an image and analysis. There are three
types of electron sources that can be used i. e Tungsten filament, Lanthanum hexaboride, and Field
emission gun (FEG)
• Lenses – it has several condenser lenses that focus the beam of electrons from the source through the
column forming a narrow beam of electrons that form a spot called a spot size.
• Scanning Coil – they are used to deflect the beam over the specimen surface.
• Detector – It’s made up of several detectors that are able to differentiate the secondary electrons,
backscattered electrons, and diffracted backscattered electrons. The functioning of the detectors highly
depends on the voltage speed, the density of the specimen.
• The display device (data output devices)
• Power supply
• Vacuum system
Like the transmission electron Microscope, the Scanning electron microscope should be free from
vibrations and any electromagnetic elements.

Applications of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

It is used in a variety of fields including Industrial uses, nanoscience studies, Biomedical studies,
Microbiology
1. Used for spot chemical analysis in energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy.
2. Used in the analysis of cosmetic components which are very tiny in size.
3. Used to study the filament structures of microorganisms.
4. Used to study the topography of elements used in industries.
Advantages of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
• They are easy to operate and have user-friendly interfaces.
• They are used in a variety of industrial applications to analyze surfaces of solid objects.
• Some modern SEMs are able to generate digital data that can be portable.
• It is easy to acquire data from the SEM, within a short period of time of about 5 minutes.
Limitations
• They are very expensive to purchase
• They are bulky to carry
• They must be used in rooms that are free of vibrations and free of electromagnetic elements
• They must be maintained with a consistent voltage
• They should be maintained with access to cooling systems

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 • Explain with neat diagram principle and working of TEM.
Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) are microscopes that use a particle beam of electrons to visualize
specimens and generate a highly-magnified image. TEMs can magnify objects up to 2 million times. In order to get a
better idea of just how small that is, think of how small a cell is. It is no wonder TEMs have become so valuable
within the biological and medical fields.
Principle of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
The working principle of the Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) is similar to the light microscope. The major
difference is that light microscopes use light rays to focus and produce an image while the TEM uses a beam of
electrons to focus on the specimen, to produce an image.
Electrons have a shorter wavelength in comparison to light which has a long wavelength. The mechanism of a light
microscope is that an increase in resolution power decreases the wavelength of the light, but in the TEM, when the
electron illuminates the specimen, the resolution power increases increasing the wavelength of the electron
transmission. The wavelength of the electrons is about 0.005nm which is 100,000X shorter than that of light, hence
TEM has better resolution than that of the light microscope, of about 1000times.
This can accurately be stated that the TEM can be used to detail the internal structures of the smallest particles like a
virion particle.
Parts of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
Their working mechanism is enabled by the high-resolution power they produce which allows it to be used in a wide
variety of fields. It has three working parts which include:
1. Electron gun
2. Image producing system
3. Image recording system
Electron gun
• This is the part of the Transmission Electron Microscope responsible for producing electron beams.
• Electrons are produced by a cathode that is a tungsten filament that is V-shaped and it is normally heated. The
tungsten filament is covered by a control grid known as a Wehnelt cylinder made up of a central hole which lies
columnar to the tube. The cathode lies on top of or below the cylindrical column hole. The cathode and the
control grid are negatively charged with an end of the anode which is disk-shaped that also has an axial hole.
• When electrons are transmitted from the cathode, they pass through the columnar aperture (hole) to the anode at
high voltage with constant energy, which is efficient for focusing the specimen to produce an accurately defined
image.
• It also has the condenser lens system which works to focus the electron beam on the specimen by controlling the
energy intensity and the column hole of the electron gun. The TEM uses two condenser lenses to converge the
beam of electrons to the specimen. The two condenser lens each function to produce an image i.e the first lens
which has strong magnification, produces a smaller image of the specimen, to the second condenser lens,
directing the image to the objectives.
Image- Producing system
• Its made up of the objective lens, a movable stage or holding the specimen, intermediate and projector lenses.
They function by focusing the passing electrons through the specimen forming a highly magnified image.
• The objective has a short focal length of about 1-5mm and it produces an intermediate image from the condenser
which are transmitted to the projector lenses for magnification.
• The projector lenses are of two types, i.e the intermediate lens which allows great magnification of the image and
the projector lens which gives a generally greater magnification over the intermediate lens.
• To produce efficient high standard images, the objectives and the projector lenses need high power supplies with
high stability for the highest standard of resolution.
Image-Recording System
• Its made up of the fluorescent screen used to view and to focus on the image. They also have a digital camera that
permanently records the images captured after viewing.
• They have a vacuum system that prevents the bombardment or collision of electrons with air molecules disrupting
their movement and ability to focus. A vacuumed system facilitates the straight movement of electrons to the
image.
• The vacuumed system is made up of a pump, gauge, valves and a power supply.

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• The image that is formed is called a monochromatic image, which is greyish or black and white. The image must be
visible to the human eye, and therefore, the electrons are allowed to pass through a fluorescent screen fixed at
the base of the microscope.
• The image can also be captured digitally and displayed on a computer and stored in a JPEG or TIFF format. During
the storage, the image can be manipulated from its monochromatic state to a colored image depending on the
recording apparatus eg use of pixel cameras can store the image in color.
• The presence of colored images allows easy visualization, identification, and characterization of the images.

How does a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) work?

From the instrumentation described, the working mechanism is a sequential process of the parts of the TEM
mentioned above. To mean:
• A heated tungsten filament in the electron gun produces electrons that get focus on the specimen by the
condenser lenses.
• Magnetic lenses are used to focus the beam of electrons of the specimen. By the assistance offered by the column
tube of the condenser lens into the vacuum creating a clear image, the vacuum allows electrons to produce a clear
image without collision with any air molecules which may deflect them.
• On reaching the specimen, the specimen scatters the electrons focusing them on the magnetic lenses forming a
large clear image, and if it passes through a fluorescent screen it forms a polychromatic image.
• The denser the specimen, the more the electrons are scattered forming a darker image because fewer electron
reaches the screen for visualization while thinner, more transparent specimens appear brighter.

Applications of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

TEM is used in a wide variety of fields From Biology, Microbiology, Nanotechnology, forensic studies, etc.
Some of these applications include:
1. To visualize and study cell structures of bacteria, viruses, and fungi
2. To view bacteria flagella and plasmids
3. To view the shapes and sizes of microbial cell organelles
4. To study and differentiate between plant and animal cells.
5. Its also used in nanotechnology to study nanoparticles such as ZnO nanoparticles
6. It is used to detect and identify fractures, damaged microparticles which further enable repair
mechanisms of the particles.
Advantages of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
1. It has a very powerful magnification of about 2 million times that of the Light microscope.
2. It can be used for a variety of applications ranging from basic Biology to Nanotechnology, to education
and industrial uses.
3. It can be used to acquire vast information on compounds and their structures.
4. It produces very efficient, high-quality images with high clarity.
5. It can produce permanent images.
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6. It is easy to train and use the Transmission Electron Microscope
Limitations of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
1. Generally, the TEMs are very expensive to purchase
2. They are very big to handle.
3. The preparation of specimens to be viewed under the TEM is very tedious.
4. The use of chemical fixations, dehydrators, and embedment can cause the dangers of artifacts.
5. They are laborious to maintain.
6. It requires a constant inflow of voltage to operate.
7. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and electro-magnetic movements hence they are used in
isolated areas, where they are not exposed.
8. It produces monochromatic images, unless they use a fluorescent screen at the end of visualization.
Explain with neat diagram principle and working of atomic force microscope(afm).

The Atomic Force Microscope works on the principle measuring intermolecular forces and sees atoms by
using probed surfaces of the specimen in nanoscale. Its functioning is enabled by three of its major working
principles that include Surface sensing, Detection, and Imaging.
1. The Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) performs surface sensing by using a cantilever (an element that is
made of a rigid block like a beam or plate, that attaches to the end of support, from which it protrudes
making a perpendicularly flat connection that is vertical like a wall). The cantilever has a sharp tip that
scans over the sample surface, by forming an attractive force between the surface and the tip when it
draws closer to the sample surface. When it draws very close making contact with the surface of the
sample, a repulsive force gradually takes control making the cantilever avert from the surface.
2. During the deflection of the cantilever away from the sample surface, there is a change in direction of
reflection of the beam, and a laser beam detects the aversion, by reflecting off a beam from the flat
surface of the cantilever. Using a positive-sensitive photo-diode (PSPD- a component that is based on
silicon PIN diode technology and is used to measure the position of the integral focus of an incoming
light signal), it tracks these changes of deflection and change in direction of the reflected beam and
records them.
3. The Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) takes the image of the surface topography of the sample by force by
scanning the cantilever over a section of interest. Depending on how raised or how low the surface of
the sample is, it determines the deflection of the beam, which is monitored by the Positive-sensitive
photo-diode (PSDP). The microscope has a feedback loop that controls the length of the cantilever tip
just above the sample surface, therefore, it will maintain the laser position thus generating an accurate
imaging map of the surface of the image.

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 Parts of Atomic Force Microscope
Atomic Force Microscopes have several techniques for measuring force interactions such as van der Waals,
thermal, electrical and magnetic force interactions for these interactions done by the AFM, it has the
following parts that assist in controlling its functions.
• Modified tips which are used to detect the sample surface and undergo deflections
• Software adjustments used to image the samples.
• Feedback loop control – they control the force interactions and the tip positions using a laser deflector.
the laser reflects from the back of the cantilever and the tip and while the tip interacts with the surface
of the sample, the laser’s position on the photodetector is used in the feedback loop for tracking the
surface of the sample and measurement.
• Deflection – The Atomic Force Microscope is constructed with a laser beam deflection system. The laser
is reflected from the back of the AFM lever to the sensitive detector. They are made from silicon
compounds with a tip radius of about 10nm.
• Force measurement – the AFM works and depends highly on the force interactions, they contribute to
the image produced. The forces are measured by calculation of the deflection lever when the stiffness of
the cantilever is known. This calculation is defined by Hooke’s law, defined as follows:
F= -kz, where F is the force, k is the stiffness of the lever, and z is the distance the lever is bent.

Applications of Atomic Force Microscope

This type of microscopy has been used in various disciplines in natural science such as solid-state physics,
semiconductor studies, molecular engineering, polymer chemistry, surface chemistry, molecular biology,
cell biology, medicine, and physics.
Some of these applications include:
1. Identifying atoms from samples
2. Evaluating force interactions between atoms
3. Studying the physical changing properties of atoms
4. Studying the structural and mechanical properties of protein complexes and assembly, such as
microtubules.
5. used to differentiate cancer cells and normal cells.
6. Evaluating and differentiating neighboring cells and their shape and cell wall rigidity.

Advantages of Atomic Force Microscope

1. Easy to prepare samples for observation
2. It can be used in vacuums, air, and liquids.
3. Measurement of sample sizes is accurate
4. It has a 3D imaging
5. It can be used to study living and nonliving elements
6. It can be used to quantify the roughness of surfaces
7. It is used in dynamic environments.

Disadvantages of Atomic Force Microscope

1. It can only scan a single nanosized image at a time of about 150x150nm.
2. They have a low scanning time which might cause thermal drift on the sample.
3. The tip and the sample can be damaged during detection.
4. It has a limited magnification and vertical range.

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• Explain top down and bottom up approaches to prepare nanomaterials?
There are two general approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials
a) Bottom–up approach.
b) Top- down approach
(A) Bottom-up approach
The alternative approach, which has the potential of creating less waste and hence the more
economical, is the ‘bottom- up’.
Bottom-up approach refers to the build up of a material from the bottom: atom-by-atom,
molecule-by-molecule, or cluster-by cluster.
Many of these techniques are still under development or are just beginning to be used for
commercial production of nano powders.
Oragano metallic chemical route, revere-micelle route, sol-gel synthesis, colloidal precipitation,
hydrothermal synthesis, template assisted sol-gel, electrodeposition etc, are some of the well-
known bottom–up techniques reported for the preparation of luminescent nano particals.
(B) Top-down approach
Top-down approach involves the breaking down of the bulk material into nanosized structures or
particles.
Top-down synthesis techniques are extension of those that have been used for producing micron
sized particles.
Top-down approaches are inherently simpler and depend either on removal or division of bulk
material or on miniaturization of bulk fabrication processes to produce the desired structure with
appropriate properties.
The biggest problem with the top-down approach is the imperfection of surface structure. For
example, nanowires made by lithography are not smooth and may contain a lot of impurities and
structural defects on its surface.
Examples of such techniques are high-energy wet ball milling, electron beam lithography, atomic
force manipulation, gas-phase condensation, aerosol spray, etc.

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9. Explain the physical methods for synthesis of Nano particles?

Various techniques are adopted for the synthesis of nano materials that too in various forms like nano
particles, nano powder, nano crystals, nano films, nano wires, nano tubes, nano dots. These methods
includes:
1. Ball Milling
2. Sputtering
3. Vapor deposition
4. Solgel technique.
5. Electro deposition.
6. Mechanical crushing or Ball milling
7. LASER synthesis
8. Inert gas condensation
We will take few of them for study.

BALL MILLING
1. As the name suggests, the ball milling method consists of balls and a mill chamber. Therefore over all a
ball mill contains a stainless steel container and many small iron, hardened steel, silicon carbide, or tungsten
carbide balls are made to rotate inside a mill (drum).
2. The powder of a material is taken inside the steel container. This powder will be made into nanosize using
the ball milling technique. A magnet is placed outside the container to provide the pulling force to the
material and this magnetic force increases the milling energy when milling container or chamber rotates the
metal balls.

3. The ball to material mass ratio is normally maintained at 2 ratio 1.

[Link] silicon carbide balls provide very large amount of energy to the material powder and the powder
then get crushed. This process of ball milling is done approximately 100 to 150 hrs to get uniform fine
powder.
5. Ball milling is a mechanical process and thus all the structural and chemical changes are produced by
mechanical energy.

Advantages of ball milling process:

1. Nanopowders of 2 to 20 nm in size can be produced. The size of nanopowder also depends upon the speed
of the rotation of the balls.
2. It is an inexpensive and easy process.

Disadvantages:
1. As the process is not so sophisticated, therefore the shape of the nanomaterial is irregular.
2. There may be contaminants inserted from ball and milling additives.
3. This method produces crystal defects.
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SPUTTERING
a. The ejection of atoms from the surface of a material (the target) by bombardment with energetic
particles is called sputtering.
b. Sputtering is a momentum transfer process in which atoms from a cathode/target are driven off by
bombarding ions.
c. Sputtered atoms travel until they strike a substrate, where they deposit to form the desired layer.
The simplest source of ions for sputtering is provided by the well-known phenomenon of glow discharge due
to an applied electric field between two electrodes in a gas at low pressure.
d. The gas breaks down to conduct electricity when a certain minimum voltage is reached. Such an ionized
gas is called plasma. Ions of the plasma are accelerated at the target by a large electric field.
e. When the ions impact the target, atoms (or molecules) are ejected from the surface of the target into
the plasma, where they are carried away and then deposited on the substrate. This type of sputtering is
called “DC sputtering.”
f. In order to avoid any chemical reaction between the sputtered atoms and the sputtering gas, the
sputtering gas is usually an inert gas, such as argon. However, in some applications, such as the
deposition of oxides and nitrides, a reactive gas is purposely added to argon so that the deposited film is
a chemical compound. This type of sputtering is called “reactive sputtering” .
g. When the plasma ions strike the target, their electrical charge is neutralized and they return to the
process as atoms. If the target is an insulator, the neutralization process results in a positive charge on
the target surface.
h. This charge may reach a level at which bombarding ions are repelled and the sputtering process stops.
To continue the process, the polarity must be reversed to attract enough electrons from the plasma to
eliminate surface charge. This periodic 126 Synthesis of Inorganic Nanomaterials reversal of polarity is
done automatically by applying a radio-frequency (RF) voltage on the target assembly. Thus, this type of
sputtering is known as “RF sputtering.”
i. In order to increase the efficiency of the sputtering process, it is common for the sputtering source to
have some magnetic confinement through a magnetron source. The effect of the magnetic field is to
spiral the electrons so that they have more chance of undergoing an ionizing collision, thus enabling the
plasma to be operated at a higher density. This type of sputtering is called “magnetron sputtering” and
it can be used with DC or RF sputtering.
j. Many variations can be introduced in the ion sputtering synthesis route by altering the magnetic field or
RF depending on the properties of nanoparticles which are to be synthesized. Materials that can be
sputtered include elements, such as pure metals and elemental semiconductors, alloys, and compounds,
such as oxides, nitrides, sulfides, and carbides.

Advantages :
1. Sputtering allows for the deposition of films having the same composition as the target source.
2. It is a versatile technique that can be used for almost all material types.
3. It has many process variables that may be used to tailor and modify the properties of the materials.

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The use of solid targets makes it possible to control the type and composition of the material and thus avoids
the use of complicated process chemistry.
Disadvantages :
Sputtering rates are low compared to those that can be attained in thermal evaporation.
Sputtering targets are often expensive.
Most of the energy incident on the target becomes heat, which must be removed.
In reactive sputter deposition, the gas composition must be carefully controlled to prevent poisoning the
sputtering target
What is CVD?
• Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a process whereby a solid material is deposited from a vapor by a
chemical reaction occurring on or in the vicinity of a normally heated substrate surface.
The solid material is obtained as a coating, a powder, or as single crystals.

By varying the experimental conditions-substrate material, substrate temperature, composition of the reaction gas
mixture, total pressure gas flows, etc.-materials with different properties can be grown.
*VD is an example for Solid-Vapor Reaction.

SOL-GEL TECHNIQUE
a. Nano particles and nano powder is obtained using this technique.

In general, sol - gel technique is based on the hydrolysis of liquid precursors and formation of colloidal
solutions.

b. Out of few more processes, hydro - dynamic cavitation is often used, in which nanoparticles can be
generated through creation and release of gas bubbles inside the sol - get solution.
c. Here, the sol - get solution is taken in a drying chamber and thoroughly mixed by applying enormous
pressure, high temperature and further exposing it to cavitational disturbances.
d. This process creates hydrodynamic bubbles in the sol - gel. These bubbles will undergo nucleation,
growth and then it quenches to form nano particles.

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