Theory

Hydraulic brake systems 2

Content
1 The mechanics of braking ......................................... 5

2 Movement, speed, acceleration and deceleration .. 9

3 Force, mass and acceleration ................................... 15

4 Friction ........................................................................ 17

5 Hydraulic force transmission .................................... 21

6 Brake pressure limiters ............................................. 27

7 Brake pressure controllers ........................................ 33

8 Vacuum brake booster .............................................. 39

9 Anti-lock brake systems ............................................ 45

10 Legal requirements for braking deceleration .......... 55

11 Hydraulic brake systems (2) in the workshop ......... 59

11.1 Brake pressure limiters and brake pressure
controllers in the workshop .................................. 59
11.2 Vacuum brake boosters in the workshop ........... 61
11.3 Anti-lock brake systems in the workshop ........... 66

Content Introduction Questions

Used symbols

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Edition: 2007

© 2007 INNOVAM Publishing, Nieuwegein

The Netherlands
ISBN 90 405 0881 X

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Introduction

If the speed and the braking deceleration of a car are known, the braking
distance and the braking time can be calculated. With the mass of the car
and the braking deceleration it is also possible to calculate the braking force
needed to stop the car. Braking uses friction. The coefficient of friction and
the normal force together determine the frictional force. The force that the
driver exerts on the brake pedal is transmitted hydraulically to the brakes.
The lever action and Pascal’s law mean that these forces are transmitted
such that the forces become greater. There are legal requirements
regarding the minimum braking deceleration and the pedal force that goes
with it.

To prevent the rear wheels from locking, brake pressure limiters and brake
pressure controllers are used. Brake pressure limiters limit the pressure in
the brake lines to the rear wheels. When they have come into action, the
pressure in the brake lines of the rear wheels does not increase any further.
When brake pressure controllers come into action, the pressure in the brake
lines to the rear wheels increases less greatly. Brake pressure limiters and
brake pressure controllers can work load-dependently.

Brake boosters help to increase the force that is exerted on the pedal. By
using brake boosters, less pedal force is needed in order to achieve the
required braking deceleration. A brake booster that is commonly used is the
vacuum brake booster. The boosting effect is obtained by a difference in
pressure.

Anti-lock brake systems serve to prevent the brakes from locking in extreme
situations. The anti-lock brake system registers the speed of the wheels
when the car is braking. If there is a risk of a wheel locking, the system
intervenes.

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

1 The mechanics of braking

The principles of moment or torque

At various places in the brake system, levers are used (Fig. 1), for example
the lever for the brake pedal, the control lever for the parking brake and
the lever that presses the brake shoes against the brake drum (the parking
brake).

Fb
2 cm
Fa

10 cm

F
F
main brake brake pedal
cylinder

a lever action with the brake pedal b lever action in the operating mechanism for the parking brake
Fig. 1 The lever action increases the force that has been exerted

With a lever, a small force that has been exerted on a certain point can be
increased to become a greater force.

Moment
If a force F is exerted on the spanner in Figure 2, the nut will turn (turning
force).

force (F) The magnitude of the turning force depends on:

arm (l) – the magnitude of the force (F)
– the length of the arm (l)

The turning force is the moment, also known as

torque. The perpendicular distance from the force to
moment the turning point is the arm.

Fig. 2 Moment = force x arm

The moment that is exerted is: force x arm.
Expressed as a formula: M=Fxl

M = the moment in Nm (Newton metres)

F = the force in N (Newtons)
l = the length of the arm in m (metres)

Example:
A force of 250 N is exerted on the spanner in Figure 2. The length of the arm
is 20 cm (0.2 m). Calculate the moment.
Answer:
M = F x l = 250 N x 0.2 m = 50 Nm

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

In Figure 3 the man is using a lever to lift the stone. The stone is the load
(Fl). The distance from the stone to the supporting point (s) is 1 m. The
distance from the man to the supporting point is 10 m.

a 10a

10a
a
pushing down s F
s Fl

F
Fl
Fig. 4 Schematic presentation of the lever action

Fig. 3 Lever action

The situation is shown in Figure 4 in the form of a diagram.
F1 exerts on the supporting point s a moment turning to the left, of F1 x 1 m
(left = anti-clockwise).
F exerts on the supporting point s a moment turning to the right, of F x 10 m
(right = clockwise).

At equilibrium:
moment turning to the left = moment turning to the right
F1 x 1 m = F x 10 m

Suppose: the stone weighs 200 N. The force needed to lift the stone can be
calculated by:
Fl x 1 m = F x 10 m
200 x 1 m
F= = 20 N
10m
The force needed to lift the stone is therefore 10 times less than the weight
of the stone.

The brake pedal in Figure 5 can be hinged about point S.

s 0,05m When braking, a force F1 of 300 N is exerted on

the brake pedal. With the lever action this force is
increased and transmitted to the brake fluid in the main
brake cylinder. Because the brake fluid is in a closed
F2
space, a reaction force F2 will be exerted on the brake
0,25m pedal, resulting in equilibrium.

F1
The force F2 that is exerted on the brake fluid can be
calculated as follows:
main brake brake pedal moment turning to the right = moment turning to the
cylinder
left
Fig. 5 Transmitting force with the brake pedal 300 N x 0.25 m = F2 x 0.05 m

300 x 0,25 m
F2 = = 1500 N
0,05 m

The force F2 that the brake fluid exerts on the lever is the same as the force
that the lever exerts on the brake fluid, but in the opposite direction (action
= reaction). By using the lever action, with a relatively small force on the
brake pedal a large force has been produced on the brake fluid.

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Questions
1 Why are levers used in brake systems?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 A force of 125 N is acting on the spanner in Figure 6. The arm is 40 cm

long. Calculate the moment.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

125 N
40 cm

moment

Fig. 6
3 In Figure 7, the force on the brake pedal is 500 N. Calculate the force Fh
that is exerted on the piston in the main brake cylinder.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 cm
Fh

20 cm

F = 500 N

Fig. 7

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

4 In Figure 8 the hand brake cable pulls on the lever with a force F = 300
N. The lever hinges about point S. Calculate the force Fb with which the
brake shoe B is pressed against the brake drum.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

Fb
s 2 cm
Fa

10 cm

Fig. 8

5 Look at Figure 9. Calculate the force F2. It is

A 300 N
B 1500 N
C 1800 N
D 3000 N

F1 = 300 N

0,25m

s
0,05m
F2

piston rod

Fig. 9

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

2 Movement, speed, acceleration and

deceleration

Movement
When an object changes position, this is called movement.

There are rectilinear movements and curvilinear movements. Curvilinear

movements are, for example, circular movements and wave-like
movements. This teaching material deals only with rectilinear movements.
There are different types of rectilinear movement
– uniform
– uniformly accelerated
– uniformly decelerated

Uniform movement
An object makes a uniform movement if in equal parts of time, however
small, it is always an equally large distance that is covered. In other words:
in a uniform movement, the speed is constant.

Figure 10 shows a graph of a uniform movement.

This type of graph is called a vt diagram. The time

v(m/s)

4 in seconds is shown on the horizontal axis, and on

the vertical axis the speed in metres per second.
3

2 So a uniform movement is shown as a

horizontal line.
1

0 If the speed is known, it is easy to calculate the

0 2 4 6 8
distance covered.
t(s)

Fig. 10 Uniform movement distance covered = speed x time, or s = v x t

s = distance covered (m)

v = speed (m/s)
t = time (s)

Example
A car moves at a speed of 4 m/s for 8 s (Fig. 10). How much distance has it
covered?
Answer:
s = v x t = 4 x 8 = 32 m.

The distance covered in 8 s is equal to the area of the contained rectangle:

4 x 8 = 32 m (Fig. 10).

In a vt diagram, with all types of movement the distance covered can

always be determined from the area of the contained figure.

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Rectilinear uniformly accelerated movement

We call a movement uniformly accelerated if the speed per second is
always increasing by the same value.
The increase in speed is the acceleration. An acceleration of 2 m/s²
means that every second, the speed increases by two metres per second.
This is why the unit of acceleration is written as: m/s² (said as: metre per
second squared). The symbol for acceleration is a.

Example
A car moves off from standing. The acceleration is 3/m². What is the speed
after 5 s and what distance has been covered in these 5 s?

Answer
Every second the speed increases by 3 m/s. So after 5 s this has happened
five times:
v = a x t = 3 x 5 = 15 m/s (Fig. 11).

We can see from the area in the vt diagram what

v(m/s)

15
distance has been covered after 5 s. We know how
to calculate the area of a triangle, namely: area =
10 base x half the height
5
Therefore:
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
s = 5 x 0.5 x 15 = 37.5
t(s)
Acceleration can also start in an object that is already
Fig. 11 Uniformly accelerated movement from moving at a certain speed. This is called a uniformly
standing accelerated movement with an initial speed.

Example
A car is moving at a speed of 10 m/s and then for 6 s accelerates at 2 m/s²
(Fig. 12).

What is the speed after 6 s and what distance has been covered in these 6 s?
v(m/s)

Answer
22 The increase in speed is 6 x 2 = 12 m/s.
B The final speed is therefore 10 + 12 = 22 m/s.
10 The distance covered is found from the area in the vt
A diagram.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
To be able to calculate this easily, we divide the area
t(s) into two parts: a rectangle A and a triangle B:
area of rectangle A: 10 x 6 = 60 m
Fig. 12 Uniformly accelerated movement with an area of triangle B: 6 x 0,5 x 12 = 36 m +
initial speed The distance covered s: = 96 m

Rectilinear uniformly decelerated movement

We call a movement uniformly decelerated if the speed per second is
always decreasing by the same value.
A deceleration of 4 m/s² means that every second, the speed decreases by
4 m/s.

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

When braking there is also a decelerated movement. However, this is hardly

ever uniformly decelerated. In the following examples we assume that the
deceleration is uniform.

Example
A car is moving at a speed of 20 m/s. When braking, a deceleration rate of 4
m/s² is reached. (Fig. 13). The brake is applied until the car comes to a stop.

How long is the brake applied for and what is the braking
v(m/s)

distance?
20

Answer
10 A deceleration rate of 4 m/s² means that every second the
speed is decreased by 4 m/s.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 We can do that 20 : 4 = 5 times, so the time needed is 5 s.
t(s)
Fig. 13 Uniformly decelerated movement We can see in the vt diagram the distance that is covered
in that period:
area of triangle = base x half the height
s = 5 x 0.5 x 20 = 50 m.

The distance covered when braking, the braking distance, is therefore 50 m.

Reaction time
When the driver of a car sees an obstacle, he can never brake immediately,
however quick the reaction. A certain time is needed in order, via the eyes,
the brain and the muscles, to tread on the brake pedal. This times varies
from one driver to the next, and is between 0.6 and one 1 s. This is the
shock period.

Also, the brake system needs a short time to transmit the force from the
brake pedal to the wheels. This is the response time of the brakes. The
response time is about 0.4 s.
So in total for at least 0.6 + 0.4 = 1 s absolutely nothing happens and the car
continues to move at the same speed. Only then does it start to slow down.

Example
A car is moving at a speed of 108 km/h, when an obstacle appears.
Together, the shock period and the response time come to 1 s. The braking
time is 10 s (Fig. 14).
v(m/s)

30

20
A B
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
t(s)

Fig. 14 Uniformly decelerated movement with reaction time

What is the braking deceleration and what is the braking distance?

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Answer
1 kilometre per hour (km/h) is 1 x 1000/3600 (m/s), so:

1
1 km/h =
3,6 m/s

The speed is 108 km/h = 108 : 3.6 = 30 m/s.

The braking time is 10 s, so the speed of 30 m/s is brought back to 0 m/s in

10 s.
Every second the speed is reduced by 30 : 10 = 3 m/s.
The braking deceleration is therefore 3 m/s².

We can find the braking distance in the vt diagram, again dividing the area
into A and B (Fig. 14).
area of rectangle A: 1 x 30 = 30
area of triangle B: 10 x 15 = 150
The total distance covered s = area A + area B = 30 + 150 = 180 m.

Note that during the reaction time the car keeps on moving for 30 m
without braking! This shows that it is important to keep enough distance,
particularly at high speeds, however good the brakes are.

Questions
1 What is a uniform movement?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 Look at Figure 15.

Complete this: the speed after 5 seconds is ……. m/s.

3 Calculate the average speed in m/s and in km/h.

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 Calculate the distance covered in five seconds.

v(m/s)

15
......................................................................................
10
......................................................................................
5
......................................................................................
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 ......................................................................................
t(s)
......................................................................................
Fig. 15

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

5 A car is moving at a speed of 15 m/s. The driver sees an obstacle

and has to brake. The shock period and the response time together
come to 1 second. After 10 seconds of actual braking time the car
stops. Calculate the distance covered from the time the driver sees the
obstacle. The situation is shown in Figure 16.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
v(m/s)

15

10
A B
5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
t(s)

Fig. 16

6 A car moving at a uniform speed of 12 m/s is braked with a deceleration

of 3 m/s² until it stops.
Calculate the time needed until the car stops.
Draw the vt diagram of this movement (Fig. 17).
Calculate the distance covered when braking.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
v(m/s)

t(s)
Fig. 17

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

7 A car moves off from standing and over 16 s reaches a

v(m/s)

speed of 1.25 m/s².

Calculate the final speed in kilometres per hour after 16 s.
Draw the vt diagram (Fig. 18).
Calculate the distance covered during this movement.
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
t(s) .......................................................................................
Fig. 18

8 Figure 19 shows:
v(m/s)

A a uniform movement
B a uniformly decelerated movement
C a uniformly decelerated movement with an initial
speed
D a uniformly accelerated movement that becomes a
t(s) uniform movement
Fig. 19

9 From standing, a car accelerates uniformly for 12 seconds. The final

speed is 8.4 m/s. The acceleration is:
A 100.8 m/s²
B 1.43 m/s²
C 0.7 m/s²
D 4.2 m/s²

10 A car is moving at a speed of 30 m/s. The car starts to brake. After

6 seconds the car stops. The braking distance is:
A 1350 m
B 180 m
C 90 m
D 18 m

11 A car starts to brake at a speed of 108 km/h. After four seconds the car
stops.
The deceleration rate is:
A 7.5 m/s²
B 14.4 m/s²
C 27 m/s²
D 12 m/s²

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

3 Force, mass and acceleration

When a car brakes, the deceleration depends on the mass of the car and
the braking force.
F
Formula: F=mxa or: a=
m

Where:
F = total braking force
m = mass of the car (kg)
a = the deceleration rate (m/s²)

Example
A car has a mass of 1000 kg. The total braking force is 2500 N.
Calculate the deceleration.

Answer:
F 2500
F=mxa a= = = 2,5 m/s2.
m 1000

Questions
1 A car has a mass of 1200 kg. The braking deceleration is 5 m/s².
Calculate the braking force needed.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 A car is moving at a speed of 108 km/h. In an emergency stop the

car stops in 5 seconds. The car has a mass of 1000 kg. Calculate the
braking deceleration and the braking force.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

3 A car is moving at a speed of 72 km/h. When braking, the car stops in

4 seconds. The car has a mass of 1250 kg. The braking force is:
A 1250 N
B 6000 N
C 7500 N
D 8000 N

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

4 The braking force is 9000 N, at a deceleration of 6 m/s². The mass of the

car is:
A 900 kg
B 1200 kg
C 1500 kg
D 5400 kg

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

4 Friction

When braking, the phenomenon known as friction is used. Friction occurs

among other things when two surfaces slide over each other. The resistance
to which the surfaces are subject is known as friction. If we want to move
the block in Figure 20, then first of all the friction between the block and the
floor has to be overcome. The friction is referred to as Fw (frictional force).

direction of movement

Fw

Fn
Fig. 20 Fw = frictional force Fig. 21

Remember
The direction of the frictional force (Fw) is always opposite to the
direction of movement.

The magnitude of the frictional force between the block and the floor
depends on (Fig. 21):
– the force that the block exerts on the floor (perpendicularly); this force is
shown by Fn (normal force)
– the conditions between the floor and the block, shown by µ (coefficient
of friction).

Coefficient of friction
The conditions between the floor and the block are expressed in the notion
of coefficient of friction. This is shown by µ (spoken as ‘mu’).

Remember
The coefficient of friction is the ratio between Fw and Fn.

In a formula this means: µ = Fw : Fn

The coefficient of friction between two objects is determined among other

things by:
– the nature of the materials (for example asbestos and steel)
– the temperature of the surfaces rubbing against each other

Example 1
Fw In Figure 22:
Fw = 50 N
Fn = 200 N
Calculate the coefficient of friction µ.
Fn
Answer:
µ = Fw : Fn = 50 N : 20 N = 0.25
Fig. 22 µ = Fw : Fn

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Questions
1 Could a car move by itself on a flat road if there is no friction between
the tyre and the road? Explain your answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 On what two factors does the frictional force depend when two objects
move over each other?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

3 In order to be able the move the block in Figure 23 in the direction

shown, a frictional force of 50 N has to be overcome. The block weighs
250 N. Show in Figure 23 the point of application and the direction of the
Fn = 250N frictional force. Calculate the coefficient of friction.
...................................................................................................................
F = 50N
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Fig. 23 ...................................................................................................................

4 Given a brake drum and a brake shoe (Fig. 24). The brake drum turns
to the right. The normal force on the brake shoe (Fn) is 5000 N. The
coefficient of friction (µ) is 0.25.
Calculate the frictional force Fw.
Show in Figure 24 the direction of the frictional force when it acts on
point A.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

Fn = 5 kN
A

Fig. 24

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

5 For the information, see Figure 25.

The frictional force between the brake block and the disc is:
A 6000 N
B 5400 N
C 3000 N
D 2700 N

Fw
A

Fn

Fn= 9000 N
µ=0,3
Fig. 25

6 For the information, see Figure 26. The coefficient of friction between the
bottom box and the floor is:
A 0.2
B 0.25
C 0.33
D 1

Fn2 = 1000N

Fw
Fw = 1000N
Fn1 = 4000N

Fig. 26

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Theory

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

5 Hydraulic force transmission

Figure 27 is a diagram of how a hydraulic brake system works.

brake block wheel brake cylinder

piston
lines

piston

spring
piston
main brake cylinder

Fig. 27 Diagram of how a hydraulic brake system works

The main brake cylinder, lines and wheel brake cylinders are filled with
brake fluid. A fluid cannot be compressed.

When the brake pedal is pressed down, the piston in the main brake
cylinder displaces a quantity of brake fluid. This causes the pistons in
the wheel brake cylinders to move outwards so that the brake linings are
pressed against the brake discs/brake drums. The harder the brake pedal
is pressed, the greater the brake linings are pressed, and the greater is the
braking force.
When the force is taken off the brake pedal, the brake linings come away
from the brake discs/brake drums.

Pascal’s law
By pressing the brake pedal, pressure is exerted on the brake fluid.
Whenever a pressure is exerted on a fluid, Pascal’s law applies. This law
states that:

The pressure that is exerted on a fluid in a closed and completely filled

system is transmitted unchanged in all directions.

Pascal’s law as a formula is:

F=pxA

F = force (N)
A = area (cm²)
p = pressure (N/cm²)

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Example 1
F In Figure 28 the piston has an area of 3 cm². The force exerted on the piston
is 1200 N.
Calculate the pressure in the cylinder.
P A
Answer
Fig. 28 F = p x A F=pxA→p=F:A
p = 1200 N : 3 cm²
p = 400 N/cm².

Example 2
In Figure 29 a force of 100 N is exerted on the small piston. The small piston
has an area of 2 cm², the large piston has an area of 5 cm².

100N

A = 2 cm2

A = 2 cm2 A = 5 cm2
10 cm
?

A = 5 cm2

Fig. 29 Fig. 30 Fluid displacement

a Calculate the pressure on the fluid.

Answer
F=pxA→p=F:A
p = 100 N : 2 cm²
p = 50 N/cm².

b Calculate the force against the bottom of the large piston.

Answer
According to Pascal’s law, the pressure in a closed and completely filled
system is transmitted unchanged in all directions. So for the large piston:

F=pxA
p = 50 N/cm² x 5 cm²
p = 250 N.

So with a small force (on the small piston) it is possible to exert a greater
force (on the large piston).

Fluid displacement
If the small piston in Figure 30 falls by 10 cm, then the quantity of fluid that
is displaced is:
2 cm² x 10 cm = 20 cm³.

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Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Due to the displacement of fluid, the large piston rises, over a distance of:
20 cm² : 5 cm² = 4 cm.

The unit for pressure

In the examples the unit for pressure that is used is always N/cm². Other units
that can be used are: N/mm², N/dm² or N/m². In engineering, however, the
unit that is used for pressure is the Pascal, abbreviated as Pa: 1 Pa = 1 N/m².
Other possibilities are:
kPa: kilopascal → 1 kPa = 1000 Pa = 1000 N/m².
MPa: megapascal → 1 MPa = 1,000,000 Pa = 1,000,000 N/m².

Another unit for pressure that is often found is the bar.

1 bar is equal to 100 kPa

Questions
1 Complete:
1 MPa = …….. N/m² = …….. N/dm² = …….. N/cm² = ……..N/mm².
1 kPA = …….. N/m² = …….. N/dm² = …….. N/cm² = …….. N/mm².

2 Complete:
1 bar = 100 kPa = …….. N/cm².

3 The piston in a main brake cylinder has an area of 3 cm². The force on
the piston is 600 N. Calculate the force on the fluid in kPa.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 In Figure 31 a force of 500 N is exerted on the piston in the main brake

cylinder. The piston has an area of 2.5 cm². The pistons in the wheel
brake cylinder each have an area of 4 cm².

A = 4 cm2

A = 2,5 cm2

500 N

Fig. 31

a Calculate the pressure on the fluid in the main brake cylinder.

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
b Calculate the force on each piston in the wheel brake cylinder.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

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 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

c The piston in the main brake cylinder is displaced by 1 cm. Calculate

the distance by which each piston in the wheel brake cylinder is
displaced (assume that each piston in the brake wheel cylinder is
displaced equally).
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

5 The force on the piston in the main brake cylinder in Figure 32 is 400 N,
the piston has an area of 4 cm². This pistons in the brake wheel cylinders
have an area of 5 cm².
A = 5 cm2

A = 4 cm2

F = 400 N

Fig. 32

a Calculate the force with which the pistons in the wheel brake cylinder
are pressed against the disc.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

b The brake blocks are each 1 mm from the disc. Calculate how far the
piston in the main brake cylinder has to be displaced in order to press
the brake blocks against the disc.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

6 In Figure 33 the force on the piston in the backmost wheel brake cylinder
is 1000 N. The piston has an area of 2 cm². The area of the piston of the
frontmost brake wheel cylinder is 6 cm². The piston in the main brake
cylinder has an area of 1.6 cm².
To enable the brake linings to grip, the pistons in the wheel brake
cylinders each have to be displaced by 1 mm.

24
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Az = 6 cm2

Az = 2 cm2
1000 N

150
300
Az = 1,6 cm2

Fig. 33

a Calculate the pressure in the brake system.

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

b Calculate the force with which the brake blocks are pressed against
the disc.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

c Calculate the force on the piston in the main brake cylinder.

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

d Calculate the force needed on the brake pedal.

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

e Calculate the distance the piston in the main brake cylinder has to be
displaced to enable the brakes to grip.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

25
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

26
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

6 Brake pressure limiters

When it brakes, a car tends to nose dive. The result is that the front of the
car bottoms out and the back of the car ‘tops out’. Because of this, the
pressure on the rear wheels will become less and the pressure on the front
wheels will become greater. This means that when braking, the rear wheels
are more likely to lock than the front wheels.

To prevent the rear wheels from locking prematurely when braking, cars
are made with brake pressure limiters or brake pressure controllers. Wheels
that are locking result in a longer braking distance and make the car
undrivable.
When a certain pressure has been reached, a brake pressure limiter
closes the brake line to the rear wheels. The brake pressure to the rear
wheels does not increase any more, but the brake pressure to the front
wheels can still increase.
The pressure at which the brake line to the rear wheels is closed is the
actuation point. The change in pressure in the brake lines to the front and
the rear wheels is shown as a graph in Figure 34.

ps = actuation pressure ps = actuation pressure

rear brake pressure
rear brake pressure

ps ps

0 0
0 0
front brake pressure front brake pressure

Fig. 34 Change in brake pressures to the front and Fig. 35 Change in brake pressures to the front and the
the rear wheels with a brake pressure limiter rear wheels with a brake pressure controller

With a brake pressure controller, the pressure in the brake lines to the
rear wheels can still increase after the actuation point has been reached.
This increase in pressure is however less than the increase in pressure to
the front brakes. The change in pressure in the brake lines to the front and
the rear wheels is shown as a graph in Figure 35.

27
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Brake pressure limiters and brake pressure controllers can be made with
a fixed actuation point. The actuation point can however also be load-
dependent (Fig. 36).

ps = actuation pressure

rear wheel pressure

main brake cylinder
large load

ps small load

brake pressure controller

0
0
front brake pressure

Fig. 36 Load-dependent brake pressure controller Fig. 37 Brake pressures with a load-dependent brake
pressure controller

This means that the greater the load on the rear axle, the greater is the
pressure at which the brake pressure controller or limiter comes into action
(Fig. 37).

Load-dependent brake pressure limiters and controllers react to the

distance between the rear axle and the bodywork. This distance depends
on the load of the vehicle. The brake pressure controller is often fixed to the
bodywork, while the lever of the brake pressure controller is connected to
the axle with a spring (Fig. 38).

2 1 cap nuts
2 fixing bolts
3 spring

Fig. 38 Load-dependent brake pressure controller

If the load of the car changes, then the force that the spring exerts on the
lever of the brake pressure controller also changes. This means that the
actuation point of the brake pressure controller also changes.

28
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

How brake pressure limiters work

The brake pressure limiter in Figure 39 is at rest. The car is not braking.
The spring presses the plunger all the way to the top. The valve closes the
supply opening from the main brake cylinder. No pressure builds up in the
lines to the rear brakes.

from the main

brake cylinder

valve
valve

to the to the rear

rear brake brake

plunger rod
plunger

spring

Fig. 39 Brake pressure limiter: the car is not braking Fig. 40 Brake pressure limiter: braking normally

In Figure 40 the car is braking normally.

– The pressure of the brake fluid above the valve wants to push the valve
down.
– The pressure of the brake fluid against the bottom of the valve and the
force of the spring against the bottom of the plunger want to push the
plunger up.
valve – This results in equilibrium, whereby the valve lets brake fluid through to
the rear brakes.

In Figure 41 the car is braking hard.

– The force with which the valve is being pushed down is now greater
than the force with which the valve is being pushed up (this is due to the
difference in the active surface area below and above the valve).
– The valve is now being pushed down, so that the supply of brake fluid to
the rear wheels is closed.
– Now, the pressure in the lines to the rear wheels cannot increase any more.

In practice, the maximum pressure in the brake lines to the rear wheels is
usually about 80 to 100 bar (8000 to 10,000 kPa).

The difference in the active surface area is caused by the plunger rod. The
plunger rod ensures that the surface area on the bottom of the valve against
which the brake fluid is pushing is less than the surface area on the top. The
greater the diameter of the plunger rod, the greater is the difference in the
Fig. 41 Brake pressure active surface area. The ratio between the active surface area above and
limiter: braking hard below the valve affects the force with which the valve is pushed down.

29
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

With this type of brake pressure limiter the degree to which the brake
pressure is limited depends on:
– the ratio between the active surface areas above and below the valve
– the strength of the spring under the plunger

The brake pressure limiter in Figure 42 is shown in its state when not
braking / braking normally.

2 3

to the
rear
from the brakes
main brake
cylinder 6
7

4
1
1 chamber
2 valve seat
3 chamber
5 4 plunger
5 spring
6 valve
7 spring
8
8 adjusting screw

Fig. 42 Brake pressure limiter: not braking and

braking normally

When the car is braking normally, brake fluid flows along the valve seat (2)
to the chamber (3) and then to the rear brakes.
In Figure 43 the limit pressure has been reached.
3
2 3 2

6
6
7
7

1 4 4
1

5
5

8
8

Fig. 43 Brake pressure limiter: limit pressure Fig. 44 Brake pressure limiter: releasing the brake
reached pedal

The pressure of the brake fluid has become so high that the plunger (4) is
pushed down against the force of the spring (5). The valve seat (2) closes
the through-way from chamber (1) to chamber (3). Now the pressure in
chamber (3) cannot increase any further.

30
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Figure 44 shows the situation when the brake pedal is released.

When the brake pedal is released, the pressure in chamber (1) falls. The
valve (6) is pushed down against the pressure of the spring (7). The brake
fluid can flow back from chamber (3) to chamber (1). The pressure in the
brake lines to the rear wheels falls off.

Questions
1 When do we refer to a wheel being locked?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 Name two disadvantages of a wheel that locks when braking.

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

3 Explain why it is that when braking, the rear wheels are more likely to
lock than the front wheels.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 Figure 45 shows the principle of how a brake pressure limiter works.

What effect does the force of the spring have on the controlled pressure
in the lines to the rear wheels?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

5 What two factors determine the controlled pressure in the brake

pressure limiter?
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Fig. 45
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

31
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

6 If a brake system is divided crosswise, is it enough to have one brake

pressure limiter? Explain your answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

7 In Figure 46 the car is

A not braking
B braking normally
C braking hard
d
8 If in Figure 46 the diameter (d) of the plunger rod becomes smaller, the
result is that the controlled pressure in the lines to the rear wheels:
A becomes greater
B becomes less
C remains the same

9 If in Figure 47 the plunger is in the position shown,

A the car is not braking
Fig. 46
B the car is braking a little
C the car is braking hard
D the brake pedal is being released

3
2

6
7

4
1

Fig. 47

32
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

7 Brake pressure controllers

Like brake pressure limiters, brake pressure controllers are mounted in the
brake lines to the rear wheels (Fig. 48).

main brake cylinder

brake pressure controller

front axle rear axle

Fig. 48 Brake pressure controller

Figure 49 shows the principle of how a brake pressure controller works.

1 2 C 3 4
A

E
Fig. 49 Brake pressure controller: starting to brake
When the brake pedal is pushed down, the brake fluid flows from the main
brake cylinder through the connection A into the space B in the brake
pressure controller. Through the bores C and the valve (1), the brake fluid
flows into the space D. Through the opening E the brake fluid flows to the
wheel brake cylinders. The brake shoes move in the direction of the brake
drum. When the brake shoes come to rest against it, the pressure in the
brake pressure controller increases.

33
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Difference in surface area

The brake fluid in the space B presses against a smaller surface that that in
the space D. The difference in the surface area is caused by the piston rod
(3). The pressure of the brake fluid is however the same on both sides of the
piston (2). As a result, the resulting force that the brake fluid exerts on the
piston (2) is directed to the right.
When the pressure of the fluid reaches a certain value, the piston (2) will
overcome the force of the spring (4). The piston (2) moves to the right.
During this movement of the piston, the valve (1) closes (Fig. 50). The
actuation point has been reached. Now, no more brake fluid can flow to the
brake lines of the rear wheels.
1 2 C 3 4
A

Fig. 50 Brake pressure controller in action

Increasing the pedal force

When the force on the brake pedal increases, the brake fluid pushes the
piston (2) to the left. The valve (1) opens and lets brake fluid through.
The pressure in the brake lines to the rear wheels increases and a new
equilibrium becomes established. This process is repeated each time the
pedal force is increased.

Releasing the brake pedal

When the brake pedal is released, the pressure in space B falls. As a result,
the brake fluid in space D can push the piston (2) a little to the right. This
causes the pressure in space D to fall. The force of the spring (4) overcomes
A inlet the pressure of the brake fluid in space D. The spring (4) can push the
B outlet piston (2) to the left, so that the valve (1) opens.
1 ring chamber
2 bore
3 control piston Brake pressure controller with a fixed actuation point
4 valve Figure 51 shows a brake pressure controller with a fixed actuation point.
5 chamber
6 spring B 2 A 7
7 adjusting bolt

5 4 1 3 6
Fig. 51 Brake pressure controller with a fixed actuation point

34
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

The brake pressure that is produced in the main brake cylinder enters the
controller through the connection A. The brake pressure enters the chamber
(5) via the chamber (1), the bore (2) and the valve (4). The brake pressure
can then reach the rear wheels via connection B.
When the actuation point has been reached, the control piston (3) moves
to the right, against the force of the spring (6). The valve (4) closes and the
control piston (3) comes into a condition of labile equilibrium.
When the brake pressure in chamber (1) increases, the control piston (3)
will move backwards and forwards at high speed. The valve (4) will keep
on opening and closing so that the pressure in space 5 increases. This
pressure will however not increase as much as the incoming braking
pressure. So the outgoing braking pressure (connection B) does not
increase as much as the incoming braking pressure (connection A).

The actuation point can be set using an adjusting bolt (7). This changes the
pretension of the spring (6). Brake pressure controllers are set in the factory
to suit the car’s brake system, so the setting of brake pressure controllers
should not be changed.

Figure 52 shows the change in pressure in the brake lines when using a
brake pressure controller with a fixed actuation point. Figure 53 shows how
the pressures change if the pretension of the spring behind the control
piston changes.
A = actuation point
1 = pressure ratio between the front and the rear axle
2 = pressure ratio with a low spring tension
A = actuation point 3 = pressure ratio with a high spring tension
3
rear brake pressure

rear brake pressure

A3 1

2
A A1

A2

0 0
0 0
front brake pressure front brake pressure

Fig. 52 Change in pressure in a brake pressure Fig. 53 Change in pressure when the spring tension is
controller with a fixed actuation point changed

35
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Load-dependent brake pressure

controller
The brake pressure controller can be made to
be load-dependent by adjusting the force on the
control piston to the load of the car. This is the case
with the brake pressure controller in Figure 54.

A lever, rather than a spring, presses against the

back of the control piston. A spring pulls on the end
of the lever.
brake pressure controller
The brake pressure controller is fixed to the
bodywork and the spring is fixed to the axle (or the
other way round). When the distance between the
bodywork and the axle changes, the spring is pulled
out to a greater or lesser extent. This changes the
pretension of the spring. In this way the actuation
point of the brake pressure limiter has become
dependent on the load of the car.

In this way the brake pressure to the rear wheels

is adjusted within certain limits, depending on the
spring tensions that are to be reached. Figure 55
shows the control curve of a load-dependent brake
control piston pressure controller.

Deceleration-dependent brake pressure

lever controller
The brake pressure controller in Figure 56 works
dependently on deceleration.

When a certain braking deceleration has been

spring reached, the ball joint 10 rolls up the gradient. The
throughway to the rear wheels is now closed.

Fig. 54 Load-dependent brake pressure controller

G F 2 3 4 5 6 7 A B

ps = actuation point (load-dependent)

MPa 10
rear brake pressure P2

Ps2

Ps1

0
0 10 MPa
front brake pressure P1 11 10 E 9 D C

Fig. 55 Change in pressure with a load-dependent Fig. 56 Deceleration-dependent brake pressure

brake pressure controller controller in action

36
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Starting to brake
When starting to brake, brake fluid flows from the main brake cylinder through
connection A into the brake pressure controller. Through the space B and
channel C the brake fluid flows to space D. From there the brake fluid flows
along the ball joint 10 to the space E. From space E the brake fluid flows to
space F. Connection G is connected to the brake lines to the rear wheels.
In this situation the pressures in the spaces B and F are just about the
same. Because the surface area of the plunger (3) is greater than that of the
plunger (6), against the force of the control spring (5), both the plungers are
pushed to the right.

Rapid deceleration
If the deceleration becomes too rapid, the ball joint rolls
A = trigger pressure
MPa 10
up the gradient. The connection between the spaces E
and F is now closed. This situation is shown in Figure 56.
rear brake pressure

8
ball joint not
in its seat
ball joint
in seat
Now no more brake fluid flows to space F. The actuation
pressure has been reached.
6
Increasing the pedal force
4
When the pedal force increases, the pressure in space B
will become greater. This causes the plungers (6) and (3) to
A be pushed to the left, so that the pressure in space F also
2
increases. Because of the difference in the surface area
between the plungers (6) and (3), the pressure in space F
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 MPa will not increase as much as the pressure in space B.
main brake cylinder pressure

Fig. 57 Control curve of a load-dependent Figure 57 shows the control curve of a load-dependent
brake pressure controller brake pressure controller.

Questions
1 What is the difference between a brake pressure limiter and a brake
pressure controller?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 Look at the brake pressure controller in Figure 58. What happens when
1 2 C 3 4 the actuation point is reached?
A
..............................................................
..............................................................
B
..............................................................
..............................................................
..............................................................
D
..............................................................
E ..............................................................
Fig. 58

37
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

3 Look at the brake pressure controller in Figure 59. If in the situation

shown the force on the brake pedal is increased:
A this does not affect the brake pressure to the rear wheels
B the piston (2) moves to the left
C the pressure in space D becomes less
D the pressure in space B remains the same

1 2 C 3 4
A

Fig. 59

4 The graph in Figure 60 is of a:

A brake pressure limiter with a fixed actuation point
B load-dependent brake pressure limiter
C brake pressure controller with a fixed actuation point
D load-dependent brake pressure controller
rear brake pressure

0
0 front brake pressure

Fig. 60

38
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

8 Vacuum brake booster

Brake boosting
By using brake boosters (power brakes), with a small amount of pedal
force the same pressure can be built up in the brake system. Many brake
boosters work with the help of underpressure (vacuum brake boosters).
In mixed engines this underpressure is obtained from the inlet system. In
diesel engines a vacuum pump is used.

How a vacuum brake booster works

Vacuum brake boosters work on the basis of a difference in air pressure.
Figure 61 shows the principle of how a vacuum brake booster works.

vacuum channel
fine air filter
coarse air filter
pressure pin spring
pressure pin
spring (1)

brake pedal

cup valve

valve piston vacuum connection

working piston
spring (2)
booster cylinder

roll membrane
Fig. 61 Brake booster at rest

The booster cylinder is divided into two spaces by the working piston.
When braking, the pressure on the left of the working cylinder is greater
than the pressure on the right. As a result, a resulting force acts on the
working cylinder that is directed towards the right. This force serves to
increase the force that is exerted on the brake pedal.

The engine is on, the car is not braking

This situation is shown in Figure 61.
– The spaces on the right and on the left in the booster cylinder are
connected to each other by the vacuum channel.
– The pressure is the same on both sides of the working cylinder (this
pressure is the underpressure from the engine inlet, or from the vacuum
pump).
– The spring (2) in the booster cylinder pushes the working cylinder to the
left as far as possible.
39
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Starting to brake
Figure 62 shows the situation when starting to brake.

pressure pin spring (1) cup valve

vacuum channel
valve piston

Fig. 62 Brake booster when starting to brake: the vacuum channel is closed
– When the brake pedal is pressed, the pressure pin and the valve piston
move to the right.
– The spring (1) pushes the cup valve to the right; the vacuum channel is
closed.
– The left side of the valve piston is released from the cup valve (Fig. 63).

rubber ring

valve piston

Fig. 63 Brake booster when starting to brake: outside air enters

40
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

– Outside air can flow into the space to the left of the working piston.
– The air exerts a force on the working piston that is directed to the right.
– Because of this force and the force on the brake pedal, the working
piston moves to the right.
– As a result, the piston in the main brake cylinder will also move to the
right, causing the brake linings to be pushed.

When braking, the pedal force is supported by the air pressure.

Partial braking
When the required braking force has been reached, the brake pedal is not
pressed any further.
– The cup valve is pushed to the right by the spring (1).
– The opening for outside air to enter is closed (Fig. 64).
– No more outside air flows to the space on the left of the working piston.
– On the left of the working piston there is now a pressure that is lower
than the outside air pressure, but higher than the vacuum on the right of
the working piston.
– Brake boosting is not yet at its maximum.

cup valve

spring (1)

Fig. 64 Partial braking: equilibrium

Full braking, maximum boosting

With full braking, the brake pedal is pressed hard (Fig. 65).
– As a result, the throughway between the cup valve and the valve piston
remains open; outside air can continue to flow in.
– The pressure in the space on the left of the working piston becomes
equal to the outside air pressure.
– The difference in pressure between the left side and the right side of the
working piston is now at its maximum.
– Maximum boosting has been reached.

Now the car can be braked harder only by exerting even greater force on
the pedal.

41
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

working piston

spring (2)

valve piston
cup valve

Fig. 65 Full braking: maximum boosting

With the brake pedal released

When the brake pedal is released:
– The spring 2 pushes the working piston to the left.
– The starting situation of the ‘brake booster at rest’ has been reached
(Fig. 61).
– The vacuum channel connects the spaces on the left and on the right of
the working piston.
– The engine vacuum prevails on both sides of the working piston (in
diesel engines: the vacuum of the vacuum pump).

Non-return valve
There is usually a non-return valve (Fig. 66) in the line to the vacuum
connection of the brake booster. The non-return valve prevents oil and
petrol vapour from entering the brake booster after the engine has been
switched off. The vacuum is maintained for a certain time after switching off
the engine.
valve
spring
connection to brake
booster connection to engine

a the engine is not running b the engine is running

Fig. 66 Non-return valve

42
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Questions
1 What is a brake booster for?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 On the basis of Figure 67, explain how the boosting comes about.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

membrane
vacuum connection

working piston full outside air pressure

underpressure
partial outside air pressure

outside air supply point

control rod

vacuum channel
(connecting channel)

Fig. 67

3 In what two ways can the underpressure needed for a vacuum brake
booster be obtained?
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

43
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

4 Give two reasons why there is a non-return valve in the brake booster’s
vacuum line.
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

5 Look at Figure 68. In the situation shown:

A the car is not braking
B the car is braking hard
C the car is braking partially
D the pressure on the brake pedal is being increased

6 In Figure 68 the pressure in space A:

A is the same as the engine vacuum
B is less than the engine vacuum
C is the same as the outside air pressure
D is less than the outside air pressure

7 In Figure 68 the pressure in space B:

A is the same as the engine vacuum
B is higher than the outside air pressure
C is the same as the outside air pressure
D is less than the outside air pressure

Fig. 68

44
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

9 Anti-lock brake systems

Function and main components

The purpose of an anti-lock brake system (abbreviated as ABS) is to
prevent wheels from locking when braking. Some reasons for this are:
– locking wheels are uncontrollable
– when braking with locking wheels the braking distance is longer
– with locking wheels flattened edges are produced on the tread of the
tyre (extra wear on the tyre and imbalance).

The main components in the anti-lock brake system are (Fig. 69):
– the control unit
– speed pickups (wheel sensors)
– the hydraulic unit.

3
2

4
1 hydraulic brake booster
2 main brake cylinder
3 valve housing
4 electric pump unit
1 5 brake fluid reservoir

Fig. 69 Anti-lock brake system

In anti-locking systems the peripheral speed of each wheel is registered

by the speed pickups (wheel sensors). The peripheral speed is passed on
to the control unit. The control unit compares the peripheral speed of each
of the wheels. If the peripheral speed of one of the wheels deviates by too
much, the anti-locking system intervenes by regulating the brake pressure
for each wheel. The pressure part of anti-locking systems is built into the
hydraulic unit. The hydraulic unit may be made with a hydraulic brake
booster.

Regulating principle
The anti-locking system regulates in three stages:
– keeping pressure constant
– reducing pressure
– increasing pressure.

Keeping pressure constant

If there is a danger of one of the wheels locking, the pressure in the brake
line to the wheel in question is kept constant.

45
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Reducing pressure
Often, keeping the pressure in the brake line constant is not enough to
prevent locking. In that case the pressure in the brake line is reduced.

Increasing pressure
Reducing the brake pressure results in the speed of the wheel increasing
again slightly. As a result the braking force will become less. This is why
if the speed increases too much, the brake pressure will be increased
again. The speed of the wheel then decreases again, and the braking force
increases again.

These three regulating stages are gone through four to five times per
second, until the danger of locking has passed.
The regulating can be felt in the form of vibrations in the brake pedal. When
the anti-locking system has come into action, the driver has to keep on
exerting a strong pressure on the brake pedal. Reducing the pressure on
the brake pedal results in the anti-locking system no longer being in action.
As a result, the total braking distance increases.

Hydraulic unit
The hydraulic unit (Fig. 70) serves to adjust the brake pressure.

magnetic valves

pump

Fig. 70 Hydraulic unit

The main functional groups in the hydraulic unit are (Fig. 71):
– magnetic valves (usually one for each wheel, or one for each front
wheel and one for the rear axle); the magnetic valves regulate the flow of
brake fluid
– return pump; driven by an electric motor
– energy reservoir for the return pump.

The hydraulic unit is triggered by the control unit.

46
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

main brake cylinder

return pump
return pump electric motor

hydraulic unit
relays

energy reservoir
magnetic valve

brake caliper control unit

crown gear

wheel sensor

Fig. 71 ABS: components of the control circuit

We explain how the system works based on various situations.

47
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

No danger of locking
This situation is shown in Figure 72. The magnetic valves are not triggered.
The control piston of the magnetic valve is pushed down by the spring.
The pressure in the main brake cylinder passes through to the brake wheel
cylinder(s).

spring

control piston

Fig. 72 Braking: no danger of locking

48
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Danger of locking
If a wheel is in danger of locking, the control unit intervenes. First of all the
pressure is kept constant.
The control unit activates the magnetic valve of the wheel in question with
a current of 1.9 to 2.3 A. The control piston in the magnetic valve is now
raised a little, against the spring force. The throughway to the brake wheel
cylinder is closed (Fig. 73). The connection between the main brake cylinder
and the wheel brake cylinder is now broken. The pressure in the wheel
brake cylinder is maintained.

coil
spring

control piston

Fig. 73 Braking: danger of locking, the pressure is kept constant

49
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Reducing pressure
If the danger of locking remains, the pressure to the wheel brake cylinder is
reduced. This is done by increasing the current to the magnetic valve (4.5 to
5.7 A). This causes the strength of the coil’s magnetic field to increase. The
control piston is now pulled up so far until the return channel becomes free
(Fig. 74). Brake fluid now flows out of the brake circuit, so that the pressure
in the wheel brake cylinder falls. The speed of the wheel increases. At the
same time the return pump pumps the brake fluid back to the brake circuit
in question. With this, the brake fluid enters the brake circuit again, and is
available to increase the pressure. Lowering of the brake pressure can be
felt as a slight vibration in the brake pedal.

return pump

coil

control piston

return channel

Fig. 74 Braking: reducing pressure

50
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Increasing pressure
When the speed of the wheel increases, the danger of locking has passed.
The control unit stops the current to the magnetic valve. The control piston
is pushed down by the spring. The brake pressure from the main brake
cylinder is let into the wheel brake cylinder again. The pressure in the wheel
brake cylinder increases, as a result of which the wheel is braked harder.

There are different types of anti-lock brake system. Figure 75 gives an

overview.

control channel
sensor
4 channels 3 channels 2 channels 2 channels
4 sensors 3 sensors 3 sensors 2 sensors 2 sensors
front – rear diagonal front – rear front – rear front – rear diagonal front – rear

Fig. 75 ABS: system variants

Speed pickups
Speed pickups consist of a crown gear and a wheel sensor (Fig. 76).

crown gear crown gear

wheel sensor

wheel sensor

a speed pickup on a rear wheel b speed pickup on a front wheel

Fig. 76 Speed pickups

51
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

A wheel sensor consists of a permanent magnet and a coil. The crown gear
turns along the wheel sensor. One moment a tooth of the gear is in front of
the wheel sensor. Next there is a tooth space in front of the wheel sensor.
The size of the air gap between the crown gear and the wheel sensor is
always changing. As a result the wheel sensor is in a changing magnetic
field. The result is that an alternating voltage is generated in the coil of the
wheel sensor (Fig. 77).

sinusoidal alternating
voltage
magnet period

coil

air gap

tooth

crown gear tooth space

a crown gear and sensor b sinusoidal alternating voltage

Fig. 77 Principle of how speed pickups work

The magnitude and the frequency of this alternating voltage depend on the
speed of the wheel (Fig. 78).

They are sent to the electronic control unit as an input

signal. In this way big differences in the speed of the
driving off
wheels are picked up by the control unit. If there are big
differences in the speed of the wheels, the control unit
brings the anti-locking system into action.

speed
ABS warning lights
On the dashboard there are two control lights that give
car stationary or information about the brake system. These lights can
locking wheel
work separately or together. These lights are:
– a control light for the brake fluid level, brake pressure
and the parking brake (hand brake)
Fig. 78 Magnitude and frequency depending – a control light for the anti-locking system.
on speed
The control light for the brake fluid level, brake pressure and the hand
brake has three functions:
– they come on if the hand brake is on, completely or partly
– they come on if the level of the brake fluid is too low
– if this light is on as well as the control light for the anti-locking system,
the brake fluid level or the booster pressure is too low.

52
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

If the control light for the anti-locking system comes on when driving, the
ABS has been put out of action either completely or in part. It is put out of
action automatically if the ABS control unit detects an electrical fault. The
brake system continues to work normally, without the characteristics of
ABS.

Questions
1 What is the function of an anti-lock brake system?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 What three situations occur in the brake line when the anti-lock brake
system is in action?
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................

3 Name three important components in an anti-lock brake system and

their function.
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 How can the driver notice that the anti-lock brake system is coming into
action?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

5 Why must the driver not reduce pressure on the brake pedal when the
anti-lock brake system comes into action?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

53
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

6 What two components does a speed pickup consist of?

1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

7 What happens to the frequency of the signal from the speed pickup if
there is a danger of a wheel locking?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

8 The control piston of the magnetic valve takes up the position as shown
in Figure 79. In this condition:
A the car is not braking
B the brake pressure is being reduced
C the brake pressure is being kept constant
D the brake pressure is being increased

1 2 C 3 4
A

Fig. 79
9 The logical sequence when an ABS control comes into action is:
A reduce pressure → increase pressure → keep pressure constant
B keep pressure constant → reduce pressure → increase pressure
C reduce pressure → keep pressure constant → increase pressure
D keep pressure constant → increase pressure → reduce pressure

10 The control light for the anti-lock brake system comes on when driving.
This means:
A the brake system is working normally, without the characteristics of
ABS
B the hand brake is partly on
C the brake fluid level is too low
D the booster pressure is too low

54
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

10 Legal requirements for braking

deceleration

Braking deceleration determines braking distance. A brake system that is

working properly provides good braking deceleration and results in a short
braking distance. A brake system that is working poorly results in slow
deceleration. The braking deceleration must be checked regularly. If the
deceleration is too slow, the brake system must be checked.
For the APK (vehicle roadworthiness test), for light vehicles the deceleration
is measured on the brake test rig or with a self-registering deceleration
meter. For heavy vehicles (above 3500 kg), the brake test rig is used.

The pedal force needed also plays a part in checking the braking
deceleration. The pedal force needed to achieve the deceleration specified
by law must not exceed the maximum specified force.

For road safety purposes, the legislator has established requirements for
deceleration. Tables 1 and 2 provide an overview of the legal requirements.

Table 1 Legal requirements for deceleration (EC)

Categories of vehicle Minimum Minimum deceleration Minimum Muscular
deceleration – secondary brake; total deceleration energy (max.)
– service separately or combined – parking brake foot hand
brake with service brake
M1 5.8 m/s² 50% or 2.9 m/s² 18% gradient ** 500 N 400 N
M2 5 m/s² 50% or 2.5 m/s² 18% gradient 700 N 600 N
M3 5 m/s² 50% or 2.5 m/s² 18% gradient 700 N 600 N
N1 5 m/s² 2.2 m/s² 18% gradient 700 N 600 N
N2 5 m/s² 2.2 m/s² 18% gradient 700 N 600 N
N3 5 m/s² 2.2 m/s² 18% gradient 700 N 600 N
O1 trailers - - - - -
O2 trailers 50% * - 18% gradient 600 N 600 N
O3 trailers 50% * - 18% gradient 600 N 600 N
O4 trailers 50% * - 18% gradient 600 N 600 N
O1 semi-trailers - - - - -
O2 semi-trailers 45% * - 18% gradient 600 N 600 N
O3 semi-trailers 45% * - 18% gradient 600 N 600 N
O4 semi-trailers 45% * - 18% gradient 600 N 600 N
combinations 12% gradient
* = percentage of the total of the axle loads of the trailer/semi-trailer
** = at the gradient given, the vehicle must remain still
M1 Vehicles intended for transporting people, with at most eight seats, not including the driver’s seat
M2 Vehicles intended for transporting people, with more than eight seats, not including the driver’s seat, and with
a maximum weight of at most 5 tons.
M3 Vehicles intended for transporting people, with more than eight seats, not including the driver’s seat, and with
a maximum weight of more than 5 tons.
N1 Vehicles intended for transporting goods, with a maximum weight of at most 3.5 tons.
N2 Vehicles intended for transporting goods, with a maximum weight of more than 3.5 tons, but not more than
12 tons.
N3 Vehicles intended for transporting goods, with a maximum weight of more than 12 tons.
O1 Trailers and semi-trailers and semi-trailers with a maximum weight of at most 0.75 tons.
O2 Trailers and semi-trailers and semi-trailers with a maximum weight of more than 0.75 tons, but not more than
3.5 tons.
O3 Trailers and semi-trailers and semi-trailers with a maximum weight of more than 3.5 tons, but not more than
10 tons.
O4 Trailers and semi-trailers and semi-trailers with a maximum weight of more than 10 tons.

55
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Table 2 Legal requirements for deceleration (Netherlands)

Categories of vehicle Minimum Minimum deceleration Minimum Muscular
deceleration – secondary brake; total deceleration energy (max.)
– service separately or combined – parking brake foot hand
brake with service brake

M1 5.2 m/s² 2.6 m/s² 16% gradient 500 N 500 N

M2 4.5 m/s² 2.25 m/s² 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
M3 4.5 m/s² 2.25 m/s² 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
N1 4 m/s² 2 m/s² 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
N2 4 m/s² 2 m/s² 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
N3 4 m/s² 2 m/s² 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
O1 trailers - - - - -
O2 trailers 4 m/s² - 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
O3 trailers 4 m/s² - 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
O4 trailers 4 m/s² - 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
O1 semi-trailers - - - - -
O2 semi-trailers 4 m/s² - 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
O3 semi-trailers 4 m/s² - 16% gradient 700 N 700 N
O4 semi-trailers 4 m/s² - 16% gradient 700 N 700 N

56
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Questions
1 What is the general legal requirement for the deceleration of a car?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 Give two possible defects in the brake system which would mean that
the specified deceleration cannot be achieved.
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

3 A car is moving at a speed of 72 km/h. The car brakes with a

deceleration of 5 m/s². Calculate the speed after braking for 3 s.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 What is the legal requirement for the deceleration of the service brake of
a passenger car (see Table 2)?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

57
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

58
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

11 Hydraulic brake systems (2) in the

workshop

11.1 Brake pressure limiters and brake pressure

controllers in the workshop
Maintenance on brake pressure limiters and brake
pressure controllers
When maintaining a vehicle, attention must be paid to brake pressure
limiters and brake pressure controllers. Look out for the following:
– the fixing of the housing
– the ease of movement and the adjustment of the lever system
– the fixing of the spring
– the ease of movement of the control piston
• Check the ease of movement with the help of a colleague. When the
colleague steps hard on the brake pedal a few times, it must be clear
that the lever moves.
– leaks
• Brake pressure controllers are usually made with a puncture bore.
Drops forming on the puncture bore show that there is an internal
leak. ‘Sweating’ slightly is permissible.

Checking the setting of brake pressure limiters and brake

pressure controllers
Premature locking of the rear wheels can be caused by a faulty or wrongly
adjusted brake pressure limiter or controller.

Follow the manufacturer’s instructions when checking brake pressure

1 fixing bolt for lever limiters and controllers (workshop documentation).
2 adjusting weight
Example
The load-dependent brake pressure controller in
Figure 80 must be adjusted as follows:
1 – make sure that the car is in a condition such that
it is ready to be driven (full tank, spare
wheel and standard tools on board)
– put the car on level ground and with the
suspension resting (the wheels are resting on
the ground)
2 – loosen the fixing bolt (1) of the lever by a few
turns
– attach a 3.5 kg adjusting weight to the eye of the
lever (Fig. 80)
Fig 80 Adjusting a load-dependent brake pressure – tighten the fixing bolt (1) of the lever (tightening
controller moment 20 to 25 Nm).

59
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Questions
1 What do load-dependent brake pressure controllers have to be checked
for? Write down three points.
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 Look at the brake pressure controller in Figure 81. The spring has
broken. What is the result?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

spring

spring

Fig. 81 Brake pressure controller

60
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

11.2 Vacuum brake boosters in the workshop

Faults in vacuum brake boosters
If there is a fault in the brake booster, more force than normal has to be
exerted on the brake pedal. Some faults affect the running of the engine.
Table 3 gives an overview of faults and their possible consequences. See
also Figure 82 (on the next page).

Table 3: Faults in brake boosters

fault consequence comment
vacuum hose leaking • more pedal force needed when • no underpressure is produced
braking in the brake booster (or it is
too low)
• engine gets ‘unmetered air’ • the engine runs unevenly

vacuum pump faulty • more pedal force needed when • no underpressure is produced
(diesel engine) braking in the brake booster (or it is
too low)
vacuum brake booster • more pedal force needed when • the outside air flowing in
membrane leaking braking ‘disappears’ through the leak
into the engine inlet
• engine gets ‘unmetered air’ when • this can be noticed by
braking stepping on the brake pedal
with the engine running
when the car is not moving;
the unmetered air causes a
change in speed
the seal between the cup • engine gets ‘unmetered air’ when it • outside air flows through the
valve and the valve piston is not braking vacuum channel to the engine
is faulty inlet
• the fault does not affect the
boosting
the seal between the cup • more pedal force needed when • outside air flows through
valve and the vacuum braking the vacuum channel to the
channel is faulty engine inlet; so there is a
smaller difference in pressure
between the left side and
the right side of the working
piston
• engine gets ‘unmetered air’ when • this can be noticed by
braking stepping on the brake pedal
with the engine running
when the car is not moving;
the unmetered air causes a
change in speed

61
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

vacuum channel
fine air filter
coarse air filter
pressure pin spring
pressure pin spring (1)

brake pedal

cup valve

valve piston vacuum connection

working piston
spring (2)
booster cylinder
roll membrane

Fig. 83 Brake booster at rest

Checking vacuum brake boosters

If there are complaints, vacuum brake boosters have to be checked for their
action and leaks.

The action of a vacuum brake booster can be checked as follows:

– switch off the engine
– press the brake pedal down a few times so that the underpressure
disappears from the brake booster
– press the brake pedal down
– start the engine
– the brake pedal should now go down a little.

Because the engine is being started, an underpressure is created on one

side of the working piston. The pedal force is increased, causing the brake
pedal to go down a little.

A vacuum brake booster can be checked for leaks as follows:

– switch on the engine for a short time
– stop the engine
– after a few minutes press the brake pedal down, and start the engine
– the brake pedal should not go down.

Because there is still underpressure in the brake booster, the brake pedal
should not go down.

62
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Apparatus for testing vacuum brake boosters

These checks can be carried out without using test apparatus. Sometimes
they do not give enough certainty about the nature of the fault. The
tightness of the system can be checked with a vacuum pump and/or a
vacuum meter.

A vacuum meter is connected to the vacuum line of the brake booster

(Fig. 83).

vacuum meter
T-piece

put a clip on
the line

Fig. 83 Checking the seal of a brake booster with a Fig. 84 Checking the seal of a brake booster
vacuum meter with a vacuum pump

By running the engine, underpressure is created in the brake booster. If

there is enough underpressure, the line to the inlet manifold has to be
clipped. Then the engine is switched off. After switching off the engine
the underpressure must still be maintained for a certain time (workshop
documentation).

With a vacuum pump an underpressure of 60 to 70 kPa is applied (Fig. 84).

The underpressure must be maintained for a certain time. If there is a leak,
the underpressure will fall quickly.

Replacing parts of brake booster systems

Usually, vacuum brake boosters cannot be repaired. If they are faulty, they
have to be replaced. At the same time, replace the non-return valve in the
vacuum line. This is often what causes the fault. If the non-return valve is
faulty, fuel and oil vapour gets into the brake booster. This damages the
membrane and the seals, which can cause leaks. Make sure that the non-
return valve is fitted in the right direction. An arrow on the housing of the
non-return valve shows the direction in which the air flows.
Make sure that the vacuum line is positioned correctly. It must be higher on
the side of the brake booster than on the side of the manifold. This prevents
(fuel) vapour that condenses in the vacuum line from flowing to the brake
booster (when the engine is off).

63
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Questions
1 The brake pedal has to be pressed too hard to get enough braking force.
Name three faults in the booster system that can cause this.
1 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 From the non-return valve in Figure 85 there is a connection 1 / 2 on the

side of the brake booster.

3 The valve of the non-return valve in Figure 85 does not make a proper
seal. What are the consequences?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 The non-return valve in Figure 85 is fitted wrongly. What are the

consequences?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

valve

spring

1 2

Fig. 85

64
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

5 A car has not been driven for a few days. The driver starts the car, while
pressing down on the brake pedal. After the car has started, he feels that
the brake pedal has gone down a little. Explain this.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

6 Look at the brake booster in Figure 86. The car is not braking. In this
case does a torn membrane on the brake booster affect the running of
the engine? Explain your answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

7 Look at the brake booster in Figure 86. There is brake fluid in the brake
booster in the space on the left of the working piston. What can have
caused this?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

membrane
vacuum connection

working piston full outside air pressure

underpressure

partial outside air pressure

outside air supply

control rod

vacuum channel
(connecting channel)

Fig. 86

65
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

8 Look at the brake booster in Figure 87. The seal between the cup valve
and the valve piston is faulty. The following is true:
A as a result the engine gets unmetered air if the car is braked hard
B outside air flows through the leak to the engine inlet
C greater pedal force is needed when braking
D as a result the travel of the brake pedal changes when braking

vacuum channel
fine air filter
coarse air filter
pressure pin spring
pressure pin
spring (1)

brake pedal

cup valve

valve piston vacuum connection

working piston
spring (2)
booster cylinder
roll membrane

Fig. 87

9 The non-return valve of a brake booster is leaking. The consequence is:

A after stopping the engine the brake booster is directly out of action
B when not moving, the engine runs very unevenly
C greater pedal force is needed when braking
D the engine gets unmetered air when braking

11.3 Anti-lock brake systems in the workshop

In general, anti-lock brake systems are maintenance-free. Any faults are
often caused by the speed pickups. Faults in speed pickups can be seen
in that they do not give a signal, or give wrong signals. There a number of
possible causes. These include the cabling, their fixing, the setting of the
sensor and dirt.

66
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Cabling
When checking the cabling look out for:
– their fixing: the cabling must be secured so that there is no tension
– worn areas: the cabling must not come into contact with any moving
(rotating) parts
– broken wires
– transition resistance: corrosion on the connections of the cabling causes
a transition resistance, causing wrong signals to be sent to the control
unit.

Fixing
The fixing of the wheel sensor must be stable. Loose fixing bolts can cause
a wheel sensor to vibrate. This can deform the signals.

Dirt
If there is dirt between the teeth of the crown gear, the speed pickup will
give an incorrect signal or no signal at all.

Distance between the wheel sensor and the crown gear

The distance between the wheel sensor and the crown gear affects
the magnitude of the alternating voltage. If the distance is too great,
the alternating voltage will be too low. If the distance is too small, the
alternating voltage produced will be too big. If the alternating voltage is too
big and if it is too small, the anti-lock brake system is switched off. This
is why the distance between the wheel sensor and the crown gear must
correspond to the value given by the manufacturer.

a front wheel brake b rear wheel brake

Fig. 88 Checking the adjustment between the wheel sensor and the crown gear

For the correct distance, look at the workshop documentation. If the

distance is not correct, the wheel sensor has to be adjusted again or be
replaced (depending on the type).

Checking the wheel sensor

Faults in anti-lock brake systems are usually diagnosed by reading fault
codes. Components such as wheel sensors can be checked by measuring
their resistance and/or measuring the voltage signal that is given. Follow the
manufacturer’s instructions.

67
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

Bleeding brakes with ABS

Brakes can be bled in two ways:
– by the ‘with the foot’ method (pumping with the brake pedal)
– using a filling and bleeding apparatus.

Depending on the manufacturer’s instructions the car may or may not have
to be resting on its wheels.

The bleeding method depends on the brake system used.

In general, we can distinguish between two groups:
– brakes with ABS and a vacuum brake booster
– brakes with ABS and a hydraulic brake booster.

In both cases, the pressure in the hydraulic unit has to be reduced before
starting to bleed the system. This is done by pressing on the brake pedal
about 20 times. The ignition must be switched off.

Brakes with ABS and a vacuum brake booster

These systems can often be bled in the same way as brakes that do not
have ABS. With some manufacturers, brakes with ABS can only be bled
using the ‘with the foot’ method.

Brakes with ABS and a hydraulic brake booster

Sometimes these systems can only be bled using a filling and bleeding
apparatus.
The front brakes are bled in the same way as in systems without ABS.
When bleeding the rear brakes, the high-pressure pump of the anti-lock
brake system is often used. If the brake pedal is pressed down with the
ignition switched on, the high-pressure pump pumps brake fluid to the rear
brakes. To bleed the brakes:
– press the brake pedal down about 20 times to remove the pressure from
the system
– put the bleed hose in place and open the bleed nipple
– press the brake pedal down and turn on the ignition
– let the brake fluid flow until the system is free of air bubbles; then close
the bleed nipple
– switch off the ignition and release the brake pedal.

Important
When bleeding the brakes, the high-pressure pump must not be on
continuously for more than about 120 seconds. If this time is exceeded, the
pump has to cool down for about 10 minutes.

Working on brake systems with ABS

When carrying out repairs on cars with ABS and on the ABS itself, you have
to look out for a number of things.
– With the following activities the earth terminal has to be removed from
the battery:
• removing plug connections from the ABS
• replacing electrical components
• work on the hydraulic unit.
– After they have been removed, brake lines and brake connections must
be provided with dust caps straight away.

68
Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

– After working on the hydraulic system, the brake system must be bled.
– After replacing components such as the hydraulic unit, control unit,
speed pickups and the cable harness, the whole ABS system must be
checked to ensure it is working properly.

Questions
1 What is the function of the ABS warning light?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

2 When bleeding brakes with ABS, can a bleed nipple simply be loosened
from one of the rear brakes? Explain your answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

3 In many brakes that have ABS, the rear brakes are bled using the high-
pressure pump. Describe what happens.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

4 What do you have to look out for if the brakes are bled using the high-
pressure pump?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

5 The crown gear of the speed pickup is dirty. The tooth spaces are full of
grease and grit. What is the consequence?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

69
 Hydraulic brake systems 2

Theory

6 There is a fault in the anti-lock brake system. Write down four points the
cabling has to be checked for.
1 .................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................
4 .................................................................................................................

7 With what two (electrical) measuring devices can the signal from the
wheel sensors be checked? Also say ‘what’ can be checked with the
measuring device.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

8 The distance between the wheel sensor and the crown gear is too great.
What is the consequence of this?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

70