Electronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices, and Applications
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HaroldElectronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices, and Applications
Uploaded by
HaroldInstructor’s Resource Manual
to accompany
Electronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices,
and Applications
8th Edition
Thomas L. Floyd
David M. Buchla
PRENTICE HALL
______________________________________________________________________________
Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.
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eighth edition, may reproduce material from the Instructor’s Manual for classroom use.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-506329-3
I SBN-10: 0-13-506329-9
CONTENTS
PART 1 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Problems 1
PART 2 Solutions to Application Assignments 195
PART 3 Summary of Multisim Circuit Results 241
PART 4 Special Topics 261
PART 5 Laboratory Solutions for Experiments in
Electronics Fundamentals and
Electric Circuits Fundamentals by David Buchla 277
PART 6 Partial List of CEMA Skills 371
iii
PART ONE
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Problems
1
2
CHAPTER 1
QUANTITIES AND UNITS
SECTION 1-1 Scientific and Engineering Notation
1. (a) 3000 = 3 × 103 (b) 75,000 = 7.5 × 104 (c) 2,000,000 = 2 × 106
1
2. (a) = 0.002 = 2 × 10−3
500
1
(b) = 0.0005 = 5 × 10−4
2000
1
(c) = 0.0000002 = 2 × 10−7
5,000,000
3. (a) 8400 = 8.4 × 103 (b) 99,000 = 9.9 × 104 (c) 0.2 × 106 = 2 × 105
4. (a) 0.0002 = 2 × 10−4 (b) 0.6 = 6 × 10−1
(c) 7.8 × 10−2 (already in scientific notation)
5. (a) 2.5 × 10−6 = 0.0000025 (b) 5.0 × 102 = 500 (c) 3.9 × 10−1 = 0.39
6. (a) 4.5 × 10−6 = 0.0000045
(b) 8 × 10−9 = 0.000000008
(c) 4.0 × 10−12 = 0.0000000000040
7. (a) 9.2 × 106 + 3.4 × 107 = 9.2 × 106 + 34 × 106 = 4.32 × 107
(b) 5 × 103 + 8.5 × 10−1 = 5 × 103 + 0.00085 × 103 = 5.00085 × 103
(c) 5.6 × 10−8 + 4.6 × 10−9 = 56 × 10−9 + 4.6 × 10−9 = 6.06 × 10−8
8. (a) 3.2 × 1012 − 1.1 × 1012 = 2.1 × 1012
(b) 2.6 × 108 − 1.3 × 107 = 26 × 107 − 1.3 × 107 = 24.7 × 107
(c) 1.5 × 10−12 − 8 × 10−13 = 15 × 10−13 − 8 × 10−13 = 7 × 10−13
3
9. (a) (5 × 103)(4 × 105) = 5 × 4 × 103 + 5 = 20 × 108 = 2 × 109
(b) (1.2 × 1012)(3 × 102) = 1.2 × 3 × 1012 + 2 = 3.6 × 1014
(c) (2.2 × 10−9)(7 × 10−6) = 2.2 × 7 × 10− 9 − 6 = 15.4 × 10−15 = 1.54 × 10−14
1.0 × 103
10. (a) = 0.4 × 103 − 2 = 0.4 × 101 = 4
2.5 × 102
2.5 ×10−6
(b) = 0.5 × 10−6 − (−8) = 0.5 × 102 = 50
5.0 × 10−8
4.2 × 108
(c) = 2.1 × 108 − (−5) = 2.1 × 1013
2 × 10−5
11. (a) 89,000 = 89 × 103
(b) 450,000 = 450 × 103
(c) 12,040,000,000,000 = 12.04 × 1012
12. (a) 2.35 × 105 = 235 × 103
(b) 7.32 × 107 = 73.2 × 106
(c) 1.333 × 109 (already in engineering notation)
13. (a) 0.000345 = 345 × 10−6
(b) 0.025 = 25 × 10−3
(c) 0.00000000129 = 1.29 × 10−9
14. (a) 9.81 × 10−3 = 9.81 × 10−3
(b) 4.82 × 10−4 = 482 × 10−6
(c) 4.38 × 10−7 = 438 × 10−9
15. (a) 2.5 × 10−3 + 4.6 × 10−3 = (2.5 + 4.6) × 10−3 = 7.1 × 10−3
(b) 68 × 106 + 33 × 106 = (68 + 33) × 106 = 101 × 106
(c) 1.25 × 106 + 250 × 103 = 1.25 × 106 + 0.25 × 106 = (1.25 + 0.25) × 106 = 1.50 × 106
16. (a) (32 × 10−3)(56 × 103) = 1792 × 10(−3 + 3) = 1792 × 100 = 1.792 × 103
(b) (1.2 × 10−6)(1.2 × 10−6) = 1.44 × 10(−6 − 6) = 1.44 × 10−12
4
(c) (100)(55 × 10−3) = 5500 × 10−3 = 5.5
50
17. (a) = 22.7 × 10−3
2.2 × 10 3
5 × 103
(b) −6
= 0.2 × 10(3 − (−6)) = 0.2 × 109 = 200 × 106
25 × 10
560 × 103
(c) = 0.848 × 10(3 − 3) = 0.848 × 100 = 848 × 10−3
660 × 10 3
SECTION 1-2 Units and Metric Prefixes
18. (a) 89,000 Ω = 89 × 103 = 89 kΩ
(b) 450,000 Ω = 450 × 103 = 450 kΩ
(c) 12,040,000,000,000 Ω = 12.04 × 1012 = 12.04 TΩ
19. (a) 0.000345 A = 345 × 10−6 A = 345 μA
(b) 0.025 A = 25 × 10−3 A = 25 mA
(c) 0.00000000129 A = 1.29 × 10−9 A = 1.29 nA
20. (a) 31 × 10−3 A = 31 mA (b) 5.5 × 103 V = 5.5 kV (c) 20 × 10−12 F = 20 pF
21. (a) 3 × 10−6 F = 3 μF (b) 3.3 × 106 Ω = 3.3 MΩ (c) 350 × 10−9 A = 350 nA
22. (a) 5 μA = 5 × 10−6 A (b) 43 mV = 43 × 10−3 V
(c) 275 kΩ = 275 × 103 Ω (d) 10 MW = 10 × 106 W
SECTION 1-3 Metric Unit Conversions
23. (a) (5 mA) (1 × 103 μA/mA) = 5 × 103 μA = 5000 μA
(b) (3200 μW)(1 × 10−3 W/μW) = 3.2 mW
(c) (5000 kV)(1 × 10−3) MV/kV = 5 MV
(d) (10 MW)(1 × 103 kW/MW) = 10 × 103 kW = 10,000 kW
5
1 mA 1 × 10−3 A
24. (a) = −6
= 1 × 103 = 1000
1 μA 1 × 10 A
0.05 kV 0.05 × 103 V
(b) = = 0.05 × 106 = 50,000
1 mV 1 × 10− 3 V
0.02 kΩ 0.02 × 103 Ω
(c) = = 0.02 × 10−3 = 2 × 10−5
1 MΩ 1 × 106 Ω
155 mW 155 × 10−3 W
(d) = = 155 × 10−6 = 1.55 × 10−4
1 kW 1 × 10 W
3
25. (a) 50 mA + 680 μA = 50 mA + 0.68 mA = 50.68 mA
(b) 120 kΩ + 2.2 MΩ = 0.12 MΩ + 2.2 MΩ = 2.32 MΩ
(c) 0.02 μF + 3300 pF = 0.02 μF + 0.0033 μF = 0.0233 μF
10 kΩ 10 kΩ
26. (a) = = 0.8197
2.2 kΩ + 10 kΩ 12.2 kΩ
250 mV 250 × 10−3
(b) = = 5000
50 μV 50 × 10− 6
1 MW 1 × 106
(c) = = 500
2 kW 2 × 103
SECTION 1-4 Measured Numbers
27. (a) 1.00 × 103 has 3 significant digits. (b) 0.0057 has 2 significant digits.
(c) 1502.0 has 5 significant digits. (d) 0.000036 has 2 significant digits.
(e) 0.105 has 3 significant digits. (f) 2.6 × 102 has 2 significant digits.
28. (a) 50,505 50.5 103 (b) 220.45 220
(c) 4646 4.65 103 (d) 10.99 11.0
(e) 1.005 1.00
6
CHAPTER 2
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 2-2 Electrical Charge
1. Q = (charge per electron)(number of electrons) = (1.6 × 10−19 C/e)(50 × 1031e) = 80 × 1012 C
2. (6.25 × 1018 e/C)(80 × 10−6 C) = 5 × 1014 e
3. The magnitude of the charge on a proton (p) is equal to the magnitude of the charge on the
electron (e). Therefore, (1.6 × 10-19 C/p)(29 p) = 4.64 × 10-18 C
4. (1.6 × 10-19 C/p)(17 p) = 2.72 × 10-18 C
SECTION 2-3 Voltage
W 10 J W 5J W 100 J
5. (a) V = = = 10 V (b) V = = = 2.5 V (c) V = = =4V
Q 1C Q 2C Q 25 C
W 500 J
6. V = = =5V
Q 100 C
W 800 J
7. V = = = 20 V
Q 40 C
8. W = VQ = (12 V)(2.5 C) = 30 J
W 2.5 J
9. V = 12.5 V
Q 0.2 C
SECTION 2-4 Current
Q 0.2 C
10. I = 20 mA
t 10 s
7
Q 75 C Q 10 C Q 5C
11. (a) I= = = 75 A (b) I= = = 20 A (c) I= = = 2.5 A
t 1s t 0.5 s t 2s
Q 0.6 C
12. I= = = 0.2 A
t 3s
Q Q 10 C
13. I= ; t= = =2s
t I 5A
14. Q = I × t = (1.5 A)(0.1 s) = 0.15 C
SECTION 2-5 Resistance
15. A: Blue, gray, red, silver: 6800 Ω ± 10%
B: Orange, orange, black, silver: 33 Ω ± 10%
C: Yellow, violet, orange, gold: 47,000 Ω ± 5%
16. A: Rmin = 6800 Ω − 0.1(6800 Ω) = 6800 Ω − 680 Ω = 6120 Ω
Rmax = 6800 Ω + 680 Ω = 7480 Ω
B: Rmin = 33 Ω − 0.1(33 Ω) = 33 Ω − 3.3 Ω = 29.7 Ω
Rmax = 33 Ω + 3.3 Ω = 36.3 Ω
C: Rmin = 47,000 Ω − (0.05)(47,000 Ω) = 47,000 Ω − 2350 Ω = 44,650 Ω
Rmax = 47,000 Ω + 2350 Ω = 49,350 Ω
17. (a) 1st band = red, 2nd band = violet, 3rd band = brown, 4th band = gold
(b) 330 Ω; orange, orange, brown, (B)
2.2 kΩ: red, red, red (D)
39 kΩ: orange, white, orange (A)
56 kΩ: green, blue, orange (L)
100 kΩ: brown, black, yellow (F)
18. (a) 36.5 Ω ± 2%
(b) 2.74 kΩ ± 0.25%
(c) 82.5 kΩ ± 1%
19. (a) Brown, black, black, gold: 10 Ω ± 5%
(b) Green, brown, green, silver: 5,100,000 Ω ± 10% = 5.1 MΩ ± 10%
(c) Blue, gray, black, gold: 68 Ω ± 5%
20. (a) 0.47 Ω ± 5%: yellow, violet, silver, gold
(b) 270 kΩ ± 5%: red, violet, yellow, gold
8
(c) 5.1 MΩ ± 5%: green, brown, green, gold
21. (a) Red, gray, violet, red, brown: 28,700 Ω ± 1% = 28.7 kΩ ± 1%
(b) Blue, black, yellow, gold, brown: 60.4 Ω ± 1%
(c) White, orange, brown, brown, brown: 9310 ± 1% = 9.31 kΩ ± 1%
22. (a) 14.7 kΩ ± 1%: brown, yellow, violet, red, brown
(b) 39.2 Ω ± 1%: orange, white, red, gold, brown
(c) 9.76 kΩ ± 1%: white, violet, blue, brown, brown
23. (a) 220 = 22 Ω (b) 472 = 4.7 kΩ
(c) 823 = 82 kΩ (d) 3K3 = 3.3 kΩ
(e) 560 = 56 Ω (f) 10M = 10 MΩ
24. 500 Ω, equal resistance on each side of the contact.
SECTION 2-6 The Electric Circuit
25. There is current through Lamp 2.
26. See Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
SECTION 2-7 Basic Circuit Measurements
27. See Figure 2-2(a).
9
Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3
28. See Figure 2-2(b).
29. Position 1: V1 = 0 V, V2 = VS
Position 2: V1 = VS, V2 = 0 V
30. See Figure 2-3.
31. On the 600 V DC scale: 250 V
32. R = (10)(10 Ω) = 100 Ω
33. (a) 2(100 Ω) = 200 Ω (b) 15(10 MΩ) = 150 MΩ
(c) 45(100 Ω) = 4500 Ω
34. See Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4
10
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
Q
35. I=
t
Q = I × t = (2 A)(15 s) = 30 C
W 1000 J
V= = = 33.3 V
Q 30 C
Q
36. I=
t
Q = (number of electrons) / (number of electrons/coulomb)
574 × 1015 e
Q= = 9.184 × 10−2 C
6.25 × 1018 e/C
Q 9.184 × 10−2 C
I= = = 0.367 A
t 250 × 10−3 s
37. Total wire length = 100 ft
Resistance per 1000 ft = (1000 ft)(6 Ω/100 ft) = 60 Ω
Smallest wire size is AWG 27 which has 51.47 Ω/1000 ft
38. (a) 4R7J = 4.7 Ω ± 5%
(b) 560KF = 560 kΩ ± 1%
(c) 1M5G = 1.5 MΩ ± 2%
39. The circuit in (b) can have both lamps on at the same time.
40. There is always current through R5.
41. See Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-5
11
42. See Figure 2-5.
43. See Figure 2-6.
Figure 2-6
12
CHAPTER 3
OHM’S LAW, ENERGY, AND POWER
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 3-1 Ohm’s Law
1. I is directly proportional to V and will change the same percentage as V.
(a) I = 3(1 A) = 3 A
(b) I = 1 A − (0.8)(1 A) = 1 A − 0.8 A = 0.2 A
(c) I = 1 A + (0.5)(1 A) = 1 A + 0.5 A = 1.5 A
2. (a) When the resistance doubles, the current is halved from 100 mA to 50 mA.
(b) When the resistance is reduced by 30%, the current increases from 100 mA to
I = V/0.7R = 1.429(V/R) = (1.429)(100 mA) ≅ 143 mA
(c) When the resistance is quadrupled, the current decreases from 100 mA to 25 mA.
3. Tripling the voltage triples the current from 10 mA to 30 mA, but doubling the resistance
halves the current to 15 mA.
SECTION 3-2 Application of Ohm’s Law
V 5V V 15 V
4. (a) I= = =5A (b) I= = = 1.5 A
R 1Ω R 10 Ω
V 50 V V 30 V
(c) I= = = 0.5 A (d) I= = = 2 mA
R 100 Ω R 15 kΩ
V 250 V
(e) I= = = 53.2 μA
R 4 .7 M Ω
V 9V V 5 .5 V
5. (a) I= = = 3.33 mA (b) I= = = 550 μA
R 2.7 kΩ R 10 kΩ
V 40 V V 1 kV
(c) I= = = 588 μA (d) I= = = 500 mA
R 68 kΩ R 2 kΩ
V 66 kV
(e) I= = = 6.60 mA
R 10 MΩ
13
V 12 V
6. I= = = 1.2 A
R 10 Ω
V 25 V V 5V
7. (a) I= = = 2.50 mA (b) I= = = 2.27 μA
R 10 kΩ R 2.2 MΩ
V 15 V
(c) I= = = 8.33 mA
R 1.8 kΩ
8. Orange, violet, yellow, gold, brown 37.4 Ω ± 1%
VS 12 V
I= = = 0.321 A
R 37.4 Ω
24 V
9. I= = 0.642 A
37.4 Ω
0.642 A is greater than 0.5 A, so the fuse will blow.
10. (a) V = IR = (2 A)(18 Ω) = 36 V (b) V = IR = (5 A)(47 Ω) = 235 V
(c) V = IR = (2.5 A)(620 Ω) = 1550 V (d) V = IR = (0.6 A)(47 Ω) = 28.2 V
(e) V = IR = (0.1 A)(470 Ω) = 47 V
11. (a) V = IR = (1 mA)(10 Ω) = 10 mV (b) V = IR = (50 mA)(33 Ω) = 1.65 V
(c) V = IR = (3 A)(4.7 kΩ) = 14.1 kV (d) V = IR = (1.6 mA)(2.2 kΩ) = 3.52 V
(e) V = IR = (250 μA)(1 kΩ) = 250 mV (f) V = IR = (500 mA)(1.5 MΩ) = 750 kV
(g) V = IR = (850 μA)(10 MΩ) = 8.5 kV (h) V = IR = (75 μA)(47 Ω) = 3.53 mV
12. VS = IR = (3 A)(27 Ω) = 81 V
13. (a) V = IR = (3 mA)(27 kΩ) = 81 V (b) V = IR = (5 μA)(100 MΩ) = 500 V
(c) V = IR = (2.5 A)(47 Ω) = 117.5 V
V 10 V V 90 V
14. (a) R= = =5Ω (b) R= = =2Ω
I 2A I 45 A
V 50 V V 5.5 V
(c) R= = = 10 Ω (d) R= = = 0.55 Ω
I 5A I 10 A
V 150 V
(e) R= = = 300 Ω
I 0.5 A
V 10 kV V 7V
15. (a) R= = = 2 kΩ (b) R= = = 3.5 kΩ
I 5A I 2 mA
V 500 V V 50 V
(c) R= = = 2 kΩ (d) R= = = 100 kΩ
I 250 mA I 500 μA
14
V 1 kV
(e) R= = = 1 MΩ
I 1 mA
V 6V
16. R= = = 3 kΩ
I 2 mA
V 8V V 12 V
17. (a) R= = =4Ω (b) R= = = 3 kΩ
I 2A I 4 mA
V 30 V
(c) R= = = 0.2 MΩ = 200 kΩ
I 150 μA
V 3.2 V
18. I= = 0.82 A
R 3.9 Ω
SECTION 3-3 Energy and Power
W 26 J
19. P= = 2.6 W
t 10 s
20. Since 1 watt = 1 joule, P = 350 J/s = 350 W
W 7500 J
21. P= =
t 5h
7500 J 1 h 7500 J
= = 0.417 J/s = 417 mW
5 h 3600 s 18,000 s
22. (a) 1000 W = 1 × 103 W = 1 kW (b) 3750 W = 3.750 × 103 W = 3.75 kW
(c) 160 W = 0.160 × 103 W = 0.160 kW (d) 50,000 W = 50 × 103 W = 50 kW
23. (a) 1,000,000 W = 1 × 106 W = 1 MW (b) 3 × 106 W = 3 MW
(c) 15 × 107 W = 150 × 106 W = 150 MW (d) 8700 kW = 8.7 × 106 W = 8.7 MW
24. (a) 1 W = 1000 × 10−3 W = 1000 mW (b) 0.4 W = 400 × 10−3 W = 400 mW
(c) 0.002 W = 2 × 10−3 W = 2 mW (d) 0.0125 W = 12.5 × 10−3 W = 12.5 mW
25. (a) 2 W = 2,000,000 μW (b) 0.0005 W = 500 μW
(c) 0.25 mW = 250 μW (d) 0.00667 mW = 6.67 μW
15
26. (a) 1.5 kW = 1.5 × 103 W = 1500 W (b) 0.5 MW = 0.5 × 106 W = 500,000 W
(c) 350 mW = 350 × 10−3 W = 0.350 W (d) 9000 μW = 9000 × 10−6 W = 0.009 W
W
27. P= in watts
t
W
V=
Q
Q
I=
t
W
P = VI =
t
So, (1 V)(1 A) = 1 W
W 1J
28. P= = =1W
t 1s
1000 J
1 kW = 1000 W =
1s
1 kW-second = 1000 J
1 kWh = 3600 1000 J
1 kWh = 3.6 106 J
SECTION 3-4 Power in an Electric Circuit
29. P = VI = (5.5 V)(3 mA) = 16.5 mW
30. P = VI = (115 V)(3 A) = 345 W
31. P = I2R = (500 mA)2(4.7 kΩ) = 1.18 kW
32. P = I2R = (100 × 10−6 A)2(10 × 103 Ω) = 1 × 10−4 W = 100 μW
V 2 (60 V) 2
33. P= = = 5.81 W
R 620 Ω
V 2 (1.5 V ) 2
34. P= = = 0.0402 W = 40.2 mW
R 56 Ω
35. P = I2R
P 100 W
R= 2 = = 25 Ω
I (2 A)2
16
36. 5 × 106 watts for 1 minute = 5 × 103 kWmin
5 × 103 kWmin
= 83.3 kWh
60 min/1 hr
6700 W/s
37. = 0.00186 kWh
(1000 W/kW)(3600 s/h)
38. (50 W)(12 h) = 600 Wh
50 W = 0.05 kW
(0.05 kW)(12 h) = 0.6 kWh
V 1.25 V
39. I= = = 0.125 A
RL 10 Ω
P = VI = (1.25 V)(0.125 A) = 0.156 W = 156 mW
W
40. P=
t
156 mJ
156 mW =
1s
Wtot = (156 mJ/s)(90 h)(3600 s/h) = 50,544 J
SECTION 3-5 The Power Rating of Resistors
41. P = I2R = (10 mA)2(6.8 kΩ) = 0.68 W
Use the next highest standard power rating of 1 W.
42. If the 8 W resistor is used, it will be operating in a marginal condition.
To allow for a safety margin of 20%, use a 12 W resistor.
SECTION 3-6 Energy Conversion and Voltage Drop in a Resistance
43. (a) + at top, − at bottom of resistor (b) + at bottom, − at top of resistor
(c) + on right, − on left of resistor
SECTION 3-7 Power Supplies and Batteries
44. VOUT = PL RL = (1 W )(50 Ω) = 7.07 V
17
45. Ampere-hour rating = (1.5 A)(24 h) = 36 Ah
80 Ah
46. I= =8A
10 h
650 mAh
47. I= = 13.5 mA
48 h
48. PLOST = PIN − POUT = 500 mW − 400 mW = 100 mW
P 400 mW
% efficiency = OUT 100% = 100% = 80%
PIN 500 mW
49. POUT = (efficiency)PIN = (0.85)(5 W) = 4.25 W
SECTION 3-8 Introduction to Troubleshooting
50. The 4th bulb from the left is open.
51. If should take five (maximum) resistance measurements.
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
52. Assume that the total consumption of the power supply is the input power plus the power lost.
POUT = 2 W
P
% efficiency = OUT 100%
PIN
POUT 2W
PIN = 100% = 100% = 3.33 W
% efficiency 60%
The power supply itself uses
PIN − POUT = 3.33 W − 2 W = 1.33 W
Energy = W = Pt = (1.33 W)(24 h) = 31.9 Wh ≅ 0.032 kWh
V 120 V
53. Rf = = = 150 Ω
I 0.8 A
18
54. Measure the current with an ammeter connected as shown in Figure 3-1. Then calculate the
unknown resistance with the formula, R = 12 V/I.
Figure 3-1
55. Calculate I for each value of V:
0V 10 V
I1 = =0A I2 = = 100 mA
100 Ω 100 Ω
20 V 30 V
I3 = = 200 mA I4 = = 300 mA
100 Ω 100 Ω
40 V 50 V
I5 = = 400 mA I6 = = 500 mA
100 Ω 100 Ω
60 V 70 V
I7 = = 600 mA I8 = = 700 mA
100 Ω 100 Ω
80 V 90 V
I9 = = 800 mA I10 = = 900 mA
100 Ω 100 Ω
100 V
I11 = =1A
100 Ω
The graph is a straight line as shown in
Figure 3-2. This indicates a linear
relationship between I and V.
Figure 3-2
19
VS 1V
56. R= = = 200 Ω
I 5 mA
VS 1.5 V VS 2V
(a) I= = = 7.5 mA (b) I= = = 10 mA
R 200 Ω R 200 Ω
VS 3V VS 4V
(c) I= = = 15 mA (d) I= = = 20 mA
R 200 Ω R 200 Ω
VS 10 V
(e) I= = = 50 mA
R 200 Ω
V 1V V 1V V 1V
57. R1 = = = 0.5 Ω R2 = = =1Ω R3 = = =2Ω
I 2A I 1A I 0.5 A
V2 10 V
58. =
30 mA 50 mA
(10 V)(30 mA)
V2 = = 6 V new value
50 mA
The voltage decreased by 4 V, from 10 V to 6 V.
59. The current increase is 50%, so the voltage increase must be the same; that is, the voltage must
be increased by (0.5)(20 V) = 10 V.
The new value of voltage is V2 = 20 V + (0.5)(20 V) = 20 V + 10 V = 30 V
(10.4 CM ⋅ Ω/ft)(24 ft)
60. Wire resistance: RW = = 0.154 Ω
1624.3 CM
V 6V
(a) I= = = 59.9 mA
R + RW 100.154 Ω
(b) VR = (59.9 mA)(100 Ω) = 5.99 V
(c) VRW = 6 V − 5.99 V = 0.01 V
0.01 V
For one length of wire, V = = 0.005 V
2
61. 300 W = 0.3 kW
30 days = (30 days)(24 h/day) = 720 h
Energy = (0.3 kW)(720 h) = 216 kWh
1500 kWh
62. = 48.39 kWh/day
31 days
48.39 kWh/day
P = = 2.02 kW
24 h/day
20
63. The minimum power rating you should use is 12 W so that the power dissipation does not
exceed the rating.
V 2 (12 V)2
64. (a) P= = = 14.4 W
R 10 Ω
(b) W = Pt = (14.4 W)(2 min)(1/60 h/min) = 0.48 Wh
(c) Neither, the power is the same because it is not time dependent.
65. VR(max) = 120 V − 100 V = 20 V
VR (max) 20 V
Imax = = = 2.5 A
Rmin 8Ω
A fuse with a rating of less than 2.5 A must be used. A 2 A fuse is recommended.
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
66. R is open.
67. No fault
68. R1 is shorted.
69. Lamp 4 is shorted.
70. Lamp 6 is open.
21
CHAPTER 4
SERIES CIRCUITS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 4-1 Resistors in Series
1. See Figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1
2. The groups of series resistors are
R1, R2, R3, R9 R4; R13, R7, R14, R16; R6, R8, R12; R10, R11, R15, R5
See Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2
3. R1−8 = R13 + R7 + R14 + R16
= 68 k + 33 k + 47 k + 22 k
= 170 k
4. R2−3 = R12 + R8 + R6 = 10 Ω+ 18 Ω + 22 Ω = 50
22
SECTION 4-2 Total Series Resistance
5. RT = 82 Ω + 56 Ω = 138 Ω
6. (a) RT = 560 Ω + 1.0 kΩ = 1560 Ω
(b) RT = 47 Ω + 33 Ω = 80 Ω
(c) RT = 1.5 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ + 10 kΩ = 13.7 kΩ
(d) RT = 1.0 kΩ + 1.8 kΩ + 100 kΩ + 1.0 MΩ = 1,102,800 Ω (round to 1.10 MΩ)
7. (a) RT = 1.0 kΩ + 4.7 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ = 7.9 kΩ
(b) RT = 10 Ω + 10 Ω + 12 Ω + 1.0 Ω = 33 Ω
(c) RT = 1.0 MΩ + 560 kΩ + 1.0 MΩ + 680 kΩ + 10 MΩ = 13.24 MΩ
See Figure 4-3.
Figure 4-3
8. RT = 12(5.6 kΩ) = 67.2 kΩ
9. RT = 6(47 Ω) + 8(100 Ω) + 2(22 Ω) = 282 Ω + 800 Ω + 44 Ω = 1126 Ω
10. RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
R5 = RT − (R1 + R2 + R3 + R4)
= 20 kΩ − (4.7 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ + 3.9 kΩ)
= 20 kΩ − 11.8 kΩ
= 8.2 kΩ
11. (a) R1−8 = R13 + R7 + R14 + R16
= 68 kΩ + 33 kΩ + 47 kΩ + 22 kΩ = 170 kΩ
(b) R2−3 = R12 + R8 + R6
= 10 Ω + 18 Ω + 22 Ω = 50 Ω
(c) R4−7 = R10 + R11 + R15 + R5
= 2.2 kΩ + 8.2 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ = 12.4 kΩ
(d) R5−6 = R1 + R2 + R3 + R9 + R4
= 220 Ω + 330 Ω + 390 Ω + 470 Ω + 560 Ω = 1.97 kΩ
23
12. RT = R1−8 + R2−3 + R4−7 + R5−6
= 170 kΩ + 50 Ω + 12.4 kΩ + 1.97 kΩ = 184.42 kΩ
SECTION 4-3 Current in a Series Circuit
VS 12 V
13. I= = = 0.1 A
RT 120 Ω
14. I = 5 mA at all points in the circuit.
SECTION 4-4 Application of Ohm’s Law
15. (a) RT = 2.2 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ = 8.8 kΩ
V 5.5 V
I= = = 625 μA
RT 8.8 kΩ
(b) RT = 1.0 MΩ + 2.2 MΩ + 560 kΩ = 3.76 MΩ
16 V
I= = 4.26 μA
3.76 MΩ
The ammeters are connected in series. See Figure 4-4.
Figure 4-4
R 2.2 kΩ
16. (a) V1 = 1 VS = 5.5 V = 1.375 V
RT 8 .8 k Ω
R 5.6 kΩ
V2 = 2 VS = 5.5 V = 3.5 V
RT 8 .8 k Ω
R 1.0 kΩ
V3 = 3 VS = 5.5 V = 625 mV
RT 8 .8 k Ω
24
R 1.0 MΩ
(b) V1 = 1 VS = 16 V = 4.26 V
RT 3.76 MΩ
R 2.2 MΩ
V2 = 2 VS = 16 V = 9.36 V
RT 3.76 MΩ
R 560 kΩ
V3 = 3 VS = 16 V = 2.38 V
RT 3.76 MΩ
17. (a) RT = 3(470 Ω) = 1410 Ω
48 V
I= = 34.0 mA
1410 Ω
(b) VR = IR = (34.0 mA)(470 Ω) = 16 V
(c) Pmin = I 2 R = (34.0 mA) 2 470 Ω = 0.543 W
VS 5V
18. RT = = = 5 kΩ
I T 1 mA
5 kΩ
Reach = = 1.25 kΩ
4
SECTION 4-5 Voltage Sources in Series
19. See Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-5
20. The total voltage is 6 V + 6 V + 6 V − 6 V = 12 V
SECTION 4-6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
21. VS = 5.5 V + 8.2 V + 12.3 V = 26 V
22. VS = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5
V5 = VS − (V1 + V2 + V3 + V4) = 20 V − (1.5 V + 5.5 V + 3 V + 6 V) = 20 V − 16 V = 4 V
25
23. (a) By Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
15 V = 2 V + V2 + 3.2 V + 1 V + 1.5 V + 0.5 V
V2 = 15 V − (2 V + 3.2 V + 1 V + 1.5 V + 0.5 V) = 15 V − 8.2 V = 6.8 V
See Figure 4-6(a).
(b) VR = 8 V; V2R = 16 V; V3R = 24 V; V4R = 32 V
See Figure 4-6(b).
Figure 4-6
SECTION 4-7 Voltage Dividers
22 Ω
24. 100 = 4.4%
500 Ω
47 Ω
25. (a) VAB = 12 V = 3.84 V
147 Ω
2.2 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ 5.5 kΩ
(b) VAB = 8 V = 8 V = 6.77 V
1 . 0 k Ω + 2 . 2 k Ω + 3 . 3 kΩ 6.5 kΩ
26. VA = VS = 15 V
R2 + R3 13.3 kΩ
VB = VS = 15 V = 10.6 V
R1 + R2 + R3 18.9 kΩ
R3 3.3 kΩ
VC = VS = 15 V = 2.62 V
R1 + R2 + R3 18.9 kΩ
26
R3 680 Ω
27. Vmin = VS = 12 V = 3.80 V
R1 + R2 + R3 2150 Ω
R2 + R3 1680 Ω
Vmax = VS = 12 V = 9.38 V
1
R + R2 + R3 2150 Ω
28. RT = R + 2R + 3R + 4R + 5R = 15R
R 2R 3R
VR = 9 V = 0.6 V VR = 9 V = 1.2 V VR = 9 V = 1.8 V
15R 15R 15R
4R 5R
VR = 9 V = 2.4 V VR = 9 V = 3.0 V
15R 15R
10 V
29. V5.6k = 10 V (by measurement); I= = 1.79 mA;
5 .6 k Ω
V1k = (1.79 mA)(1 kΩ) = 1.79 V; V560 (1.79 mA)(560 Ω) = 1 V;
V10k = (1.79 mA)(10 kΩ) = 17.9 V
SECTION 4-8 Power in Series Circuits
30. PT = 5(50 mW) = 250 mW
31. RT = 5.6 kΩ + 1 kΩ + 560 Ω + 10 kΩ = 17.16 kΩ
P = I2RT = (1.79 mA)2(17.16 kΩ) = 0.055 W = 55 mW
SECTION 4-9 Voltage Measurements
32. Voltage from point A to ground (G): VAG = 10 V
Resistance between A and G: RAG = 5.6 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ = 13.2 kΩ
Resistance between B and G: RBG = 5.6 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ = 7.6 kΩ
Resistance between C and G: RCG = 1.0 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ = 2 kΩ
R 7.6 kΩ
VBG = BG 10 V =
10 V = 5.76 V
RAG 13.2 kΩ
R 2 kΩ
VCG = CG 10 V =
10 V = 1.52 V
RAG 13.2 kΩ
R 1.0 kΩ
VDG = DG 10 V = 10 V = 0.758 V
RAG 13.2 kΩ
27
33. Measure the voltage at point A with respect to ground and the voltage at point B with respect to
ground. The difference of these two voltages is VR2.
VR2 = VA − VB
34. RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
= 560 kΩ + 560 kΩ + 100 kΩ + 1.0 MΩ + 100 kΩ = 2.32 MΩ
VT = 15 V
R 1.76 MΩ
VA = AG VT = 15 V = 11.4 V
RT 2.32 MΩ
R 1.2 MΩ
VB = BG VT = 15 V = 7.76 V
RT 2.32 MΩ
R 1.1 MΩ
VC = CG VT = 15 V = 7.11 V
RT 2.32 MΩ
R 100 kΩ
VD = DG VT = 15 V = 647 mV
RT 2.32 MΩ
35. VAC VA VC 11.38 V 7.11 V = 4.27 V
36. VCA VC VA 7.11 V 11.38 V = −4.27 V
SECTION 4-10 Troubleshooting
37. (a) Zero current indicates an open. R4 is open since all the voltage is dropped across it.
VS 10 V
(b) = = 33.3 mA
R1 + R2 + R3 300 Ω
R4 and R5 have no effect on the current. There is a short from A to B.
38. RT = 10 kΩ + 8.2 kΩ + 12 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ = 38 kΩ
The meter reads about 28 kΩ. It should read 38 kΩ. The 10 kΩ resistor is shorted.
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
39. V1 = IR1 = (10 mA)(680 Ω) = 6.8 V
V2 = IR2 = (10 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 10 V
V4 = IR4 = (10 mA)(270 Ω) = 2.7 V
V5 = IR5 = (10 mA)(270 Ω) = 2.7 V
V3 = VS − (V1 + V2 + V4 + V5)
V3 = 30 V − (6.8 V + 10 V + 2.7 V + 2.7 V) = 30 V − 22.2 V = 7.8 V
V 7.8 V
R3 = 3 = = 0.78 kΩ = 780 Ω
I 10 mA
28
40. RT = 3(5.6 kΩ) + 1.0 kΩ + 2(100 Ω) = 18 kΩ
Three 5.6 kΩ resistors, one 1 kΩ resistor, and two 100 Ω resistors
41. VA = 10 V, RT = 22 kΩ + 10 kΩ + 47 kΩ + 12 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ = 96.6 kΩ
22 kΩ
VB = VA − V22k = 10 V − 10 V = 10 V − 2.28 V = 7.72 V
96.6 kΩ
10 kΩ
VC = VB − V10k = 7.72 V − 10 V = 7.72 V − 1.04 V = 6.68 V
96.6 kΩ
47 kΩ
VD = VC − V47k = 6.68 V − 10 V = 6.68 V − 4.87 V = 1.81 V
96.6 kΩ
12 kΩ
VE = VD − V12k = 1.81 V − 10 V = 1.81 V − 1.24 V = 0.57 V
96.6 kΩ
VF = 0 V
42. V2 = IR2 = (20 mA)(100 Ω) = 2 V
V 6.6 V
R5 = S = = 330 Ω
I 20 mA
P 112 mW
R6 = 62 = = 280 Ω
I (20 mA)2
V6 = IR6 = (20 mA)(280 Ω) = 5.6 V
V1 = VS − (20 V + V6) = 30 V − (20 V + 5.6 V) = 4.4 V
V 4.4 V
R1 = 1 = = 220 Ω
I 20 mA
V3 + V4 = 20 V − V2 − V5 = 20 V − 2 V − 6.6 V = 11.4 V
11.4 V V 5.7 V
V3 = V4 = = 5.7 V R3 = R4 = 3 = = 285 Ω
2 I 20 mA
43. VS = IRT = (250 mA)(1.5 kΩ) = 375 V
Inew = 250 mA − 0.25(250 mA) = 250 mA − 62.5 mA = 188 mA
V 375 V
Rnew = S = ≅ 2000 Ω
I new 188 mA
500 Ω must be added to the existing 1500 Ω to reduce I by 25%.
44. P = I2R
P 0.5 W
Imax = = = 0.0645 A = 64.5 mA
R 120 Ω
Since all resistors in series have the same current, use the largest R to determine the maximum
current allowable because the largest R has the greatest power.
Thus, the 120 Ω resistor burns out first.
29
1 1 1
45. (a) PT = W + W + W = 0.125 W + 0.25 W + 0.5 W = 0.875 W
8 4 2
PT 0.875 W
I= = = 19.1 mA
RT 2400 Ω
(b) VS = ITRT = (19.1 mA)(2400 Ω) = 45.8 V
P
(c) R= 2
I
P 0.125 W
R1/8 = 2 = = 343 Ω
I (19.1 mA) 2
0.25 W
R1/4 = = 686 Ω
(19.1 mA)2
0.5 W
R1/2 = = 1371 Ω
(19.1 mA)2
46. See Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-7 Figure 4-8
47. See Figure 4-8.
When the potentiometer is at minimum setting (0 Ω), VOUT = 10 V:
120 V
R1 + R2 = = 12 kΩ
10 mA
R2
120 V = 10 V
R1 + R2
10 V(12 kΩ)
R2 = = 1.0 kΩ
120 V
R1 = 12 kΩ − 1.0 kΩ = 11 kΩ
30
When the potentiometer is at maximum setting, VOUT = 100 V:
R2 + RV
R + R + R 120 V = 100 V
1 2 V
1.0 kΩ + RV
12 kΩ + R 120 V = 100 V
V
(1.0 kΩ + RV)120 V = (12 kΩ + RV)100 V
120 kΩ + 120RV = 1200 kΩ + 100RV
20RV = 1080 kΩ
RV = 54 kΩ
48. See Figure 4-9.
(30 V − 24.6 V)
R1 = = 5.4 kΩ
1 mA
(24.6 V − 14.7 V)
R2 = = 9.9 kΩ
1 mA
(14.7 V − 8.18 V)
R3 = = 6.52 kΩ
1 mA
8.18 V
R4 = = 8.18 kΩ
1 mA
A series of standard value resistors must be used to approximately achieve each resistance as
follows:
R1 = 4700 Ω + 680 Ω + 22 Ω = 5.4 kΩ
R2 = 8200 Ω + 1500 Ω + 220 Ω = 9.92 kΩ
R3 = 5600 Ω + 820 Ω + 100 Ω = 6.52 kΩ
R4 = 6800 Ω + 1000 Ω + 180 Ω + 100 Ω + 100 Ω = 8.18 kΩ
The highest power dissipation is in the 8200 Ω resistor.
P = (1 mA)28200 Ω = 8.2 mW
All resistors must be at least 1/8 W.
Figure 4-9
31
49. The groups are:
R1, R7, R8, and R10; R2, R4, R6, and R11; R3, R5, R9, and R12
See Figure 4-10.
R1 + R7 + R8 + R10 = 2.2 kΩ + 560 Ω + 470 Ω + 1.0 kΩ = 4.23 kΩ
R2 + R4 + R6 + R11 = 4.7 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ + 10 kΩ = 23.6 kΩ
R3 + R5 + R9 + R12 = 1.0 kΩ + 3.9 kΩ + 8.2 kΩ + 6.8 kΩ = 19.9 kΩ
Problem 56: There
is a short between
these two points.
Figure 4-10
50. Position 1:
RT = R1 + R3 + R5 = 510 Ω + 820 Ω + 680 Ω = 2.01 kΩ
Position 2:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
= 510 Ω + 910 Ω + 820 Ω + 750 Ω + 680 Ω = 3.67 kΩ
51. Position A:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 220 Ω + 470 Ω + 510 Ω + 1.0 kΩ = 2.2 kΩ
V 12 V
I= = = 5.45 mA
RT 2.2 kΩ
Position B:
RT = R2 + R3 + R4 = 470 Ω + 510 Ω + 1.0 kΩ = 1.98 kΩ
V 12 V
I= = = 6.06 mA
RT 1.98 kΩ
Position C:
RT = R3 + R4 = 510 Ω + 1.0 kΩ = 1.51 kΩ
V 12 V
I= = = 7.95 mA
RT 1.51 kΩ
Position D:
RT = R4 = 1.0 kΩ
V 12 V
I= = = 12 mA
RT 1.0 kΩ
32
52. Position A:
RT = R1 = 1.0 kΩ
V 9V
I= = = 9 mA
RT 1.0 kΩ
Position B:
RT = R1 + R2 + R5 = 1.0 kΩ + 33 kΩ + 22 kΩ = 56 kΩ
V 9V
I= = = 161 μA
RT 56 kΩ
Position C:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 = 1.0 kΩ + 33 kΩ + 68 kΩ + 27 kΩ + 22 kΩ = 151 kΩ
V 9V
I= = = 59.6 μA
RT 151 kΩ
53. First, find the value of R5 with the switch in Position D.
18 V
6 mA =
R5 + 1.8 kΩ
18 V
R5 = − 1.8 kΩ = 1.2 kΩ
6 mA
Position A:
RT = 5.38 kΩ I = 18 V/5.38 kΩ = 3.35 mA
V1 = (3.35 mA)(1.8 kΩ) = 6.03 V
V2 = (3.35 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 3.35 V
V3 = (3.35 mA)(820 Ω) = 2.75 V
V4 = (3.35 mA)(560 Ω) = 1.88 V
V5 = 4 V
Position B:
RT = 4.82 kΩ I = 18 V/4.82 kΩ = 3.73 mA
V1 = (3.73 mA)(1.8 kΩ) = 6.71 V
V2 = (3.73 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 3.73 V
V3 = (3.73 mA)(820 Ω) = 3.06 V
V5 = 4.5 V
Position C:
RT = 4 kΩ I = 18 V/4 kΩ = 4.5 mA
V1 = (4.5 mA)(1.8 kΩ) = 8.1 V
V2 = (4.5 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 4.5 V
V5 = 5.4 V
Position D:
RT = 3 kΩ I = 18 V/3 kΩ = 6 mA
V1 = (6 mA)(1.8 kΩ) = 10.8 V
V5 = 7.2 V
Note: The voltage approach can also be used.
54. See Figure 4-10. The results in the table are correct.
33
55. Yes, R3 and R5 are each shorted. Refer to Figure 4-10.
56. Yes, there is a short between the points indicated in Figure 4-10.
57. (a) R11 burned open due to excessive power because it had the largest value in ohms.
(b) Replace R11 (10 kΩ).
(c) RT = 47.7 kΩ
P11 0.5 W
Imax = = = 7.07 mA
R11 10 kΩ
VTOTAL = ImaxRT = (7.07 mA)(47.7 kΩ) = 338 V
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
58. R1 is open.
59. R6 is shorted.
60. R2 is open.
61. Lamp 4 is open.
62. No fault
63. The 82 Ω resistor is shorted.
34
CHAPTER 5
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 5-1 Resistors in Parallel
1. See Figure 5-1.
2. See Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-1 Figure 5-2
SECTION 5-2 Total Parallel Resistance
3. From Problem 2: RT = R6 R3 R4 R7 R8 ( R1 + R2 + R5 )
= 15 kΩ ||10 kΩ||12 kΩ||68 kΩ||56 kΩ||108 kΩ = 3.43 kΩ
1
4. RT = = 557 kΩ
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
1.0 MΩ 2.2 MΩ 4.7 MΩ 12 MΩ 22 MΩ
5. (a) R = 47 Ω || 6 kΩ = 25.6 Ω
(b) R = 560 Ω || 1.0 kΩ = 359 Ω
(c) R = 1.5 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 10 kΩ = 819 Ω
(d) R = 1.0 kΩ || 2.2 MΩ || 1.0 MΩ || 470 kΩ = 996 Ω
35
R1R2 (4.7 k Ω)(2.2 kΩ)
6. (a) RT = = = 1.5 kΩ
R1 + R2 4 .7 k Ω + 2 .2 k Ω
R1R2 (27 Ω)(56 Ω)
(b) RT = = = 18.2 Ω
R1 + R2 27 Ω + 56 Ω
R1R2 (1.5 k Ω)(2.2 kΩ)
(c) RT = = = 892 Ω
R1 + R2 1.5 k Ω + 2.2 kΩ
22 kΩ
7. RT = = 2 kΩ
11
15 Ω
8. RT1 = =3Ω
5
100 Ω
RT2 = = 10 Ω
10
10 Ω
RT3 = =5Ω
2
1
RT = = 1.58 Ω
1 1 1
+ +
3 Ω 10 Ω 5 Ω
SECTION 5-3 Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
9. V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = 12 V
VT 12 V
IT = = = 20 mA
RT 600 Ω
The total current divides equally among the four equal resistors.
20 mA
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = = 5 mA
4
10. The resistors are all in parallel across the source. The voltmeters are each measuring the
voltage across a resistor, so each meter indicates 100 V.
SECTION 5-4 Application of Ohm’s Law
11. (a) RT = 33 kΩ || 33 kΩ || 33 kΩ = 11 kΩ
10 V
IT = = 909 μA
11 kΩ
36
(b) RT = 1.0 kΩ || 3.9 kΩ || 560 Ω = 329 Ω
25 V
IT = = 76 mA
329 Ω
120 V 120 V 120 V
12. IT = I1 + I2 + I3 = = 1.5 A
240 240 240
10 V
13. (a) I1 = = 179 μA
56 k
10 V
I2 = = 455 μA
22 k
8V
(b) I1 = = 444 μA
18 k
8V
I2 = = 80 μA
100 k
VS 5V
14. RT = = = 2 kΩ
I T 2.5 mA
Reach = 4(2 kΩ) = 8 kΩ
SECTION 5-5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
15. IT = 250 mA + 300 mA + 800 mA = 1350 mA
16. IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5
I5 = IT − (I1 + I2 + I3 + I4)
I5 = 500 mA − (50 mA + 150 mA + 25 mA + 100 mA) = 500 mA − 325 mA = 175 mA
17. I2−3 = IT − (I1 + I4) = 50 mA − 35 mA = 15 mA
I2 = I3 = 7.5 mA
See Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3
37
18. IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + I6 = 0.5 A + 0.5 A + 0.5 A + 0.5 A + 1.2 A + 1.2 A = 4.4 A
19. (a) IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + I6 + I7 + I8
= 0.5 A + 0.5 A + 0.5 A + 0.5 A + 1.2 A + 1.2 A + 1.0 A + 1.0 A = 6.4 A
(b) Iground = 6.4 A
SECTION 5-6 Current Dividers
20. The 10 kΩ resistor has the highest current.
R2 2 .7 k Ω
21. I1 = I T = 3 A = 2.19 A
1
R + R2 3 .7 k Ω
R1 1 .0 k Ω
I2 = I T = 3 A = 811 mA
R1 + R2 3.7 kΩ
R2 2 .2 M Ω
22. (a) I1 = I T = 10 μA = 6.88 μA
R1 + R2 3 .2 M Ω
R1 1.0 MΩ
I2 = I T = 10 μA = 3.13 μA
R1 + R2 3.2 MΩ
1
(b) RT = = 516 Ω
1 1 1 1
+ + +
1.0 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ 5.6 kΩ
R 516 Ω
I1 = T I T = 10 mA = 5.16 mA
R1 1 .0 k Ω
R 516 Ω
I2 = T I T = 10 mA = 2.35 mA
R2 2 .2 k Ω
R 516 Ω
I3 = T I T = 10 mA = 1.56 mA
R3 3 .3 k Ω
R 516 Ω
I4 = T I T = 10 mA = 921 μA
R4 5 .6 k Ω
SECTION 5-7 Power in Parallel Circuits
23. PT = 5(40 mW) = 200 mW
24. (a) RT = 1.0 MΩ || 2.2 MΩ = 688 kΩ
PT = I T2 RT = (10 μA)2(688 kΩ) = 68.8 μW
(b) RT = 1.0 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 3.3 kΩ || 5.6 kΩ = 516 Ω
PT = I T2 RT = (10 mA)2(516 Ω) = 51.6 mW
38
25. P = VI
P 75 W
Ieach = = 0.625 A
V 120 V
IT = 6(0.625 A) = 3.75 A
SECTION 5-8 Troubleshooting
P 75 W
26. Ieach = = 0.625 A
V 120 V
The current in each bulb is independent of the number of parallel bulbs.
IT = 3.75 A − 0.625 A = 3.125 A
27. First determine what the total current should be:
RT = 220 Ω || 100 Ω || 1.0 kΩ || 560 Ω || 270 Ω = 47.54 Ω
10 V
IT = = 210.4 mA
47.54 Ω
The measured current is 200.4 mA which is 10 mA less than it should be.
Therefore, one of the resistors must be open.
V 10 V
Ropen = = = 1.0 kΩ
I 10 mA
The 1.0 kΩ resistor is open.
1
28. RT = = 2.3 kΩ
1 1 1
+ +
4.7 kΩ 10 kΩ 8.2 kΩ
25 V 25 V
IT = = = 10.87 mA
RT 2.3 kΩ
The meter indicates 7.82 mA. Therefore, a resistor must be open.
25 V
I3 = = 3.05 mA
8.2 kΩ
I = IT − IM = 10.87 mA − 7.82 mA = 3.05 mA
This shows that I3 is missing from the total current as read on the meter.
Therefore, R3 is open.
1 1 1
29. GT = + + = 8.52 mS
560 Ω 270 Ω 330 Ω
1
Gmeas = = 4.82 mS
207.6 Ω
Gopen = GT − Gmeas = 8.52 mS − 4.82 mS = 3.70 mS
1 1
So, Ropen = = = 270 Ω
Gopen 3.70 mS
R2 is open.
39
1 1 1 1
30. GT = + + + = 29.1 mS
100 Ω 100 Ω 220 Ω 220 Ω
1
Gmeas = = 24.6 mS
40.7 Ω
There is a resistor open.
Gopen = GT − Gmeas = 29.1 mS − 24.6 mS = 4.5 mS
1
So, Ropen = = 221 Ω
4.5 mS
One of the 220 Ω resistors is open, but identification requires more information.
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
31. VS = I1R1 = (1 mA)(50 Ω) = 50 mV
V 50 mV
R2 = S = = 25 Ω
I2 2 mA
V 50 mV
R3 = S = = 100 Ω
I 3 0.5 mA
I4 = IT − (I1 + I2 + I3) = 7.5 mA − 3.5 mA = 4 mA
V 50 mV
R4 = S = = 12.5 Ω
I4 4 mA
32. VT = ITRT = (100 mA)(25 Ω) = 2500 mV = 2.5 V
V 2.5 V
I220 = T = = 11.4 mA
R 220 Ω
1 R
33. RT = = = 0.48R
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + 1+ + +
R 2 R 3R 4 R 2 3 4
R 0 . 48 R
IR = T 10 A = 10 A = 4.8 A
R R
R 0 . 48 R
I2R = T 10 A = 10 A = 2.4 A
2 R 2 R
R 0 . 48 R
I3R = T 10 A = 10 A = 1.6 A
3 R 3 R
R 0 . 48 R
I4R = T 10 A = 10 A = 1.2 A
4 R 4 R
40
34. (a) PT = I T2 RT = (50 mA)2(1.0 kΩ) = 2.5 W
P 2.5 W
Number of resistors = n = T = = 10
Peach 0.25 W
All resistors are equal because each has the same power.
R
(b) RT =
n
R = nRT = 10(1.0 kΩ) = 10 kΩ
I 50 mA
(c) I= T = = 5 mA
n 10
(d) VS = ITRT = (50 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 50 V
35. (a) I2 = IT − I1 = 150 mA − 100 mA = 50 mA
10 V
R1 = = 100 Ω
100 mA
10 V
R2 = = 200 Ω
50 mA
(b) P1 = PT − P2 = 2 W − 0.75 W = 1.25 W
VSI1 = 1.25 W
1.25 W
VS =
I1
VSI2 = 0.75 W
0.75 W
VS =
I2
Thus,
1.25 W 0.75 W
=
I1 I2
1.25I2 = 0.75I1
1.25
I1 = I 2 = 1.67I2
0.75
I1 + I2 = 200 mA
2.67I2 = 200 mA
200 mA
I2 = = 74.9 mA
2.67
I1 = 1.67(74.9 mA) = 125 mA
0.75 W
VS = = 10 V
74.9 mA
V 10 V
R1 = S = = 80 Ω
I1 125 mA
V 10 V
R2 = S = = 134 Ω
I 2 74.9 mA
41
100 V
(c) I3 = = 100 mA
1.0 kΩ
100 V
I2 = = 147 mA
680 Ω
I1 = IT − I1 − I2 = 0.5 A − 147 mA − 100 mA = 253 mA
100 V
R1 = = 395 Ω
253 mA
36. (a) RT = R1 = 510 kΩ
1
(b) RT = R1 || R2 = = 245 kΩ
1 1
+
510 kΩ 470 kΩ
(c) RT = R1 = 510 kΩ
1
(d) RT = R1 || R2 || R3 = = 193 kΩ
1 1 1
+ +
510 kΩ 470 kΩ 910 kΩ
37. Imax = 0.5 A
15 V 15 V
RT(min) = = = 30 Ω
I max 0.5 A
(68 Ω) R2
= RT(min)
68 Ω + R2
(68 Ω)R2 = (30 Ω)(68 Ω + R2)
68R2 = 2040 + 30R2
68R2 − 30R2 = 2040
38R2 = 2040
R2 = 53.7 Ω
38. Position A:
RT = R1 || R2 || R3 = 560 kΩ || 220 kΩ || 270 kΩ = 99.7 kΩ
24 V 24 V
IT = = = 241 μA
RT 99.7 kΩ
24 V
I1 = = 42.9 μA
560 kΩ
24 V
I2 = = 109 μA
220 kΩ
24 V
I3 = = 89.0 μA
270 kΩ
42
Position B:
RT = R1 || R2 || R3 || R4 || R5 || R6
= 560 kΩ || 220 kΩ || 270 kΩ || 1.0 MΩ || 820 kΩ || 2.2 MΩ = 78.7 kΩ
24 V 24 V
IT = = = 305 μA
RT 78.7 kΩ
I1 = 42.9 μA
I2 = 109 μA
I3 = 89.0 μA
24 V
I4 = = 24.0 μA
1.0 MΩ
24 V
I5 = = 29.3 μA
820 kΩ
24 V
I6 = = 10.9 μA
2 .2 M Ω
Position C:
RT = R4 || R5 || R6 = 1.0 MΩ || 820 kΩ || 2.2 MΩ = 374 kΩ
24 V 24 V
IT = = = 64.2 μA
RT 374 kΩ
I4 = 24.0 μA
I5 = 29.3 μA
I6 = 10.9 μA
39. From Kirchhoff’s current law, the total current into the room is equal to the current in the
appliances: IHEATER + ILAMPS + IVACUUM = 8.0 A + 2(0.833 A) + 5.0 A = 14.7 A. The current
into the room is less than the capacity of the breaker, so the vacuum cleaner can be plugged in
without exceeding the capacity of the breaker.
40. VT = I4R4 = (100 mA)(25 Ω) = 2500 mV = 2.5 V
V 2.5 V
I220 Ω = T = = 11.4 mA
R 220 Ω
41. R1 || R2 || R5 || R9 || R10 || R12
= 100 kΩ || 220 kΩ || 560 kΩ || 390 kΩ|| 1.2 MΩ|| 100 kΩ = 33.6 kΩ
R4 || R6 || R7 || R8
= 270 kΩ || 1.0 MΩ || 820 kΩ || 680 kΩ = 135.2 kΩ
R3 || R11 = 330 kΩ || 1.8 MΩ = 278.9 kΩ
R1R2 RT R1
42. RT = R2 =
R1 + R2 ( R1 − RT )
(680 Ω)(200 Ω)
RT(R1 + R2) = R1R2 R2 = = 283 Ω
680 Ω − 200 Ω
RTR1 + RTR2 = R1R2
RTR1 = R1R2 − RTR2
RTR1 = R2(R1 − RT)
43
43. I1 = 1.5 mA − 1.2 mA = 0.3 mA
VS = V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = I1R1 = (0.3 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 0.3 V
I2 = 1.2 mA − 0.8 mA = 0.4 mA
V 0.3 V
R2 = 2 = = 0.75 kΩ = 750 Ω
I 2 0.4 mA
V 0.3 V
I3 = 3 = = 910 μA
R3 3.3 kΩ
I4 = 0.8 mA − 910 μA = 709 μA
V 0.3 V
R4 = 4 = = 423 Ω
I 4 709 μA
44. VS = ITRT = (250 mA)(1.5 kΩ) = 375 V
Inew = 250 mA + (0.25)(250 mA) = 250 mA + 62.5 mA = 313 mA
V 375 V
RT(new) = S = = 1.20 kΩ
I new 313 mA
RT(new) = RT || Rnew
1 1 1
= +
RT(new) RT Rnew
1 1 1 RT − RT(new)
= − =
R new RT(new) RT RT RT(new)
RT RT(new) (1.20 kΩ)(1.50 kΩ)
Rnew = = = 6 kΩ
RT − RT(new) 1.50 kΩ − 1.20 kΩ
45. RT = 4.7 kΩ || 10 kΩ || 10 kΩ = 2.42 kΩ
24 V
IT = = 10.3 mA
2.42 kΩ
With the 4.7 kΩ resistor open,
25 V
I= = 5 mA
5 kΩ
Therefore, the 4.7 kΩ resistor is open.
46. Pins 1-2
RT = 1.0 kΩ || 3.3 kΩ = 767 Ω (correct reading)
When one resistor is open, the reading is either 1.0 kΩ or 3.3 kΩ.
Pins 3-4
RT = 270 Ω || 390 Ω = 160 Ω (correct reading)
When one resistor is open, the reading is either 270 Ω or 390 Ω.
Pins 5-6
RT = 1.0 MΩ || 1.8 MΩ || 680 kΩ || 510 kΩ = 201 kΩ (correct reading)
R5 open: RT = 1.8 MΩ || 680 kΩ || 510 kΩ = 251 kΩ
R6 open: RT = 1.0 MΩ || 680 kΩ || 510 kΩ = 226 kΩ
R7 open: RT = 1.0 MΩ || 1.8 MΩ || 510 kΩ = 284 kΩ
R8 open: RT = 1.0 MΩ || 1.8 MΩ || 680 kΩ = 330 kΩ
44
47. (a) One of the resistors has burned open because the power exceeded 0.5 W. Since each
resistor has the same voltage, the smallest value will reach the maximum power
dissipation first, as per the formula P = V2/R.
V2
(b) P= , V = PR = (0.5 W)(1.8 kΩ) = 30 V
R
(c) Replace the 1.8 kΩ resistor and operate the circuit at less than 30 V or use a higher
wattage resistor to replace the existing 1.8 kΩ.
48. (a) R1−2 = R1 || R2 || R3 || R4 || R11 || R12
= 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 3.3 kΩ || 18 kΩ || 1.0 kΩ = 422 Ω
(b) R2−3 = R5 || R6 || R7 || R8 || R9 || R10
= 4.7 kΩ || 4.7 kΩ || 6.8 kΩ || 5.6 kΩ || 5.6 kΩ || 1.0 kΩ = 518 Ω
(c) R3−4 = R5 || R6 || R7 || R8 || R9 || R10 = 518 Ω
(d) R1−4 = R1 || R2 || R3 || R4 || R11 || R12 = 422 Ω
49. (a) R1−2 = (R1 || R2 || R3 || R4 || R11 || R12) + (R5 || R6 || R7 || R8 || R9 || R10)
= 422 Ω + 518 Ω = 940 Ω
(b) R2−3 = R5 || R6 || R7 || R8 || R9 || R10 = 518 Ω
(c) R2−4 = R5 || R6 || R7 || R8 || R9 || R10 = 518 Ω
(d) R1−4 = R1 || R2 || R3 || R4 || R11 || R12 = 422 Ω
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
50. R1 is open.
51. R3 is open.
52. No fault
53. (a) The measured resistance between pin 1 and pin 4 agrees with the calculated value.
(b) The measured resistance between pin 2 and pin 3 agrees with the calculated value.
45
CHAPTER 6
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 6-1 Identifying Series-Parallel Relationships
1. R2, R3, and R4 are in parallel and this parallel combination is in series with both R1 and R5.
RT = (R2 || R3 || R4) + R1 + R5
2. (a) R1 in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3. See Figure 6-1(a).
(b) R1 in parallel with the series combination of R2 and R3. See Figure 6-1(b).
(c) R1 in parallel with a branch containing R2 in series with a parallel combination of four
other resistors. See Figure 6-1(c).
Figure 6-1
3. See Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-2
46
4. (a) R1 and R4 are in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3.
RT = (R2 || R3) + R1 + R4
(b) R1 is in series with the parallel combination of R2, R3, and R4.
RT = R1 + (R2 || R3 || R4)
SECTION 6-2 Analysis of Series-Parallel Resistive Circuits
R1R2
5. RT =
R1 + R2
R1RT (1.0 kΩ)(667 Ω)
R2 = = = 2003 Ω
R1 − RT 1.0 kΩ − 667 Ω
6. Brown, black, black, gold = 10 Ω ± 5%
Orange, orange, black, gold = 33 Ω ± 5%
Two 10 Ω resistors are in series with three 33 Ω resistors that are in parallel.
33 Ω
RAB = 10 Ω + 10 Ω + = 20 Ω + 11 Ω = 31 Ω
3
7. (a) RT = 56 Ω + 22 Ω + 100 Ω || 100 Ω = 56 Ω + 22 Ω + 50 Ω = 128 Ω
(b) RT = 680 Ω || 330 Ω || 220 Ω + 680 Ω = 111 Ω + 680 Ω = 791 Ω
8. RT = R1 + R5 + R2 || R3 || R4 = 10 Ω + 10 Ω + 11 Ω = 31 Ω
3V
IT = I1 = I5 = = 96.8 mA
31 Ω
96.8 mA
I2 = I3 = I4 = = 32.3 mA
3
V1 = V5 = (96.8 mA)(10 Ω) = 968 mV
V2 = V3 = V4 = (32.3 mA)(33 Ω) = 1.07 V
9. (a) RT = 128 Ω
1.5 V
IT = = 11.7 mA
128 Ω
I1 = I4 = IT = 11.7 mA
11.7 mA
I2 = I3 = = 5.85 mA
2
V1 = I1R1 = (11.7 mA)(56 Ω) = 655 mV
V2 = V3 = IT(RT || R3) = (11.7 mA)(50 Ω) = 585 mV
V4 = I4R4 = (11.7 mA)(22 Ω) = 257 mV
(b) RT(p) = R2 || R3 || R4 = 680 Ω || 330 Ω || 220 Ω = 111 Ω
RT = RT(p) + R1 = 791 Ω
3V
IT = = 3.8 mA
791 Ω
I1 = IT = 3.8 mA
47
RT(p) 110.5 Ω
I2 = I T = 3.8 mA = 618 μA
R2 680 Ω
RT(p) 110.5 Ω
I3 = I T =
3.8 mA = 1.27 mA
R3 330 Ω
RT(p) 110.5 Ω
I4 = I T = 3.8 mA = 1.91 mA
R4 220 Ω
V1 = I1R1 = (3.8 mA)(680 Ω) = 2.58 V
V2 = V3 = V4 = (3.8 mA)(111 Ω) = 420 mV
4.7 kΩ
10. (a) R4 || R5 = = 2.35 kΩ
2
R4 || R5 + R3 = 2.35 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ + 5.65 kΩ
5.65 kΩ || R2 = 5.65 kΩ || 2.7 kΩ = 1.83 kΩ
RAB = 1.83 kΩ || 10 kΩ = 1.55 kΩ
VS 6V
(b) IT = = = 3.87 mA
RT 1.55 kΩ
(c) The resistance to the right of AB is 1.83 kΩ. The current through this part of the circuit
is I = 6 V/1.83 kΩ = 3.28 mA.
R2 2.7 kΩ
I3 = 3.28 mA = 3.28 mA = 1.06 mA
R2 + 5.65 kΩ 8.35 kΩ
I 1.06 mA
I5 = 3 = = 530 μA
2 2
(d) V2 = VS = 6 V
11. From Problem 10, V2 = 6 V.
V 6V
I2 = 2 = = 2.22 mA
R2 2.7 kΩ
12. From Problem 10,
I3 = 1.06 mA
I5 = 530 μA
I4 = I3 − I5 = 1.06 mA − 530 μA = 530 μA
48
SECTION 6-3 Voltage Dividers with Resistive Loads
56 kΩ
13. VOUT = 15 V = 7.5 V unloaded
112 kΩ
RL = 1.0 MΩ || 56 kΩ = 53 kΩ
56 kΩ
VOUT = 15 V = 7.29 V loaded
109 kΩ
14. With no load:
6 .6 k Ω
VA = 12 V = 8 V
9.9 kΩ
3.3 kΩ
VB = 12 V = 4 V
9 .9 k Ω
With a 10 kΩ resistor connected from output A to ground:
(6.6 kΩ)(10 kΩ)
RAG = = 3.98 kΩ
6.6 kΩ + 10 kΩ
3.98 kΩ
VA(loaded) = 12 V = 6.56 V
7.28 kΩ
With a 10 kΩ resistor connected from output B to ground:
(3.3 kΩ)(10 kΩ)
RBG = = 2.48 kΩ
13.3 kΩ
2.48 kΩ
VB(loaded) = 12 V = 3.28 V
9.08 kΩ
Refer to Figure 6-3.
Figure 6-3
49
15. The 56 kΩ load will cause a smaller decrease in output voltage for a given voltage divider
because it has less effect on the circuit resistance than the 10 kΩ load does.
16. With no load:
RT = 10 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ + 2.7 kΩ = 18.3 kΩ
22 V
I= = 1.2 mA
18.3 kΩ
With a 10 kΩ load:
(8.3 kΩ)(10 kΩ)
RT = 10 kΩ + = 14.54 kΩ
8.3 kΩ + 10 kΩ
22 V
I= = 1.51 mA
14.54 kΩ
SECTION 6-4 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter
17. The voltmeter presents the least loading across the 22 kΩ load.
18. 10 MΩ || 1.0 MΩ = 909 kΩ
909 kΩ 909 kΩ
VM = 100 V = 10 V = 31.3 V
1.0 MΩ + 909 kΩ + 1.0 MΩ 2.909 MΩ
1 MΩ
19. VACT = 100 V = 33.3 V
3 MΩ
VM = 31.3 V
ΔV = VACT − VM = 33.3 V − 31.3 V = 2 V
V − VM 33.3 V − 31.3 V
20. % V = ACT 100% = 100% = 6%
VM 33.3 V
21. The total resistance of the meter is RM = (10 k / V)(10 V) = 100 k .
RM R2 100 k 100 k 50 k
= 33%
RM R2 R1 100 k 100 k 100 k 150 k
RM R2 10 M 100 k 99 k
22. = 49.8%
RM R2 R1 10 M 100 k 100 k 199 k
50
SECTION 6-5 The Wheatstone Bridge
R
23. RUNK = RV 2 = (18 kΩ)(0.02) = 360 Ω
R4
R R 560 Ω
24. RUNK = RV 1 ; RV = RUNK 2 = 390 Ω = 218.4 Ω
R2 R1 1.0 kΩ
R 2 .2 k Ω
25. RX = RV 2 = 5 kΩ = 7.33 kΩ
R4 1.5 kΩ
26. Change in thermistor resistance from 25C to 65C.
ΔRtherm = 5 Ω(65C − 25C) = 5 Ω(40C) = 200 Ω
At 65C:
R1 = Rtherm = 1 kΩ + 200 Ω = 1.2 kΩ
R3 1.0 kΩ
VA = VS = 9 V = 4.09 V
R1 + R3 2.2 kΩ
R4 1.0 kΩ
VB = VS = 9 V = 4.5 V
R3 + R4 2.0 kΩ
VOUT = VB − VA = 4.5 V − 4.09 V = 0.41 V
SECTION 6-6 Thevenin’s Theorem
22 kΩ
27. RTH = 100 kΩ || 22 kΩ = 18 kΩ VTH = 15 V = 2.7 V
122 kΩ
28. (a) RTH = 22 Ω + 78 Ω || 147 Ω = 22 Ω + 51 Ω = 73 Ω
78 Ω
VTH = 2.5 V = 867 mV
78 Ω + 100 Ω + 47 Ω
(b) RTH = 100 Ω || 270 Ω = 73 Ω
100 Ω
VTH = 3 V = 811 mV
370 Ω
(c) RTH = 100 kΩ || 56 kΩ = 35.9 kΩ
56 kΩ
VTH = 1.5 V = 538 mV
156 kΩ
51
29. RTH = R1 || R3 + R2 || R4 = 1.0 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ || 1.5 kΩ = 1.58 kΩ
R3 R4 2 .2 k Ω 1 .5 k Ω
VTH = VA − VB = VS −
VS = 5 V − 5 V
R1 + R3 R2 + R4 3.2 kΩ 3.7 kΩ
= 3.44 V − 2.03 V = 1.41 V
RL 4.7 kΩ
VRL = VTH = 1.41 V = 1.06 V
RTH + RL 6.28 kΩ
VR 1.06 V
I RL = L = = 226 μA
RL 4.7 kΩ
SECTION 6-7 The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
30. RTH = R1 || R2 = 100 kΩ || 22 kΩ = 18 kΩ
RL = RTH = 18 kΩ
31. RL = RTH = 75 Ω
32. RTH = 73 Ω
Therefore, RL = RTH = 73 Ω for maximum power transfer.
SECTION 6-8 The Superposition Theorem
33. For the 1 V source:
RT = R1 + R2 || R3 = 100 Ω + 56 Ω || 27 Ω = 118.2 Ω
1V
IT = = 8.46 mA
118.2 Ω
R2 56 Ω
I3 = I T =
8.46 mA = 5.71 mA (up)
R2 + R3 83 Ω
For the 1.5 V source:
RT = R2 + R1 || R3 = 56 Ω + 100 Ω || 27 Ω = 77.3 Ω
1.5 V
IT = = 19.4 mA
77.3 Ω
R1 100 Ω
I3 = I T =
19.4 mA = 15.3 mA (up)
R1 + R3 127 Ω
I3(total) = 5.71 mA + 15.3 mA = 21.0 mA (up)
52
34. For the 1 V source:
R3 27 Ω
I2 = I T =
8.46 mA = 2.75 mA (up)
R2 + R3 83 Ω
For the 1.5 V source:
I2 = IT = 19.4 mA (down)
I2(total) = 19.4 mA − 2.75 mA = 16.7 mA (down)
SECTION 6-9 Troubleshooting
(680 Ω)(4.7 kΩ)
35. Req = = 594 Ω
680 Ω + 4.7 kΩ
RT = 560 Ω + 470 Ω + 594 Ω = 1624 Ω
The voltmeter indicates 9.84 V.
594 Ω
The voltmeter should read: V = 12 V = 4.39 V
1624 Ω
The meter reading is incorrect, indicating that the 680 Ω resistor is open.
36. If R2 opens: VA = 15 V, VB = 0 V, and VC = 0 V
R4 ( R3 + R2 ) 1.62 kΩ
37. V3.3kΩ = 10 V = 10 V = 6.18 V
R (R + R ) + R
4 3 2 1 2.62 kΩ
The 7.62 V reading is incorrect.
2 .2 k Ω
V2.2kΩ = 6.18 V = 4.25 V
3.2 kΩ
The 5.24 V reading is incorrect.
The 3.3 kΩ resistor is open.
38. (a) R1 open:
VR1 = 15 V; VR2 = VR3 = VR4 = VR5 = 0 V
(b) R3 open:
VR3 = 15 V; VR12 = VR2 = VR4 = VR5 = 0 V
(c) R4 open:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R5 = 1.0 kΩ + 560 Ω + 470 Ω + 2.2 kΩ = 4.23 kΩ
R 1 .0 k Ω
VR1 = 1 15 V = 15 V 15 V = 3.55 V
RT 4.23 kΩ
R 560 Ω
VR2 = 2 15 V = 15 V = 1.99 V
RT 4.23 kΩ
53
R 470 Ω
VR3 = 3 15 V = 15 V = 1.67 V
RT 4.23 kΩ
R 2.2 kΩ
VR4 = VR5 = 5 15 V = 15 V = 7.80 V
RT 4.23 kΩ
(d) R5 open:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 1.0 kΩ + 560 Ω + 470 Ω + 3.3 kΩ = 5.33 kΩ
R 1 .0 k Ω
VR1 = 1 15 V = 15 V = 2.81 V
RT 5.33 kΩ
R 560 Ω
VR2 = 2 15 V = 15 V = 1.58 V
RT 5.33 kΩ
R 470 Ω
VR3 = 3 15 V = 15 V = 1.32 V
RT 5.33 kΩ
R 3 .3 k Ω
VR4 = VR5 = 5 15 V = 15 V = 9.29 V
RT 5.33 kΩ
(e) Point C shorted to ground:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1.0 kΩ + 560 Ω + 470 Ω = 2.03 kΩ
VR4 = VR5 = 0 V
R 1 .0 k Ω
VR1 = 1 15 V = 15 V = 7.39 V
RT 2.03 kΩ
R 560 Ω
VR2 = 2 15 V = 15 V = 4.14 V
RT 2.03 kΩ
R 470 Ω
VR3 = 3 15 V = 15 V = 3.47 V
RT 2.03 kΩ
39. (a) R1 open:
VR1 = −10 V, VR2 = VR3 = VR4 = 0 V
(b) R2 open:
RT = R1 + R4 = 1.0 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ = 4.3 kΩ
R 1 .0 k Ω
VR1 = − 1 10 V = − 10 V = −2.33 V
RT 4.3 kΩ
VR2 = −7.67 V
VR3 = 0 V
R 3 .3 k Ω
VR4 = − 4 10 V = − 10 V = −7.67 V
RT 4.3 kΩ
54
(c) R3 open:
RT = R1 + R4 = 1.0 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ = 4.3 kΩ
R 1 .0 k Ω
VR1 = − 1 10 V = − 10 V = −2.33 V
RT 4.3 kΩ
VR2 = 0 V
VR3 = −7.67 V
R 3 .3 k Ω
VR4 = − 4 10 V = − 10 V = −7.67 V
RT 4.3 kΩ
(d) R4 shorted:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 1.0 kΩ + 560 Ω + 470 Ω + 3.3 kΩ = 5.33 kΩ
VR1 = −10 V
VR2 = VR3 = VR4 = 0 V
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
40. (a) The parallel combination of R2 and R3 is in series with the parallel combination of R4 and
R5. This is all in parallel with R1.
(b) R1 and R2 are in series with the parallel combination of R3 and R4. Also, R5 and R8 are in
series with the parallel combination of R6 and R7. These two series-parallel
combinations are in parallel with each other.
41. Resistors R8, R9, and R11 can be removed with no effect on the circuit because they are shorted
by the pc connection. See Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-4
55
42. The circuit is redrawn and simplified as shown in Figure 6-5.
(a) RT = (((((560 Ω + 560 Ω ) 1.0 kΩ ) + (1.0 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ ) 560 Ω ) 910 Ω ) 56 Ω ) 560 Ω
= (((528.3 Ω + 437.5 Ω ) 910 Ω ) + 56 Ω ) 560 Ω = 271 Ω
60 V
(b) IT = = 221 mA
271 Ω
560 Ω
(c) I56 Ω = I T = (0.516)221 mA = 114 mA
560 Ω + 525 Ω
966 Ω
I910 Ω = I 56 Ω = (0.515)114 mA = 58.7 mA
910 Ω + 966 Ω
(d) V910 Ω = I910 Ω(910 Ω) = (58.7 mA) 910 Ω = 53.4 V
The voltage from point B to the negative side of the battery is
437.5 Ω 437.5 Ω
VB− = V910 Ω = 53.4 V = 24.2 V
437.5 Ω + 528.3 Ω 966 Ω
24.2 V
VAB = = 12.1 V
2
Figure 6-5
43. RB = 2.2 kΩ || 2 kΩ = 1.05 kΩ RA = 2.2 kΩ || 2.05 kΩ = 1.06 kΩ
RT = 4.7 kΩ + 1.06 kΩ = 5.76 kΩ
1.06 kΩ
VA = 18 V = 3.3 V
5.76 kΩ
1.05 kΩ 1.05 kΩ
VB = VA = 3.3 V = 1.7 V
2.05 kΩ 2.05 kΩ
1 .0 k Ω
VC = VB = (0.5)(1.7 V) = 850 mV
2 kΩ
56
44. The circuit is simplified in Figure 6-6 step-by-step to determine RT.
RT = 621 Ω
10 V
IT = I1 = I9 = = 16.1 mA
621 Ω
864 Ω
I2 = 16.1 mA = 8.26 mA
1684 Ω
820 Ω
I3 = I8 = 16.1 mA = 7.84 mA
1684 Ω
880 Ω
I4 = 7.84 mA = 4.06 mA
1700 Ω
820 Ω
I5 = 7.84 mA = 3.78 mA
1700 Ω
Figure 6-6
45. Using the currents found in Problem 44:
V1 = ITR1 = (16.1 mA)(100 Ω) = 1.61 V
V2 = I2R2 = (8.26 mA)(820 Ω) = 6.77 V
V3 = I3R3 = (7.84 mA)(220 Ω) = 1.72 V
V4 = I4R4 = (4.06 mA)(820 Ω) = 3.33 V
V5 = I5R5 = (3.78 mA)(100 Ω) = 378 mV
V6 = I5R6 = (3.78 mA)(680 Ω) = 2.57 V
V7 = V5 = 378 mV
V8 = I8R8 = (7.84 mA)(220 Ω) = 1.72 V
V9 = ITR9 = (16.1 mA)(100 Ω) = 1.61 V
57
46. Resistance of the right branch:
RR = R2 + R5 || R6 + R7 + R8 = 330 Ω + 600 Ω + 680 Ω + 100 Ω = 1710 Ω
Resistance of the left branch:
RL = R3 + R4 = 470 Ω + 560 Ω = 1030 Ω
Total resistance:
RT = R1 + RL || RR = 1.0 kΩ + 642.8 Ω = 1643 Ω
100 V
IT = = 60.9 mA
1643 Ω
Current in right branch:
RL 1030 Ω
IR = I T = 60.9 mA = 22.9 mA
RL + RR 2740 Ω
Current in left branch:
RR 1710 Ω
IL = I T = 60.9 mA = 38.0 mA
RL + RR 2740 Ω
Voltages with respect to the negative terminal of the source:
VA = I1R4 = (38.0 mA)(560 Ω) = 21.3 V
VB = IR(R7 + R8) = (22.9 mA)(780 Ω) = 17.9 V
VAB = VA − VB = 21.3 V − 17.9 V = 3.40 V
47. Writing KVL around outside loop, and substituting I1 = (IT − 1 mA):
− 220 V + (IT − 1 mA) 47 kΩ + IT (33 kΩ) = 0
(47 kΩ + 33 kΩ) IT = 220 V + 47 V
267 V
IT = = 3.34 mA
80 k
V3 = ITR3 = (3.34 mA)(33 kΩ) = 110 V
I1 = (IT − 1 mA) = 2.34 mA
V2 = VS − V3 = 220 V − 110 V = 110 V
V 110 V
R2 = 2 = 110 kΩ
I 2 1.0 mA
48. RC − GND = R6 = 1.0 kΩ
RB − GND = (R5 + R6) || R4 = 2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ = 1.05 kΩ
RA − GND = (R3 + RB − GND) || R2 = 2.05 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ = 1.06 kΩ
RT = R1 + RA − GND = 5.6 kΩ + 1.06 kΩ = 6.66 kΩ
1.06 kΩ
VA = 18 V = 2.86 V
6.66 kΩ
1.05 kΩ
VB = 2.86 V = 1.47 V
2.05 kΩ
1 .0 k Ω
VC = 1.47 V = 735 mV
2 kΩ
58
49. Imax = 100 mA
24 V
RT = = 240 Ω
100 mA
R2
24 V = 6 V
RT
24R2 = 6RT
6(240 Ω)
R2 = = 60 Ω
24
R1 = 140 Ω − 60 Ω = 180 Ω
With load:
R2 || RL = 60 Ω || 1000 Ω = 56.6 Ω
56.6 Ω
VOUT = 24 V = 5.74 V
180 Ω + 56.6 Ω
50. Refer to Figure 6-7.
10 V
RT = = 2 kΩ
5 mA
R1 = R2 + R3
R2 = R3
R1 = 2R2
R1 + 2R2 = 2 kΩ
2R2 + 2R2 = 2 kΩ
4R2 = 2 kΩ
R2 = R3 = 500 Ω
R1 = R2 + R3 = 1000 Ω
With 1 kΩ loads across the 2.5 V and the 5 V outputs:
( R3 RL + R2 ) RL
VA =
( R R + R ) R + R S
V
3 L 2 L 1
( 500 Ω 1 kΩ + 500 Ω ) 1 kΩ
= 10 V
( 500 Ω 1 kΩ + 500 Ω ) 1 kΩ + 1 kΩ
455 Ω
= 10 V = 3.13 V
455 Ω + 1 kΩ
59
R3 1 kΩ 333 Ω
VB = VA = 3.13 V = 1.25 V
R3 1 kΩ + R2 333 Ω + 500 Ω
Figure 6-7
51. Refer to Figure 6-8(a).
With the 2 V source acting alone:
RT = 1.96 kΩ
2V
IT = = 1.02 mA
1.96 kΩ
2.2 kΩ
I1 = 1.02 mA = 577 μA
2.2 kΩ + 1.69 kΩ
1 .0 k Ω
I5 = 577 μA = 180 μA up
1 .0 k Ω + 2 .2 k Ω
Refer to Figure 6-8(b).
With the 3 V source acting alone:
RT = 1.96 kΩ
3V
IT = = 1.53 mA
1.96 kΩ
1.69 kΩ
I5 = 1.53 mA = 665 μA up
2.2 kΩ + 1.69 kΩ
I5(total) = 665 μA + 180 μA = 845 μA
60
Figure 6-8
52. Using Superposition:
Current from the 12 V source:
RT = 220 Ω + 100 Ω || 560 Ω || 100 Ω || 820 Ω = 220 Ω + 43.5 Ω = 264 Ω
12 V
IT = = 45.5 mA
264 Ω
43.5 Ω
I RL 45.5 mA = 2.41 mA (up)
820 Ω
Current from the 6 V source:
RT = 100 Ω + 220 Ω || 560 Ω || 100 Ω || 820 Ω = 100 Ω + 57 Ω = 157 Ω
6V
IT = = 38.2 mA
157 Ω
57 Ω
I RL 38.2 mA = 2.66 mA (up)
820 Ω
Current from the 10 V source:
RT = 560 Ω + 220 Ω || 100 Ω || 100 Ω || 820 Ω = 560 Ω + 38.8 Ω = 599 Ω
10 V
IT = = 16.7 mA
599 Ω
38.8 Ω
I RL 16.7 mA = 0.79 mA (down)
820 Ω
Current from the 5 V source:
RT = 100 Ω + 220 Ω || 100 Ω || 560 Ω || 820 Ω = 100 Ω + 57 Ω = 157 Ω
5V
IT = = 31.8 mA
157 Ω
57 Ω
I RL 31.8 mA = 2.21 mA (down)
820 Ω
I RL (total ) = 2.41 mA + 2.66 mA − 0.79 mA − 2.21 mA = 2.08 mA (up)
61
53. Refer to Figure 6-9(a).
RTH = 2.65 kΩ || 2.35 kΩ = 1.25 kΩ
Refer to Figure 6-9(b).
1.69 kΩ
VTH = 50 V = 13.2 V
6.39 kΩ
Refer to Figure 6-9(c).
10 kΩ
V4 = 13.2 V = 11.7 V
11.3 kΩ
kΩ
Figure 6-9
54. (a) When SW2 is connected to +12 V, the voltage at the junction of R3, R4, and R5 is
24 kΩ 26.4 kΩ
V2 = 12 V = 12.6 kΩ 12 V = 4.13 V
24 kΩ + (24 kΩ 26.4 kΩ ) 36.6 kΩ
The voltage at the junction of R5, R6, and R7 is
24 kΩ 36 kΩ
V3 = V2 = 14.4 kΩ 4.13 V = 2.25 V
12 kΩ + (24 kΩ 36 kΩ ) 36.4 kΩ
24 kΩ 24 kΩ
VOUT = V3 = 2.25 V = 1.5 V
36 kΩ 36 kΩ
62
(b) When SW1 is connected to +12 V, the voltage at the junction of R1, R2, and R3 is
24 kΩ 24.6 kΩ
V1 = 12 V = 12.1 kΩ 12 V = 4.02 V
24 kΩ + (24 kΩ 24.6 kΩ ) 36.1 kΩ
The voltage at the junction of R3, R4, and R5 is
24 kΩ 24.4 kΩ
V2 = V = 12.6 kΩ 4.02 V = 2.08 V
12 kΩ + (24 kΩ 24.4 kΩ ) 1 24.4 kΩ
24 kΩ 14.4 kΩ
V3 = V = 14.4 kΩ 2.08 V = 1.13 V
12 kΩ + (24 kΩ 14.4 kΩ ) 2 26.4 kΩ
24 kΩ 24 kΩ
VOUT = V3 = 1.13 V = 0.75 V
36 kΩ 36 kΩ
55. See Figure 6-10.
56 kΩ 3.9 kΩ 22 kΩ 68 kΩ 47 kΩ
1.2 kΩ 4.7 kΩ
27 kΩ
9.1 kΩ
33 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 6.2 kΩ 1.0 kΩ
Figure 6-10
56. See Figure 6-11.
Figure 6-11
63
57. Position 1:
RT = 10 kΩ + 30 kΩ || 330 kΩ = 10 kΩ + 27.5 kΩ = 37.5 kΩ
27.5 kΩ
V1 = 120 V = 88.0 V
37.5 kΩ
20 kΩ
V2 = 88.0 V = 58.7 V
30 kΩ
10 kΩ
V3 = 88.0 V = 29.3 V
30 kΩ
Position 2:
RT = 20 kΩ + 20 kΩ || 330 kΩ = 20 kΩ + 18.9 kΩ = 38.9 kΩ
10 kΩ + 18.9 kΩ
V1 = 120 V = 89.1 V
35.5 kΩ
18.9 kΩ
V2 = 120 V = 58.2 V
38.9 kΩ
10 kΩ
V3 = 58.2 V = 29.1 V
20 kΩ
Position 3:
RT = 30 kΩ + 10 kΩ || 330 kΩ = 30 kΩ + 9.71 kΩ = 39.7 kΩ
20 kΩ + 9.71 kΩ
V1 = 120 V = 89.8 V
39.7 kΩ
10 kΩ + 9.71 kΩ
V2 = 120 V = 59.6 V
39.7 kΩ
9.71 kΩ
V3 = 120 V = 29.3 V
39.7 kΩ
R2 560 kΩ
58. (a) VG = VDD = 16 V = 3.25 V
R1 + R2 2.2 MΩ + 560 kΩ
VS = 3.25 V − 1.5 V = 1.75 V
VDD − VG 16 V − 3.25 V
(b) I1 = = = 5.80 μA
R1 2.2 MΩ
I 2 = I1 = 5.80 μA
VS 1.75 V
IS = = = 1.17 mA
RS 1.5 kΩ
I D = IS = 1.17 mA
(c) VD = VDD − IDRD = 16 V − (167 μA)(4.7 kΩ) = 16 V − 0.783 V = 15.2 V
VDS − VD − VS = 15.2 V − 0.25 V = 14.97 V ≅ 15.0 V
VDG − VD − VG = 15.2 V − 1.75 V = 13.47 V ≅ 13.5 V
64
59. The circuit is redrawn in Figure 6-12.
The meter reading at point A should be:
6 kΩ
VA = 150 V = 56.3 V
16 kΩ
The meter reading of 81.8 V is incorrect. The most likely failure is an open 12 kΩ resistor.
This will cause the voltage at point A to be higher than it should be. To verify, let’s calculate
the voltage assuming that one of the 12 kΩ resistors is open.
12 kΩ
VA = 150 V = 81.8 V This verifies an open 12 kΩ.
22 k Ω
Now check VB:
2 .2 k Ω
VB = 150 V = 42.3 V
7.8 kΩ
This meter reading is correct.
Figure 6-12
60. The circuit is redrawn in Figure 6-13.
(10 kΩ + 47 kΩ)(100 kΩ)
RBG = = 36.3 kΩ
10 kΩ + 47 kΩ + 100 kΩ
RAG = 33 kΩ + RBG = 33 kΩ + 36.3 kΩ = 69.3 kΩ
RT = RAG = 27 kΩ = 69.3 kΩ + 27 kΩ = 96.3 kΩ
R 69.3 kΩ
VAG = AG 18 V = 18 V = 12.95 V
RT 96.3 kΩ
R 36.3 kΩ
VBG = BG 18 V = 18 V = 6.79 V
RT 96.3 kΩ
47 kΩ 47 kΩ
VCG = VBG = 6.79 V = 5.60 V correct
57 kΩ 57 kΩ
VAC = VAG − VCG = 12.95 V − 5.60 V = 7.35 V correct
65
Figure 6-13
61. The 2.5 V reading indicated on one of the meters shows that the series-parallel branch
containing the other meter is open. The 0 V reading on the other meter shows that there is no
current in that branch. Therefore, if only one resistor is open, it must be the 2.2 kΩ.
62. The circuit is redrawn in Figure 6-14.
The resistance from point A to ground is
RA = 12 kΩ || 8.2 kΩ = 4.87 kΩ
4.87 kΩ 4.87 kΩ
VA = 30 V = 30 V = 15.3 V
4.7 kΩ + 4.87 kΩ 9.57 kΩ
The meter reading of 15.3 V at point A is correct.
3.3 kΩ
VB = 30 V = 11.1 V
8 .9 k Ω
The meter reading of 30 V at point B is incorrect. Either the 5.6 kΩ resistor is shorted or the
3.3 kΩ resistor is open. Since resistors tend to fail open, the 3.3 kΩ is most likely open.
Figure 6-14
63. VA = 0 V
R6 3.3 kΩ
VB = 30 V = 30 V = 11.1 V
R5 + R6 8.9 kΩ
66
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
64. R3 is open.
65. R2 is shorted.
66. R1 is open.
67. No fault
68. R6 is open.
69. R4 is shorted.
70. R3 is open.
71. In fact, R5 is shorted, but it must be removed from the bridge before that can be determined.
67
CHAPTER 7
MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 7-1 The Magnetic Field
φ
1. Since B = , when A increases, B (flux density) decreases.
A
φ 1500 μWb
2. B = = 2
= 3000 μWb/m2 = 3000 μT
A 0.5 m
φ
3. B =
A
There are 100 centimeters per meter. (1 m/100 cm = 1 m2/10,000 cm2
1 m2
A = 150 cm2 = 0.015 m2
2
10,000 cm
φ = BA = (2500 × 10−6 T)(0.015 m2) = 37.5 μWb
4. 104 G = 1 T
(0.6 G)(1 T/104 G) = 60 μT
5. 1 T = 104 G
(100,000 μT)(104 G/T) = 1000 G
SECTION 7-2 Electromagnetism
6. The compass needle turns 180°.
μ
7. μr =
μ0
μ0 = 4π × 10−7 Wb/At⋅m
750 × 10−6 Wb/At⋅m
μr = = 597
4π × 10-7 Wb/At⋅m
l 0.28 m
8. R = = = 233 × 103 At/Wb
μA (150 × 10−7 Wb/At⋅m )(0.08 m 2 )
9. Fm = NI = (500 t)(3 A) = 1500 At
68
SECTION 7-3 Electromagnetic Devices
10. When a solenoid is activated, its plunger is retracted.
11. (a) An electromagnetic force moves the plunger when the solenoid is activated.
(b) A spring force returns the plunger to its at-rest position.
12. The relay connects +9 V to pin 2 turning on lamp 2 and turning off lamp 1.
13. The pointer in a d’Arsonval movement is deflected by the electromagnetic force when there is
current through the coil.
SECTION 7-4 Magnetic Hysteresis
14. Fm = 1500 At
F 1500 At
H= m = = 7500 At/m
l 0.2 m
15. The flux density can be changed by changing the current.
Fm NI 500(0.25 A)
16. (a) H= = = = 417 At/m
l l 0.3 m
F NI
(b) φ = m =
R l
μA
μ
μr =
μ0
μ = μrμ0 = (250)(4π × 10−7) = 3142 × 10−7 Wb/At⋅m
A = (2 cm)(2 cm) = (0.02 m)(0.02 m) = 0.0004 m2
(500 t)(0.25 A) 125 At
φ= = = 52.3 μWb
0.3 m 2.39 × 106 At/Wb
2
(3142 ×10 )(0.0004 m )
-7
φ 52.3 μWb
(c) B = = = 130,750 μWb/m2
A 0.0004 m 2
17. Material A has the most retentivity.
SECTION 7-5 Electromagnetic Induction
18. The induced voltage doubles when the rate of change of the magnetic flux doubles.
V 100 mV
19. Iinduced = induced = = 1 mA
R 100 Ω
69
20. The magnetic field is not changing; therefore, there is no induced voltage.
1.24 103 Wb
φ
21. B= 0.172 Wb/m 2 = 0.172 T
A (0.085 m) 2
vind 44 mV
v= = 3.02 m/s
Bl sin θ (0.172 T)(0.085 m)(sin 90)
22. (a) Positive (with respect to other end).
(b) The induced force will oppose the motion; it is downward.
SECTION 7-6 DC Generators
Pout
23. efficiency = 0.80
Pin
Pout 45 W
Pin = = 56.3 W
0.80 0.80
24. IA = IF + IL = 1 A + 12 A = 13 A
25. (a) P = IV = (12 A)(14 V) = 168 W
(b) P = IV = (1.0 A)(14 V) = 14 W
SECTION 7-7 DC Motors
26. (a) P = 0.015Ts = 0.105(3.0 N-m)(1200 rpm) = 378 W
1 hp
378 W
746 W
(b) = 0.51 hp
Pout 50 W
27. Pin = 62 W; Pout = 50 W. efficiency = = 80.6%
Pin 62 W
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
28. 60 rev/s × 2 peaks/rev = 120 peaks/s
70
29. The output voltage has a 10 V dc peak with a 120 Hz ripple. See Figure 7-1.
Figure 7-1
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
30. Upper lamp is open.
31. The design is flawed. 12 V is too little voltage to operate two 12 V relays in series but 24 V is
too much to operate a 12 V lamp. Install a separate 12 V power supply for the lamps and
change the 12 V to 24 V for the relays.
71
CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT AND
VOLTAGE
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 8-1 The Sinusoidal Waveform
1 1
1. (a) f= = = 1 Hz
T 1s
1 1
(b) f= = = 5 Hz
T 0.2 ms
1 1
(c) f= = = 20 Hz
T 50 ms
1 1
(d) f= = = 1 kHz
T 1 ms
1 1
(e) f= = = 2 kHz
T 500 μs
1 1
(f) f= = = 100 kHz
T 10 μs
1 1
2. (a) T= = = 1s
f 1 Hz
1 1
(b) T= = = 16.7 ms
f 60 Hz
1 1
(c) ) T = = = 2 ms
f 500 Hz
1 1
(d) T= = = 1 ms
f 1 kHz
1 1
(e) T= = = 5 μs
f 200 kHz
1 1
(f) T= = = 200 ns
f 5 MHz
10 μs
3. T= = 2 μs
5 cycles
72
1 1
4. T= = = 20 μs = 0.02 ms
f 50 kHz
10 ms
= 500 cycles in 10 ms
0.02 ms
1 1
5. T= = 100 μs
f 10 kHz
(100 μs/cycle)(100 cycles) = 10 ms
SECTION 8-2 Voltage and Current Values of Sine Waves
6. (a) Vrms = 0.707Vp = 0.707(12 V) = 8.48 V
(b) Vpp = 2Vp = 2(12 V) = 24 V
2 2
(c) VAVG = V p = 12 V = 7.64 V
π π
7. (a) Ip = 1.414Irms = 1.414(5 mA) = 7.07 mA
(b) IAVG = 0.6371Ip = 0.637(7.07 mA) = 4.5 mA
(c) Ipp = 2Ip = 2(7.07 mA) = 14.14 mA
8. Vp = 25 V
Vpp = 2Vp = 50 V
Vrms = 0.707Vp = 17.7 V
VAVG = 0.637Vp = 15.9 V
9. (a) 17.7 V (b) 25 V (c) 0V (d) −17.7 V
SECTION 8-3 Angular Measurement of a Sine Wave
10. (a) 17.5 V (b) 25 V (c) 0V
11. θ = 45° − 30° = 15° waveform A leading
12. With respect to 0°: Sine wave with peak at 75° is shifted 15° leading. Sine wave with peak at
100° is shifted 10° lagging.
Phase difference: θ = 100° − 75° = 25°
73
13. See Figure 8-1.
Figure 8-1
π rad
14. (a) × 30° = 0.524 rad
180°
π rad
(b) × 45° = 0.785 rad
180°
π rad
(c) × 78° = 1.36 rad
180°
π rad
(d) × 135° = 2.36 rad
180°
π rad
(e) × 200° = 3.49 rad
180°
π rad
(f) × 300° = 5.24 rad
180°
π
15. (a) × 57.3°/rad = 22.5°
8 rad
π
(b) × 57.3°/rad = 60°
3 rad
π
(c) × 57.3°/rad = 90°
2 rad
3π
(d) × 57.3°/rad = 108°
5 rad
6π
(e) × 57.3°/rad = 216°
5 rad
1.8π
(f) × 57.3°/rad = 324°
rad
SECTION 8-4 The Sine Wave Formula
16. Vp = 1.414(20 V) = 28.28 V
(a) v = Vpsin θ = (28.28 V)sin15° = 7.32 V
(b) v = (28.28 V)sin 33° = 15.4 V
(c) v = (28.28 V)sin 50° = 21.7 V
(d) v = (28.28 V)sin 110° = 26.6 V
74
(e) v = (28.28 V)sin 70° = 26.6 V
(f) v = (28.28 V)sin 145° = 16.2 V
(g) v = (28.28 V)sin 250° = −26.6 V
(h) v = (28.28 V)sin 325° = −16.2 V
17. (a) i = Ipsin θ = (100 mA)sin 35° = 57.4 mA
(b) i = (100 mA)sin 95° = 99.6 mA
(c) i = (100 mA)sin 190° = −17.4 mA
(d) i = (100 mA)sin 215° = −57.4 mA
(e) i = (100 mA)sin 275° = −99.6 mA
(f) i = (100 mA)sin 360° = 0 mA
18. Vp = 1.414Vrms = 1.414(6.37 V) = 9 V
π
(a) = 22.5°
8
v = (9 V)sin 22.5° = 3.44 V
π
(b) = 45°
4
v = (9 V)sin 45° = 6.36 V
π
(c) = 90°
2
v = (9 V)sin 90° = 9 V
3π
(d) = 135°
4
v = (9 V)sin 135° = 6.36 V
(e) π = 180°
v = (9 V)sin 180° = 0 V
3π
(f) = 270°
2
v = (9 V)sin 270° = −9 V
(g) 2π = 360°
v = (9 V)sin 360° = 0 V
19. v = (15 V)sin (30° + 30°) = 13.0 V
v = (15 V)sin (30° + 45°) = 14.5 V
v = (15 V)sin (30° + 90°) = 13.0 V
v = (15 V)sin (30° + 180°) = −7.5 V
v = (15 V)sin (30° + 200°) = −11.5 V
v = (15 V)sin (30° + 300°) = −7.5 V
20. v = (15 V)sin (30° − 30°) = 0 V
v = (15 V)sin (45° − 30°) = 3.88 V
v = (15 V)sin (90° − 30°) = 13.0 V
v = (15 V)sin (180° − 30°) = 7.5 V
v = (15 V)sin (200° − 30°) = 2.60 V
v = (15 V)sin (300° − 30°) = −15 V
75
SECTION 8-5 Analysis of AC Circuits
Vp 10 V
21. (a) Irms = 0.707 = 0.707 = 7.07 mA
R 1.0 kΩ
(b) IAVG = 0 A over a full cycle.
10 V
(c) Ip = = 10 mA
1.0 kΩ
(d) Ipp = 2(10 mA) = 20 mA
(e) i = Ip = 10 mA
22. V2(rms) = V4 − V3 = 65 V − 30 V = 35 V
V2(p) = 1.414(35 V) = 49.5 V
V2(AVG) = 0.637(49.5 V) = 31.5 V
V1(rms) = Vs − V4 = 120 V − 65 V = 55 V
V1(p) = 1.414(55 V) = 77.8 V
V1(AVG) = 0.637(77.8 V) = 49.5 V
16 V 16 V
23. Ipp = = = 16 mA
R1 1 .0 k Ω
I pp 16 mA
Irms = 0.707 = 0.707 = 5.66 mA
2 2
VR4 = IrmsR4 = (5.66 mA)(560 Ω) = 3.17 V rms
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
VR1 + VR2 + VR3 + VR4 = Vs
0.707(8 V) + 5 V + VR3 + 3.17 V = 0.707(30 V)
VR3 = 21.21 V − 5.66 V − 5 V − 3.17 V = 7.38 V
24. Vp = (1.414)(10.6 V) = 15 V
Vmax = 24 V + Vp = 39 V
Vmin = 24 V − Vp = 9 V
25. Vp = (1.414)(3 V) = 4.242 V
VDC = Vp = 4.24 V
26. Vmin = VDC − Vp = 5 V − 6 V = −1 V
SECTION 8-6 Alternators (AC Generators)
27. f = number of pole pairs × rev/s = 1 × 250 rev/s = 250 Hz
28. f = number of pole pairs × rev/s
3600 rev/min
rev/s = = 60 rev/s
60 s/min
f = 2 pole pairs × 60 rev/s = 120 Hz
76
f 400 Hz
29. rev/s = = = 200 rps
pole pairs 2
120 f 120(400 Hz)
30. N= = 16 poles
s 3000 rpm
SECTION 8-7 AC Motors
31. A one-phase motor requires a starting winding or other means to produce torque for starting the
motor, whereas a three-phase motor is self-starting.
32. The field is set up by current in the stator windings. As the current reaches a peak in one
winding, the other windings have less current and hence less effect on the field. The result is a
rotating field.
SECTION 8-8 Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
33. tr ≅ 3.5 ms − 0.5 ms = 3.0 ms
tf ≅ 16.0 ms − 13 ms = 3.0 ms
tW ≅ 14.5 ms − 2.5 ms = 12.0 ms
Amplitude = 5 V
t 1 μs
34. (a) % duty cycle = W 100% = 100% = 25%
T 4 μs
t 20 ms
(b) % duty cycle = W 100% = 100% = 66.7%
T 30 ms
35. (a) VAVG = baseline + (duty cycle)(amplitude) = −1 V + (0.25)(2.5 V) = −0.375 V
(b) VAVG = 1 V + (0.67)(3 V) = 3.01 V
1
36. (a) f= = 250 kHz
4 μs
1
(b) f= = 33.3 Hz
30 ms
1
37. (a) f= = 50 kHz
20 μs
1
(b) f= = 10 Hz
100 μs
77
1 1
38. f= = = 25 kHz
T 40 μs
3rd harmonic = 75 kHz
5th harmonic = 125 kHz
7th harmonic = 175 kHz
9th harmonic = 225 kHz
11th harmonic = 275 kHz
13th harmonic = 325 kHz
39. fundamental frequency = 25 kHz
SECTION 8-9 The Oscilloscope
40. Volts/div = 0.2 mV; Time/div = 50 ms
Vp = Volts/div × Number of divisions = 0.2 V/div × 3 divisions = 0.6 V
T = Time/div × Number of divisions = 50 ms/div × 10 divisions = 500 ms
41. Vp = 0.6 V
Vrms = 0.707Vp = 0.707(0.6 V) = 0.424 V
T = 500 ms
1 1
f= = = 2 Hz
T 500 ms
42. Vp = Volts/div × Number of divisions = 1 V/div 2.2 divisions = 2.2 V
Vrms = 0.707Vp = 0.707(2.2 V) = 1.56 V
T = Time/div × Number of divisions = 0.1 μs/div × 6.8 divisions = 0.68 μs
1 1
f= = = 1.47 MHz
T 0.68 μs
43. Amplitude = Volts/div × Number of divisions = 0.5 V/div × 2.8 div = 1.4 V
tW = Time/div × Number of divisions = 0.1 s × 1.2 div = 0.12 s = 120 ms
T = Time/div × Number of divisions = 0.1 s × 4 div = 0.4 s = 400 ms
t 120 ms
% duty cycle = W 100% = 100% = (0.3)100% = 30%
T 400 ms
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
1 1
44. t= = = 0.455 ms
f 2.2 kHz
At t = 0.12 ms:
0.12 ms
θ= 360° = 94.9°
0.455 ms
v= 2 (25 V)sin 94.9° = (35.36)sin 94.9° = 35.2 V
78
At t = 0.2 ms:
0.2 ms
θ= 360° = 158.2°
0.455 ms
v = 2 (25 V)sin 158.2° = (35.36)sin 158.2° = 13.1 V
Δv = 35.2 V − 13.1 V = 22.1 V
Vmax 200 V + 150 V 350 V
45. Imax = = = = 2.38 A
RT 100 Ω + 47 Ω 147 Ω
R 100 Ω
VAVG = VDC = L VDC = 200 V = 136 V
RT 147 Ω
See Figure 8-2.
Figure 8-2
46. Average value = area under curve/period
(0 V + 1 V + 2 V + 3 V + 4 V + 5 V + 6 V)(1 ms) 21 V ⋅ ms
VAVG = = = 3V
7 ms 7 ms
47. (a) 2.5 cycles are displayed.
(b) Vp = 2 V/div × 2.8 div = 5.6 V, Vrms = 0.707(5.6 V) = 3.96 V
1 1
(c) T = 4 div × 20 μs/div = 80 μs, f = = = 12.5 kHz
T 80 μs
48. See Figure 8-3.
Figure 8-3 Figure 8-4
49. See Figure 8-4.
79
50. Vp(in) = (1 div)(5 V/div) = 5 V
Tin = (2 div)(0.1 ms/div) = 200 μs
1
fin = = 5 kHz
200 μs
Rtot = 560 Ω + (470 Ω || (560 Ω + 470 Ω)) = 560 Ω + 323 Ω = 883 Ω
470 Ω 323 Ω 470 Ω 323 Ω
Vp(out) = V p (in ) = 5 V = 835 mV
470 Ω + 560 Ω 883 Ω 1030 Ω 883 Ω
fout = fin = 5 kHz
The scope display for channel 1 shows five cycles of the output waveform with the peak being
0.835 division high relative to the zero crossing of the sine wave.
51. Vp(out) = (0.2 V/div)(3 div) = 0.6 V
Tout = (10 div)(50 ms/div) = 500 ms
1
fout = = 2 Hz
500 ms
1 .0 k Ω 1.0 kΩ (2.2 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ )
Vp(out) = V p (in )
1.0 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ 1.0 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ (2.2 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ )
762 Ω
= (0.313) V p (in ) = 0.135Vp(in)
1.762 kΩ
V p (out ) 0.6 V
Vp(in) = = = 4.44 V
0.135 0.135
fin = fout = 2 Hz
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
52. Vp = 35.3 V; T = 1 ms
53. R3 is open.
54. R1 is open.
55. Amplitude = 5 V; T = 1 ms
56. No fault
80
CHAPTER 9
CAPACITORS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 9-1 The Basic Capacitor
Q 50 μC
1. (a) C= = = 5 μF
V 10 V
(b) Q = CV = (0.001 μF)(1 kV) = 1 μC
Q 2 mC
(c) V= = = 10 V
C 200 μF
2. (a) (0.1 μF)(106 pF/μF) = 100,000 pF
(b) (0.0025 μF)(106 pF/μF) = 2500 pF
(c) (5 μF)(106 pF/μF) = 5,000,000 pF
3. (a) (1000 pF)(10−6 μF/pF) = 0.001 μF
(b) (3500 pF)(10−6 μF/pF) = 0.0035 μF
(c) (250 pF)(10−6 μF/pF) = 0.00025 μF
4. (a) (0.0000001 F)(106 μF/F) = 0.1 μF
(b) (0.0022 F)(106 μF/F) = 2200 μF
(c) (0.0000000015 F)(106 μF/F) = 0.0015 μF
1
5. W = CV 2
2
2W 2(10 mJ)
C= 2 = = 2 μF
V (100 V)2
Aε r (8.85 × 10−12 F/m) (0.002 m 2 )(5)(8.85 × 10−12 F/m)
6. C= = = 1.39 nF
d 63.5 μm
Aε r (8.85 × 10−12 F/m)
7. C=
d
(0.1 m )(1.006)(8.85 × 10−12 F/m)
2
= = 8.85 × 10−11 F = 88.5 pF
0.01 m
81
Aε r (8.85 × 10−12 )
8. C=
d
Cd (1) ( 8 × 10−5 )
A= = = 3.6 × 106 m 2
ε r ( 8.85 ×10−12 ) ( 2.5 ) ( 8.85 ×10−12 )
l = A = 3.6 × 106 m 2 = 1.9 × 103 m (almost 1.2 miles on a side)
The capacitor is too large to be practical and, of course, will not fit in the Astrodome.
9. C= =
(
Aε r (8.85 × 10−12 ) ( 0.09 )( 2.5 ) 8.85 × 10 )
−12
= 24.9 nF = 0.0249 μF
d 8.0 × 10−5
10. ΔT = 50 C°
(−200 ppm/°C)50 C° = −10,000 ppm
1 × 103
ΔC = (−10 × 103 ppm) = −10 pF
6
1 × 10
C75° = 1000 pF − 10 pF = 990 pF
11. ΔT = 25 C°
(500 ppm/°C)25 C° = 12,500 ppm
(1 × 106 pF/μF)(0.001 μF) = 1000 pF
1000
ΔC = 6
12,500 ppm = 12.5 pF
1 × 10
SECTION 9-2 Types of Capacitors
12. The plate area is increased by increasing the number of layers of plate and dielectric materials.
13. Ceramic has a higher dielectric constant than mica.
14. See Figure 9-1.
Figure 9-1
15. (a) 0.022 μF (b) 0.047 μF (c) 0.001 μF (d) 22 pF
16. Aluminum, tantalum; electrolytics are polarized, others are not.
82
17. (a) Encapsulation
(b) Dielectric (ceramic disk)
(c) Plate (metal disk)
(d) Conductive leads
SECTION 9-3 Series Capacitors
1000 pF
18. CT = = 200 pF
5
1
19. (a) CT = = 0.69 μF
1 1
+
1 μF 2.2 μF
1
(b) CT = = 69.7 pF
1 1 1
+ +
100 pF 560 pF 390 pF
1
(c) CT = = 2.6 μF
1 1 1 1
+ + +
10 μF 4.7 μF 47 μF 22 μF
20. (a) CT = 0.69 μF
C 0.69 μF
V1μF = T 10 V = 10 V = 6.9 V
1 μF 1 μF
0.69 μF
V2.2μF = 10 V = 3.13 V
2.2 μF
(b) CT = 69.7 pF
69.7 pF
V100pF = 100 V = 69.7 V
100 pF
69.7 pF
V560pF = 100 V = 12.4 V
560 pF
69.7 pF
V390pF = 100 V = 17.9 V
390 pF
(c) CT = 2.6 μF
2.6 μF
V10μF = 30 V = 7.8 V
10 μF
83
2.6 μF
V4.7μF = 30 V = 16.8 V
4.7 μF
2.6 μF
V47μF = 30 V = 1.68 V
47 μF
2.6 μF
V22μF = 30 V = 3.59 V
22 μF
21. QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = 10 μC
Q 10 μC
V1 = 1 = = 2.13 V
C1 4.7 μF
Q 10 μC
V2 = 2 = = 10 V
C2 1 μF
Q 10 μC
V3 = 3 = = 4.55 V
C3 2.2 μF
Q 10 μC
V4 = 4 = =1V
C4 10 μF
SECTION 9-4 Parallel Capacitors
22. (a) CT = 47 pF + 10 pF + 1000 pF = 1057 pF
(b) CT = 0.1 μF + 0.01 μF + 0.001 μF + 0.01 μF = 0.121 μF
23. CT = C1 + C2 = 2.2 μF + 3.3 μF = 5.5 μF
QT = CT V = (5 5 μF)(5 V) = 27.5 μC
24. Use four 0.47 μF capacitors and one 0.22 μF capacitor in parallel:
CT = 4(0.47 μF) + 0.22 μF = 2.1 μF
84
SECTION 9-5 Capacitors in DC Circuits
25. (a) τ = RC = (100 Ω)(1 μF) = 100 μs
(b) τ = RC = (10 MΩ)(56 pF) = 560 μs
(c) τ = RC = (4.7 kΩ)(0.0047 μF) = 22.1 μs
(d) τ = RC = (1.5 MΩ)(0.01 μF) = 15 ms
26. (a) 5τ = 5RC = 5(47 Ω)(47 μF) = 11.04 ms
(b) 5τ = 5RC = 5(3300 Ω)(0.015 μF) = 248 μs
(c) 5τ = 5RC = 5(22 kΩ)(100 pF) = 11 μs
(d) 5τ = 5RC = 5(4.7 MΩ)(10 pF) = 235 μs
27. τ = RC = (100 Ω)(1 μF) = 10 μs
(a) vC = 15 V(1 − e−t/RC) = 15 V(1 − e−10μs/10μs) = 15 V(1 − e−1) = 9.48 V
(b) vC = 15 V(1 − e−2) = 13.0 V
(c) vC = 15 V(1 − e−3) = 14.3 V
(d) vC = 15 V(1 − e−4) = 14.7 V
(e) vC = 15 V(1 − e−5) = 14.9 V
28. τ = RC = (1.0 kΩ)(1.5 μF) = 1.5 ms
(a) vC = Vie−t/RC = 25e−1.5ms/1.5ms = 25e−1 = 9.2 V
(b) vC = Vie−t/RC = 25e−4.5ms/1.5ms = 25e−3 = 1.24 V
(c) vC = Vie−t/RC = 25e−6ms/1.5ms = 25e−4 = 458 mV
(d) vC = Vie−t/RC = 25e−7.5ms/1.5ms = 25e−5 = 168 mV
29. (a) vC = 15 V(1 − e−t/RC) = 15 V(1 − e−2μs/10μs) = 15 V(1 − e−0.2) = 2.72 V
(b) vC = 15 V(1 − e−5μs/10μs) = 15 V(1 − e−0.5) = 5.90 V
(c) vC = 15 V(1 − e−15μs/10μs) = 15 V(1 − e−1.5) = 11.7 V
30. (a) vC = Vie−t/RC = 25e−0.5ms/1.5ms = 25e−0.33 = 18.0 V
(b) vC = Vie−t/RC = 25e−1ms/1.5ms = 25e−0.67 = 12.8 V
(c) vC = Vie−t/RC = 25e−2ms/1.5ms = 25e−1.33 = 6.61 V
SECTION 9-6 Capacitors in AC Circuits
1 1
31. (a) XC = = = 339 kΩ
2πfC 2π(10 Hz)(0.047 μF)
1 1
(b) XC = = = 13.5 kΩ
2πfC 2π(250 Hz)(0.047 μF)
1 1
(c) XC = = = 677 Ω
2πfC 2π(5 kHz)(0.047 μF)
1 1
(d) XC = = = 33.9 Ω
2πfC 2π(100 kHz)(0.047 μF)
85
1 1
32. (a) XCT = = = 3.39 kΩ
2πfC 2π(1 kHz)(0.047 μF)
(b) CT = 10 μF + 15 μF = 25 μF
1
XCT = = 6.37 kΩ
2π(1 Hz)(25 μF)
1
(c) CT = = 0.5 μF
1 1
+
1 μF 1 μF
1
XCT = = 5.31 kΩ
2π(60 Hz)(0.5 μF)
1 1
33. XC1 = = 1.42 kΩ
2π fC1 2π (2 kHz)(56 nF)
1 1
XC2 = = 970 Ω
2π fC2 2π (2 kHz)(82 nF)
XCT = XC1 + XC2 = 1.42 kΩ + 0.97 kΩ = 2.39 kΩ
1 1
CT = = 33.3 nF
1 1 1 1
C1 C2 56 nF 82 nF
C 33.3 nF
VC1 = T
C1 VS 56 nF 10 V = 5.94 V
C 33.3 nF
VC2 = T
C2 VS 82 nF 10 V = 4.06 V
34. (a) For XCT = 100 Ω:
1 1
f= = 33.86 kHz
2πX CT C 2π(100 Ω)(0.047 μF)
For XCT = 1 kΩ:
1 1
f= = 3.386 kHz
2πX CT C 2π(1 kΩ)(0.047 μF)
(b) For XCT = 100 Ω:
1 1
f= = 63.7 Hz
2πX CT C 2π(100 Ω)(25 μF)
For XCT = 1 kΩ:
1 1
f= = 6.37 kHz
2πX CT C 2π(1 kΩ)(25 μF)
86
(c) For XCT = 100 Ω:
1 1
f= = 3.18 kHz
2πX CT C 2π(100 Ω)(0.5 μF)
For XCT = 1 kΩ:
1 1
f= = 318 Hz
2πX CT C 2π(1 kΩ)(0.5 μF)
Vrms 20 V
35. XC = = = 0.2 kΩ = 200 Ω
I rms 100 mA
36. Vrms = IrmsXC
1
XC = = 3.39 kΩ
2π(10 kHz)(0.0047 μF)
Vrms = (1 mA)(3.39 kΩ) = 3.39 V
1
37. XC = = 3.39 kΩ
2πfC
Ptrue = 0 W
2
Pr = I rms X C =(1 mA)2(3.39 kΩ) = 3.39 mVAR
SECTION 9-7 Capacitor Applications
38. The ripple voltage is reduced when the capacitance is increased.
39. XC(bypass) ideally should be 0 Ω to provide a short to ground for ac.
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
C
40. VX = T VS
CX
C V (1 μF)(8 V)
CT = X X = = 0.667 μF
VS 12 V
C 0.667 μF
CX = T VS = 12 V = 2 μF
VX 4V
87
41. v = vie−t/RC
v
e−t/RC =
Vi
V
ln(e−t/RC) = ln
Vi
t v
− = ln
RC Vi
V
t = −RC ln
Vi
3V
t = − (1.0 kΩ)(1.5 μF) ln = 3.18 ms
25 V
42. v = VF(1 − e−t/RC)
v = VF − VFe−t/RC
VFe−t/RC = VF − v
V −v v
e−t/RC = F = 1−
VF VF
v
ln(e−t/RC) = ln1 −
VF
t v
− = ln1 −
RC VF
v
t = −RC ln1 −
VF
8V
t = − (10 kΩ)(0.001 μF) ln1 − = 7.62 μs
15 V
43. Looking from the capacitor, the Thevenin resistance is
RTH = R4 + R1 || R2 || R3 = 1471 Ω
τ = RTHC = (1471 Ω)(0.0022 μF) = 3.24 μs
v
44. t = RC ln1 − C
VF
−t − 10 μs
R= = = 7.86 kΩ
vC 7.2
C ln1 − (1000 pF) ln1 −
VF 10
88
45. τ1 = (R1 + R2)C = (55 kΩ)(1 μF) = 55 ms
τ2 = (R2 + R3)C = (43 kΩ)(1 μF) 43 ms
5τ2 = 5(43 ms) = 215 ms
vC = 20(1 − e−10ms/.55ms) = 3.32 V
See Figure 9-2(a).
vC = 3.32e−5ms/43ms = 2.96 V
See Figure 9-2(b).
Figure 9-2
46. C5-6 = 0.006 μF, C4-5-6 = 0.053 μF, C3-4-5-6 = 0.01169 μF, C2-3-4-5-6 = 0.03369 μF
CT = 0.00771 μF, XC(tot) = 68.8 kΩ
Vs 10 V
I C1 = = = 145 μA
X C (tot ) 68.8 kΩ
C 0.00771 μF
VC1 = T Vs = 10 V = 7.71 V
C1 0.01 μF
VC2 = Vs − VC1 = 10 V − 7.71 V = 2.29 V
XC2 = 24.1 kΩ
V 2.29 V
I C2 = C 2 = = 95.0 μA
X C 2 24.1 kΩ
C 0.01183 μF
VC3 = 3− 4 − 5 − 6 VC 2 = 2.29 V = 1.78 V
C3 0.015 μF
XC3 = 35.4 kΩ
V 1.78 V
I C3 = C 3 = = 50.4 μA
X C 3 35.4 kΩ
VC4 = VC2 − VC3 = 2.29 V − 1.78 V = 505 mV
XC4 = 11.3 kΩ
V 505 mV
I C4 = C 4 = = 44.7 μA
X C 4 11.3 kΩ
C 0.006 μF
VC5 = 5 − 6 VC 4 = 505 mV = 303 mV
C5 0.01 μF
XC5 = 53.1 kΩ
V 303 mV
I C5 = I C6 = C 5 = = 5.71 μA
X C 5 53.1 kΩ
VC6 = VC4 − VC5 = 505 mV − 303 mV = 202 mV
89
47. VC2 = VC3 = (4 mA)XC3 = (4 mA)(750 Ω) = 3 V
1 1
f= = = 141.5 kHz
2πX C 3C3 2π(750 Ω)(0.0015 μF)
1 1
XC2 = = = 511 Ω
2πfC2 2π(141.5 kHz)(0.0022 μF)
V 3V
I C2 = C 2 = = 5.87 mA
X C 2 511 Ω
IC1 = IC(tot) = IC2 + IC3 = 5.87 mA + 4 mA = 9.87 mA
VC1 = 5 V − 3 V = 2 V
V 2V
XC1 = C1 = = 203 Ω
I C1 9.87 mA
1 1
C1 = = = 0.0056 μF
2πfX C1 2π(141.5 kHz)(203 Ω)
48. Position 1:
CT (1,5)
V5 − 12 V
C5
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + CT = 0.0087 μF
CT (1,5) C1 C5 0.01 μF 0.068 μF
0.0087 μF
V5 = 12 V = 1.54 V
0.068 μF
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + CT(3,6) = 0.0256 μF
CT (3, 6) C3 C6 0.047 μF 0.056 μF
CT (3,6 ) 0.0256 μF
V6 = 12 V =
12 V = 5.48 V
C6 0.056 μF
Position 2:
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + CT(2,5) = 0.0166 μF
CT ( 2,5) C2 C5 0.022 μF 0.068 μF
CT ( 2,5) 0.0166 μF
V5 = 12 V =
12 V = 2.93 V
C5 0.068 μF
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + CT(4,6) = 0.0118 μF
CT ( 4,6 ) C4 C6 0.015 μF 0.056 μF
CT ( 4,6 ) 0.0118 μF
V6 = 12 V =
12 V = 2.54 V
C6 0.056 μF
ΔV5 = 2.93 V − 1.54 V = 1.39 V increase, ΔV6 = 5.48 V − 2.54 V = 2.94 V decrease
90
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
49. = + + = + + Ctot(3,5,6) = 0.0043 μF
Ctot (3,5,6 ) C3 C5 C6 0.015 μF 0.01 μF 0.015 μF
Ctot(2,3,5,6) = 0.022 μF + 0.0043 μF = 0.0263 μF
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + Ctot = 0.00725 μF
Ctot C1 Ctot ( 2 ,3 ,5 ,6) 0.01 μF 0.0263 μF
C 0.00725 μF
VC1 = tot 10 V = 10 V = 7.25 V
C1 0.01 μF
Ctot
VC2 = 10 V = 0.00725 μF 10 V = 2.76 V
Ctot( 2 ,3,5 ,6 ) 0.0263 μF
Ctot (3,5,6 ) 0.0043 μF
VC3 = VC 2 =
2.76 V = 0.79 V
C3 0.015 μF
Ctot (3,5,6 ) 0.0043 μF
VC5 = VC 2 =
2.76 V = 1.19 V
C5 0.01 μF
Ctot (3,5,6 ) 0.0043 μF
VC6 = VC 2 =
2.76 V = 0.79 V
C6 0.015 μF
VC4 = VC5 + VC6 = 1.19 V + 0.79 V = 1.98 V
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
50. C2 is leaky.
51. C2 is open.
52. C1 is shorted.
53. No fault
54. C1 is shorted.
91
CHAPTER 10
RC CIRCUITS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 10-1 Sinusoidal Response of RC Circuits
1. Both voltages are also sine waves with the same 8 kHz frequency as the source voltage.
2. The current is sinusoidal.
SECTION 10-2 Impedance and Phase Angle of Series RC Circuits
3. (a) Z= R 2 + X C2 = (270 Ω) 2 + (100 Ω) 2 = 288 Ω
(b) Z= R 2 + X C2 = (680 Ω) 2 + (1000 Ω) 2 = 1209 Ω
4. (a) Rtot = 100 kΩ + 47 kΩ = 147 kΩ
1
Ctot = = 0.00688 μF
1 1
+
0.01 μF 0.022 μF
1 1
XC(tot) = = = 231 kΩ
2πfCtot 2π(100 Hz)(0.00688 μF)
Z= 2
Rtot + X C2 (tot ) = (147 kΩ) 2 + (231 kΩ)2 = 274 kΩ
X C (tot ) 231 kΩ
θ = tan−1 = tan −1 = 57.6° (I leads V)
147 kΩ
Rtot
(b) Ctot = 560 pF + 560 pF = 1120 pF
1 1
XC(tot) = = = 7.11 kΩ
2πfCtot 2π(20 kHz)(1120 pF)
Z= 2
Rtot + X C2 (tot ) = (10 kΩ)2 + (7.11 kΩ)2 = 12.3 kΩ
X C (tot ) 7.11 kΩ
θ = tan−1 = tan −1 = 35.4° (I leads V)
R 10 kΩ
92
1 1
5. (a) XC = = = 723 kΩ
2πfC 2π(100 Hz)(0.0022 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (723 kΩ) 2 = 726 kΩ
1 1
(b) XC = = = 145 kΩ
2πfC 2π(500 Hz)(0.0022 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (145 kΩ) 2 = 155 kΩ
1 1
(c) XC = = 72.3 kΩ
2πfC 2π(1.0 kHz)(0.0022 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (72.3 kΩ) 2 = 91.5 kΩ
1 1
(d) XC = = = 28.9 kΩ
2πfC 2π(2.5 kHz)(0.0022 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (31.8 kΩ) 2 = 63.0 kΩ
1 1
6. (a) XC = = = 339 kΩ
2πfC 2π(100 Hz)(0.0047 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (339 kΩ) 2 = 343 kΩ
1 1
(b) XC = = = 67.7 kΩ
2πfC 2π(500 Hz)(0.0047 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (67.7 kΩ) 2 = 87.9 kΩ
1 1
(c) XC = = = 33.9 kΩ
2πfC 2π(1 kHz)(0.0047 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (33.9 kΩ) 2 = 65.4 kΩ
1 1
(d) XC = = = 13.5 kΩ
2πfC 2π(2.5 kHz)(0.0047 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 kΩ) 2 + (13.5 kΩ) 2 = 57.6 kΩ
SECTION 10-3 Analysis of Series RC Circuits
Vs 10 V
7. (a) I= = = 34.7 mA
Z 288 Ω
V 5V
(b) I= s = = 4.14 mA
Z 1209 Ω
93
Vs 50 V
8. (a) I= = = 182 μA
Z 274 kΩ
V 8V
(b) I= s = = 652 μA
Z 12.3 kΩ
9. See Figure 10-1.
1
Ctot = = 0.0688 μF
1 1
+
0.1 μF 0.22 μF
1
XC = = 154 Ω
2π(15 kHz)(0.0688 μF)
Z= 2
Rtot + X C2 = (50 Ω) 2 + (154 Ω) 2 = 162 Ω
Vs 2V
Itot = = = 12.3 mA
Z 162 Ω
1
XC(0.1μF) = = 106 Ω
2π(15 kHz)(0.1 μF)
1
XC(0.22 μF) = = 48.2 Ω
2π(15 kHz)(0.22 μF)
VC1 = ItotXC(0.1μF) = (12.3 mA)(106 Ω) = 1.31 V
VC2 = ItotXC(0.22μF) = (12.3 mA)(48.2 Ω) = 0.595 V
VR = ItotRtot = (12.3 mA)(50 Ω) = 0.616 V
X 154 Ω
θ = tan−1 C = tan −1 = 72.0° (Itot leads Vs)
Rtot 50 Ω
Figure 10-1
94
1
10. (a) XC = = 79.6 Ω
2π(20 Hz)(100 μF)
Z= R 2 + X C2 = (56 Ω)2 + (79.6 Ω) 2 = 97.3 Ω
10 V
(b) I= = 103 mA
97.3 Ω
R 56 Ω
(c) VR = Vs = 10 V = 5.76 V
Z 97.3 Ω
X 79.6 Ω
(d) VC = C Vs = 10 V = 8.18 V
Z 97.3 Ω
Vs 10 V
11. Z= = = 1 kΩ
I 10 mA
1
XC = = 589 Ω
2π(10 kHz )(0.027 μF)
R 2 + X C2 = 1 kΩ
R2 + (589 Ω)2 = (1000 Ω)2
R= (1000 Ω) 2 − (589 Ω) 2 = 808 Ω
589 Ω
θ = −tan−1 = −36.1°
808 Ω
1
12. (a) XC = = 4.08 MΩ
2π(1 Hz)(0.039 μF)
XC −1 4.08 MΩ
φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 0.0548°
R 3.9 kΩ
1
(b) XC = = 40.8 kΩ
2π(100 Hz)(0.039 μF)
XC −1 40.8 kΩ
φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 5.46°
R 3.9 kΩ
1
(c) XC = = 4.08 kΩ
2π(1 kHz )(0.039 μF)
XC −1 4.08 kΩ
φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 43.7°
R 3.9 kΩ
1
(d) XC = = 408 Ω
2π(10 kHz )(0.039 μF)
XC −1 408 Ω
φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 84.0°
R 3.9 kΩ
95
1 1
13. (a) XC = = 15.9 MΩ
2πfC 2π(1 Hz)(0.1 μF)
XC 1.59 MΩ
φ = tan−1 tan 1
1.0 kΩ
= 90.0°
R
1 1
(b) XC = = 15.9 kΩ
2πfC 2π(100 Hz)(0.1 μF)
XC 1 15.9 kΩ
φ = tan−1 tan 1.0 kΩ = 86.4°
R
1 1
(c) XC = = 1.59 kΩ
2πfC 2π(1 kHz)(0.1 μF)
XC 1 1.59 kΩ
φ = tan−1 tan 1.0 kΩ = 57.8°
R
1 1
(d) XC = = 159 Ω
2πfC 2π(10 kHz)(0.1 μF)
XC 1 159 Ω
φ = tan−1 tan 1.0 kΩ = 9.04°
R
SECTION 10-4 Impedance and Phase Angle of Parallel RC Circuits
RX C (1.2 kΩ)(2.2 kΩ)
14. Z= = = 1.05 kΩ
R 2 + X C2 (1.2 kΩ) 2 + (2.2 kΩ) 2
15. BC = 2πfC = 2.76 mS
1
G= = 1.33 mS
750 Ω
Y= G 2 + BC2 = (1.33 mS) 2 + (2.76 mS) 2 = 3.07 mS
1 1
Z= = = 326 Ω
Y 3.07 mS
2.76 mS
θ = tan−1 = 64.3° (I leads V)
1.33 mS
16. (a) BC = 2π(1.5 kHz)(0.22 μF) = 2.07 mS
Y= (1.33 mS) 2 + (2.07 mS) 2 = 2.47 mS
1 1
Z= = = 405 Ω
Y 2.47 mS
2.07 mS
θ = tan−1 = 57.3°
1.33 mS
96
(b) BC = 2π(3.0 kHz)(0.22 μF) = 4.15 mS
Y= (1.33 mS) 2 + (4.15 mS) 2 = 4.36 mS
1 1
Z= = = 230 Ω
Y 4.36 mS
4.15 mS
θ = tan−1 = 72.2°
1.33 mS
(c) BC = 2π(5.0 kHz)(0.22 μF) = 6.91 mS
Y= (1.33 mS)2 + (6.91 mS) 2 = 7.04 mS
1 1
Z= = = 142 Ω
Y 7.04 mS
6.91 mS
θ = tan−1 = 79.1°
1.33 mS
(d) BC = 2π(10 kHz)(0.22 μF) = 13.8 mS
Y= (1.33 mS)2 + (13.8 mS) 2 = 13.9 mS
1 1
Z= = = 72.0 Ω
Y 13.9 mS
13.9 mS
θ = tan−1 = 84.5°
1.33 mS
17. BC = 2πfC = 2πf(C1 + C2) = 2π(2 kHz)(0.32 μF) = 4.02 mS
1 1
G= = = 0.676 mS
R1 + R2 + R3 1480 Ω
Y= G 2 + BC2 = (0.676 mS) 2 + (4.02 mS) 2 = 4.08 mS
1 1
Z= = = 245 Ω
Y 4.08 mS
4.02 mS
θ = tan−1 = 80.5°
0.676 mS
SECTION 10-5 Analysis of Parallel RC Circuits
(68 Ω)(90 Ω)
18. Ztot = = 54.3 Ω
(68 Ω) 2 + (90 Ω) 2
VC = VR = Vs = 10 V
10 V
Itot = = 184 mA
54.3 Ω
10 V
IR = = 147 mA
68 Ω
10 Ω
IC = = 111 mA
90 Ω
97
1
19. XC1 = = 67.7 Ω
2π(50 kHz )(0.47 μF)
1
XC2 = = 145 Ω
2π(50 kHz )(0.022 μF)
V 8V
I C1 = s = = 118 mA
X C1 67.7 Ω
V 8V
I C2 = s = = 55.3 mA
X C 2 145 Ω
V 8V
IR1 = s = = 36.4 mA
R1 220 Ω
V 8V
IR2 = s = = 44.4 mA
R2 180 Ω
Itot = I R2 (tot ) + I C2 (tot = (80.8 mA) 2 + (173.3 mA ) 2 = 191 mA
I C (tot )
θ = tan−1 = tan −1 173.3 mA = 65.0°
I R (tot ) 80.8 mA
RX C (1.0 kΩ)(2.1 kΩ)
20. (a) Z= = 903 Ω
R
2
X C2 1.0 kΩ 2 2.1 kΩ2
VS 100 mV
(b) IR = = 100 μV
R 1.0 kΩ
V 100 mV
(c) IC = S = 47.6 μV
XC 2.1 kΩ
VS 100 mV
(d) Itot = = 111 μV
Z 903 Ω
R 1.0 kΩ
θ tan 1 tan 1
2.1 kΩ
(e) = 25.5° (Itot leads Vs)
C
X
1
21. XC = = 6.77 kΩ
2π(500 Hz)(0.047 μF)
(4.7 kΩ)(6.77 kΩ)
(a) Z= = 3.86 kΩ
(4.7 kΩ) 2 + (6.77 kΩ) 2
Vs 100 mV
(b) IR = = = 21.3 μA
R 4 .7 k Ω
V 100 mV
(c) IC = s = = 14.8 μA
X C 6.77 kΩ
V 100 mV
(d) Itot = s = = 25.9 μA
Z 3.86 kΩ
4.7 kΩ
(e) θ = tan−1 = 34.8°
6.77 kΩ
98
22. Rtot = 22 kΩ, Ctot = 32.0 pF
1
XC(tot) = = 49.8 kΩ
2π(100 kHz )(32.0 pF)
(22 kΩ)(49.8 kΩ)
Z= = 20.1 kΩ
( 22 kΩ) 2 + ( 49.8 kΩ)2
Rtot
θ = tan−1 = tan −1 22 kΩ = 23.8
X C (tot ) 49.8 kΩ
Req = Z cos θ = (20.1 kΩ)cos 23.8° = 18.4 kΩ
XC(eq) = Z sin θ = (20.1 kΩ)sin 23.8° = 8.13 kΩ
1
Ceq = = 196 pF
2πfX C (eq)
SECTION 10-6 Analysis of Series-Parallel RC Circuits
1
23. XC1 = = 106 Ω
2π(15 kHz)(0.1 μF)
1
XC2 = = 226 Ω
2π(15 kHz)(0.047 μF)
1
XC3 = = 48.2 Ω
2π(15 kHz)(0.22 μF)
The total resistance in the resistive branch is
Rtot = R1 + R2 = 330 Ω + 180 Ω = 510 Ω
The combined parallel capacitance of C2 and C3 is
C(tot)p = C1 + C2 = 0.047 μF + 0.22 μF = 0.267 μF
1
XC(tot)p = = 39.7 Ω
2π(15 kHz)(0.267 μF)
The impedance of Rtot in parallel with C(tot)p is
Rtot X C (tot ) p (510 Ω)(39.7 Ω)
Zp = = = 39.6 Ω
2
Rtot + X C2 (tot ) p (510 Ω) 2 + (39.7 Ω) 2
The angle associated with Rtot and C(tot)p in parallel is
Rtot
θ = tan−1 = tan −1 510 Ω = 85.5°
X C (tot ) p 39.7 Ω
Converting from parallel to series:
Req = Zpcos θ = (39.6 Ω)cos 85.5° = 3.08 Ω
XC(eq) = Zpsin θ = (39.6 Ω)sin 85.5° = 39.5 Ω
The total circuit impedance is
Ztot = 2
Req + ( X C1 + X C ( eq ) ) 2 = (3.08 Ω) 2 + (145.6 Ω) 2 = 145.6 Ω
99
The voltage across the parallel branches is
Zp 39.6 Ω
VC2 = VC3 = VR1R2 = Vs =
12 V = 3.26 V
Z tot 145.6 Ω
330 Ω
VR1 = 3.26 V = 2.11 V
510 Ω
180 Ω
VR2 = 3.26 V = 1.15 V
510 Ω
X 106 Ω
VC1 = C1 12 V = 12 V = 8.74 V
Z tot 145.6 Ω
24. From Problem 23, Req = 3.08 Ω and XC1 + XC(eq) = 145.6 Ω.
Since 145.6 Ω > 3.08 Ω, the circuit is predominantly capacitive.
25. Using data from Problem 23:
V 12 V
Itot = s = = 82.4 mA
Z tot 145.6 Ω
V 3.26 V
IC2 = C 2 = = 14.4 mA
X C 2 226 Ω
V 3.26 V
IC3 = C 3 = = 67.6 mA
X C 3 48.2 Ω
3.26 V
IR1 = IR2 = = 6.39 mA
510 Ω
26. Rtot = R1 + R2 || R3 = 89.9 Ω
1
XC = = 339 Ω
2π(1 kHz )(0.47 μF)
Ztot = 2
Rtot + X C2 = (89.9 Ω)2 + (339 Ω) 2 = 351 Ω
Vs 15 V
(a) Itot = = = 42.7 mA
Z tot 351 Ω
XC −1 339 Ω
(b) θ = tan−1 = tan = 75.1° (Itot leads Vs)
Rtot 89.9 Ω
R 47 Ω
(c) VR1 = 1 Vs = 15 V = 2.01 V
Z tot 351 Ω
R R3 42.9 Ω
(d) VR2 = 2 Vs =
351 Ω 15 V = 1.83 V
Z tot
(e) VR3 = VR2 = 1.83 V
X 339 Ω
(f) VC = C Vs = 15 V = 14.5 V
Z tot 351 Ω
100
SECTION 10-7 Power in RC Circuits
27. Pa = 2
Ptrue + Pr2 = (2 W )2 + (3.5 VAR ) 2 = 4.03 VA
28. From Problem 10: Itot = 103 mA, XC = 79.6 Ω
2
Prue = I tot R = (103 mA)2(56 Ω) = 0.591 W
2
Pr = I tot X C = (103 mA)2(79.6 Ω) = 0.840 VAR
29. Using the results from Problem 22:
Req = 18.4 kΩ
1 1
XC(eq) = = = 8.13 kΩ
2πfCeq 2π(100 kHz )(196 pF)
X C (eq )
θ = tan−1 = tan −1 8.13 kΩ = 23.8°
Req 18.4 kΩ
PF = cos θ = cos 23.8° = 0.915
30. From Problem 26: Itot = 42.7 mA, Rtot = 89.9 Ω, XC = 339 Ω, Ztot = 351 Ω
2
Ptrue = I tot Rtot = (42.7 mA)2(89.9 Ω) = 169 mW
2
Pr = I tot X C = (42.7 mA)2(339 Ω) = 618 mVAR
2
Pa = I tot Z tot = (42.7 mA)2(351 Ω) = 640 mVA
PF = cos = cos(75.1) = 0.257
SECTION 10-8 Basic Applications
X
31. Use the formula, Vout = C 1 V. See Figure 10-2.
Z tot
Frequency (kHz) XC (kΩ) Ztot (kΩ) Vout (V)
0 1.000
1 4.08 5.64 0.723
2 2.04 4.40 0.464
3 1.36 4.13 0.329
4 1.02 4.03 0.253
5 0.816 3.98 0.205
6 0.680 3.96 0.172
7 0.583 3.94 0.148
8 0.510 3.93 0.130
9 0.453 3.93 0.115
10 0.408 3.92 0.104
101
Figure 10-2
R
32. Use the formula, Vout = 10 V. See Figure 10-3.
Z tot
Frequency (kHz) XC (Ω) Ztot (Ω) Vout (V)
0 0
1 15.9 18.79 5.32
2 7.96 12.78 7.82
3 5.31 11.32 8.83
4 3.98 10.76 9.29
5 3.18 10.49 9.53
6 2.65 10.35 9.67
7 2.27 10.26 9.75
8 1.99 10.20 9.81
9 1.77 10.16 9.85
10 1.59 10.13 9.88
Figure 10-3
102
33. For Figure 10-73:
1
XC = = 816 Ω
2π(5 kHz )(0.039 μF)
Z= (3.9 kΩ) 2 + (816 Ω) 2 = 3.98 kΩ
XC −1 816 Ω
θ = tan−1 = tan = 11.8°
R 3.9 kΩ
V 1V
I= s = = 251 μA
Z 3980 Ω
VR = IR = (251 μA)(3.9 kΩ) = 979 mV
VC = IXC = (251 μA)(816 Ω) = 205 mV
The phasor diagram is shown is Figure 10-4(a).
For Figure 10-74:
1
XC = = 3.18 Ω
2π(5 kHz )(10 μF)
Z= (10 Ω) 2 + (3.18 Ω) 2 = 10.5 Ω
XC −1 3.18 Ω
θ = tan−1 = tan = 17.7°
R 10 Ω
V 1V
I= s = = 95.3 mA
Z 10.5 Ω
VR = IR = (95.3 mA)(10 Ω) = 953 mV
VC = IXC = (95.3 mA)(3.18 Ω) = 303 mV
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 10-4(b).
(a) For Figure 10-73 (b) For Figure 10-74
Figure 10-4
1
34. XC = = 1.13 kΩ
2π(3 kHz)(0.047 μF)
The signal loss is the voltage drop across C.
XC 1.13 kΩ 50 mV = 5.61 mV
VC = V =
Rin ( B ) + X C
out ( A )
(10 kΩ) + (1.13 kΩ)
2 2 2 2
103
35. For Figure 10-73:
1 1
fc = = = 1.05 kHz
2πRC 2π(3.9 kΩ)(0.039 μF)
For Figure 10-74:
1 1
fc = = = 1.59 kHz
2πRC 2π(10 Ω)(10 μF)
1 1
36. fc = = = 1.05 kHz
2πRC 2π(3.9 kΩ)(0.039 μF)
Since this is a low-pass filter, BW = fc = 1.05 kHz
SECTION 10-9 Troubleshooting
37. After removing C, the circuit is reduced to Thevenin’s equivalent:
(4.7 kΩ)(5 kΩ)
Rth = = 2.42 kΩ
9 .7 k Ω
5 kΩ
Vth = 10 V = 5.15 V
9.7 kΩ
Assuming no leakage in the capacitor:
1
XC = = 1592 Ω
2π(10 Hz)(10 μF)
1592 Ω
Vout = 10 V = 10 V = 3.21 V
XC
2 2
R + XC (4.7 kΩ) + (1592 Ω)
2 2
1592 Ω
θ = tan−1 = 18.7°
4.7 kΩ
With the leakage resistance taken into account:
1592 Ω
Vout = V = 5.15 V = 2.83 V
XC
2
th (2.42 kΩ) 2 + (1592) 2
th R 2
+ X C
1592 Ω
θ = tan−1 = 33.3°
2.42 kΩ
The leaky capacitor reduces the output voltage by 0.38 V and increases the phase angle
by 14.6°.
38. (a) The leakage resistance effectively appears in parallel with R2.
Thevenizing from the capacitor:
Rth = R1 || R2 || Rleak = 10 kΩ || 10 kΩ || 2 kΩ = 1.43 kΩ
R2 Rleak
Vth = V = 1.67 kΩ 1 V = 143 mV
R + R R in 11.67 kΩ
1 2 leak
104
1
XC = = 3386 Ω
2π(10 Hz)(4.7 μF)
3386 Ω
Vout = V = 143 mV = 132 mV
XC
th (1.43 kΩ)2 + (3386 Ω) 2
Rth + X C
2 2
1
(b) XC = = 3386 Ω
2π(100 kHz)(470 pF)
Req = R1 || (R2 + R3) = 2.2 kΩ || 2 kΩ = 1.05 kΩ
( Rleak )( X C ) (2 kΩ)(3386 Ω)
XC || Rleak = = = 1722 Ω
2
Rleak + X C2 (2 kΩ) 2 + (3386 Ω) 2
Req
VR1 = V = 1.96 V
X C Rleak + Req in
XC || Rleak consists of a reactive and a resistive term and cannot be added directly to Req.
R3 1 .0 k Ω
Vout = VR1 =
1.96 V = 0.978 V
R2 + R3 2 kΩ
39. (a) Vout = 0 V (less than normal output)
1
XC = = 3386 Ω
2π(10 Hz)(4.7 μF)
(b) Vout =
XC V = 3386 Ω 1 V = 0.321 V (greater than normal output)
2
in 10,494 Ω
R + XC
2
R2 10 kΩ
(c) Vout = Vin = 1 V = 0.5 V (greater than normal output)
R1 + R2 20 kΩ
(d) Vout = 0 V (less than normal output)
40. (a) Vout = 0 V (less than normal)
R3 1 .0 k Ω
(b) Vout = Vin =
5 V = 2.5 V (greater than normal output)
R2 + R3 2 kΩ
XC = 3386
(c) Vout =
R3 V = 1000 Ω 5 V = 1.27 V (greater than normal output)
2
in 3933 Ω
( R2 + R3 ) + X C
2
(d) Vout = 0 V (less than normal output)
(e) Vout =
R1 V = 2.2 kΩ 5 V = 2.72 V (greater than normal output)
2
in 4038 Ω
R1 + X C
2
105
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
240 V
41. (a) IL(A) = = 4.8 A
50 Ω
240 V
IL(B) = = 3.33 A
72 Ω
(b) PFA = cos θ = 0.85; θ = 31.8°
PFB = cos θ = 0.95; θ = 18.19°
XC(A) = (50 Ω)sin 31.8° = 26.3 Ω
XC(B) = (72 Ω)sin 18.19° = 22.48 Ω
Pr(A) = IL(A)XC(A) = (4.8 A)2(26.3 Ω) = 606 VAR
Pr(B) = IL(B)XC(B) = (3.33 A)2(22.48 Ω) = 250 VAR
(c) RA = (50 Ω)cos 31.8° = 42.5 Ω
RB = (72 Ω)cos 18.19° = 68.4 Ω
Ptrue(A) = I L2( A) RA = (4.8 A)2(42.5 Ω) = 979 W
Ptrue(B) = I L2( B ) RB = (3.33 A)2(68.4 Ω) = 758 W
P P
2 2
(d) Pa(A) = true ( A) r ( A) (979 W) 2 (606 VAR) 2 = 1151 VA
P P
2 2
Pa(B) = true ( B ) r (B) (758 W) 2 (250 VAR)2 = 798 VA
Vout1 R
42. = = 0.707
Vin1 R 2 + X C2
R = 0.707 R 2 + X C2
R
R 2 + X C2 = = 1.414R
0.707
R2 + X C2 = (1.414)2R2 = 2R2
X C2 = 2R2 − R2 = R2(2 − 1) = R2
XC = R
1
=R
2πfC
1 1
C= = = 0.08 μF
2πfR 2π(20 Hz)(100 kΩ)
1
43. XC = = 15.9 kΩ
2π(1 kHz )(0.01 μF)
Rtot
θ = tan−1
C
X
Rtot
X = tan θ
C
Rtot = XCtan θ = (15.9 kΩ)tan 30° = 9.19 kΩ
106
R1R2
Rtot =
R1 + R2
Rtot(R1 + R2) = R1R2
R1Rtot + R2Rtot = R1R2
R1(Rtot − R2) = −R2Rtot
R2 Rtot (47 kΩ)(9.19 kΩ)
R1 = = = 11.4 kΩ
R2 − Rtot 37.9 kΩ
1
44. XC1 = = 4244 Ω
2π(2.5 kHz)(0.015 μF)
1
XC2 = = 1355 Ω
2π( 2.5 kHz )(0.047 μF)
R4 X C 2 (910 Ω)(1355 Ω)
R4 || XC2 = = = 756 Ω
R4 + X C 2
2 2 (910 Ω) + (1355 Ω)
R4 910 Ω
θR4C2 = tan−1 = tan −1
= 33.9°
XC2 1355 Ω
The equivalent series R and XC for R4 || XC2:
Req = (R4 || XC2)cos θR4C2 = (756 Ω)cos 33.9° = 627 Ω
XC(eq) = (R4 || XC2)sin θR4C2 = (756 Ω)sin 33.9° = 422 Ω
Ztot = 2
Rtot + X C2 (tot ) = ( R1 + R2 + R3 + Req ) 2 + ( X C1 + X C ( eq ) ) 2
= (1.0 kΩ + 680 Ω + 1.0 kΩ + 627 Ω) 2 + (4244 Ω + 422 Ω) 2
= (3307 Ω) 2 + (4666 Ω) 2 = 5719 Ω
X C (tot ) 4666 Ω
θ = tan−1 = tan −1
= 54.7°
Rtot 3307 Ω
V 10 V
Itot = s = = 1.75 mA
Z tot 5719 Ω
Itot leads Vs by 54.7°
IC1 = IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = Itot = 1.75 mA
1355 Ω
IR4 = I = 1.75 mA = 1.45 mA
XC2
2
tot 2
R4 + X C 2 (910 Ω) + (1355 Ω)
2 2
910 Ω
I C2 = I = 1.75 mA = 0.976 mA
R4
2
tot 2
R4 + X C 2 (910) + (1355 Ω)
2 2
VC1 = ItotXC1 = (1.75 mA)(4244 Ω) = 7.43 V
VR1 = ItotR1 = (1.75 mA)(1.0 Ω) = 1.75 V
VR2 = ItotR2 = (1.75 mA)(680 Ω) = 1.19 V
VR3 = ItotR3 = (1.75 mA)(1.0 Ω) = 1.75 V
VR4 = VC2 = IR4R4 = (1.45 mA)(910 Ω) = 1.32 V
VC1 lags Itot by 90°.
107
Figure 10-5
VR1, VR2, and VR3 are all in phase with Itot.
VR4C2 lags Itot by 33.9°. See Figure 10-5.
45. θ = cos−1(0.75) = 41.4°
Ptrue = Pacos θ
Ptrue 1.5 kW
Pa = = = 2 kVA
PF 0.75
Pr = Pasin θ = (2 kVA)sin 41.4° = 1.32 kVAR
100 V
46. Ztot = = 20 Ω
5A
Ptrue = I2Rtot
P 400 W
Rtot = true2
= = 16 Ω
I (5 A)2
Rx = Rtot − R1 = 16 Ω − 4 Ω = 12 Ω
2
Z tot = Rtot
2
+ X C2
2
XC Z tot − Rtot
2
= (20 Ω) 2 − (16 Ω) 2 = 144 = 12 Ω
1
Cx = = 13.3 μF
2π(1 kHz)(12 Ω)
47. For I = 0 A, VA = VB and VR1 = VR2
1
XC1 = = 3.39 kΩ
2π(1 kHz )(0.047 μF)
VR1 = VR2
2 .2 k Ω 1 .0 k Ω
V = V
(2.2 kΩ) 2 + (3.39 kΩ) 2 s s
(1.0 kΩ) + X C 2
2 2
108
Cancelling the Vs terms and solving for XC2:
2 .2 k Ω 1 .0 k Ω
=
(2.2 kΩ) 2 + (3.39 kΩ) 2 (1.0 kΩ) 2 + X 2
C2
1.0 kΩ (2.2 kΩ) 2 + (3.39 kΩ) 2
(1.0 kΩ) 2 + X C2 2 =
2.2 kΩ
(1.0 kΩ)2 + X C2 2 =
(
(1.0 kΩ)2 (2.2 kΩ) 2 + (3.39 kΩ) 2 )
( 2 .2 k Ω ) 2
XC2 =
(
(1.0 kΩ) 2 (2.2 kΩ) 2 + (3.39 kΩ) 2 )
− (1.0 kΩ) 2 = 1.54 kΩ
(2.2 kΩ) 2
1
C2 = = 0.103 μF
2π(1 kHz )(1.54 kΩ)
48. See Figure 10-6.
Vin = 10 V peak
1
f= = 100 kHz
10 μs
1
XC = = 15.9 Ω
2π(100 kHz)(0.1 μF)
XC can be neglected because it is very small compared to 22 kΩ.
RA = 22 kΩ || 18 kΩ || (8.2 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ) = 4.77 kΩ
4.77 kΩ
Vout ≅ VA = 10 V = 3.23 V peak
14.77 kΩ
The waveform on the scope is correct, so the circuit is OK.
Figure 10-6
109
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
49. C is leaky.
50. C2 is shorted.
51. No fault
52. C is open.
53. R2 is open.
54. C is shorted.
55. Phase shift with C1 shorted = 13.7°.
110
CHAPTER 11
INDUCTORS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 11-1 The Basic Inductor
1. (a) 1 H × 1000 mH/H = 1000 mH
(b) 250 μH × 0.001 mH/μH = 0.25 mH
(c) 10 μH × 0.001 mH/μH = 0.01 mH
(d) 0.0005 H × 1000 mH/H = 0.5 mH
2. (a) 300 mH × 103 μH/mH = 300,000 μH
(b) 0.08 H × 106 μH/H = 80,000 μH
(c) 5 mH × 103 μH/mH = 5000 μH
(d) 0.00045 mH × 103 μH/mH = 0.45 μH
N 2 μA
3. L=
l
Ll (30 mH)(0.05 m)
N= = = 3450 turns
μA (1.26 × 10− 6 )(10 × 10− 5 m 2 )
Vdc 12 V
4. I= = 0.1 A
RW 120 Ω
1 (0.1 H)(1 A)2
5. W = LI 2 = = 50 mJ
2 2
6. vinduced = L × (rate of change of I) = (100 mH)(200 mA/s) = 20 mV
SECTION 11-3 Series and Parallel Inductors
7. LT = 5 μH + 10 μH + 20 μH + 40 μH + 80 μH = 155 μH
8. Lx = 50 mH − 10 mH − 22 mH = 18 mH
111
1
9. LT = = 7.14 μH
1 1 1 1
+ + +
75 μH 50 μH 25 μH 15 μH
L1 (12 mH )
10. 8 mH =
L1 + 12 mH
( 8 mH)L1 + (8 mH)(12 mH) = (12 mH)L1
(4 mH)L1 = 96 mH2
96 mH 2
L1 = = 24 mH
4 mH
(10 H)(5 H)
11. (a) LT = 1 H + = 4.33 H
10 H + 5 H
100 mH
(b) LT = = 50 mH
2
1
(c) LT = = 57 μH
1 1 1
+ +
100 μH 200 μH 400 μH
(100 mH)(50 mH) (60 mH)(40 mH)
12. (a) LT = + = 33.33 mH + 24 mH = 57.3 mH
150 mH 100 mH
(12 mH)(6 mH)
(b) LT = = 4 mH
18 mH
(2 mH)(4 mH)
(c) LT = 4 mH + = 5.33 mH
6 mH
SECTION 11-4 Inductors in DC Circuits
L 100 μH L 10 mH
13. (a) τ= = = 1 μs (b) τ= = = 2.13 μs
R 100 Ω R 4.7 kΩ
L 3H
(c) τ= = = 2 μs
R 1.5 MΩ
L 50 μH L 15 mH
14. (a) 5τ = 5 = 5 = 4.46 μs (b) 5τ = 5 = 5 = 22.7 μs
R 56 Ω R 3300 Ω
L 100 mH
(c) 5τ = 5 = 5 = 22.7 μs
R 22 kΩ
L 10 mH
15. τ= = = 10 μs
R 1 .0 k Ω
(a) vL = Vie−t/τ = 15e−10μs/10μs = 15e−1 = 5.52 V
(b) vL = Vie−t/τ = 15e−20μs/10μs = 15e−2 = 2.03 V
112
(c) vL = Vie−t/τ = 15e−30μs/10μs = 15e−3 = 0.747 V
(d) vL = Vie−t/τ = 15e−40μs/10μs = 15e−4 = 0.275 V
(e) vL = Vie−t/τ = 15e−50μs/10μs = 15e−5 = 0.101 V
L 75 mH
16. τ= = = 9.15 μs
R 8.2 kΩ
Vs 10 V
IF = = = 1.22 mA
R 8.2 kΩ
(a) ( )
i = I F 1 − e-10μ s/ 9.15μ s = 0.811 mA
(b) ( )
i = I F 1 − e-20μ s/ 9.15μ s = 1.08 mA
(c) ( )
i = I F 1 − e-30μ s/ 9.15μ s = 1.17 mA
SECTION 11-5 Inductors in AC Circuits
17. The total inductance for each circuit was found in Problem 11.
(a) XL = 2πfLtot = 2π(5 kHz)(4.33 H) = 136 kΩ
(b) XL = 2πfLtot = 2π(5 kHz)(50 mH) = 1.57 kΩ
(c) XL = 2πfLtot = 2π(5 kHz)(57 μH) = 1.79 Ω
18. The total inductance for each circuit was found in Problem 12.
(a) XL = 2πfLtot = 2π(400 Hz)(57.3 mH) = 144 Ω
(b) XL = 2πfLtot = 2π(400 Hz)(4 mH) = 10.1 Ω
(c) XL = 2πfLtot = 2π(400 Hz)(5.33 mH) = 13.4 Ω
L2 L3 (20 mH)(40 mH)
19. Ltot = L1 + = 50 mH + = 63.3 mH
L2 + L3 60 mH
XL(tot) = 2πfLtot = 2π(2.5 kHz)(63.3 mH) = 994 Ω
XL2 = 2πfLtot = 2π(2.5 kHz)(20 mH) = 314 Ω
XL3 = 2πfLtot = 2π(2.5 kHz)(40 mH) = 628 Ω
V 10 V
Itot = rms = = 10.1 mA
X L (tot ) 994 Ω
X L3 628 Ω
IL2 =
X + X I tot = 314 Ω + 628 Ω 10.1 mA
= 6.7 mA
L2 L3
X L2 314 Ω
IL3 =
X + X I tot = 314 Ω + 628 Ω 10.1 mA
= 3.37 mA
L2 L3
113
20. (a) Ltot = 57.33 mH
V 10 V
XL = = = 20 Ω
I 500 mA
XL = 2πfLtot
XL 20 Ω
f= = = 55.6 Hz
2πLtot 2π(57.3 mH)
(b) Ltot = 4 mH, XL = 20 Ω
XL 20 Ω
f= = = 796 Hz
2πLtot 2π(4 mH)
(c) Ltot = 5.33 mH, XL = 20 Ω
XL 20 Ω
f= = = 597 Hz
2πLtot 2π(5.33 mH)
21. XL(tot) = 994 Ω from Problem 19.
2
Pr = I rms X L (tot ) = (10.1 mA)2(994 Ω) = 101 mVAR
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
22. RTH = R1 R2 + R3 R4
= 4.7 kΩ 4.7 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ 6.8 kΩ = 4.57 kΩ
L 3.3 mH
τ= = = 0.722 μs
RTH 4.57 kΩ
23. (a) v = VF − (Vi − VF)e−Rt/L (for 60 μs, use 10 μs. The initial voltage is −10 V.)
= 0 V + (−10 V − 0 V)e−(8.2 kΩ)(10 μs)/75 mH = −3.35 V
(b) v = VF − (Vi − VF)e−Rt/L (for 70 μs, use 20 μs for calculation)
−(8.2 kΩ)(20 μs)/75 mH
= 0 V + (−10 V − 0 V)e = −1.12 V
(c) v = VF − (Vi − VF)e−Rt/L (for 80 μs, use 30 μs for calculation)
−(8.2 kΩ)(30 μs)/75 mH
= 0 V + (−10 V − 0 V)e = −0.37 V
24. By KVL, VR is equal and opposite to VL (because VS = 0 V). Therefore, VR = 3.35 V.
R2 R4 4.7 kΩ 6.8 kΩ
25. VTH = VS − VS = 15 V − 15 V = −2.6 V
R1 + R2 R3 + R4 9.4 kΩ 10.1 kΩ
V 2.6 V
I F = TH = = 569 μA
RTH 4.57 kΩ
(a) ( ) ( )
i = I F 1 − e-t / τ = 569 μA 1 − e −1μs/0.722μs = 427 μA
(b) i = I F = 569 μA
114
26. RT = ( R1 + R3 ) ( R2 + R4 ) = 8 kΩ 11.5 kΩ = 4.72 kΩ
L 3.3 mH
τ= = = 0.699 μs
R 4.72 kΩ
i = I i e-t / τ = ( 569 μA ) e −1μs/0.699μs = 136 μA
27. XL1 = 2π(3 kHz)(5 mH) = 94.2 Ω
XL3 = 2π(3 kHz)(3 mH) = 56.5 Ω
VL3 = IL3XL3 = (50 mA)(56.5 Ω) = 2.83 V
VL1 = 10 V − 2.83 V = 7.17 V
V 7.17 V
IL1 = L 1 = = 76.1 mA
X L1 94.2 Ω
IL2 = IL1 − IL3 = 76.1 mA − 50 mA = 26.1 mA
28. Position 1:
LT = 5 mH + 1 mH = 6 mH
Position 2:
LT = 5 mH + 100 μH 1 mH = 6.1 mH
Position 3:
LT = 5 mH + 1000 μH + 100 μH + 1 mH = 7.1 mH
Position 4:
LT = 5 mH + 10 mH + 1000 μH + 100 μH + 1 mH = 17.1 mH
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
29. L3 is open.
30. L1 is shorted.
31. No fault
32. L2 is open.
33. L3 is shorted.
115
CHAPTER 12
RL CIRCUITS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 12-1 Sinusoidal Response of RL Circuits
1. All the frequencies are 15 kHz.
2. I, VR, and VL are all sinusoidal.
SECTION 12-2 Impedance and Phase Angle of Series RL Circuits
3. (a) Z= R 2 X L2 (1.0 kΩ) 2 500 Ω 2 = 1.12 Ω
(b) Z= R 2 X L2 (1.5 kΩ)2 (1.0 kΩ) 2 = 1.8 kΩ
4. (a) Rtot = 47 Ω + 10 Ω = 57 Ω
Ltot = 50 mH + 100 mH = 150 mH
XL(tot) = 2πfLtot = 2π(100 Hz)(150 mH) = 94.2 Ω
Z= 2
Rtot + X L2(tot ) = (57 Ω) 2 + (94.2 Ω) 2 = 110 Ω
X L (tot ) 94.2 Ω
θ = tan−1 = tan −1
= 58.8°
tot
R 57 Ω
(5.0 mH)(8.0 mH)
(b) Ltot = = 3.08 mH
5.0 mH 8.0 mH
XL(tot) = 2πfLtot = 2π(20 kHz)(3.08 mH) = 387 Ω
Z= 2
Rtot + X L2(tot ) = (470 Ω) 2 + (387 Ω) 2 = 609 Ω
X L (tot ) 387 Ω
θ = tan−1 = tan −1
= 39.5°
Rtot 470 Ω
5. (a) XL = 2πfL = 2π(100 Hz)(0.02 H) = 12.6 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (12 Ω) 2 + (12.6 Ω) 2 = 17.4 Ω
(b) XL = 2πfL = 2π(500 Hz)(0.02 H) = 62.8 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (12 Ω)2 + (62.8 Ω) 2 = 64.0 Ω
116
(c) XL = 2πfL = 2π(1 kHz)(0.02 H) = 126 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (12 Ω)2 + (126 Ω) 2 = 127 Ω
(d) XL = 2πfL = 2π(2 kHz)(0.02 H) = 251 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (12 Ω)2 + (251 Ω) 2 = 251 Ω
6. (a) R = Z cos θ = (20 Ω)cos 45° = 14.1 Ω
XL = Z sin θ = (20 Ω)sin 45° = 14.1 Ω
(b) R = Z cos θ = (500 Ω)cos 35° = 410 Ω
XL = Z sin θ = (500 Ω)sin 35° = 287 Ω
(c) R = Z cos θ = (2.5 kΩ)cos 72.5° = 752 Ω
XL = Z sin θ = (2.5 kΩ)sin 72.5° = 2.38 kΩ
(d) R = Z cos θ = (998 Ω)cos 45° = 706 Ω
XL = Z sin θ = (998 Ω)sin 45° = 706 Ω
SECTION 12-3 Analysis of Series RL Circuits
7. Rtot = R1 + R2 = 47 Ω + 10 Ω = 57 Ω
Ltot = L1 + L2 = 50 mH + 100 mH = 150 mH
X L (tot ) = 2 πfLtot = 2 π(1 kHz)(150 mH) = 942 Ω
VR (tot ) =
Rtot V = 57 Ω 5 V = 0.302 V
R2 + X 2 s 944 Ω
tot L ( tot )
8. Rtot = 470 Ω
1 1
Ltot = = = 3.08 mH
1 1 1 1
+ +
L1 L2 5.0 mH 8.0 mH
X L (tot ) = 2 πfLtot = 2 π(20 kHz)(3.08 mH) = 387 Ω
Rtot 470 Ω
VR (tot ) = Vs = 8 V = 6.18 V
R2 + X 2 (470 Ω)2 + (387 Ω)2
tot L
X L (tot ) 387 Ω
VL (tot ) = V = 8 V = 5.08 V
R2 + X 2 s
(470 Ω)2 + (387 Ω) 2
tot L ( tot )
9. (a) Z = 1.12 kΩ from Problem 3.
V 10 V
I= s = 8.94 mA
Z 1.12 kΩ
(b) Z = 1.8 kΩ from Problem 3.
V 5V
I= s = = 2.77 mA
Z 1 .8 k Ω
117
10. Using the results of Problem 4:
V 5V
(a) I = s = = 45.5 mA
Z 110 Ω
V 8V
(b) I = s = = 13.1 mA
Z 609 Ω
11. XL = 2π(60 Hz)(0.1 H) = 37.7 Ω
X 37.7 Ω
θ = tan−1 L = tan −1 = 38.7°
R 47 Ω
XL
12. θ = tan−1
R
XL = 2π(60 Hz)(0.1 H) = 37.7 Ω
37.7 Ω
θ = tan −1 = 38.7°
47 Ω
Double L:
XL = 2π(60 Hz)(0.2 H) = 75.4 Ω
75.4 Ω
θ = tan −1 = 58.1°
47 Ω
θ increases by 19.4° from 38.7° to 58.1°.
13. The circuit phase angle was determined to be 38.7° in Problem 11. This is the phase angle by
which the source voltage leads the current; it is the same as the angle between the resistor
voltage and the source voltage. The inductor voltage leads the resistor voltage by 90°. See
Figure 12-1.
Figure 12-1
14. (a) XL = 2π(60 Hz)(100 mH) = 37.7 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (150 Ω) 2 + (37.7 Ω) 2 = 155 Ω
R 150 Ω
VR = Vs = 5 V = 4.84 V
Z 155 Ω
X 37.7 Ω
VL = L Vs = 5 V = 1.22 V
Z 155 Ω
118
(b) XL = 2π(200 Hz)(100 mH) = 126 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (150 Ω)2 + (126 Ω)2 = 196 Ω
R 150 Ω
VR = Vs = 5 V = 3.83 V
Z 196 Ω
X 126 Ω
VL = L Vs = 5 V = 3.21 V
Z 196 Ω
(c) XL = 2π(500 Hz)(100 mH) = 314 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (150 Ω) 2 + (314 Ω) 2 = 348 Ω
R 150 Ω
VR = Vs = 5 V = 2.15 V
Z 348 Ω
X 314 Ω
VL = L Vs = 5 V = 4.5 V
Z 348 Ω
(d) XL = 2π(1 kHz)(100 mH) = 628 Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (150 Ω) 2 + (628 Ω) 2 = 646 Ω
R 150 Ω
VR = Vs = 5 V = 1.16 V
Z 646 Ω
X 628 Ω
VL = L Vs = 5 V = 4.86 V
Z 646 Ω
15. (a) XL = 2π(1 Hz)(10 H) = 62.8 Ω
X 62.83 Ω
φ = tan−1 L = tan −1 = 0.092°
R 39 kΩ
(b) XL = 2π(100 Hz)(10 H) = 6.28 kΩ
X 6.28 kΩ
φ = tan−1 L = tan −1 = 9.15°
R 39 kΩ
(c) XL = 2π(1 kHz)(10 H) = 62.8 kΩ
X 62.8 kΩ
φ = tan−1 L = tan −1 = 58.2°
R 39 kΩ
(d) XL = 2π(10 kHz)(10 H) = 628 kΩ
X 628 kΩ
φ = tan−1 L = tan −1 = 86.4°
R 39 kΩ
XL −1 62.8 Ω
16. (a) φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 89.9°
R 39 kΩ
XL −1 6.28 kΩ
(b) φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 80.9°
R 39 kΩ
119
XL −1 62.8 kΩ
(c) φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 31.8°
R 39 kΩ
XL −1 628 kΩ
(d) φ = 90° − tan−1 = 90° − tan = 3.55°
R 39 kΩ
SECTION 12-4 Impedance and Phase Angle of Parallel RL Circuits
17. XL = 2π(2 kHz)(800 μH) = 10 Ω
2 2
1 1
Ytot = + = 0.13 S
12 Ω 10 Ω
1 1
Z= = = 7.69 Ω
Ytot 0.13 S
18. (a) XL = 2π(1.5 kHz)(800 μH) = 7.54 Ω
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2
Y = + = + = 0.157 S
R XL 12 Ω 7.54 Ω
1 1
Z= = = 6.37 Ω
Y 0.157 S
(b) XL = 2π(3 kHz)(800 μH) = 15.1 Ω
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2
Y = + = + = 0.106 S
R XL 12 Ω 15.1 Ω
1 1
Z= = = 9.43 Ω
Y 0.106 S
(c) XL = 2π(5 kHz)(800 μH) = 25.1 Ω
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2
Y = + = + = 0.092 S
R XL 12 Ω 25.1 Ω
1 1
Z= = = 10.9 Ω
Y 0.092 S
(d) XL = 2π(10 kHz)(800 μH) = 50.3 Ω
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2
Y = + = + = 0.086 S
R XL 12 Ω 50.3 Ω
1 1
Z= = = 11.6 Ω
Y 0.086 S
120
19. XL = 2πfL
X 12 Ω
f= L = = 2.39 kHz
2πL 2π(800 μH )
SECTION 12-5 Analysis of Parallel RL Circuits
10 V
20. IR = = 4.55 mA
2.2 kΩ
10 V
IL = = 2.86 mA
3.5 kΩ
I tot = (4.55 mA) 2 + (2.86 mA) 2 = 5.37 mA
21. (a) XL = 2π(2 kHz)(25 mH) = 314 Ω
RX L (560 Ω)(314 Ω)
Z= = = 274 Ω
R 2 + X L2 (560 Ω) 2 + (314 Ω) 2
Vs 50 V
(b) IR = = = 89.3 mA
R 560 Ω
V 50 V
(c) IL = s = = 159 mA
X L 314 Ω
V 50 V
(d) Itot = s = = 183 mA
Z 274 Ω
R 560 Ω
(e) θ = tan−1 = tan −1 = 60.7°
XL 314 Ω
( R1 R2 ) X L (11.5 kΩ)(5.0 kΩ)
22. Ztot = = 4.59 kΩ
( R1 R2 ) 2 X L2 12.54 kΩ
11.5 kΩ
θ = tan 1 = 66.5°
5.0 kΩ
Req = Ztotcos θ = (4.59 kΩ)cos 66.5° = 1.83 kΩ
XL(eq) = Ztotsin θ = (4.59 kΩ)sin 66.5° = 4.21 kΩ
SECTION 12-6 Analysis of Series-Parallel RL Circuits
23. XL = 2π(100 kHz)(1.0 mH) = 628 Ω
R2 X L (1500 Ω)(628 Ω)
Zp = = = 579 Ω
R2 + X L
2 2
(1500 Ω)2 + (628 Ω) 2
R2 1500 Ω
θ = tan−1 = tan −1 = 67.3°
XL 628 Ω
121
Req = Zpcos θ = (579 Ω)cos 67.3° = 224 Ω
XL(eq) = Zpsin θ = (579 Ω)sin 67.3° = 534 Ω
Ztot = ( R1 + Req )2 + X L2(eq ) = (444 Ω)2 + (534 Ω)2 = 694 Ω
25 V
Itot = = 36 mA
694 Ω
VR1 = ItotR1 = (36 mA)(220 Ω) = 7.92 V
VR2 = VL = ItotZp = (36 mA)(579 Ω) = 20.8 V
24. The circuit is predominantly inductive because XL(eq) > Rtot.
25. Using the results of Problem 23:
Itot = 36 mA
V 20.8 V
IL = L = = 33.2 mA
X L 628 Ω
V 20.8 V
IR2 = R 2 = = 13.9 mA
R2 1500 Ω
SECTION 12-7 Power in RL Circuits
26. Pa = 2
Ptrue + Pr2 = (100 mW ) 2 + (340 mVAR ) 2 = 354 mVA
27. XL = 2π(60 Hz)(0.1 H) = 37.7 Ω
Z= R 2 + X L2 = (47 Ω) 2 + (37.7 Ω) 2 = 60.3 Ω
Vs 1V
Itot = = = 16.6 mA
Z 60.3 Ω
2
Ptrue = I tot R = (16.6 mA)2(47 Ω) = 13.0 mW
2
Pr = I tot X L = (16.6 mA)2(37.7 Ω) = 10.4 mVAR
R 2 .2 k Ω
28. θ = tan−1 = tan −1 = 32.2°
XL 3 .5 k Ω
PF = cos θ = cos 32.2° = 0.846
29. Using the results of Problems 23 and 25:
PF = cos θ = cos 67.3° = 0.386
Ptrue = VsI cos θ = (25 V)(36 mA)(0.386) = 347 mW
Pr = I L2 X L = (33.2 mA)2(628 Ω) = 692 mVAR
Pa = VsItot = (25 V)(36 mA) = 900 mVA
122
SECTION 12-8 Basic Applications
R
30. Use the formula, Vout = Vin . See Figure 12-2.
Z tot
Frequency (kHz) XL (kΩ) Ztot (kΩ) Vout (V)
0 0 39 1
1 62.8 73.9 0.53
2 126 132 0.30
3 189 193 0.20
4 251 254 0.15
5 314 316 0.12
Figure 12-2
X
31. Use the formula, Vout = L Vin . See Figure 12-3.
Z tot
Frequency (kHz) XL (kΩ) Ztot (kΩ) Vout (mV)
0 0 39 0
1 62.8 73.9 42.5
2 126 132 47.7
3 189 193 49.0
4 251 254 49.4
5 314 316 49.7
Figure 12-3
32. For Figure 12-55: See Figure 12-4(a).
XL = 2π(8 kHz)(10 H) = 503 kΩ
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (39 kΩ)2 + (503 kΩ)2 = 505 kΩ
123
XL −1 503 kΩ
θ = tan−1 = tan = 85.6°
R 39 kΩ
R 39 kΩ
VR = Vin = 1 V = 77.2 mV
Z 505 kΩ
X 503 kΩ
VL = L Vin = 1 V = 996 mV
Z 505 kΩ
For Figure 12-56: See Figure 12-4(b).
XL = 2π(8 kHz)(10 H) = 503 kΩ
Z = R 2 + X L2 = (39 kΩ)2 + (503 kΩ)2 = 505 kΩ
XL −1 503 kΩ
θ = tan−1 = tan = 85.6°
R 39 kΩ
R 39 kΩ
VR = Vin = 50 mV = 3.86 mV
Z 505 kΩ
X 503 kΩ
VL = L Vin = 50 mV = 49.8 mV
Z 505 kΩ
Figure 12-4
SECTION 12-9 Troubleshooting
33. VR1 = VL1 = 18 V
VR2 = VR3 = VL2 = 0 V
34. (a) Vout = 0 V
(b) Vout = 0 V
(c) Vout = 0 V
(d) Vout = 0 V
124
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
35. See Figure 12-5(a).
Rth = R3 + R1 || R2 = 33 Ω + 56 Ω || 22 Ω = 48.8 Ω
R2 22 Ω
Vth = 25 V = 25 V = 7.05 V
R1 + R2 78 Ω
See Figure 12-5(b):
1
Ltot = = 25 mH
1 1
+
50 mH 50 mH
XL(tot)= 2πfLtot = 2π(400 Hz)(25 mH) = 62.8 Ω
X L (tot ) 62.8 Ω 7.05 V = 5.57 V
VL = V =
Rth + X L (tot )
th
(48.8 Ω) + (62.8 Ω)
2 2 2 2
Figure 12-5
36. Since XL(tot) > Rth, the circuit is predominantly inductive.
37. From Problem 35,
XL(tot) = 62.8 Ω
Ztot = R1 + R2 R32 + X L2(tot ) = 56 Ω + 22 Ω (33 Ω)2 + (62.8 Ω) 2 = 72.8 Ω
Vs 25 V
Itot = = = 343 mA
Z tot 72.8 Ω
38. (a) XL = 2πfL = 2π(80 kHz)(8.0 mH) = 4.02 kΩ
(
Ztot = R1 R2 + R3 R42 + X L2 )
(
= 1.2 kΩ 1.0 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ (5.6 kΩ)2 + (4.02 kΩ)2 )
= 875 Ω
Vs 18 V
(b) Itot = = = 20.6 mA
Z tot 875 Ω
(c) Rtot = R1 ( R2 + R3 ) + R4 = 1.2 kΩ 4.3 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ = 6.54 kΩ
XL −1 4.02 kΩ
θ = tan−1 = tan = 31.6°
Rtot 6.54 kΩ
125
(d) See Figure 12-6(a).
Rth = R4 + R2 || R3 = 5.6 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ || 3.3 kΩ = 6.37 kΩ
R3 3.3 kΩ
Vth = Vs = 18 V = 13.8 V
R2 + R3 4.3 kΩ
XL 4.02 kΩ
VL = Vth = 13.8 V = 7.37 V
R2 + X 2 (6.37 kΩ) 2 + (4.02 kΩ) 2
th L
(e) See Figure 12-6(b) and (c):
Rth = R2 || R3 = 1.0 kΩ || 3.3 kΩ = 767 Ω
R3 3.3 kΩ
Vth = Vs =
18 V = 13.8 V
R2 + R3 4 .4 k Ω
The voltage across the R4-L combination is the same as the voltage across R3.
R42 + X L2
VR3 = V
2
th
( Rth + R4 ) + X L
2
(5.6 kΩ) 2 + (4.02 kΩ) 2
= 13.8 V = 6.89 kΩ 13.8 V = 12.6 V
(6.37 kΩ) 2 + (4.02 kΩ) 2 7.53 kΩ
Figure 12-6
126
R2 X L1 (68 Ω)(100 Ω)
39. (a) Z R2 − X L1 = = = 56.2 Ω
R22 + X L21 (68 Ω) 2 + (100 Ω) 2
R2 68 Ω
θ R2 − X L1 = tan −1 = tan −1 = 34.2°
X L1 100 Ω
Converting the parallel combination of R2 and XL1 to an equivalent series form:
Req = Z R2 − X L1 cosθ R2 − X L1 = (56.2 Ω)cos 34.2° = 46.5 Ω
XL(eq) = Z R2 − X L1 sin θ R2 − X L1 = (56.2 Ω)sin 34.2° = 31.6 Ω
ZB = ( R1 + Req ) 2 + X L2( eq ) = (47 Ω + 46.5 Ω) 2 + (31.6 Ω) 2 = 98.7 Ω
Vs 40 V
IR1 = = = 405 mA
Z B 98.7 Ω
68 Ω
IL1 = I = 405 mA = 228 mA
R2
(b)
R2 + X 2 R1 (68 Ω) 2 + (100 Ω) 2
2 L1
(c) XL2−L3 = XL2 + XL3 = 75 Ω + 45 Ω = 120 Ω
Vs 40 V
IL2 = = = 333 mA
X L 2 − L3 120 Ω
100 Ω
IR2 = I = 405 mA = 335 mA
X L1
(d)
R2 + X 2 R1 (68 Ω) 2 + (100 Ω) 2
2 L1
40. R4 + R5 = 3.9 kΩ + 6.8 kΩ = 10.7 kΩ
R3 || (R4 + R5) = 4.7 kΩ || 10.7 kΩ = 3.27 kΩ
R2 + R3 || (R4 + R5) = 5.6 kΩ + 3.27 kΩ = 8.87 kΩ
Rtot = R1 || (R2 + R3 || (R4 + R5 )) = 3.3 kΩ || 8.87 kΩ = 2.41 kΩ
XL = 2π(10 kΩ)(50 mH) = 3.14 kΩ
X 3.14 kΩ
θ = tan−1 L = tan −1 = 52.5° Vout lags Vin
R 2.41 kΩ
2.41 kΩ
VR1 = V = 1 V = 609 mV
Rtot
2
in 2
Rtot + X L (2.41 kΩ) + (3.14 kΩ)
2 2
R3 ( R4 + R5 ) 3.27 kΩ
VR3 = VR1 =
609 mV = 225 mV
R (R + R ) + R Ω + Ω
3 4 5 2 3 . 27 k 5. 6 k
R5 6.8 kΩ
Vout = VR5 = VR 3 = 225 mV = 143 mV
4
R + R 5 3.9 k Ω + 6.8 k Ω
Vout 143 mV
Attenuation = = = 0.143
Vin 1V
41. Ltot = (( L4 + L5 ) L3 + L2 ) L1
= (1.0 mH 1.0 mH) 2.0 mH 1.0 mH 2.0 mH
= (1.0 mH 1.0 mH) 2.0 mH 2.0 mH 2.0 mH = 1.0 mH
127
XL(tot) = 2πfL = 62.8 Ω
X L (tot )
VL(tot) = Vin
R 2 + X L2(tot )
62.8 Ω
= 1 V = 0.532 V
(100 Ω) 2 + (62.8 Ω) 2
62.8 Ω
VL3−4−5 = 0.532 V = 0.265 V
125.6 Ω
62.8 Ω
Vout = 0.265 V = 0.133 V
125.6 Ω
Vout 0.133 V
Attenuation = = = 0.133
Vin 1V
12 V
42. R1 = = 12 Ω
1A
2.5 kV
R2 = = 2.5 kΩ
1A
See Figure 12-7. When the switch is thrown from position 1 to position 2, the inductance will
attempt to keep 1 A through R2, thus a 2.5 kV spike is created across R2 for a short time. This
design neglects the arcing of the switch, assuming instantaneous closure from position 1 to
position 2. The value of L is arbitrary since no time constant requirements are imposed.
Figure 12-7
43. See Figure 12-8. The correct output voltage is calculated as follows:
XL = 2πfL = 2π(10 kHz)(50 mH) = 3142 Ω
3.9 kΩ + 6.8 kΩ = 10.7 kΩ
4.7 kΩ || 10.7 kΩ = 3.27 kΩ
5.6 kΩ + 3.27 kΩ = 8.87 kΩ
3.3 kΩ || 8.87 kΩ = 2.41 kΩ
2.41 kΩ
VA = 1 V = 0.609 V
(2.41 kΩ)2 + (3.142 kΩ) 2
128
3.27 kΩ
VB = 0.609 V = 0.225 V
3.27 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ
6 .8 k Ω
Vout = 0.225 V = 0.143 V
6 .8 k Ω + 3 .9 k Ω
The measured output is approximately 0.3 V peak, which is incorrect.
After trial and error, we find that if the 4.7 kΩ is open we get:
Rtot = 3.3 kΩ || (5.6 kΩ + 3.9 kΩ + 6.8 kΩ) = 2.74 kΩ
2.74 kΩ
VA = 1 V = 0.657 V
(2.74 kΩ) 2 + (3.142 kΩ) 2
6.8 kΩ
Vout = 0.657 V = 0.274 V
5.6 kΩ + 3.9 kΩ + 6.8 kΩ
This is relatively close to the measured value. Component tolerances could give us the scope
reading.
Figure 12-8
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
44. R2 is shorted.
45. L2 is open.
46. L1 is shorted.
47. R2 is open.
48. No fault
49. L1 is shorted.
129
CHAPTER 13
RLC CIRCUITS AND RESONANCE
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 13-1 Impedance and Phase Angle of Series RLC Circuits
1 1
1. XC = = = 677 Ω
2πfC 2π(5 kHz )(0.047 μF)
XL = 2πfL = 2π(5 kHz)(5 mH) = 157 Ω
Z= R 2 + ( X C − X L )2
= (10 Ω) 2 + (677 Ω − 157 Ω)2 = (10 Ω) 2 + (520 Ω)2 = 520 Ω
XC − X L −1 520 Ω
θ = tan−1 = tan = 88.9° (Vs lagging I)
R 10 Ω
Xtot = XC − XL = 520 Ω Capacitive
2. Z= R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2 = (4.7 kΩ)2 + (8.0 kΩ − 3.5 kΩ) 2 = 6.51 kΩ
3. Doubling f doubles XL and halves XC, thus increasing the net reactance and, therefore, the
impedance increases.
SECTION 13-2 Analysis of Series RLC Circuits
4. Ztot = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2 = (4.7 kΩ)2 + (4.5 kΩ) 2 = 6.51 kΩ
Vs 4V
Itot = = = 614 μA
Z tot 6.51 kΩ
VR = ItotR = (614 μA)(4.7 kΩ) = 2.89 V
VL = ItotXL = (614 μA)(8.0 kΩ) = 4.91 V
VC = ItotXC = (614 μA)(3.5 kΩ) = 2.15 V
X tot −1 4.5 kΩ
5. θ = tan−1 = tan = 43.8°
R 4 .7 k Ω
The voltage values were determined in Problem 4. VR lags Vs by 43.8° because it is in phase
with I. VL and VC are each 90° away from VR and 180° out of phase with each other. See
Figure 13-1.
130
Figure 13-1
6. Rtot = R1 || R2 = 220 Ω || 390 Ω = 141 Ω
Ltot = L1 + L2 = 0.5 mH + 1.0 mH = 1.5 mH
Ctot = C1 + C2 = 0.01 μF + 1800 pF = 0.0118 μF
XL(tot) = 236 Ω
XC(tot) = 540 Ω
Ztot = 2
Rtot + ( X L (tot ) − X C (tot ) )2 = (141 Ω)2 + (304 Ω) 2 = 335 Ω
Vs 12 V
(a) Itot = = = 35.8 mA
Z tot 335 Ω
(b) 2
Ptrue = I tot Rtot = (35.8 mA)2(141 Ω) = 181 mW
(c) 2
Pr = I tot X tot = (35.8 mA)2(304 Ω) = 390 mVAR
(d) Pa = ( Ptrue ) 2 + ( Pr ) 2 = 430 mVA
SECTION 13-3 Series Resonance
7. Because XC < XL, fr is less than the frequency indicated.
8. XC = XL at resonance.
VR = Vs = 12 V
1 1
9. fr = = = 734 kHz
2π LC 2π (1 mH)(47 pF)
XL = 2πfrL = 2π(734 kHz)(1 mH) = 4.61 kΩ
XC = XL = 4.61 kΩ
Ztot = R = 220 Ω
V 12 V
I= s = = 54.5 mA
Z tot 220 Ω
10. VC = VL = 100 V at resonance
V 10 V
Z=R= s = = 200 Ω
I max 50 mA
V 100 V
XL = XC = L = = 2 kΩ
I max 50 mA
131
1 1
11. fr = = 454 kHz
2π LC 2π (82 μH)(1.5 nF)
XL = 2π fL = 2π(454 kHz)(82 μH) = 234 Ω
X 234 Ω
Q= L =6
R 39 Ω
f r 454 kHz
BW = = 75.7 kHz
Q 6
BW 75.7 kHz
fc1 = fr − = 454 kHz − = 416 kHz
2 2
BW 75.7 kHz
fc2 = fr + = 454 kHz + = 492 kHz
2 2
Vs 3.0 V
12. Imax = = 77 mA
R 39 Ω
Ihalf-power = 0.707Imax = 0.707(77 mA) = 54 mA
SECTION 13-4 Series Resonant Filters
1 1
13. (a) fr = = = 14.5 kHz
2π LC 2π (12 mH)(0.01 μF)
1 1
(b) fr = = = 24.0 kHz
2π LC 2π (2 mH)(0.022 μF)
These are bandpass filters.
14. (a) Rtot = 10 Ω + 75 Ω = 85 Ω
1 1
fr = = = 14.5 kHz
2π LC 2π (12 mH)(0.01 μF)
XL = 2π(14.5 kHz)(12 mH) = 1.09 kΩ
X 1.09 kΩ
Q= L = = 13
Rtot 85 Ω
f 14.5 kHz
BW = r = = 1.12 kHz
Q 13
(b) Rtot = 10 Ω + 22 Ω = 32 Ω
1 1
fr = = = 24.0 kHz
2π LC 2π (2 mH)(0.022 μF)
XL = 2π(24.0 kHz)(2 mH) = 302 Ω
X 302 Ω
Q= L = = 9.44
Rtot 32 Ω
f 24.0 kHz
BW = r = = 2.54 kHz
Q 9.44
132
1 1
15. (a) fr = = = 339 kHz
2π LC 2π (100 μH)(0.0022 μF)
XL = 2π(339 kHz)(100 μH) = 213 Ω
X 213 Ω
Q= L = = 1.42
R 150 Ω
f 339 kHz
BW = r = = 239 kHz
Q 1.42
1 1
(b) fr = = = 10.4 kHz
2π LC 2π (5 mH)(0.047 μF)
XL = 2π(10.4 kHz)(5 mH) = 327 Ω
X 327 Ω
Q= L = = 3.99
R 82 Ω
f 10.4 kHz
BW = r = = 2.61 kHz
Q 3.99
SECTION 13-5 Parallel RLC Circuits
16. XL = 2πfL = 2π(12 kHz)(15 mH) = 1.13 kΩ
1 1
XC = = = 603 Ω
2πfC 2π(12 kHz)(0.022 μF)
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
2
1
Y= + − = + −
R XC X L 100 Ω 603 Ω 1.13 kΩ
= (0.01 S) 2 + (16.58 × 10−4 S − 8.84 × 10−4 S) 2 = 10.03 mS
1 1
Ztot = = = 99.7 Ω
Y 10.03 mS
17. XL = 2π(12 kHz)(15 mH)= 1.13 kΩ
1
XC = = 603 Ω
2π(12 kHz)(0.022 μF)
Since XC < XL, the parallel circuit is predominantly capacitive.
The smaller reactance in a parallel circuit dominates the circuit response because it has the
largest current.
Vs 5V Vs 5V
18. Itot = = ≅ 50.2 mA IR = = = 50.0 mA
Z tot 99.7 Ω R 100 Ω
Vs 5V Vs 5V
IL = = = 4.42 mA IC = = = 8.29 mA
X L 1.13 kΩ X C 603 Ω
VR = VL = VC = Vs = 5 V
133
19. X L = 2π fL = 2π (10 kHz )(10 mH ) = 628 Ω
1 1
BL = = = 1.59 mS
X L 628 Ω
1 1
XC = = = 1.06 kΩ
2π fC 2π (10 kHz )(15 nF )
1 1
BC = = = 942 μS
X C 1.06 kΩ
RW = 80 Ω
X 628 Ω
Q= L = = 7.85
R 80 Ω
( ) ( )
R p (eq) = RW Q 2 + 1 = 80 Ω 7.852 + 1 = 5.01 kΩ Figure 13-2
1 1
G p (eq) = = = 200 μS
R p (eq) 5.01 kΩ
The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 13-2.
Ytot = G p (eq) 2 + Btot 2 = 200 μS2 + (1.59 mS − 942 μS) 2 = 678 μS
1
Z tot = = 1.47 kΩ
678 μS
SECTION 13-6 Parallel Resonance
20. Zr is infinitely large.
RW2 C (20 Ω) 2 (47 pF)
1− 1−
21. fr = L = 50 mH = 104 kHz
2π LC 2π (50 mH)(47 pF)
XL = 2πfrL = 2π(103.82 kHz)(50 mH) = 32.6 kΩ
X 32.6 kΩ
Q= L = = 1630
RW 20 Ω
Zr = RW(Q2 + 1) = 20 Ω(16302 + 1) = 53.1 MΩ
22. From Problem 21: Zr = 53.1 MΩ and fr = 104 kHz
V 6.3 V
Itot = s = = 119 nA
Z r 53.1 MΩ
6.3 V
IC = IL = = 193 μA
(20 Ω) 2 + 32.6 kΩ) 2
134
SECTION 13-7 Parallel Resonant Filters
X L 2 kΩ
23. Q= = = 80
R 25 Ω
f 5 kHz
BW = r = = 62.5 Hz
Q 80
24. BW = fc2 − fc1 = 2800 Hz − 2400 Hz = 400 Hz
25. P = (0.5)Pr = (0.5)(2.75 W) = 1.38 W
fr 8 kHz
26. Q= = = 10
BW 800 Hz
XL(res) = QRW = 10(10 Ω) = 100 Ω
XL 100 Ω
L= = = 1.99 mH
2πf r 2π(8 kHz )
XC = XL at resonance
1 1
C= = = 0.199 μF
2πf r X C 2π(8 kHz )(100 Ω)
fr
27. Since BW = , the bandwidth is halved when Q is doubled.
Q
So, when Q is increased from 50 to 100, BW decreases from 400 Hz to 200 Hz.
1
28. fr
2π LC
1 1
L= = 35.2 mH
4π f r C 4(3.14) (60) 2 (200 μF)
2 2 2
29. See Figure 13-3.
Figure 13-3
135
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
V 1 V
30. (a) 20 log out = 20 log
= 0 dB
Vin 1 V
V 3V
(b) 20 log out = 20 log
= −4.4 dB
Vin 5 V
V 7.07 V
(c) 20 log out = 20 log
= −3 dB
Vin 10 V
V 5V
(d) 20 log out = 20 log
= −14 dB
Vin 25 V
1 1
31. XL(tot) = = = 3.33 kΩ
1 1 1 1
+ +
X L1 X L 2 5 kΩ 10 kΩ
R2 X L (tot ) (10 kΩ)(3.33 kΩ)
Zp = XL(tot) || R2 = = = 3.16 kΩ
R2 + X L (tot )
2 2
(10 kΩ)2 + (3.33 kΩ) 2
R2
θp = tan−1 = tan −1 10 kΩ = 71.6°
X L (tot ) 3.33 kΩ
Converting the parallel combination of R2, XL1, and XL2 to an equivalent series circuit:
Req = Zpcos θp = (3.16 kΩ)cos 71.6° = 997 Ω
XL(eq) = Zpsin θ = (3.16 kΩ)sin 71.6 ° = 3 kΩ
Z(tot) = ( R1 + Req
2 2
) + ( X L ( eq ) + X C )2 + (4297 Ω) 2 + (2000 Ω) 2 = 4740 Ω
Vs 10 V
Itot = IR1 = IC = = = 2.11 mA
Z tot 4740 Ω
VR1 = ItotR1 = (2.11 mA)(3.3 kΩ) = 6.96 V
VC = ItotXC = (2.11 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 2.11 V
VL1-L2-R2 = ItotZp = (2.11 mA)(3.16 kΩ) = 6.67 V
V 6.67 V
IL1 = L1 = = 1.33 mA
X L1 5 kΩ
V 6.67 V
IL2 = L 2 = = 667 μA
X L 2 10 kΩ
V 6.67 V
IR2 = R 2 = = 667 μA
R2 10 kΩ
136
32. For Vab = 0 V, Va = Vb in both magnitude and phase angle.
XL1 = 226 Ω; XL2 = 151 Ω
226 Ω
Va = VL1 = 12 V = 9.38 V
(180 Ω)2 + (226 Ω) 2
It is not possible for Vab to be 0 V because the LC branch has no resistance; thus, the voltage
from a to b can only have a phase angle of 0°, 90°, or −90° (the branch will be either resonant,
purely inductive, or purely capacitive depending on the value of XC). Therefore, it is not
possible for Va to equal Vb in both magnitude and phase angle, which are necessary conditions.
1
33. XC = = 241 Ω
2π(3 kHz)(0.22 μF)
XL1 = 2π(3 kHz)(12 mH) = 226 Ω
XL2 = 2π(3 kHz)(8 mH) = 151 Ω
Vs 12 V
IR1-L1 = = = 41.5 mA
R1 + X L1
2 2
(180 Ω) 2 + (226 Ω)2
Vs 12 V
IC-L2 = = = 133 mA
X C − X L 2 241 Ω − 151 Ω
X L1 226 Ω
θR1−L1 = tan−1 = tan −1 = 51.5°
R1 180 Ω
The resistive component of current in the left branch is:
IR = IR1−L1cos θR1−L1 = (41.5 mA)cos 51.5° = 25.8 mA
The reactive component of current in the left branch is:
IX = IR1−L1sin θR1−L1 = (41.5 mA)sin 57.5° = 32.5 mA
In the right branch XC >XL2, so IC−L2 is totally reactive and is
180° out of phase with IX in the left branch.
Itot = I R2 + ( I C − L 2 − I X )2 = (25.8 mA)2 + (133 mA − 32.5 mA)2 = 104 mA
RW2 C
1−
L2 1
34. For parallel resonance: fr = ≅ = 2.6 kHz
2π L2C 2π(25 mH)(0.15 μF)
X L 2 408 Ω
XL2 = 2π(2.6 kHz)(25 mH) = 408 Ω Qp = = = 102
RW 2 4Ω
( )
Zr = RW2 Q p2 + 1 = 4 Ω(1022 + 1) = 41.6 kΩ
XL1 = 2π(2.6 kHz)(10 mH) = 163 Ω
Since Zr is much greater than R, RW1, or XL1 and is resistive, the output voltage is:
Vout ≅ Vs = 10 V
1 1
For series resonance: fr = = = 4.1 kHz
2π L1C 2π (10 mH )(0.15 μF)
and
XC = XL1 = 2π(4.1 kHz)(10 mH) = 258 Ω
XL2 = 2π(4.1 kHz)(25 mH) = 644 Ω
137
Since XC < XL2, the parallel portion of the circuit is capacitive.
Zr = RW2 1 + X L21 −
XC ( RW2 2 + X L22
≅ 172 Ω
)
RW2 2 + ( X L 2 − X C ) 2
Assuming that Zr is almost totally reactive:
Zr 172 Ω
Vout ≅ Vs = 10 V = 1.96 V
R2 + Z 2 (860 Ω) 2 + (172 Ω)2
r
35. fr = BW × Q = (500 Hz)(40) = 20 kHz
2.5 V
XC = = 125 Ω
20 mA
1 1
C= = = 0.064 μF
2πf r X C 2π(20 kHz)(125 Ω)
X
Q = L = 40
RW
XL 1
RW = = X L = 0.025XL = 0.025(2πfrL)
Q 40
RW2 C
1−
fr = L
2π LC
R2 C (0.025(2πf r L) )2 C
1 − W 1 −
1 − 0.025 f 2 LC
L L =
fr =
2
= r
4π LC
2
4π LC
2
4π LC
2
In the above derivation, the term (0.025(2π))2 ≅ 0.025
f r2 4π 2 LC = 1 − 0.025 f r2 LC
f r2 LC (4π 2 + 0.025) = 1
1
L= 2 = 989 μH
f r C (4π + 0.025)
2
36. Refer to Figure 13-4.
1
fr = Choose C = 0.001 μF
2π LC
1
f r2 = 2
4π LC
1 1
(a) fr = 500 kHz: L1 = = 2 = 101 μH
4π f r C 4π (500 kHz) 2 (0.001 μF)
2 2
1 1
(b) fr = 1000 kHz: L2 = = 2 = 25.3 μH
4π f r C 4π (1000 kHz) 2 (0.001 μF)
2 2
1 1
(c) fr = 1500 kHz: L3 = = 2 = 11.3 μH
4π f r C 4π (1500 kHz) 2 (0.001 μF)
2 2
138
1 1
(d) fr = 2000 kHz: L4 = = 2 = 6.3 μH
4π f r C 4π (2000 kHz )2 (0.001 μF)
2 2
Figure 13-4
35. See Figure 13-5. The winding resistance is neglected because it contributes negligibly to the
outcome of the calculations.
1
fr =
2π LC
1
f r2 = 2
4π LC
1
C=
4π f r L
2 2
For fr = 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, and 11 MHz:
1
C1 = = 40 pF
4π (8 MHz) 2 (10 μH )
2
1
C2 = = 31 pF
4π (9 MHz)2 (10 μH )
2
1
C3 = = 25 pF
4π (10 MHz) 2 (10 μH )
2
1
C4 = = 21 pF
4π (11 MHz) 2 (10 μH )
2
Figure 13-5
139
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
38. L is open.
39. No fault
40. C is open.
41. L is shorted.
42. C is shorted.
43. L is shorted.
140
CHAPTER 14
TRANSFORMERS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 14-1 Mutual Inductance
1. LM = k L1L2 = 0.75 (1 μH )(4 μH) = 1.5 μH
2. LM = k L1L2
LM 1 μH
k= = = 0.25
L1L2 (8 μH )(2 μH)
SECTION 14-2 The Basic Transformer
N sec 360
3. n= =3
N pri 120
N sec 1000
4. (a) n = =4
N pri 250
N sec 100
(b) n= = 0.25
N pri 400
5. (a) In phase (b) Out of phase (c) Out of phase
SECTION 14-3 Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers
N sec 150
6. n= = 1.5
N pri 100
Vsec = 1.5Vpri = 1.5(120 V) = 180 V
7. Nsec = 2Npri = 2(250 turns) = 500 turns
141
N sec Vsec
8. n= = = 10
N pri V pri
1 1
Vpri = Vsec = 60 V = 6 V
n 10
9. See Figure 14-1(a).
N
(a) Vsec = nVpri = sec V pri = 10(10 V) = 100 V rms
N pri
See Figure 14-1(b).
N
(b) Vsec = nVpri = sec V pri = 2(50 V) = 100 V rms
N pri
Figure 14-1
Vsec N sec
10. =
V pri N pri
N sec 30 V
n= = = 0.25
N pri 120 V
11. Vsec = (0.2)(1200 V) = 240 V
Vsec N sec
12. = = n = 0.1
V pri N pri
1 1
Vpri = Vsec = (6 V ) = 60 V
n 0 .1
N 1
13. (a) VL = nV pri = sec V pri = 120 V = 6 V
N pri 20
(b) VL = 0 V (The transformer does not couple constant dc voltage)
N
(c) VL = nV pri = sec V pri = 4(10 V) = 40 V
N pri
14. No, the voltages would not change.
142
15. (a) VL = (0.1)Vsec = (0.1)(100 V) = 10 V
(b) Vpri = 20VL = 20(12 V) = 240 V
16. Meter would indicate 10 V.
SECTION 14-4 Loading the Secondary
I sec N pri 1 1
17. = = =
I pri N sec n 3
1 1
Isec = I pri = 100 mA = 33.3 mA
n 3
Vsec I pri
18. =
V pri I sec
N 1
(a) Vsec = nVpri = sec V pri = 30 V = 15 V
N pri 2
V 15 V
(b) Isec = sec = = 50 mA
RL 300 Ω
V 15 V
(c) Ipri = sec I sec = 50 mA = 25 mA
V pri 30 V
(d) PL = IsecRL = (50 mA) (300 Ω) = 0.75 W
2
SECTION 14-5 Reflected Load
2 2
1 1 1
19. Rpri = RL = 680 Ω = 680 Ω = 27.2 Ω
n 5 25
1
20. n=
50
2
1
Rpri = RL = 502(8 Ω) = 20 kΩ
n
Vsec 120 V
21. Ipri = = 6.0 mA
R pri 20 kΩ
143
22. Rpri = 300 Ω; RL = 1.0 kΩ
R
n2 = L
R pri
RL 1.0 kΩ
n= = = 1.83
R pri 300 Ω
SECTION 14-6 Impedance Matching
2
1
23. Rpri = RL
n
2
1 R pri
=
n RL
1 R pri 16 Ω
= = = 4 =2
n RL 4Ω
1
n= = 0.5
2
24. n = 0.5 from Problem 23.
2
1 1
Rpri = Rspeaker = 4 Ω = 16 Ω
n 0.25
25 V
Ipri = = 1.56 A
16 Ω
1
Isec = I pri = 2(1.56 A) = 3.12 A
n
2
Pspeaker = I sec Rspeaker = (3.12 A)2(4 Ω) = 38.9 W
RL RL
25. n = 10 n= n2 =
R pri R pri
RL = n2Rpri = 102(50 Ω) = 100(50 Ω) = 5 kΩ
2 2
1 1
26. Rpri = RL = RL = (0.01) RL
n 10
For RL = l kΩ, Rpri = (0.01)(1 kΩ) = 10 Ω
10 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V = 1.67 V
60 Ω
P=
(1.67 V )2 = 0.278 W
10 Ω
144
For RL = 2 kΩ, Rpri = (0.01)(2 kΩ) = 20 Ω
20 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V = 2.86 V
70 Ω
(2.86 V) 2
P= = 0.408 W
20 Ω
For RL = 3 kΩ, Rpri = (0.01)(3 kΩ) = 30 Ω
30 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V = 3.75 V
80 Ω
(3.75 V) 2
P= = 0.469 W
30 Ω
For RL = 4 kΩ, Rpri = 40 Ω
40 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V= 4.44 V
90 Ω
(4.44 V) 2
P= = 0.494 W
40 Ω
For RL = 5 kΩ, Rpri = 50 Ω
50 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V= 5 V
100 Ω
(5 V) 2
P= = 0.500 W
50 Ω
For RL = 6 kΩ, Rpri = 60 Ω
60 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V= 5.45 V
110 Ω
(5.45 V) 2
P= = 0.496 W
60 Ω
For RL = 7 kΩ, Rpri = 70 Ω
70 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V= 5.83 V
120 Ω
(5.83 V) 2
P= = 0.486 W
70 Ω
For RL = 8 kΩ, Rpri = 80 Ω
80 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V= 6.15 V
130 Ω
(6.15 V) 2
P= = 0.473 W
80 Ω
145
For RL = 9 kΩ, Rpri = 90 Ω
90 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V= 6.43 V
140 Ω
(6.43 V) 2
P= = 0.459 W
90 Ω
For RL = 10 kΩ, Rpri =100 Ω
100 Ω
VR(pri) = 10 V= 6.67 V
150 Ω
(6.67 V) 2
P= = 0.444 W
100 Ω
See Figure 14-2.
Figure 14-2
SECTION 14-7 Transformer Ratings and Characteristics
27. PL = Ppri − Plost = 100 W − 5.5 W = 94.5 W
P 94.5 W
28. % efficiency = out 100% =
100% = 94.5 %
Pin 100 W
29. Coefficient of coupling = 1 − 0.02 = 0.98
146
Pa 1 kVA
30. (a) IL(max) = = = 1.67 A
Vsec 600 V
Vsec 600 V
(b) RL(min) = = = 359 Ω
I L (max) 1.67 A
Vsec
(c) XC = = 359 Ω
IL
1 1
Cmax = = = 7.4 μF
2πfX C 2π(60 Hz)(359 Ω)
31. kVA rating = (2.5 kV)(10 A) = 25 kVA
SECTION 14-8 Tapped and Multiple-Winding Transformers
50
V1 =
500
32. 120 V = 12.0 V
100
V2 =
500
120 V = 24.0 V
100
V3 =
500
120 V = 24.0 V
V4 = V2 + V3 = 48.0 V
33. For secondary 1:
V 24 V
n = sec = =2
V pri 12 V
For secondary 2:
V 6V
n = sec = = 0.5
V pri 12 V
For secondary 3:
V 3V
n = sec = = 0.25
V pri 12 V
34. (a) See Figure 14-3.
100
(b) 100 turns: Vsec = 240 V = 12 V
2000
200
200 turns: Vsec = 240 V = 24 V
2000
500
500 turns: Vsec = 240 V = 60 V
2000
1000
1000 turns: Vsec = 240 V = 120 V
2000
147
Figure 14-3
35. For both primaries:
100
Top secondary: n = = 0.1
1000
200
Next secondary: n = = 0.2
1000
500
Third secondary: n = = 0.5
1000
1000
Bottom secondary: n = =1
1000
SECTION 14-9 Troubleshooting
36. Open primary winding. Replace transformer.
37. If the primary shorts, excessive current is drawn which potentially can burn out the source
and/or the transformer unless the primary is fused.
38. Some, but not all, of the secondary windings are shorted or the primary voltage is lower than
expected.
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
39. (a) Nsec = 400 turns + 300 turns = 700 turns
N 700
VL1 = nVpri = sec V pri = 60 V = 35 V
N pri 1200
V 35 V
IL1 = L1 = = 2.92 A
RL1 12 Ω
300
VL2 = 60 V = 15 V
1200
V 15 V
IL2 = L 2 = = 1.5 A
RL 2 10 Ω
148
1 1 1 1 1
(b) = + = +
Z pri N pri 2
N
2
(2.94)(12 Ω) (16)(10 Ω)
RL1 pri RL 2
N N
700 300
1 1
= + = 0.0283 S + 0.00625 S = 0.0346 S
35.3 Ω 160 Ω
1
Zpri = = 28.9 Ω
0.0346 S
40. (a) Vpri = 2400 V
N V 120 V
n = sec = sec = = 0.05
N pri V pri 2400 V
Pa 5 kVA
(b) Isec = = = 41.7 A
Vsec 120 V
(c) Ipri = nIsec = (0.05)(41.7 A) = 2.09 A
41. (a) The lower 100 Ω resistor is shorted out by the meter ground; so, the full secondary
voltage measured by the meter is:
N 1
Vmeter = Vsec = nV pri = sec 120 V = 120 V = 20 V
N pri 6
(b) The common point between the 100 Ω resistors is ground. Both resistors are still in the
secondary with one-half of the secondary voltage across each.
1 1
Vmeter = Vsec = 20 V = 10 V
2 2
42. Position 1:
RL = 560 Ω + 220 Ω + 1.0 kΩ = 1780 Ω
RL 1780 Ω
n= = = 13.3
R pri 10 Ω
Nsec = Nsec1 + Nsec2 + Nsec3 = nNpri = 13.3 × 100 = 1330 turns
Position 2:
RL = 220 Ω + 1.0 kΩ = 1220 Ω
RL 1220 Ω
n= = = 11.0
R pri 10 Ω
Nsec = Nsec2 + Nsec3 = nNpri = 11.0 × 100 = 1100 turns
Position 3:
RL = 1.0 kΩ
RL 1000 Ω
n= = = 10
R pri 10 Ω
Nsec = Nsec3 = nNpri = 10 × 100 = 1000 turns
149
120 V
43. Rpri = = 40.0 kΩ
3 mA
2
1
Rpri = RL
n
R
n2 = L
R pri
RL 8Ω
n = = 0.0141
R pri 40.0 kΩ
This is 70.7 primary turns for each secondary turn.
12.6 V
44. n= = 0.105
120 V
10 VA
I pri (max) = = 83.3 mA
120 V
83.3 mA
I sec (max) = = 794 mA
0.105
12.6 V
RL (min) = = 15.9 Ω
794 mA
10 V
45. n= = 0.0833
120 V
Ipri(max) = (0.0833)(1 A) = 83.3 mA
A fuse rated at 0.1 A should be used.
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
46. Partial short in transformer.
47. Secondary is open.
48. No fault.
49. Primary is open.
150
CHAPTER 15
TIME RESPONSE OF REACTIVE CIRCUITS
BASIC PROBLEMS
SECTION 15-1 The RC Integrator
1. τ = RC = (2.2 kΩ)(0.047 μF) = 103 μs
2. (a) 5RC = 5(47 Ω)(47 μF) = 11.0 ms
(b) 5RC = 5(3300 kΩ)(0.015 μF) = 248 μs
(c) 5RC = 5(22 kΩ)(100 pF) = 11 μs
(d) 5RC = 5(4.7 MΩ)(10 pF) = 235 μs
3. τ = 6 ms, C = 0.22 μF
τ = RC
τ 6 ms
R= = = 27.3 kΩ
C 0.22 μF
Use a standard 27 kΩ resistor.
4. tW (min) = 5τ = 5(6 ms) = 30 ms
SECTION 15-2 Response of RC Integrators to a Single Pulse
5. vC = 0.63(20 V) = 12.6 V
6. (a) v = 0.86(20 V) = 17.2 V
(b) v = 0.95(20 V) = 19 V
(c) v = 0.98(20 V) = 19.6 V
(d) v = 0.99(20 V) = 19.8 V (considered 20 V)
7. See Figure 15-1.
Figure 15-1
151
8. τ = RC = (1.0 kΩ)(1 μF) = 1 ms
vout = 0.632(8 V) = 5.06 V
The time to reach steady-state with repetitive pulses is 5 ms.
See Figure 15-2 for output wave shape.
Figure 15-2
SECTION 15-3 Response of RC Integrators to Repetitive Pulses
9. τ = (4.7 kΩ)(10 μF) = 47 ms
5τ = 235 ms
See Figure 15-3.
Figure 15-3
1 1
10. T= = = 100 μs tW = 0.25(100 μs) = 25 μs
f 10 kHz
1st pulse: 0.632(1 V) = 632 mV
Between 1st and 2nd pulses: 0.05(632 mV) = 31.6 mV
2nd pulse: 0.632(1 V − 31.6 mV) + 31.6 mV = 644 mV
Between 2nd and 3rd pulses: 0.05(644 mV) = 32.2 mV
3rd pulse: 0.632(1 V − 32.2 mV) + 32.2 mV = 644 mV
152
See Figure 15-4.
Figure 15-4
11. The steady-state output equals the average value of the input which is
15 V with a small ripple.
SECTION 15-4 Response of RC Differentiators to a Single Pulse
12. See Figure 15-5.
Figure 15-5
13. τ = (1.0 kΩ)(1 μF) = 1 ms
See Figure 15-6. Steady-state is reached in 5 ms.
Figure 15-6
153
SECTION 15-5 Response of RC Differentiators to Repetitive
Pulses
14. τ = (1.0 kΩ)(1 μF) = 1 ms
See Figure 15-7.
Figure 15-7
15. The output voltage is approximately the same wave shape as the input voltage but with an
average value of 0 V.
SECTION 15-6 Response of RL Integrators to Pulse Inputs
10 mH
16. τ= = 1 μs
10 kΩ
5τ = 5 μs
Vout(max) = 0.632(8 V) = 5.06 V
See Figure 15-8.
Figure 15-8
50 mH
17. τ= = 50 μs
1.0 kΩ
5τ = 250 μs
Vout(max) = 12 V
See Figure 15-9.
Figure 15-9
154
SECTION 15-7 Response of RL Differentiators to Pulse Inputs
100 μH
18. (a) τ= = 45.4 ns
2.2 kΩ
(b) At end of pulse,
vout = (10 V)e−2.2 = 1.11 V
See Figure 15-10. 100 ns 327 ns
−8.89 V
Figure 15-10
100 μH
19. τ= = 45.4 ns
2.2 kΩ
5τ = 227 ns 250 600 850
See Figure 15-11.
Figure 15-11
SECTION 15-8 Applications
20. τ = RC = (22 kΩ)(0.001 μF) = 22 μs
vB = VF(1 − e−t/RC) = 10 V(1 − e−440μs/22μs) = 10.0 V
21. The output of the integrator is ideally a dc level which equals the average value of the input
signal, 6 V in this case.
SECTION 15-9 Troubleshooting
22. τ = RC = (3.3 kΩ)(0.22 μF) = 726 μs
5τ = 5RC = 5(726 μs) = 3.63 ms
(b) Since the output looks like the input, the capacitor must be open or the resistor shorted
because there is no charging time.
(c) The zero output could be caused by an open resistor or a shorted capacitor.
23. τ = 726 μs; 5τ = 5(726 μs) = 3.63 ms
(b) No fault.
(c) Open capacitor or shorted resistor.
155
ADVANCED PROBLEMS
24. (a) Looking from the source and capacitor,
(2.2 kΩ)(1.0 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ)
Rtot = = 1.05 kΩ
4.2 kΩ
τ = RtotC = (1.05 kΩ)(560 pF) = 588 ns = 0.588 μs
(b) See Figure 15-12.
v = 10e −2.6μs/0.588μs = 120 mV
Figure 15-12
25. (a) Looking from the capacitor, the Thevenin resistance is 5 kΩ.
τ = (5 kΩ)(4.7 μF) = 23.5 ms; 5τ = 5(23.5 ms) = 118 ms
(b) See Figure 15-13.
Figure 15-13
26. Ltot = 8 μH + 4 μH = 12 μH
(10 kΩ)(14.7 kΩ)
Rtot = = 5.95 kΩ
24.7 kΩ
L 12 μH
τ = tot = = 2.02 ns
Rtot 5.95 kΩ
This circuit is an integrator.
156
27. v = VF(1 − e−t/τ)
2.5 = 5(1 − e−t/τ)
2.5 = 5 − 5e−t/τ
5e−t/τ = 5 − 2.5
2.5
e−t/τ = = 0.5
5
ln e−t/τ = ln 0.5
t
− = −0.693
τ
t 1s
τ= = = 1.44 s
0.693 0.693
28. The scope display is correct. See Figure 15-14.
Figure 15-14
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
29. Capacitor is open.
30. R2 is open.
31. No fault
32. L1 is open.
157
CHAPTER 16
DIODES AND APPLICATIONS
SECTION 16-1 Introduction to Semiconductors
1. Two types of semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium.
2. Semiconductors have 4 valence electrons.
3. In a silicon crystal, a single atom forms 4 covalent bonds.
4. When heat is added to silicon, the number of free electrons increases.
5. Current in silicon is produced at the conduction band and the valence band levels.
6. Doping is the process of adding trivalent or pentavalent elements to an intrinsic semiconductor
in order to increase the effective number of free electrons or holes, respectively.
7. Antimony is an n-type impurity. Boron is a p-type impurity.
8. A hole is the absence of an electron in the valence band of an atom.
9. Recombination is the process in which an electron that has crossed the pn junction falls into a
hole in the p-region, creating a negative ion.
SECTION 16-2 The Diode
10. The electric field across a pn junction is created by the diffusion of free electrons from the
n-type material across the barrier and their recombination with holes in the p-type material.
This results in a net negative charge on the p side of the junction and a net positive charge on
the n side of the junction, forming an electric field.
11. A diode cannot be used as a voltage source using the barrier potential because the potential
opposes any further charge movement and is an equilibrium condition, not an energy source.
12. Forward biasing of a pn junction is accomplished by connecting the positive terminal of a
battery to the p-type material.
13. A series resistor is necessary to limit the diode current when a diode is forward-biased to
prevent overheating.
158
SECTION 16-3 Diode Characteristics
14. To generate the forward bias portion of the diode characteristic curve, use the set-up shown in
Figure 16-1.
Figure 16-1
15. The barrier potential would decrease from 0.7 V to 0.6 V is there were an increase in junction
temperature.
16. (a) The diode is reverse-biased because the anode is at 5 V and the cathode is at 8 V.
(b) The diode is forward-biased because the anode is at ground and the cathode is at
−100 V.
(c) The diode is forward-biased by the positive voltage produced by the voltage divider.
(d) The diode is forward-biased because its cathode is more negative than the anode due to
the −20 V source.
17. (a) VR = 8 V − 5 V = 3 V (reversed biased) (b) VF = 0.7 V
(c) VF = 0.7 V (d) VF = 0.7 V
18. (a) The diode should be forward-biased with VF = 0.7 V. The 25 V measurement indicates
an open diode.
(b) The diode should be forward-biased with VF = 0.7 V. The 15 V measurement indicates
an open diode.
(c) The diode should be reverse-biased and the measured voltage should be 0 V. The 2.5 V
reading indicates that the diode is shorted.
(d) The diode is reverse-biased. The 0 V reading across the resistor indicates there is no
current. From this, it cannot be determined whether the diode is functioning properly or
is open.
19. VA = VS1 = 25 V
VB = VA − 0.7 V = 25 V − 0.7 V = 24.3 V
VC = VS2 + 0.7 V = 8 V + 0.7 V = 8.7 V
VD = VS2 = 8 V
159
SECTION 16-4 Diode Rectifiers
Vp 200 V
20. VAVG = = = 63.7 V
π π
21. VL(peak) = 50 V − 0.7 V = 49.3 V
49.3 V
IL(peak) = = 493 mA
100 Ω
See Figure 16-2.
Figure 16-2
22. Yes, a diode with a PIV rating of 50 V can be used because the maximum reverse voltage is
50 V.
N
23. Vsec = nVpri = sec 120 V = (0.5)120 V = 60 V rms
N pri
Vsec(peak) = 1.414(60 V) = 84.8 V
VRL(peak) = Vsec(peak) − 0.7 V = 84.1 V
2V p 2(75 V)
24. VAVG = = = 47.7 V
π π
25. (a) Center-tapped full-wave rectifier.
(b) Vsec = 0.25(80 V) = 20 V rms
Vsec(peak) = 1.414(20 V) = 28.3 V
Vsec ( peak ) 28.3 V
(c) = = 14.2 V
2 2
(d) See Figure 16-3.
Vsec ( peak ) 0.7 V 14.2 V − 0.7 V 13.5 V
(e) IF(peak) = − = = = 13.5 mA
2 RL 1.0 kΩ 1.0 kΩ
160
(f) PIV = 2Vp(out) = 2(13.5 V) = 27.0 V
Figure 16-3
110 V
26. VAVG = = = 55 V for each half of the transformer
2
Vp
VAVG =
π
Vp = πVAVG = π(55 V) = 173 V
27. See Figure 16-4.
Figure 16-4
πVAVG π(50 V)
28. PIV = Vp = = = 78.5 V
2 2
SECTION 16-5 Power Supplies
29. The ideal dc output voltage of a capacitor filter is the peak value of the rectified input.
30. Vin ( peak ) = 1.414(120 V) = 170 V
1
VA =(170 V) = 56.6 V
3
VB = 56.6 V − 1.4 V = 55.2 Vdc (with ripple at 120 Hz)
See Figure 16-5.
161
Figure 16-5
V − VFL
31. % load regulation = NL 100%
VFL
12.6 V − 12.1 V
= 100%
12.1 V
= 4.13%
ΔV
32. % line regulation = OUT 100%
ΔVIN
4.85 V − 4.65 V
= 100%
9.35 V − 6.48 V
= 6.97%
SECTION 16-6 Special-Purpose Diodes
33. See Figure 16-6.
5Ω
Figure 16-6
162
ΔVZ 38 mV
34. ZZ = = = 38 Ω
ΔI Z 1 mA
35. At 5 V; C = 20 pF
At 20 V; C = 11 pF
ΔC = 20 pF − 11 pF = 9 pF (decrease)
36. From the graph, the diode reverse voltage that produces a capacitance of 25 pF is VR ≅ 3 V.
37. The microammeter reading will increase because the photodiode will conduct current when the
LED is turned on.
38. The reverse current in a photodiode with no incident light is called dark current.
SECTION 16-7 Troubleshooting
2V p 2(120 V)(1.414)
39. VAVG = ≅ 108 V
π π
The output of the bridge is correct. However, the 0 V output from the filter indicates that the
capacitor is shorted or Rsurg is open.
40. (a) Output is correct.
(b) Incorrect, open diode.
(c) Output is correct.
(d) Incorrect, open capacitor.
41. (a) Readings are correct.
(b) Zener diode is open.
(c) Fuse is blown or switch is open.
(d) C1 is open.
(e) Transformer winding is open or the bridge is open.
42. (a) Fuse is open. Replace fuse.
(b) Open transformer winding or connection. Verify and replace transformer.
(c) Open transformer winding or connection. Verify and replace transformer.
(d) C1 is open. Replace capacitor.
(e) C1 leaky. Replace capacitor.
(f) A diode is open. Isolate and replace.
(g) Fuse is blown or C2 is shorted or IC regulator is bad or transformer is open or at least
two bridge diodes are open. Isolate and replace.
163
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
43. The diode is open.
44. D2 is shorted.
45. No fault
46. D2 is open.
47. D1 is leaky.
48. Diode is shorted.
49. D2 is open.
50. A bridge diode is shorted.
51. No fault
52. Zener diode D is open.
164
CHAPTER 17
TRANSISTORS AND APPLICATIONS
SECTION 17-1 DC Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistors
1. IC = IE − IB = 5.34 mA − 475 μA = 4.87 mA
I C 8.23 mA
2. αDC = = = 0.947
I E 8.69 mA
IC 25 mA
3. βDC = = = 125
I B 200 μA
4. IB = 0.02IE = 0.02(30 mA) = 0.6 mA
IC = IE − IB = 30 mA − 0.6 mA = 29.4 mA
5. VB = 2 V
VE = VB − VBE = 2 V − 0.7 V = 1.3 V
V 1.3 V
IE = E = = 1.3 mA
RE 1.0 kΩ
IC = αDCIE = (0.98)(1.3 mA) = 1.27 mA
I 1.27 mA
IB = C = = 25.9 μA
β DC 49
6. VB = 2 V
VE = VB − VBE = 2 V − 0.7 V = 1.3 V
V 1.3 V
IE = E = = 1.3 mA
RE 1.0 kΩ
IC = αDCIE = (0.98)(1.3 mA) = 1.27 mA
I 1.27 mA
IB = C = = 12.7 μA
β DC 100
7. VE = VB − VBE = 2 V − 0.7 V = 1.3 V
8. (a) VB = VBB = 10 V
VC = VCC = 20 V
VE = VB − VBE = 10 V − 0.7 V = 9.3 V
VCE = VC − VE = 20 V − 9.3 V = 10.7 V
VBE = 0.7 V
VBC = VB − VC = 10 V − 20 V = −10 V
165
(b) VB = VBE = 0.7 V
VE = 0 V
VRB = 4 V − 0.7 V = 3.3 V
VRB 3.3 V
IB = = = 702 μA
RB 4.7 kΩ
IC = βDCIB = 50(702 μA) = 35.1 mA
VC = VCE = VCC − ICRC = 24 V − (35.1 mA)(430 Ω) = 8.91 V
VBC = VB − (VCC − ICRC) = 0.7 V − 8.91 V = −8.21 V
1 V − 0.7 V 0.3 V
9. IB = = = 13.6 μA
22 kΩ 22 kΩ
IC = βDCIB = 50(13.6 μA) = 680 μA
VC = 10 V − (680 μA)(1.0 kΩ) = 9.32 V
R2 10 kΩ
10. VB = VCC = 12 V = 3.75 V
R1 + R2 22 kΩ+10 kΩ
VE = VB − VBE = 3.75 V − 0.7 V = 3.05 V
V 3.05 V
IE = E = = 4.48 mA
RE 680 Ω
I C I E = 4.48 mA
VC = VCC − I C RC = 12.0 V − ( 4.48 mA )(1.2 kΩ ) = 6.62 V
11. VCE = VC − VE = 6.62 V − 3.05 V = 3.57 V
Q point coordinates are at 4.48 mA (IC) and 3.57 V (VCE)
SECTION 17-2 BJT Class A Amplifiers
12. Vout = AvVin = 50(100 mV) = 5 V
Vout 10 V
13. Av = = = 33.3
Vin 300 mV
RC 500 Ω
14. Av = = =5
RE 100 Ω
Vc = AvVb = 5(50 mV) = 250 mV
166
4.7 kΩ
15. VB = 15 V = 2.64 V
4.7 kΩ + 22 kΩ
VE = VB − VBE = 2.64 V − 0.7 V = 1.94 V
V 1.94 V
IE = E = = 4.97 mA
RE 390 Ω
25 mV
re = = 5.03 Ω
4.97 mA
R 1 .0 k Ω
Av = C = = 199
re 5.03 Ω
16. VB = 2.64 V From Problem 15.
VE = 1.94 V From Problem 15.
IC ≅ IE = 4.97 mA
VC = 15 V − (4.97 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 10.03 V
17. Ignoring loading effects,
R2 12 kΩ
VB = VCC = 18 V = 3.66 V
1
R + R2 47 k Ω +12 k Ω
VE = VB − VBE = 3.66 V − 0.7 V = 2.96 V
V 2.96 V
IE = E = = 2.96 mA
RE 1.0 kΩ
I C I E = 2.96 mA
VC = VCC − I C RC = 18.0 V − ( 2.96 mA )( 3.3 kΩ ) = 8.23 V
VCE = VC − VE = 8.23 V − 2.96 V = 5.27 V = 5.27 V
18. From problem 17, IE = 2.96 mA.
25 mV 25 mV
Rin β DC re β DC 100 = 844 Ω
IE 2.96 mA
Rin (tot ) R1 || R2 || Rin 47 kΩ ||12 kΩ || 844 Ω = 776 Ω
RC 3.3 kΩ
Av = 393
re 8.44 Ω
Vin 10 mV
Is 12.9 μA
Rin (tot ) 776 Ω
R1 || R2 47 kΩ ||12 kΩ
Ib
Rin R1 || R2 I s 776 Ω 47 kΩ ||12 kΩ 12.9 μA 11.9 μA
I c β ac I b 70 11.9 μA 835 μA
I c 835 μA
Ai = 64.7
I s 12.9 μA
Ap Av Ai 39364.7 = 25,400
167
R2 3.3 kΩ
19. VB VCC 12 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ 8 V = 1.72 V
R1 R2
VE VB VBE 1.72 V 0.7 V 1.02 V
V 1.02 V
IE E 10.2 mA
RE 100 Ω
25 mV 25 mV
re 2.44 Ω
I E 10.2 mA
RC 300 Ω
Av(min) = 2.93
RE re 100 Ω 2.44 Ω
RC 300 Ω
Av(max) = 123
re 2.44 Ω
RC || RL 300 Ω || 600 Ω
20. Av(max) = 82
re 2.44 Ω
R2 47 kΩ
21. VB VCC 47 kΩ +47 kΩ 5.5 V = 2.75 V
R1 R2
VE VB VBE 2.75 V 0.7 V 2.05 V
V 2.05 V
IE E 2.05 mA
RE 1.0 kΩ
25 mV 25 mV
re 12.2 Ω
IE 2.05 mA
RE 1.0 kΩ
Av = 0.988
re RE 12.2 Ω 1.0 kΩ
22. Rin (tot ) R1 || R2 || β RE re
47 kΩ || 47 kΩ || 100 1.0 kΩ + 12.2 Ω = 19.1 kΩ
Vout ( dc ) VE = 2.05 V
23. The voltage gain is reduced (by approximately 1% for a 1.0 kΩ load.)
168
SECTION 17-3 BJT Class B Amplifiers
24. Bias current
V − 1.4 V 20 V − 1.4 V
IT = CC = = 23.85 mA
R1 + R2 780 Ω
VB1 = VCC − ITR1 = 20 V − (23.85 mA)(390 Ω) = 10.7 V
VE1 = VB1 − VBE = 10.7 V − 0.7 V = 10 V
VB2 = VB1 − 1.4 V = 10.7 V − 1.4 V = 9.3 V
VE2 = VB2 + 0.7 V = 9.3 V + 0.7 V = 10 V
VCEQ1 = VC1 − VE1 = 20 V − 10 V = 10 V
VCEQ2 = VE2 − VC2 = 10 V − 0 V = 10 V
VCC 20 V
25. Vp(out) = VCEQ = = = 10 V
2 2
V 10 V
Ip(load) ≅ Ic(sat) = CEQ = = 625 mA
RL 16 Ω
Pout
26. Efficiency =
Pin
Pout = (0.71)(16.3 W) = 11.6 W
SECTION 17-4 The BJT as a Switch
VCC 5V
27. IC(sat) = = = 0.5 mA
RC 10 kΩ
I 0.5 mA
IB(min) = C(sat) = = 3.33 μA
β DC 150
V − 0.7 V
IB(min) = IN(min)
RB
0.7 V
VIN(min) = RB I B(min) +
RB
VIN(min) = IB(min)RB + 0.7 V = (3.33 μA)(100 kΩ) + 0.7 V = 1.03 V
15 V
28. IC(sat) = = 12.5 mA
1.2 kΩ
I 12.5 mA
IB(min) = C(sat) = = 83.3 μA
β DC 150
V − 0.7 V 4.3 V
RB(min) = IN = = 51.6 kΩ
I B(min) 83.3 μA
169
SECTION 17-5 DC Operation of Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)
29. (a) The depletion region narrows when VGS is increased from 1 V to 3 V.
(b) The resistance increases when VGS is increased from 1 V to 3 V.
30. The gate-to-source voltage of an N-channel JFET must be zero or negative in order to maintain
the required reverse-bias condition.
31. See Figure 17-1.
Figure 17-1
32. The gate is insulated from the channel by an SiO2 layer.
33. The n-channel D-MOSFET operates in enhancement mode when positive VGS is applied.
34. VGS(min) = VGS(th) = 3 V
35. (a) VS = (1 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 1 V
VD = 12 V − (1 mA)(4.7 kΩ) = 7.3 V
VG = 0 V
VDS = VD − VS = 7.3 V − 1 V = 6.3 V
VGS = VG − VS = 0 V − 1 V = −1 V
(b) VS = (3 mA)(100 Ω) = 0.3 V
VD = 9 V − (3 mA)(470 Ω) = 7.59 V
VG = 0 V
VDS = VD − VS = 7.59 V − 0.3 V = 7.29 V
VGS = VG − VS = 0 V − 0.3 V = −0.3 V
(c) VS = (−5 mA)(470 Ω) = −2.35 V
VD = −15 V − (−5 mA)(2.2 kΩ) = −4 V
VG = 0 V
VDS = VD − VS = −4 V − (−2.35 V) = −1.65 V
VGS = VG − VS = 0 V − (−2.35 V) = 2.35 V
36. (a) Depletion (b) Enhancement
(c) Zero bias (d) Enhancement
10 MΩ
37. (a) VGS = 10 V = 6.8 V This one is on.
14.7 MΩ
1.0 MΩ
(b) VGS = (−25 V) = −2.27 V This one is off.
11 MΩ
170
SECTION 17-6 FET Amplifiers
38. (a) Av = gmRD = (3.8 mS)(1.2 kΩ) = 4.56
(b) Av = gmRD = (5.5 mS)(2.2 kΩ || 10 kΩ) = 9.92
g m RS (3000 μS)(4.7 kΩ)
39. (a) Av = = = 0.934
1 + g m RS 1 + (3000 μS)(4.7 kΩ)
g m RS (4300 μS)(100 Ω)
(b) Av = = = 0.301
1 + g m RS 1 + (4300 μS)(100 Ω)
g m RS (3000 μS)(4.7 kΩ 10 kΩ)
40. (a) Av = = = 0.906
1 + g m RS 1 + (3000 μS)(4.7 kΩ 10 kΩ)
g m RS (4300 μS)(100 Ω 10 kΩ)
(b) Av = = = 0.299
1 + g m RS 1 + (4300 μS)(100 Ω 10 kΩ)
SECTION 17-7 Feedback Oscillators
41. Unity gain around the closed loop is required for sustained oscillation.
Acl = AVB = 1
1 1
B= = = 0.0133
Av 75
42. To ensure start up:
Acl > 1
Since Av = 75, B must be greater than 1/75 in order to produce the condition.
AvB > 1.
For example, if B = 1/50,
AvB = 75(1/50) = 1.5
C1C2
43. (a) Ceq = = 909 pF
C1 + C2
1 1
fr = = = 528 kHz
2π LCeq 2π (0.1 mH)(909 pF)
Oscillator is Colpitts.
(b) Leq = L1 + L2 = 22 μH
1 1
fr = = = 759 kHz
2π LeqC 2π (22 μH)(0.002 μF)
Oscillator is Hartley.
171
SECTION 17-8 Troubleshooting
44. If R5 opens, VB2 ≅ 0 V and Q2 will be in cutoff.
VC2 = 10 V
45. (a) If the bypass capacitor, C2, opens, the voltage gain of the first stage and thus the overall
gain decreases. The dc voltages and the currents are not affected.
(b) If the coupling capacitor, C3, opens, the signal will not reach the second stage so
Vout = 0 V. The voltage gain of the first stage increases due to reduced loading. The dc
voltages and currents are not affected.
(c) If the bypass capacitor, C4, opens, the voltage gain of the second stage and thus the
overall gain decreases. The dc voltages and currents are not affected.
(d) If C2 shorts, R4 is shorted, resulting in the dc bias voltages of the first stage being
changed.
(e) If the BC junction of Q1 opens, the signal will not pass through the first stage. The dc
voltages at the base, emitter, and collector of Q1 will change. The dc voltages and
currents in the second stage are not affected.
(f) If the BE junction of Q2 opens, the signal will not pass through the second stage. The dc
voltages at the base, emitter, and collector of Q2 will change. The dc voltages and
currents in the first stage are not affected.
46. (a) Q1 open drain to source: VS1 = 0 V, VD1 = +VDD, no signal at Q1 drain.
(b) R3 open: VS1 = 0 V, VD1 floating, no signal at Q2 gate.
(c) C2 shorted: VGS = 0 V, ID ≅ IDSS .
(d) C3 shorted: VG2 = VD1, improperly biasing Q2
(e) Q2 open drain to source: VS2 = 0 V, VD2 = +VDD, no signal at Q2 drain
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
47. Base-collector junction is open.
48. No fault
49. Drain and source are shorted.
50. R2 is open.
51. No fault
52. C2 is open.
53. C1 is open.
172
CHAPTER 18
THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
SECTION 18-1 Introduction to the Operational Amplifier
1. Practical op-amp: High open-loop gain, high input resistance, low output resistance, and high
CMRR.
Ideal op-amp: Infinite open-loop gain, infinite input resistance, zero output resistance, and
infinite CMRR.
2. Op-amp 2 is more desirable because it has a higher input resistance, a lower output resistance,
and a higher open-loop gain.
SECTION 18-2 The Differential Amplifier
3. (a) Single-ended input, differential output
(b) Single-ended input, single-ended output
(c) Differential input, single-ended output
(d) Differential input, differential output
4. VE1 = VE2 = −0.7 V
− 0.7 V − (−15 V) 14.3 V
IRE = = = 6.5 mA
2 .2 k Ω 2 .2 k Ω
6.5 mA
IE1 = IE2 = = 3.25 mA
2
I
α1 = C1 = 0.98
I E1
I
α2 = C2 = 0.975
I E2
IC1 = 0.98(3.25 mA) = 3.19 mA
IC2 = 0.975(3.25 mA) = 3.17 mA
VC1 = 15 V − (3.19 mA)(3.3 kΩ) = 4.47 V
VC2 = 15 V − (3.17 mA)(3.3 kΩ) = 4.54 V
VOUT = VC2 − VC1 = 4.54 V − 4.47 V = 0.07 V = 70 mV
Av ( d ) 60
5. CMRR 20 log = 56.5 dB
Acm 0.09
Av ( d ) 150
6. Acm CMRR
65
= 0.084
10 20 10 20
173
7. (a) Single-ended mode
(b) Differential mode
(c) Common mode
8. See Figure 18-1. Vin1 = Vin 2
Figure 18-1
SECTION 18-3 Op-Amp Parameters
8.3 μA + 7.9 μA
9. IBIAS = = 8.1 μA
2
10. Input bias current is the average of the two input currents.
Input offset current is the difference of the two input currents.
IOS = ⏐I1 − I2⏐ = ⏐8.3 μA − 7.9 μA⏐ = 0.4 μA
11. CMRR = 20 log 250,000 = 108 dB
A 175,000
12. CMRR = 20 log ol = 20 log = 120 dB
Acm 0.18
Aol
13. CMRR =
Acm
Aol 90,000
Acm = = = 0.3
CMRR 300,000
24 V
14. Slew rate = = 1.6 V/μs
15 μs
ΔVout 20 V
15. Δt = = = 40 μs
slew rate 0.5 V/μs
174
SECTION 18-5 Op-Amp Configurations with Negative Feedback
16. (a) Voltage-follower (b) Noninverting (c) Inverting
1 1
17. (a) Acl(NI) = = = 374
B 1.5 kΩ / 561.5 kΩ
(b) Vout = Acl(NI)Vin = (374)(10 mV) = 3.74 V
1 .5 k Ω
(c) Vf = 3.74 V = 10 mV
561.5 kΩ
1 1
18. (a) Acl(NI) = = = 11
B 4.7 kΩ / 51.7 kΩ
1 1
(b) Acl(NI) = = = 101
B 10 kΩ / 1.01 MΩ
1 1
(c) Acl(NI) = = = 47.8
B 4.7 kΩ / 224.7 kΩ
1 1
(d) Acl(NI) = = = 23
B 1.0 kΩ / 23 kΩ
1 1 R f + Ri
19. (a) Acl(NI) = = =
B Ri /( R f + Ri ) Ri
Rf + Ri = RiAcl(NI)
Rf = RiAcl(NI) − Ri
Rf = Ri(Acl(NI) − 1) = 1.0 kΩ(49) = 49 kΩ
Rf
(b) Acl(I) = −
Ri
Rf = −Acl(I)Ri = −(−300)(10 kΩ) = 3 MΩ
(c) Rf = Ri(Acl(NI) − 1) = 12 kΩ(7) = 84 kΩ
(d) Rf = −Acl(I)Ri = −(−75)(2.2 kΩ) = 165 kΩ
20. (a) Acl(VF) = 1
Rf 100 kΩ
(b) Acl(I) = − = −
= −1
Ri 100 kΩ
1 1
(c) Acl(NI) = = = 22.3
Ri /( Ri + R f ) 47 kΩ /(47 kΩ + 1.0 MΩ)
Rf 330 kΩ
(d) Acl(I) = − = −
= −10
Ri 33 kΩ
21. (a) Vout = Vin = 10 mV, in-phase
Rf
(b) Vout = AclVin = − Vin = −1(10 mV) = −10 mV, 180° out-of-phase
Ri
175
(c) Vout =
1 Vin = 1
10 mV = 223 mV, in-phase
Ri /( R f + Ri )
47 kΩ / 1.047 MΩ
Rf 330 kΩ
(d) Vout = − Vin = −
10 mV = −100 mV, 180° out-of-phase
Ri 33 kΩ
Vin 1V
22. (a) Iin = = = 455 μA
Rin 2.2 kΩ
(b) If = Iin = 455 μA
(c) Vout = −IfRf = −(455 μA)(22 kΩ) = −10 V
Rf 22 kΩ
(d) Acl(I) = − = −
= −10
Ri 2.2 kΩ
SECTION 18-6 Op-Amp Resistances
2 .7 k Ω
23. (a) B= = 0.0048
562.7 kΩ
Rin(NI) = (1 + AolB)Rin = (1 + 175,000 × 0.0048)10 MΩ = 8410 MΩ
Rout 75 Ω
Rout(NI) = = 89.2 mΩ
(1 Aol B ) (1 175, 000 0.0048)
1.5 kΩ
(b) B= = 0.0309
48.5 kΩ
Rin(NI) = (1 + AolB)Rin = (1 + 200,000 × 0.0309)1.0 MΩ = 6181 MΩ
Rout 25 Ω
Rout(NI) = = 4.04 mΩ
(1 Aol B ) (1 200, 000 0.0309)
56 kΩ
(c) B= = 0.053
1.056 MΩ
Rin(NI) = (1 + AolB)Rin = (1 + 50,000 × 0.053)2.0 MΩ = 5302 MΩ
Rout 50 Ω
Rout(NI) = = 18.9 mΩ
(1 Aol B ) (1 50, 000 0.053)
24. (a) Rin(VF) = (1 + Aol)Rin = (1 + 220,000)6.0 MΩ = 1.32 × 1012 Ω = 1.32 TΩ
Rout 100 Ω
Rout(VF) = = 0.455 mΩ
1 Aol 1 220, 000
(b) Rin(VF) = (1 + Aol)Rin = (1 + 100,000)5.0 MΩ = 500 × 109 Ω = 500 GΩ
Rout 60 Ω
Rout(VF) = = 0.6 mΩ
1 Aol 1 100, 000
(c) Rin(VF) = (1 + Aol)Rin = (1 + 50,000)800 kΩ = 40 GΩ
Rout 75 Ω
Rout(VF) = = 1.5 mΩ
1 Aol 1 50, 000
176
25. (a) Rin(I) ≅ Ri = 10 kΩ
Rout(I) = Rout = 5.12 mΩ
(b) Rin(I) ≅ Ri = 100 kΩ
Rout(I) = Rout = 67.2 mΩ
(c) Rin(I) ≅ Ri = 470 Ω
Rout(I) = Rout = 6.24 mΩ
SECTION 18-7 Troubleshooting
26. (a) Faulty op-amp open R1, no power supplies, or grounded output.
(b) R2 is open, forcing open-loop operation.
(c) Nonzero output offset voltage. R4 is faulty or needs adjustment.
27. The closed-loop voltage gain will increase to:
100 kΩ
Acl = = 100
1 kΩ
This increase is because the feedback resistance becomes the maximum potentiometer
resistance (100 kΩ).
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
28. Ri is open.
29. R1 is open.
30. No fault
31. The op-amp is faulty.
32. C is open.
177
CHAPTER 19
BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUITS
SECTION 19-1 Comparators
1. (a) Maximum negative
(b) Maximum positive
(c) Maximum negative
2. Vp(out) = AolVin = (80,000)(0.15 mV)(1.414) = 16.9 V
Since ±13 V is the peak limit, Vpp(out) = 26 V
3. See Figure 19-1.
Figure 19-1
SECTION 19-2 Summing Amplifiers
4. (a) VOUT = −(1 V + 1.5 V) = −2.5 V
Rf
(b) VOUT = − (−0.1 V + 1 V + 0.5 V) = −2.2(1.4 V) = −3.08 V
R
5. (a) VR1 = 1 V
VR2 = 1.8 V
178
1V
(b) IR1 = = 45.5 μA
22 kΩ
1.8 V
IR2 = = 81.8 μA
22 kΩ
If = IR1 + IR2 = 45.45 μA + 81.82 μA = 127 μA
(c) VOUT = IfRf = −(127 μA)(22 kΩ) = −2.8 V
Rf
6. 5Vin = Vin
R
Rf
=5
R
Rf = 5R = 5(22 kΩ) = 110 kΩ
Rf R R R
7. VOUT = − V + f V2 + f V3 + f V4
R 1 R R
1 2 R3 4
10 kΩ 10 kΩ 10 kΩ 10 kΩ
= 2 V + 3 V + 3 V + 6 V
10 kΩ 33 kΩ 91 kΩ 180 kΩ
= −(2 V + 0.91 V + 0.33 V + 0.33 V) = −3.57 V
VOUT 3.57 V
If = = = 357 μA
Rf 10 kΩ
8. Rf = 100 kΩ, R1 = 100 kΩ, R2 = 50 kΩ, R3 = 25 kΩ, R4 = 12.5 kΩ,
SECTION 19-3 Integrators and Differentiators
ΔVOUT − VIN −5V
9. = = = −4.06 mV/μs
Δt RC (56 kΩ)(0.022 μF)
10. See Figure 19-2.
Figure 19-2
179
SECTION 19-4 Oscillators
Vout 1
11. =
Vin 3
1 2.2 V
Vout = Vin = = 733 mV
3 3
1 1
12. fr = = = 1.17 kHz
2πRC 2π(6.2 kΩ)(0.022 μF)
R f + RDS + R3
13. =3
RDS + R3
3(RDS + R3) = Rf + RDS + R3
3RDS + 3.0 kΩ = 12 kΩ + RDS + 1.0 kΩ
3RDS − RDS = 13 kΩ − 3 kΩ
10 kΩ
RDS = = 5 kΩ
2
14. Negative excursions of VOUT forward-bias D1 causing C3 to charge to a negative voltage, which
increases the drain-source resistance of the JFET and reduces the gain.
1 1
15. fr = = = 1.06 kHz
2πRC 2π(15 kΩ)(0.01 μF)
16. The circuit produces a triangular waveform.
1 R2 1 56 kΩ
f= = = 1.61 kHz
4 R1C R3 4(22 kΩ)(0.022 μF) 18 kΩ
17. Change the frequency to 10 kHz by changing R1 as follows:
The circuit produces a triangular waveform.
1 R2
f=
4 R1C R3
1 R2 1 56 kΩ
R1 = = = 3.54 kΩ
4 fC R3 4(10 kHz)(0.022 μF) 18 kΩ
SECTION 19-5 Active Filters
18. (a) One pole, low pass
(b) One pole, high pass
(c) Two poles, band pass
180
1 1
19. (a) fc = = = 1.54 kHz
2πRC 2π(4.7 kΩ)(0.022 μF)
1 1
(b) fc = = = 7.20 kHz
2πRC 2π(4.7 kΩ)(0.0047 μF)
1 1
(c) fc = = = 894 Hz
2π R1R2C1C2 2π (12 kΩ)2 (0.022 μF)(0.01 μF)
20. (a) For the low-pass stage:
1 1
fc = = = 2.32 kHz
2π R 2C1C2 2π (10 kΩ) 2 (0.01 μF)(0.0047 μF)
For the high-pass stage:
1 1
fc = = = 1.07 kHz
2π R3 R4C 2
2π ( 22 kΩ)(10 kΩ)(0.01 μF)2
BW = 2.32 kHz − 1.07 kHz = 1.25 kHz
fr = (2.32 kHz)(1.07 kHz) = 1.58 kHz
(b) For the low-pass stage:
1 1
fc = = = 7.15 kHz
2π R C1C2 2π (15 kΩ) (2200 pF)(1000 pF)
2 2
For the high-pass stage:
1 1
fc = = = 2.73 kHz
2π R1R2C 2 2π (56 kΩ)(27 kΩ)(1500 pF) 2
BW = 7.15 kHz − 2.73 kHz = 4.42 kHz
fr = (7.15 kHz)(2.73 kHz) = 4.42 kHz
SECTION 19-6 Voltage Regulators
R 4 .7 k Ω
21. VOUT = 1 + 2 VREF = 1 + 2 V = 7.22 V
R3 1 .8 k Ω
22. For R3 = 1.8 kΩ:
R 4.7 kΩ
VOUT = 1 + 2 VREF = 1 + 2 V = 7.22 V
R3 1 .8 k Ω
For R3 = 2(1.8 kΩ) = 3.6 kΩ:
4.7 kΩ
VOUT = 1 + 2 V = 4.61 V
3 .6 k Ω
The output voltage decreases by 2.61 V when R3 is changed from 1.8 kΩ to 3.6 kΩ.
181
4 .7 k Ω
23. VOUT = 1 + 2.7 V = 9.75 V
1 .8 k Ω
0.7 V
24. IL(max) =
R4
0 .7 V 0.7 V
R4 = = = 2.8 Ω
I L(max) 250 mA
2
Pmax = I L(max) R4 = (250 mA)2(2.8 Ω) = 175 mW
Use a 0.25 W resistor.
2.8 Ω
25. R4 = = 1.4 Ω
2
0.7 V 0.7 V
IL(max) = = = 500 mA
R4 1 .4 Ω
26. Q1 conducts more when the load current increases, assuming that the output voltage attempts to
increase. When the output voltage tries to increase due to a change in load current, the
attempted increase is sensed by R3 and R4 and applied to the op-amp’s noninverting input. The
resulting difference voltage increases the op-amp’s output, driving Q1 more, and thus
increasing its collector current.
ΔVR1 1V
27. ΔIC = = = 10 mA
R1 100 Ω
R 8.2 kΩ
28. VOUT = 1 + 3 VREF = 1 + 5 V = 15.5 V
R4 3 .9 k Ω
V 15.5 V
IL1 = OUT = = 15.5 mA
RL1 1.0 kΩ
V 15.5 V
IL2 = OUT = = 12.9 mA
RL 2 1.2 kΩ
ΔIL = 12.9 mA − 15.5 mA = −2.6 mA
ΔIS = −ΔIL = 2.6 mA (increase)
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
29. R2 is open.
30. Op-amp open.
31. No fault
32. C1 is open.
182
CHAPTER 20
SPECIAL-PURPOSE OP-AMP CIRCUITS
SECTION 20-1 Instrumentation Amplifiers
R1 100 kΩ
1. Av(1) = 1 + =1+ = 101
RG 1.0 kΩ
R 100 kΩ
Av(2) = 1 + 2 = 1 + = 101
RG 1 .0 k Ω
2R 200 kΩ
2. Acl = 1 + =1+ = 201
RG 1 .0 k Ω
3. Vout = Acl (Vin ( 2 ) − Vin (1) ) = 201(10 mV − 5 mV) = 1.005 V
2R
4. Av = 1 +
RG
2R
= Av − 1
RG
2R 2(100 kΩ) 200 kΩ
RG = = = = 200.2 Ω ≅ 200 Ω
Av − 1 1000 − 1 999
100 kΩ
5. RG
Av 1
100 kΩ 100 kΩ
Av 1 1 = 51
RG 2.0 kΩ
6. Using the graph in Figure 20-6 for Av = 51, the BW is approximately 7 kHz.
100 kΩ 100 kΩ
7. RG = 4.3 kΩ
Av 1 24 1
100 kΩ 100 kΩ
8. RG = 5.1 kΩ
Av 1 20.6 1
183
SECTION 20-2 Isolation Amplifiers
9. Av(total) = Av1 Av2 = (30)(10) = 300
Rf1 18 kΩ
10. (a) Av1 = +1= + 1 = 3.2
Ri1 8.2 kΩ
Rf 2 150 kΩ
Av2 = +1 = + 1 = 11
Ri 2 15 kΩ
Av(tot) = Av1Av2 = (3.2)(11) = 35.2
Rf1 330 kΩ
(b) Av1 = +1= + 1 = 331
Ri1 1 .0 k Ω
Rf 2 47 kΩ
Av2 = +1 = + 1 = 4.13
Ri 2 15 kΩ
Av(tot) = Av1Av2 = (331)(4.13) = 1,367
11. Av2 = 11 (from Problem 10)
Av1Av2 = 100
Rf 1 100
+ 1 = Av1 = = 9.09
Ri1 11
Change Rf1 (18 kΩ) to 66.3 kΩ.
Use 66.5 kΩ ± 1% standard value resistor.
12. Av1 = 331 (from Problem 10)
Av1Av2 = 440
Rf 2 440
+ 1 = Av 2 = = 1.33
Ri 2 331
Change Rf (47 kΩ) to 3.3 kΩ.
Change Ri (15 kΩ) to 10 kΩ.
13. Connect pin 6 to pin 10 and pin 14 to pin 15.
SECTION 20-3 Operational Transconductance Amplifiers (OTAs)
I out 10 μA
14. gm = = = 1 mS
Vin 10 mV
15. Iout = gmVin = (5000 μS)(100 mV) = 500 μA
Vout = IoutRL = (500 μA)(10 kΩ) = 5 V
184
I out
16. gm =
Vin
Iout = gmVin = (4000 μS)(100 mV) = 400 μA
V 3.5 V
RL = out = = 8.75 kΩ
I out 400 μA
+ 12 V − (−12 V) − 0.7 V + 12 V − (−12 V) − 0.7 V 23.3 V
17. IBIAS = = = = 106 μA
RBIAS 220 kΩ 220 kΩ
gm = KIBIAS ≅ (16 μS/μA)(106 μA) = 1.70 mS
V I R
Av = out = out L = gmRL = (1.70 mS)(6.8 kΩ) = 11.6
Vin Vin
18. The maximum voltage gain occurs when the 10 kΩ potentiometer is set to 0 Ω and was
determined in Problem 17.
Av(max) = 11.6
The minimum voltage gain occurs when the 10 kΩ potentiometer is set to 10 kΩ.
+ 12 V − (−12 V) − 0.7 V 23.3 V
IBIAS = = = 101 μA
220 kΩ + 10 kΩ 230 kΩ
gm ≅ (16 μS/μA)(101 μA) = 1.62 mS
Av(min) = gmRL = (1.62 mS)(6.8 kΩ) = 11.0
19. The VMOD waveform is applied to the bias input.
The gain and output voltage for each value of VMOD is determined as follows using
K = 16 μS/μA. The output waveform is shown in Figure 20-1.
For VMOD = +8 V:
+ 8 V − (−9 V) − 0.7 V 16.3 V
IBIAS = = = 418 μA
39 kΩ 39 kΩ
gm = KIBIAS ≅ (16 μS/μA)(418 μA) = 6.69 mS
V I R
Av = out = out L = gmRL = (6.69 mS)(10 kΩ) = 66.9
Vin Vin
Vout = AvVin = (66.9)(100 mV) = 6.69 V
For VMOD = +6 V:
+ 6 V − ( −9 V) − 0.7 V 14.3 V
IBIAS = = = 367 μA
39 kΩ 39 kΩ
gm = KIBIAS ≅ (16 μS/μA)(367 μA) = 5.87 mS
V I R
Av = out = out L = gmRL = (5.87 mS)(10 kΩ) = 58.7
Vin Vin
Vout = AvVin = (58.7)(100 mV) = 5.87 V
185
For VMOD = +4 V:
+ 4 V − (−9 V) − 0.7 V 12.3 V
IBIAS = = = 315 μA
39 kΩ 39 kΩ
gm = KIBIAS ≅ (16 μS/μA)(315 μA) = 5.04 mS
V I R
Av = out = out L = gmRL = (5.04 mS)(10 kΩ) = 50.4
Vin Vin
Vout = AvVin = (50.4)(100 mV) = 5.04 V
For VMOD = +2 V:
+ 2 V − (−9 V) − 0.7 V 10.3 V
IBIAS = = = 264 μA
39 kΩ 39 kΩ
gm = KIBIAS ≅ (16 μS/μA)(264 μA) = 4.22 mS
V I R
Av = out = out L = gmRL = (4.22 mS)(10 kΩ) = 42.2
Vin Vin
Vout = AvVin = (42.2)(100 mV) = 4.22 V
For VMOD = +1 V:
+ 1 V − (−9 V) − 0.7 V 9.3 V
IBIAS = = = 238 μA
39 kΩ 39 kΩ
gm = KIBIAS ≅ (16 μS/μA)(238 μA) = 3.81 mS
V I R
Av = out = out L = gmRL = (3.81 mS)(10 kΩ) = 38.1
Vin Vin
Vout = AvVin = (38.1)(100 mV) = 3.81 V
Figure 20-1
+ 9V − (−9 V) − 0.7 V 17.3 V
20. IBIAS = = = 444 μA
39 kΩ 39 kΩ
VTRIG(+) = IBIASR1 = (444 μA)(10 kΩ) = +4.44 V
VTRIG(−) = −IBIASR1 = (−444 μA)(10 kΩ) = −4.44 V
186
21. See Figure 20-2.
Figure 20-2
SECTION 20-4 Active Diode Circuits
22. (a) A sine wave with a positive peak at +0.7 V, a negative peak at −7.3 V, and a dc value of
−3.3 V.
(b) A sine wave with a positive peak at +29.3 V, a negative peak at −0.7 V, and a dc value
of +14.3 V.
23. See Figure 20-3.
Figure 20-3
24. See Figure 20-4.
Figure 20-4
187
25. (a) See Figure 20-5(a).
(b) See Figure 20-5(b).
Figure 20-5
26. See Figure 20-6.
Figure 20-2
27. See Figure 20-7.
R2 180 kΩ
Av = = = 18
R1 10 kΩ
Vout(p) = AvVin(p) = 18(0.5 V) = 9 V
Figure 20-7
R2 180 kΩ
28. Av = = = 18
R1 10 kΩ
Vout(p) = AvVin(p) = 18(50 mV) = 0.9 V
No limiting will occur because the peak output must be greater than 5.1 V + 0.7 V = 5.8 V.
29. Vout = Vp(in) = 1.414(2.5 V) = 3.54 V
188
SECTION 20-5 Current Sources and Converters
30. (a) VIN = VZ = 4.7 V
V 4.7 V
IL = IN = = 4.7 mA
Ri 1.0 kΩ
10 kΩ
(b) VIN = 12 V = 6 V
20 kΩ
Ri = 10 kΩ 10 kΩ + 100 Ω = 5.1 kΩ
V 6V
IL = IN = = 1.18 mA
Ri 5.1 kΩ
31. See Figure 20-8.
Figure 20-8
Multisim Troubleshooting Problems
32. RG leaky
33. D1 shorted
34. Diode is shorted.
35. Zener diode open
36. R2 is open.
37. Diode is open.
189
CHAPTER 21
Measurement, Conversion, and Control
SECTION 21-1 Temperature Measurement
1. Assuming all are of the same type, the thermocouple exposed to the highest temperature
(thermocouple C) produces the highest output. Note that thermocouple voltages are
significantly different for different types as indicated in Figure 21-2 in the text.
2. The letters indicate the temperature range, coefficient, and voltage characteristic.
3. VThermocouple = 20.869 mV (from Table 21-1 in the text)
VAmbientjunction = 0.25(4.277 mV) = 1.069 mV
The voltage across the op-amp inputs:
VThermocouple − VAmbientjunction = 20.869 mV − 1.069 mV = 19.80 mV
For the inverting amplifier:
Rf 220 kΩ
Av = − = = −220
Ri 1.0 kΩ
Vout = (−220)(19.80 mV) = −4.36 V
4. When properly compensated, the input voltage to the amplifier is equal to the thermocouple
voltage of 20.869 mV, so the output voltage is:
Rf 220 kΩ
Vout = − Vin = (20.869 mV) = −4.59 V
Ri 1.0 kΩ
5. The bridge is balanced when
RW + RRTD + RW = 560 Ω
RRTD = 560 Ω − 2RW = 560 Ω − 20 Ω = 540 Ω
6. The bridge is balanced when
RW + RRTD = 560 Ω + RW
RRTD = 560 Ω + RW − RW = 560 Ω − 0 Ω = 560 Ω
7. The results of problems 5 and 6 differ because in the three-wire circuit (text Figure 21-47), RW
has been added to both the RTD and the 560 Ω arms of the bridge which cancels the effect of
RW. In the two-wire circuit (text Figure 21-46), 2RW appears only in the RTD arm of the
bridge.
190
8. At the point in the bridge between R1 and R2:
R2 10 kΩ
V1-2 = (+15 V) = (+15 V) = +7.50 V
R1 + R2 10 kΩ + 10 kΩ
At a point in the bridge between R3 and the RTD:
RRTD 697 Ω
V3-RTD = (+15 V) =
(+15 V) = +7.23 V
RRTD + R32 697 Ω + 750 Ω
The bridge voltage applied to the inputs (across pins 1 and 3) of the amplifier is:
Vin = V1-2 − V3-RTD = 7.500 V − 7.225 V = 0.275 V
The amplifier gain is:
100 kΩ
Av = + 1 = 4.70
27 kΩ
The amplifier output voltage is
Vout = AvVin = (4.70)(0.275 V) = 1.29 V
SECTION 21-2 Strain, Pressure, and Flow Rate Measurements
9. ΔR = (GF)(R)(ε) = (2.5)(600 Ω)(3 × 106) = 4.5 mΩ
10. A strain gauge can be used to measure pressure by mounting it on a flexible diaphragm. As the
diaphragm distends from increasing pressure, the strain gauge detects it.
11. The symbol in Figure 21-1(a) represents an absolute pressure transducer, which measures
pressure relative to a vacuum.
The symbol in Figure 21-1(b) represents a gauge pressure transducer, which measures pressure
relative to ambient pressure.
The symbol in Figure 21-1(c) represents a differential pressure transducer, which measures
pressure relative to the other input.
Figure 21-1
191
SECTION 21-4 Sample-and-Hold Circuits
12. See Figure 21-2.
Figure 21-2
13. See Figure 21-3.
Figure 21-3
192
SECTION 21-6 Power-Control Circuits
14. An SCR can be triggered into forward conduction by a pulse on the gate terminal if the anode
is positive with respect to the cathode. An SCR can also be triggered into forward conduction
if the forward voltage exceeds the forward breakover-voltage.
15. See Figure 21-4.
Figure 21-4
16. The output of the comparator is a square wave that is “in-phase” with the input sine wave with
a peak voltage of approximately ±9 V. The output of the circuit is a series of positive triggers
that rise from 0 V to 9 V, then decay in about 2 ms (measured on the 741 although the
calculated is less). The positive triggers correspond to the rising edge of the sine wave.
17. Reverse the comparator inputs.
193
194
PART TWO
Solutions to Application Assignments
195
196
CHAPTER 2 Application Assignment
Step 1. The Circuit
Circuit (b) in Figure 2-59 is the only circuit that meets the requirements. See Figure AA-1.
One lamp will always be on depending on the position of the rotary switch. If the correct
pushbutton switch is pressed, lamp X5 (indicating a correct answer) is on. Circuit (a) does not
meet the first requirement because the lamps corresponding to a question will not be on until
a correct pushbutton is pressed.
Figure AA-1
Purpose of each component in the circuit is as follows.
Battery: Supplies voltage and current to light the selected lamp and answer lamp
Rheostat: Controls the amount of current and brightness of the lamps
Rotary switch: Selects one of the four battery types (representing a question)
Lamps X1 – X4: Indicator lamps to show which question is selected
Pushbutton switches: Selects the answer
Lamp X5: indicates if the selected answer is correct
Step 2. Materials list
The materials required to construct the project are as follows.
Item Description Quantity
1 12 V battery 1
2 25 Ω rheostat (2 W) 1
3 knob w/pointer for rheostat 1
4 fuse and fuse holder (2 A) 1
5 12 V lamp 5
6 lamp sockets 5
7 pushbutton switches 4
8 battery connectors 2
9 chassis or case 1
197
Step 3. List of Components with From-To Wiring
The point-to-point connections to the components are as follows. (Numbers in parentheses
represent node numbers.)
From To From To
V+ (2) Rheostat (2) X1 (5) S3 (5)
Rheostat (3) Fuse (3) X2 (6) S5 (6)
Fuse (4) S1 (4) X3 (7) S2 (7)
S1 (5) X1 (5) X4 (8) S4 (8)
S1 (6) X2 (6) S2 (9) X5 (9)
S1 (7) X3 (7) S3 (9) X5 (9)
S1 (8) X4 (8) S4 (9) X5 (9)
X1 ground ground S5 (9) X5 (9)
X2 ground ground X5 ground ground
X3 ground ground V- ground ground
X4 ground ground
Step 4. Determining the Current Rating of the Fuse
The fuse needs to allow enough current for operating two lamps at the same time (a selection
lamp and the correct answer lamp). Since each lamp is rated for 0.83 A, a 2 A fuse is
selected.
Step 5. Troubleshooting the Circuit
The troubles and likely causes are as follows.
Symptom Possible fault or faults
The rotary switch selects question 1, but the light X1 is burned out
does not turn on. Other lights work when they are Open wire or connection to X1
selected. Rotary switch has open on one position
None of the lights will turn on. Battery too weak or has an open terminal
Fuse blown
Rheostat or wiring is open
The correct answer light never is on, no matter X5 is burned out
what combination of question or answer is selected. Open wire or connection to X5
All lights are too dim when selected. Battery is too weak
Rheostat misadjusted or wrong size
Review
1. Change the answer sequence by moving the wires from the left side of the bulbs (nodes
5, 6, 7, and 8) to the new switch sequence.
198
CHAPTER 3 Application Assignment
Step 1. Determining the Wattage Rating and Cost of the Resistors
Wattage ratings are based on the maximum input voltage of 5 V.
V 2 (5 V )
2
P1 = = = 2.5 W (choose 5 W)
R1 10 Ω
V 2 (5 V )
2
P2 = = = 1.14 W (choose 2 W)
R2 22 Ω
V 2 (5 V )
2
P3 = = = 0.53 W (choose 1 W)
R3 47 Ω
V 2 (5 V )
2
P4 = = = 0.25 W (choose ½ W)
R4 100 Ω
V 2 (5 V )
2
P5 = = = 114 mW (choose ¼ W)
R5 220 Ω
V 2 (5 V )
2
P6 = = = 53 mW (choose ¼ W)
R6 470 Ω
V 2 (5 V )
2
P7 = = = 25 mW (choose ¼ W)
R7 1.0 kΩ
V 2 (5 V )
2
P8 = = = 11.4 mW (choose ¼ W)
R8 2.2 kΩ
V 2 (5 V )
2
P9 = = = 5.3 mW (choose ¼ W)
R9 4.7 kΩ
Cost of resistors = one 5 W @ $0.33 + one 2 W @ $0.10 + one 1 W @ $0.09 + one ½ W at
$0.09 + five ¼ W @ $0.08 = $1.01
199
Step 2. Developing a Materials List and Estimating the Total Cost of the Project
The cost breakdown is itemized as follows.
Item Component Qty Cost (each) Total
1 ¼ W resistor (carbon comp.) 5 $0.08 $0.40
2 ½ W resistor (carbon comp.) 1 $0.09 $0.09
3 1 W resistor (metal oxide) 1 $0.09 $0.09
4 2 W resistor (metal oxide) 1 $0.10 $0.10
5 5 W resistor (metal oxide) 1 $0.33 $0.33
6 1 pole, 9 position rotary switch 1 $10.30 $10.30
7 Knob 1 $3.30 $3.30
8 Enclosure (4” x 4” × 2” Al) 1 $8.46 $8.46
9 Screw terminal (dual) 2 $0.20 $0.40
10 Binding posts 2 $0.60 $1.20
11 PC board (etched with pattern) 1 $1.78 $1.78
12 Miscellaneous standoffs, etc. 4 $0.50 $2.00
Estimated cost of project = $28.45
Step 3. Drawing the Schematic
The schematic is shown in Figure AA-2
Figure AA-2
Step 4. Developing a Test Procedure
1. Connect an ohmmeter between terminal 1 and terminal 2.
2. Verify the resistance is within ±5% of the value stamped on the front of the resistance
box for each position of the rotary switch.
3. Visually check that the resistors have the specified wattage rating given in Figure AA-2.
200
Step 5. Troubleshooting the Circuit
The troubles and likely causes are as follows.
Symptom Possible fault or faults
The ohmmeter reads infinite resistance for the Open resistor
10 Ω position. Open connection from rotary switch
The ohmmeter reads infinite resistance for all Open output terminal or common wire
positions of the switch. Bad meter or set incorrectly
All resistors read 10% higher than the listed value. Meter may be out of calibration or needs
repair. Check with another meter.
Review
1. Watt’s law is in three forms to find power in a resistive circuit. Given the maximum
voltage allowed and the resistance, the form of Watt’s law to apply for a direct solution
2
is P = V /R.
2. If the input is 7 V, the wattage rating of R2 (2 W) and R3 (1 W) is exceeded. The selected
wattage ratings for resistors R1 (5 W), and R4 (½ W) are not exceeded, but are very close
to their specified rating. It would be better to increase the wattage rating of the first four
resistors, if the operating voltage is increased to 7 V.
201
CHAPTER 4 Application Assignment
Step 1. Drawing the Schematic
See Figure AA-4.
Figure AA-4
Step 2. Determining the Voltages
The total resistance:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6
= 3.9 kΩ + 4.7 kΩ + 1.5 kΩ + 1.0 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ = 16.6 kΩ
Calculations of output voltages:
R 3.9 kΩ
V2 = 1 VS = 12 V = 2.82 V
RT 16.6 kΩ
R + R2 8.6 kΩ
V7 = 1 VS = 12 V = 6.22 V
RT 16.6 kΩ
R + R2 + R3 10.1 kΩ
V6 = 1 VS = 12 V = 7.30 V
RT 16.6 kΩ
R + R2 + R3 + R6 11.1 kΩ
V5 = 1 VS = 12 V = 8.02 V
RT 16.6 kΩ
R + R2 + R3 + R6 + R5 14.4 kΩ
V4 = 1 VS = 12 V = 10.4 V
RT 16.6 kΩ
All voltages are within 5% of specified values.
202
Step 3. Modifying the Existing Circuit (if necessary)
Since the output voltages of the existing circuit meet the specifications, no resistor value
changes are required.
The maximum power occurs in R2.
12 V 12 V
I= = = 723 μA
RT 16.6 kΩ
Pmax = I2R2 = (723 μA)2 4.7 kΩ = 2.46 mW
The 1/4 W rating of each resistor is more than adequate.
Step 4. Determining the Life of the Battery
(723 μA)(h) = 6.5 Ah
6.5 Ah
h= = 8990 h
723 μA
8990 h
Number of days = = 374.6 days
24 h/day
Step 5. Developing a Test Procedure
Equipment: A 12 V dc source and a voltmeter.
1. Connect the positive terminal of the 12 V source to pin 3 of the circuit board. Connect
the negative terminal of the source to pin 1 of the circuit board.
2. Measure the voltage at each of the pins as follows:
Pin 1: 0 V
Pin 2: 2.8 V ± 5%
Pin 3: 12 V
Pin 4: 10.4 V ± 5%
Pin 5: 8.0 V ± 5%
Pin 6: 7.3 V ± 5%
Pin 7: 6.2 V ± 5%
Step 6. Troubleshooting the Circuit
1. No voltage at any of the pins on the circuit board: The battery is dead or the
connection from the battery to pin 3 is open.
2. 12 V at pins 3 and 4. All other pins have 0 V: Resistor R5 is open.
3. 12 V at all pins except 0 V at pin 1: Resistor R1 is open.
4. 12 V at pin 6 and 0 V at pin 7: Resistor R3 is open.
5. 3.3 V at pin 2: The battery voltage is too high (14.3 V instead of 12 V) or resistors
R1 and R2 are reversed (R1 = 4.7 kΩ and R2 = 3.9 kΩ). This is shown by the
following calculation:
4.7 kΩ
V2 = 12 V = 3.4 V
16.6 kΩ
Review
1. PT = (12 V)2/(16.6 kΩ = 8.67 mW
2. Pin 2: 1.41 V; Pin 6: 3.65 V; Pin 5: 4.01 V; Pin 4: 5.20 V; Pin 7: 3.11 V
3. Pin 3 connects to ground.
203
CHAPTER 5 Application Assignment
Determine the maximum power dissipated by RSH in Figure 5-52 for each range setting.
For the 25 mA range, no power is dissipated because there is no current in RSH.
For the 250 mA range, the maximum current in RSH is 225 mA and the voltage is 150 mV.
P = IV = (225 mA)(150 mV) = 33.8 mW
For the 2.5 A range, the maximum current in RSH is 2.475 A and the voltage across it is
150 mV.
P = IV = (2.475 mA)(150 mV) = 371 mW
How much voltage is there from A to B in Figure 5-52 when the switch is set to the 2.5 A
range and the current is 1 A?
In the 2.5 A range the fraction of the total current in the meter is 25 mA/2.5 A = 1%. The meter
current is thus 1% of 1 A = 10 mA, which is in both R1 and the meter. The meter resistance is
6 Ω and the resistance of R1 is 60.4 Ω. The voltage from A to B is
VAB = I(R1 + RM) = (10 mA)(66.4 Ω) = 66.4 mV
The meter indicates 250 mA. How much does the voltage across the meter circuit from A
to B change when the switch is moved from the 250 mA position to the 2.5 A position?
In the 250 mA position, the voltage between A and B is 150 mV, as given previously. In the
2.5 A position, the actual current in the meter is 1% of the input current. Thus, when the input
current is 250 mA, the meter current is 2.5 mA. In this case,
VAB = I(RM) = (2.5 mA)(6 Ω) = 15 mV
The change is 150 mV − 15 mV = 135 mV.
Assume the meter movement has a resistance of 4 Ω instead of 6 Ω. Specify any changes
necessary in the circuit of Figure 5-52.
The meter will drop 100 mV at maximum current for any switch position.
100 mV
RSH = = 444 mΩ (2/3 of its former value)
225 mA
VAB = (2.475)(444 mΩ) = 1.1 V
The voltage across R1 is
VR1 = 1.1 V − 100 mV = 1.0 V
1.0 V
R1 = = 40 Ω
25 mA
204
Review
1. RSH has the most current.
2. 25 mA range: RAB = RM = 6 Ω
250 mA range: RAB = RM RSH 6 Ω 670 mΩ 603 mΩ
2.5 A range: RAB = ( R1 RM ) RSH (60.4 Ω 6 Ω) 670 mΩ 66.4 Ω 670 mΩ 663 mΩ
3. To eliminate effect of contact resistance
4. 150 mA
5. 25 mA range: 7.5 mA; 250 mA range: 75 mA; 2.5 A range: 0.75 A
205
CHAPTER 6 Application Assignment
Step 1. The Schematic
See Figure AA-5.
Figure AA-5
Step 2. Connecting the 12 V Power Supply
Connect the positive terminal of the power supply to pin 1 on the voltage divider board and
the negative terminal to pin 5.
Step 3. Determining the Unloaded Output Voltages
RT = 4(330 kΩ) = 1.32 MΩ
R + R3 + R4 990 kΩ
VOUT(2) = 2 VS = 12 V = 9 V
RT 1.32 MΩ
R + R4 660 kΩ
VOUT(3) = 3 VS = 12 V = 6 V
RT 1.32 MΩ
R 330 kΩ
VOUT(4) = 4 VS = 12 V = 3 V
RT 1.32 MΩ
Step 4. Determining the Loaded Output Voltages
1. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground:
(R2 + R3 + R4) || RL = 990 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 901 kΩ
( R2 + R3 + R4 ) RL
VOUT(2) = V = 901 kΩ 12 V = 8.79 V
R + ( R + R + R ) R S 1.23 MΩ
1 2 3 4 L
R3 + R4 660 kΩ
VOUT(3) = VOUT(2) =
8.79 V = 5.86 V
R2 + R3 + R4 990 kΩ
R4 330 kΩ
VOUT(4) = VOUT(3) =
5.86 V = 2.93 V
R3 + R4 660 kΩ
206
2. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 3 to ground:
(R3 + R4) || RL = 660 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 619 kΩ
R2 + ( R3 + R4 ) RL
VOUT(2) = V = 949 kΩ 12 V = 8.90 V
R + R + ( R + R ) R S 1.279 MΩ
1 2 3 4 L
( R3 + R4 ) RL
VOUT(3) = VOUT(2) = 619 kΩ 8.90 V = 5.81 V
R + (R + R ) R
2 3 4 L 949 kΩ
R4 330 kΩ
VOUT(4) = VOUT(3) =
5.81 V = 2.91 V
R3 + R4 660 kΩ
3. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 4 to ground:
R4 || RL = 330 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 319 kΩ
R2 + R3 + R4 RL
VOUT(2) = V = 979 kΩ 12 V = 8.98 V
R + R + R + R R S 1.31 MΩ
1 2 3 4 L
R3 + R4 RL
VOUT(3) = VOUT(2) = 649 kΩ 8.98 V = 5.95 V
R +R +R R
2 3 4 L 979 kΩ
R4 RL 319 kΩ
VOUT(4) = V = 5.95 V = 2.93 V
R + R R OUT(3) 649 kΩ
3 4 L
4. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground and another 10 MΩ load from
pin 3 to ground:
(R3 + R4) || RL3 = 660 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 619 kΩ
(R2 + (R3 + R4) || RL3) || RL2 = 949 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 867 kΩ
( R2 + ( R3 + R4 ) RL3 ) RL 2
VOUT(2) = V = 867 kΩ 12 V = 8.69 V
R + ( R + ( R + R ) R ) R S 1.197 MΩ
1 2 3 4 L3 L2
( R3 + R4 ) RL3
VOUT(3) = VOUT(2) = 619 kΩ 8.69 V = 5.67 V
R + (R + R ) R
2 3 4 L3 949 kΩ
R4 330 kΩ
VOUT(4) = VOUT(3) =
5.67 V = 2.84 V
R3 + R4 660 kΩ
5. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground and another 10 MΩ load from
pin 4 to ground:
R4 || RL4 = 330 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 319 kΩ
(R2 + R3 + R4 || RL4) || RL2 = 979 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 892 kΩ
( R2 + R3 + R4 RL 4 ) RL 2
VOUT(2) = V = 892 kΩ 12 V = 8.76 V
R + ( R + R + R R ) R S 1.222 MΩ
1 2 3 4 L4 L2
R3 + R4 RL 4 649 kΩ
VOUT(3) = V = 8.76 V = 5.81 V
R + R + R R OUT(2) 979 kΩ
2 3 4 L 4
207
R4 RL 4 319 kΩ
VOUT(4) = V = 5.81 V = 2.86 V
R + R R OUT(3) 649 kΩ
3 4 L4
6. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 3 to ground and another 10 MΩ load from
pin 4 to ground:
R4 || RL4 = 330 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 319 kΩ
(R3 + R4 || RL4) || RL3 = 649 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 609 kΩ
R2 + ( R3 + R4 RL 4 ) RL 3
VOUT(2) = V = 939 kΩ 12 V = 8.88 V
R + R + ( R + R R ) R S 1.269 MΩ
1 2 3 4 L4 L3
( R3 + R4 RL 4 ) RL 3 609 kΩ
VOUT(3) = V = 8.88 V = 5.76 V
R + ( R + R R ) R OUT(2) 939 kΩ
2 3 4 L 4 L 3
R4 RL 4 319 kΩ
VOUT(4) = V = 5.76 V = 2.83 V
R + R R OUT(3) 649 kΩ
3 4 L4
7. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground, another 10 MΩ load from pin 3
to ground, and a third 10 MΩ load from pin 4 to ground:
R4 || RL4 = 330 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 319 kΩ
(R3 + R4 || RL4) || RL3 = 649 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 609 kΩ
(R2 + (R3 + R4 || RL4) || RL3) || RL2 = 939 kΩ || 10 MΩ = 858 kΩ
(R2 + ( R3 + R4 RL 4 ) RL3 ) RL 2
VOUT(2) = V = 858 kΩ 12 V = 8.67 V
R + (R + ( R + R R ) R ) R S 1.188 MΩ
1 2 3 4 L4 L3 L2
( R3 + R4 RL 4 ) RL3
VOUT(3) = VOUT(2) = 609 kΩ 8.67 V = 5.62 V
R + (R + R R ) R
2 3 4 L4 L3 939 kΩ
R4 RL 4 319 kΩ
VOUT(4) = V = 5.62 V = 2.76 V
R + R R OUT(3) 649 kΩ
3 4 L4
Step 5. Determining the Percent Deviation of the Output Voltages
1. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground.
9 V − 8.79 V
% deviation = 100% = 2.33%
9V
2. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 3 to ground.
6 V − 5.81 V
% deviation = 100% = 3.17%
6V
3. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 4 to ground.
3 V − 2.93 V
% deviation = 100% = 2.33%
3V
208
4. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground and another 10 MΩ load from
pin 3 to ground.
9 V − 8.69 V
% deviation(2) = 100% = 3.44%
9V
6 V − 5.67 V
% deviation(3) = 100% = 5.50%
6V
5. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground and another 10 MΩ load from
pin 4 to ground.
9 V − 8.76 V
% deviation(2) = 100% = 2.67%
9V
3 V − 2.86 V
% deviation(4) = 100% = 4.67%
3V
6. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 3 to ground and another 10 MΩ load from
pin 4 to ground.
6 V − 5.76 V
% deviation(3) = 100% = 4.00%
6V
3 V − 2.83 V
% deviation(4) = 100% = 5.67%
3V
7. A 10 MΩ load resistor connected from pin 2 to ground, another 10 MΩ load from pin 3,
to ground, and another 10 MΩ load from pin 4 to ground.
9 V − 8.67 V
% deviation(2) = 100% = 3.67%
9V
6 V − 5.62 V
% deviation(3) = 100% = 6.33%
6V
3 V − 2.76 V
% deviation(4) = 100% = 8.00%
3V
Step 6. Determining the Load Currents
VOUT(2) 8.79 V
1. ILOAD(2) = = = 879 nA
RL 2 10 MΩ
VOUT(3) 5.81 V
2. ILOAD(3) = = = 581 nA
RL3 10 MΩ
VOUT(4) 2.93 V
3. ILOAD(4) = = = 293 nA
RL 4 10 MΩ
VOUT(2) 8.69 V
4. ILOAD(2) = = = 869 nA
RL 2 10 MΩ
VOUT(3) 5.67 V
ILOAD(3) = = = 567 nA
RL3 10 MΩ
209
VOUT(2) 8.76 V
5. ILOAD(2) = = = 876 nA
RL 2 10 MΩ
VOUT(4) 2.86 V
ILOAD(4) = = = 286 nA
RL 4 10 MΩ
VOUT(3) 5.76 V
6. ILOAD(3) = = = 576 nA
RL3 10 MΩ
VOUT(4) 2.83 V
ILOAD(4) = = = 283 nA
RL 4 10 MΩ
VOUT(2) 8.67 V
7. ILOAD(2) = = = 867 nA
RL 2 10 MΩ
VOUT(3) 5.62 V
ILOAD(3) = = = 562 nA
RL3 10 MΩ
VOUT(4) 2.76 V
ILOAD(4) = = = 276 nA
RL 4 10 MΩ
The maximum current occurs when all loads are connected.
RT = 1.188 MΩ
12 V
IT = = 10.1 μA
1.188 MΩ
Fuses in the μA range are generally not available. The approach for this circuit is to use a
standard fuse with the smallest available rating (0.25 A or 0.5 A) to protect against a
catastrophic short circuit condition.
Step 7. Troubleshooting the Circuit Board
Case 1: No supply voltage
Case 2: Fuse open
Case 3: R1 open
Case 4: R2 open
Case 5: R3 open
Case 6: R4 open
Case 7: Pin 3 shorted to ground
Case 8: Pin 4 shorted to ground
Review
1. The battery will last 413 days.
2. Yes, 1/8 W resistors can be used.
3. No, none of the resistors will overheat.
210
CHAPTER 7 Application Assignment
Step 1. Connecting the System
The system is connected according to the following point-to-point wiring list with reference
to the components in Figure 7-49.
From To
Battery-I Relay Bd.-C
Relay Bd.-C Relay Bd.-E
Relay Bd.-E Mag. Sw.-M
Mag. Sw.-M Mag. Sw.-O
Mag. Sw.-O Mag. Sw.-Q
Battery-J Tog. Sw.-U
Tog. Sw.-U Siren-S
Siren-T Relay Bd.-D
Relay Bd.-A Relay Bd.-F
Relay Bd.-F Mag. Sw.-N
Mag. Sw.-N Mag. Sw.-P
Mag. Sw.-P Mag. Sw.-R
Relay Bd.-B Tog. Sw.-V
Relay Bd.-G Wall Sw.-K
Relay Bd.-H Wall Sw.-L
Step 2. Testing the System
A test procedure is as follows:
1. Turn the system ON/OFF switch to the ON position.
2. Turn the wall switch off.
3. Close the first magnetic switch to simulate the opening of a window or door.
4. Verify that the alarm and the house lights are on.
5. Turn the system ON/OFF switch to the OFF position.
6. Repeat procedures 1 through 5 for each remaining magnetic switch.
Review
1. One of more magnetic detection switches must be closed.
2. Contact A activates the audible alarm, contact B latches the realy, contact C turns on
house lights.
211
CHAPTER 8 Application Assignment
Step 1. Familiarization with the Function Generator
No results required.
Step 2. Measuring the Sinusoidal Output
Minimum values from the scope display (Figure 8-68(a)):
Vp = 3 div × 10 mV/div = 30 mV
Vrms = 0.707Vp = 0.707(30 mV) = 21.2 mV
T = 10 div × 0.1 s/div = 1 s
1 1
f= = = 1 Hz
T 1s
Minimum frequency setting on the function generator:
Frequency range switches: Set to 1 Hz
Frequency adjustment control: Set to 0.2
The frequency should be: f = 1 Hz × 0.2 = 0.2 Hz
Maximum values from the scope display (Figure 8-68(b)):
Vp = 2.2 div × 10 V/div = 22 V
Vrms = 0.707Vp = 0.707(22 V) = 15.6 V
T = 8 div × 0.1 μs/div = 0.8 μs
1 1
f= = = 1.25 MHz
T 0.8 μs
Maximum frequency setting on the function generator:
Frequency range switches: Set to 1 MHz
Frequency adjustment control: Set to 2.0
The frequency should be: f = 1 MHz × 2.0 = 2 MHz
Conclusion: There is a problem with the function generator in terms of the disagreement
between the frequency settings and the actual output frequency.
Step 3. Measuring the DC Offset
Maximum positive dc offset (Figure 8-69(a)):
2 div × 2 V/div = 4 V
Maximum negative dc offset (Figure 8-69(b)):
1 div × (−2 V/div) = −2 V
212
Step 4. Measuring the Triangular Output
Minimum values from the scope display (Figure 8-70(a)):
Vp = 3 div × 20 mV/div = 60 mV
T/2 = 6 div × 0.1 s/div = 0.6 s
T = 1.2 s
1 1
f= = = 0.833 Hz
T 1.2 s
Maximum values from the scope display (Figure 8-70(b)):
Vp = 2.5 div × 10 V/div = 25 V
T = 10 div × 0.1 μs/div = 1 μs
f = 1 = 1 = 1 MHz
T 1 μs
Step 5. Measuring the Pulse Output
Minimum values from the scope display (Figure 8-71(a)):
Vp = 2.2 div × 10 mV/div = 22 mV
T = 8 div × 0.1 s/div = 0.8 s
1 1
f= = = 1.25 Hz
T 0.8 s
3
tW = DIV × 0.1 s = 0.06 s
5
t 0.06 s
% duty cycle = W 100% = 100% = 7.5%
T 0.8 s
Maximum values from the scope display (Figure 8-71(b)):
Vp = 3 div × 5 V/div = 15 V
T = 6 div × 0.1 μs/div = 0.6 μs
f = 1 = 1 = 1.67 MHz
T 0.6 μs
t 0.3 μs
% duty cycle = W 100% = 100% = 50%
T 0.6 μs
Review
1. Lowest Sec/Div setting that allows frequency to be measured.
2. Lowest Volts/Div setting that allows voltage to be measured
3. AC: Couples ac voltage only; GND: Grounds input so trace is at 0 V; DC: Couples ac
and dc voltages.
213
CHAPTER 9 Application Assignment
Step 1. Comparing the Printed Circuit Board with the Schematic
The circuit board and schematic in Figure 9-57 agree.
Step 2. Testing the Input to Board 1
Oscilloscope measurements (Figure 9-58):
VDC = 5.1 div × 1 V/div = 5.1 V
Vpp = 2.8 div × 1 V/div = 2.8 V
Vrms = 0.707Vp = 0.707(1.4 V) ≅ 1 V
T = 2 div × 0.1 ms/div = 0.2 ms
1 1
f= = = 5 kHz
T 0.2 ms
The ac and dc voltages at the base should be:
A 1 V rms signal is applied to the circuit board and coupled through C1 to the base.
27 kΩ
VB = 24 V = 5.1 V
127 kΩ
The frequency should be 5 kHz.
The signal displayed on the scope is correct.
Step 3. Testing the Input to Board 2
Oscilloscope measurements (Figure 9-59):
VDC = 5.1 div × 1 V/div = 5.1 V
Vrms = 0 V
The ac and dc voltages at the base should be:
A 1 V rms signal is applied to the circuit board and coupled through C1 to the base.
27 kΩ
VB = 24 V = 5.1 V
127 kΩ
The dc voltage at the base is correct but the signal voltage is missing. This indicates
that the coupling capacitor C1 is open or there is no signal at the input terminal of the
printed circuit board.
Step 4. Testing the Input to Board 3
Oscilloscope measurements (Figure 9-60):
VDC = 0 V
Vp = 1.4 div × 1 V/div = 1.4 V
Vrms = 0.707Vp = 0.707(1.4 V) ≅ 1 V
T = 2 div × 2 μs = 4 μs
1 1
f= = = 250 kHz
T 4 μs
214
The ac and dc voltages at the base should be:
A 1 V rms signal is applied to the circuit board and coupled through C1 to the base.
27 kΩ
VB = 24 V = 5.1 V
127 kΩ
The ac voltage is correct but there is no dc level. This indicates that R1 is open or there
is no dc supply voltage.
Review
1. The coupling capacitor prevents the source from affecting the dc voltage but passes the
ac input signal.
2. An ac voltage superimposed on a dc voltage is at the point labeled C. There is an ac
voltage only at the output.
215
CHAPTER 10 Application Assignment
Step 1. Evaluating the Amplifier Input Circuit
1
Rin = R1 || R2 = 10 kΩ || 47 kΩ = = 8.2 kΩ
1 1
+
10 kΩ 47 kΩ
Step 2. Measuring the Response at Frequency f1
The channel 2 scope probe is connected to the amplifier input (point B in Figure 10-62(a)).
The frequency is:
T = 5 div × 0.2 ms/div = 1 ms
1 1
f1 = = = 1 kHz
T 1 ms
The scope is ac coupled so the dc voltage at point B is not displayed.
The peak-to-peak voltage at point B that should be displayed on channel 2 is:
1 1
XC = = = 1.59 kΩ
2πf1C 2π(1 kHz )(0.1 μF)
VB(pp) = V
Rin
R 2 + X 2 in
in C
8 .2 k Ω
= 1 V = 0.98 V ≅ 1 V
(8.2 kΩ)2 + (1.59 kΩ) 2
Step 3. Measuring the Response at Frequency f2
The frequency is:
T = 5 div × 2 ms/div = 10 ms
1 1
f2 = = = 100 Hz
T 10 ms
The scope is ac coupled so the dc voltage at point B is not displayed.
The peak-to-peak voltage at point B that should be displayed on channel 2 is:
1 1
XC = = = 15.9 kΩ
2πf 2C 2π(100 Hz)(0.1 μF)
VB(pp) = V
Rin
R 2 + X 2 in
in C
8 .2 k Ω
= 1 V = 0.46 V
(8.2 kΩ)2 + (15.9 kΩ) 2
The ac voltage at point B is less at 100 Hz than at 1 kHz because the reactance has increased.
216
Step 4. Measuring the Response at Frequency f3
The frequency is:
T = 4 div × 5 ms/div = 20 ms
1 1
f3 = = = 50 Hz
T 20 ms
The scope is ac coupled so the dc voltage at point B is not displayed.
The peak-to-peak voltage at point B that should be displayed on channel 2 is:
1 1
XC = = = 31.8 kΩ
2πf3C 2π(50 Hz)(0.1 μF)
8 .2 k Ω
VB(pp) = V = 1 V = 0.25 V
Rin
R 2 + X 2 in 2
(8.2 kΩ) + (31.8 kΩ)
2
in C
The ac voltage at point B is less at 50 Hz than at 100 Hz because the reactance has increased.
Step 5. Ploting a Response Curve
At the cutoff (critical) frequency,
XC = Rin = 8.2 kΩ
1
= 8.2 kΩ
2πf cC
1 1
fc = = = 194 Hz
2πX C C 2π(8.2 kΩ)(0.1 μF)
VB(pp) = 0.707(1 V) = 0.707 V
The response curve is shown in Figure AA-6. The high-pass characteristic of the input
circuit is indicated by the increase in voltage as the frequency increases. The cutoff
frequency can be decreased by increasing the value of the coupling capacitor.
Figure AA-6
Review
1. A lower value coupling capacitor will increase the frequency at which a significant drop
in voltage occurs.
2. VB = 3.16 V dc
3. VB = 10 mV rms
217
CHAPTER 11 Inductors
Step 1. Measuring the Coil Resistance and Selecting a Series Resistor
These are given as RW = 85 Ω and R = 10 kΩ.
Step 2. Determining the Inductance of Coil 1
Oscilloscope measurement (Figure 11-39):
5τ = 7 div × 0.5 μs/div = 3.5 μs
L 3.5 μs
τ= = = 0.7 μs
R 5
L ≅ (10 kΩ)(0.7 μs) = 7 mH
Step 3. Determining the Inductance of Coil 2
Oscilloscope measurement (Figure 11-40):
5τ = 7 div × 20 μs/div = 140 μs
L 140 μs
τ= = = 28 μs
R 5
L ≅ (10 kΩ)(28 μs) = 280 mH
Student may discuss potential triggering problems with this method.
Step 4. Another Way to Find Unknown Inductance
1. Apply a sinusoidal signal of known amplitude and frequency to the RL circuit.
2. Measure the voltage across the resistor.
3. Calculate the current: I = VR/R
4. Calculate the impedance magnitude: Z = Vs/I
5. Calculate the inductive reactance: XL = Z 2 − R2
6. Calculate the inductance: L = XL/2πf
Review
1. fmax = 143 kHz (5τ = 3.5 μs)
2. fmax = 3.57 kHz (5τ = 140 μs)
3. If f > fmax, the inductor current would not reach final value because T/2 < 5τ.
218
CHAPTER 12 Application Assignment
Step 1. Resistance Measurements of Module 1
The resistance measurements are:
1.61 kΩ from input to ground
1.50 kΩ from output to ground
The larger resistance measurement has to be the series combination of the resistor and the
winding resistance of the coil. The smaller resistance measurement has to be the resistor
value. Therefore, the values are as follows:
R = 1.50 kΩ
RW = 1.61 kΩ − 1.50 kΩ = 110 Ω
See Figure AA-7.
Figure AA-7
Step 2. AC Measurements of Module 1
The frequency of the input and output signals is
T = 2.5 div × 5 μs/div = 12.5 μs
1 1
f= = = 80 kHz
T 12.5 μs
The peak-to-peak voltages are
Vin(pp) = 1 V (channel 2 on the scope)
Vout(pp) ≅ 0.707 V (channel 1 on the scope)
Since Vout is 70.7% of Vin, the measurements are at the cutoff frequency.
Therefore,
XL = R = 1.61 kΩ
2πfcL = 1.61 kΩ
1.61 kΩ
L= = 3.2 mH
2π(80 kHz)
219
Step 3. Resistance Measurements of Module 2
The resistance measurements are:
22.1 kΩ from input to ground
100 Ω from output to ground
The smaller resistance measurement has to be the winding resistance of the coil. The larger
resistance measurement has to be the resistor value:
R = 22 kΩ
RW = 100 Ω
See Figure AA-8.
Figure AA-8
Step 4. AC Measurements of Module 2
The frequency of the input and output signals is
T = 3.2 div × 0.1 ms/div = 0.32 ms
1 1
f= = = 3.13 kHz
T 0.32 ms
The peak-to-peak voltages are
Vin(pp) = 1 V (channel 2 on the scope)
Vout(pp) ≅ 0.707 V (channel 1 on the scope)
Since Vout is 70.7% of Vin, the measurements are at the cutoff frequency.
Therefore,
XL = R = 22 kΩ
2πfcL = 22 kΩ
22 kΩ
L= = 1.12 H
2π(3.13 kHz)
Review
1. 0V on output
2. Output same as input.
220
CHAPTER 13 Application Assignment
Step 1. Measuring the Frequency Response
The frequency and voltages indicated on the oscilloscope screens in Figure 13-65 are as
follows:
Top left screen:
T = 2.5 div × 50 μs/div = 125 μs
1 1
f= = = 8 kHz
T 125 μs
Vout(pp) = 4.1 div × 0.2 V/div = 0.82 V
Top middle screen:
T = 2.2 div × 50 μs/div = 110 μs
1 1
f= = = 9.1 kHz
T 110 μs
Vout(pp) = 7 div × 0.2 V/div = 1.4 V
Top right screen:
T = 5 div × 20 μs/div = 100 μs
1 1
f= = = 10 kHz
T 100 μs
Vout(pp) = 4 div × 0.5 V/div = 2 V
Bottom left screen:
T = 4.5 div × 20 μs/div = 90 μs
1 1
f= = = 11 kHz
T 90 μs
Vout(pp) = 7 div × 0.2 V/div = 1.4 V
Bottom right screen:
T = 4.2 div × 20 μs/div = 84 μs
1 1
f= = = 12 kHz
T 84 μs
Vout(pp) = 4.8 div × 0.2 V/div = 0.96 V
221
Figure AA-9
Step 2. Analyzing the Response Curve
The filter has a bandpass response as shown in Figure AA-9.
The resonant or center frequency is
fr = 10 kHz
The cutoff frequencies are at 9 kHz and 11 kHz because the output voltage
is 0.707 × 2 V ≅ 1.4 V
fc1 = 9 kHz, fc2 = 11 kHz
BW = 11 kHz − 9 kHz = 2 kHz
Review
1. fc(1) = 8 kHz; fc(2) = 11.6 kHz
2. The circuit or component values cannot be determined from the data given.
222
CHAPTER 14 Application Assignment
Step 1. Familiarization with the Power Supply
No results required.
Step 2. Measuring Voltages on Power Supply Board 1
The voltages on the meters in Figure 14-43 are correct. The power supply is working
properly.
Step 3. Measuring Voltages on Power Supply Boards 2, 3, and 4
Board 2: The 120 V ac is applied to the circuit but there is no voltage on the primary.
The fuse is open.
Board 3: There are 10 V ac across the secondary but no dc voltage from the regulator.
The circuit board is faulty (cannot be isolated to a component with these measurements).
Board 4: There is no secondary voltage.
The transformer has an open winding.
Review
1. Use an ohmmeter to check for open windings. Shorted windings are indicated by an
incorrect secondary voltage.
2. A short will cause the fuse to blow.
223
CHAPTER 15 Application Assignment
Step 1. Capacitor Values
(
vthresh = 5 V 1 − e − t d / RC )
− t d / RC
3.5 V = 5 V − (5 V )e
−1.5 V = − (5 V )e −t d / RC
1 .5
ln (
− t / RC
= ln e d )
5
t
−1.2 = − d
RC
td
RC =
1.2
td
C=
(1.2)(47 kΩ)
Switch position A (specified delay time = 10 ms)
10 ms
C1 = = 0.18 μF
(1.2)(47 kΩ)
td = 1.2(4.7 kΩ)(0.18 μF) = 10.2 ms
Switch position B (specified delay time = 25 ms)
25 ms
C2 = = 0.44 μF (use 0.47 μF)
(1.2)(47 kΩ)
td = 1.2(47 kΩ)(0.47 μF) = 26.5 ms
Switch position C (specified delay time = 40 ms)
40 ms
C3 = = 0.71 μF (use 0.68 μF)
(1.2)(47 kΩ)
td = 1.2(47 kΩ)(0.68 μF) = 38.4 ms
Switch position D (specified delay time = 65 ms)
65 ms
C4 = = 1.15 μF (use 1.2 μF)
(1.2)(47 kΩ)
td = 1.2(47 kΩ)(1.2 μF) = 67.7 ms
Switch position E (specified delay time = 85 ms)
85 ms
C5 = = 1.51 μF (use 1.5 μF)
(1.2)(47 kΩ)
td = 1.2(47 kΩ)(1.5 μF) = 84.6 ms
224
Step 2. Circuit Connections
From To
1 5
3 9
4 8
6 14
7 10
8 19
15 2
16 13
17 15
18 12
19 17
20 11
21 1
22 14
Step 3. Test Procedure and Instrument Settings
For each switch position, the pulse waveform must be set so the pulse width is equal to the
delay time for that position and the frequency is set to a value to allow sufficient time
between pulses for the capacitor to completely discharge. During the pulse, the output
voltage should increase to 3.5 V for each switch setting and then decrease to 0 V before the
next pulse. See Figure AA-10.
Figure AA-10
Test Procedure:
1. Set the function generator to produce a pulse waveform output.
2. Adjust the frequency of the function generator to a value equal to or less than required
for the maximum time delay and capacitor discharge time determined as follows:
Maximum delay time = 85 ms
time constant used to produce the maximum delay time:
τ = RC = 47 kΩ × 1.5 μF = 70.5 ms
Tmax = td(max) + 5RC = 85 ms + 5(70.5 ms) = 437.5 ms
1
fmin = = 2.29 Hz
437.5 ms
225
3. Adjust the duty cycle of the pulse waveform for each switch posotion according to the
following table and verify on the scope that the output voltage reaches 3.5 V at the end
of the pulse in each case.
Switch Position Delay Time Pulse Width Duty Cycle Scope Sec/Div
A 10 ms 10 ms 2.28% 1 ms
B 25 ms 25 ms 5.69% 5 ms
C 40 ms 40 ms 9.11% 5 ms
D 65 ms 65 ms 14.8% 10 ms
E 85 ms 85 ms 19.4% 10 ms
Step 4. Measurement
1. Connect the circuit in Figure 15−55 as determined in Step 2.
2. Set the instruments as determined in Step 3 for each switch setting.
3. Verify that the output waveform reaches a peak of 3.5 V on each pulse input for each
switch setting.
Review
1. The input pulse must be sufficiently long to allow the output to reach 3.5 V for the
longest time-constant setting.
2. Add a series potentiometer to adjust the total resistance.
226
CHAPTER 16 Application Assignment
Step 1. Identifying the Components
No results required.
Step 2. Relating the PC Boards to the Schematics
The PC boards agree with the schematics.
Step 3. Analyzing the Power Supply and IR Emitter
120 V 1.414
V1 ≅ Vsec(p) − 1.4 V = − 1.4 V = 15.6 V
10
V2 = VZ = 5.1 V
V3 = V2 − 0.7 V = 4.4 V
Step 4. Analyzing the IR Detector
With light blocked from the photodiode, it is not conducting:
V4 = 5.1 V
Step 5. Testing the Total System
When the units are linked by the IR from the LED, the photodiode is on and the voltage at
point 4 is
V4 = 5.1 V − (10 μA)(270 kΩ) = 5.1 V − 2.7 V = 2.4 V
When an object passes between the units and blocks the IR, the photodiode is off and the
voltage at point 4 is 5.1 V.
The voltage at point 4 goes from 2.4 V to 5.1 V and back to 2.4 V as an object moves
between the units and on down the conveyor belt.
Step 6. Troubleshooting the System
1. The fuse is blown, a transformer winding is open, C1 shorted, or at least two bridge
diodes are open.
2. Any fault in item 1, R1 open, or short from point 2 to ground
3. C1 open.
4. Zener diode is open.
5. Wrong zener diode (4.3 V instead of 5.1 V)
6. R1 on IR detector is open.
7. Photodiode is open.
8. Short from point 4 to ground
227
Review
1. Rectifier, zener, light-emitting, photo.
2. R2 limits the LED current.
3. Use an 8.2 V zener diode.
4. The LED emits a continuous IR beam.
5. The photodiode senses the absence of the IR beam.
228
CHAPTER 17 Application Assignment
Step 1. Relating the PC Board to the Schematic
See Figure AA-11.
Figure AA-11
Step 2. Analyzing the Circuit
RIN(base) = βDCR3 = 100(330 Ω) = 33 kΩ
RTherm RIN(base)
VB = V
R1 + RTherm RIN(base) CC
VE = VB − 0.7 V
V
IC ≅ IE = E
R3
VOUT = VCC − ICR2
At T = 50° C:
2.75 kΩ 33 kΩ
VB = 15 V = 1.55 V
22 kΩ + 2.75 kΩ 33 kΩ
VE = 1.55 V − 0.7 V = 0.85 V
0.85 V
IC ≅ IE = = 2.58 mA
330 Ω
VOUT = 15 V − (2.58 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 12.4 V
229
At T = 49° C:
3.1 kΩ 33 kΩ
VB = 15 V = 1.71 V
22 kΩ + 3.1 kΩ 33 kΩ
VE = 1.71 V − 0.7 V = 1.01 V
1.01 V
IC ≅ IE = = 3.06 mA
330 Ω
VOUT = 15 V − (3.06 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 11.9 V
At T = 51° C:
2.5 kΩ 33 kΩ
VB = 15 V = 1.43 V
22 kΩ + 2.5 kΩ 33 kΩ
VE = 1.43 V − 0.7 V = 0.73 V
0.73 V
IC ≅ IE = = 2.21 mA
330 Ω
VOUT = 15 V − (2.21 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 12.8 V
The voltages are not significantly affected by the input resistance of the A/D converter.
Step 3. Checking Output Over Temperature Range
At T = 30° C, RTherm ≅ 9.75 kΩ
9.75 kΩ 33 kΩ
VB = 15 V = 3.82 V
22 kΩ + 9.75 kΩ 33 kΩ
VE = 3.82 V − 0.7 V = 3.12 V
3.12 V
IC ≅ IE = = 9.45 mA
330 Ω
VOUT = 15 V − (9.45 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 5.55 V
At T = 50° C
VOUT = 12.8 V (as determined in Step 2)
At T = 70° C, RTherm ≅ 2 kΩ
2 kΩ 33 kΩ
VB = 15 V = 1.19 V
22 kΩ + 2 kΩ 33 kΩ
VE = 1.19 V − 0.7 V = 0.490 V
0.490 V
IC ≅ IE = = 1.48 mA
330 Ω
VOUT = 15 V − (1.48 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 13.5 V
230
At T = 90° C, RTherm ≅ 1.8 kΩ
1.8 kΩ 33 kΩ
VB = 15 V = 1.08 V
22 kΩ + 1.8 kΩ 33 kΩ
VE = 1.08 V − 0.7 V = 0.38 V
0.38 V
IC ≅ IE = = 1.15 mA
330 Ω
VOUT = 15 V − (1.15 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 13.9 V
At T = 110° C, RTherm ≅ 1.5 kΩ
1.5 kΩ 33 kΩ
VB = 15 V = 0.92 V
22 kΩ + 1.5 kΩ 33 kΩ
VE = 0.92 V − 0.7 V = 0.22 V
0.38 V
IC ≅ IE = = 0.67 mA
330 Ω
VOUT = 15 V − (0.67 mA)(1.0 kΩ) = 14.3 V
Step 4. Troubleshooting the Circuit Board
1. The termistor is open causing the transistor to saturate.
2. The transistor is off. Either the collector is internally open or resistor R1 or R3 is open.
3. Check circuit board for open contacts or bad connections. Test Q1 in circuit. Lift one
lead of R1 and/or R3 and check for open.
Review
1. The detector circuit senses a change in temperature and produces a proportional change
in output voltage.
2. No.
3. 9.09 V
4. 13.5 V
231
CHAPTER 18 Application Assignment
Step 1. Relating the PC Board to a Schematic
See Figure AA-12.
Figure AA-12
Step 2. Analyzing the Circuit
Rf
1. = Av
Ri
Rf = RiAv = (1.0 kΩ)(10) = 10 kΩ
Vout ( max ) 8V
2. Av = = = 16
Vin ( max ) 0.5 V
Rf = (1.0 kΩ)(16) = 16 kΩ
3. If Vphoto = 0.5 V at 700 nm, which is approximately 89% of the maximum response at
800 nm, then
0.5 V
Vphoto(max) = = 0.562 V
0.89
At 400 nm:
Vout ≅ 0.03AvVphoto(max) = 0.03(16)(0.562 V) = 0.270 V
At 450 nm:
Vout ≅ 0.1AvVphoto(max) = 0.1(16)(0.562 V) = 0.899 V
At 500 nm:
Vout ≅ 0.25AvVphoto(max) = 0.25(16)(0.562 V) = 2.25 V
232
At 550 nm:
Vout ≅ 0.42AvVphoto(max) = 0.42(16)(0.562 V) = 3.78 V
At 600 nm:
Vout ≅ 0.59AvVphoto(max) = 0.59(16)(0.562 V) = 5.31 V
At 650 nm:
Vout ≅ 0.77AvVphoto(max) = 0.77(16)(0.562 V) = 6.92 V
At 700 nm:
Vout ≅ 0.89AvVphoto(max) = 0.89(16)(0.562 V) = 8.00 V
See Figure AA-13.
Figure AA-13
Step 3. Troubleshooting the Circuit
1. Op-amp output faulty, photocell shorted, feedback pot shorted, or no power supply
voltages.
2. Op-amp faulty, Feedback pot open.
3. Op-amp faulty. 1.0 kΩ resistor open.
Review
1. The 100 kΩ potentiometer is the feedback resistor.
2. The 10 kΩ potentiometer is for nulling the output.
3. The light source and the prism must be pivoted to allow different wavelengths of light to
pass through the slit.
233
CHAPTER 19 Application Assignment
Step 1. Relating the PC Board to a Schematic
See Figure AA-14.
120 VAC
2200
2200
Figure AA-14
Step 2. Analyzing the Power Supply Circuits
1
1. Vsec = (120 V × 1.414) = 34 V
5
Vsec 34 V
= 17 V
2 2
At the cathode of D3:
V
VK(D3) = sec = 17 V peak ac
2
At the cathode of D2:
V
VK(D2) = sec = 17 V peak ac
2
At the cathode of D4:
V
VK(D4) = sec − 0.7 V = 16.3 V dc
2
At the cathode of D1:
V
VK(D1) = sec − 0.7 V = 16.3 V dc
2
2. PIV = 17 V − (−14.8 V) = 33.3 V
234
3. See Figure AA-15 for the voltage across D1 during one cycle.
Figure AA-15
Step 3. Troubleshooting the Power Supply
1. Fuse has blown, there is no ac input, or a transformer winding is open.
2. IC1 regulator is defective.
3. IC2 regulator is defective.
4. Filter capacitor C1 is open.
The voltage at each of the corners of the diode bridge for the following faults are:
1. With D1 open there should be 15.5 V peak ac voltages at the D1 and D4 anodes, a
positive voltage of approximately 14.8 V with a greater than normal ripple voltage at
60 Hz at the D1 cathode resulting from half-wave rectification, and a negative voltage of
approximately −14.8 V with a normal 120 Hz ripple voltage at the D2 anode.
2. With C2 open, there should be a full-wave rectified voltage with a peak of −14.8 V at the
anode of D2 and a normal +14.8 V dc at the cathode of D1. There should be 15.5 V peak
ac voltages at the anode of D1 and the cathode of D2.
Review
1. The fuse rating should be 1 A.
2. These are optional capacitors that prevent oscillations
3. The 7912 is a negative-voltage regulator.
235
CHAPTER 20 Application Assignment
Step 1. Checking the amplifier board
1. The board agrees with the schematic.
2. See Figure AA-16.
Figure AA-16
236
Step 2. Analyzing the Circuits
1. Isolation amplifier gain:
R 330 kΩ R 120 kΩ
Av1 = 3 + 1 = + 1 = 4.8; Av2 = 5 + 1 = + 1 = 2.2; Av(tot) = 10.56
R1 86 kΩ R4 100 kΩ
2. Filter bandwidth: ≈106 Hz
Filter gain: Av = 1.59
3. Postamplifier gain: Av(min) = −100, Av(max) = −150
4. Amplifier gain range: Av(min) = −1750, Av(max) = −2620
5. Voltage range at position pot wiper: Vmin = −59.7 mV, Vmax = +59.7 mV
Step 3. Troubleshooting the Circuits
Board 1: Several faults can produce no output including R10 open or IC3 output faulty or open.
Board 2: R6 or R7 open
Board 3: R10 open.
Board 4: R15 or R16 open.
Review
1. Electrocardiograph
2. The isolation amplifier provides differential inputs for the electrodes, provides a high
CMRR to eliminate the relatively high common-mode noise voltages associated with
heart signals, and provides electrical isolation for protection of the patient.
3. The low-pass filter rejects frequencies above those in the heart signal.
237
CHAPTER 21 Application Assignment
Step 1. Checking the Circuit Board
1. The circuit board agrees with the schematic.
2. See Figure AA-17.
Figure AA-17
238
Step 2. Analyzing the Circuit
1. Voltage at collector of Q1:
VE = 2.93 V − 0.7 V = 2.23 V
V 2.23 V
IE = E = = 0.826 mA
R5 2.7 kΩ
IC ≅ IE = 0.826 mA
VC = 15 V − (0.826 mA)(10 kΩ)
= 15 V − 8.26 V
= 6.74 V
Voltage at inverting input of 741C is VC.
2. K = 273 + °C = 273 + 50 = 323 K
V+20°C = 2.93 V
ΔK = 323 K − 293 K = 30 K
V+50°C = 2.93 V + (10 mV/K)(30 K)
= 2.93 V + 0.3 V = 3.23 V
3. Vpeak = V− = 6.74 V
Step 3. Testing the Circuit Board
1. • Apply 120 Vac to primary of transformer.
• Check +15 Vdc and −15 Vdc.
• Check for 12.6 V rms across transformer secondary.
• Check for approximately 2.93 Vdc at the inverting input of the op-amp comparator.
• Adjust potentiometer until the motor runs. Then back down to the point where the
motor turns off.
• Apply heat to the zener temperature sensor to turn the motor on.
• Remove heat to turn the motor off.
2. Vsec = 12.6 Vrms, VQ1base = 2.93 Vdc @ 20°C,
VQ1collector = 6.74 Vdc @ 20°C, V−(741C) = 6.74 Vdc @ 20°C,
Vout(741C) ≅ ± 14 V
Step 4. Troubleshooting the Circuits
1. Q1 open or LM335Z shorted.
2. SCR bad or Q2 faulty
3. 741C inverting input shorted to ground.
4. Motor has a mechanical fault.
239
Review
1. As the temperature increases, the sensor voltage increases causing the reference voltage
at the inverting input to the op-comparator to decrease. The ac voltage from the
potentiometer at the noninverting input of the op-amp now exceeds the reference voltage
earlier in the ac cycle. The SCR is thus triggered earlier in each ac cycle and stays on
longer during each cycle. This gives the motor more running time during each cycle, and
therefore it can achieve a higher speed.
2. At or below room temperature, the sensor output is not sufficient to cause the reference
voltage at the inverting op-amp input to decrease below the peak of the ac voltage at the
noninverting input. So the op-amp does not switch and the SCR is not triggered. The
motor does not run unless the SCR is turned on.
3. The SCR turns on during each ac cycle when triggered by the output of the op-amp at
the point where the ac voltage at the noninverting input exceeds the reference voltage at
the inverting input. The SCR turns off at a point in each ac cycle where the current drops
below a specified holding value.
240
PART THREE
Summary of Multisim Circuit Results
241
242
MultiSIM Results for Electronic Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices, and Applications, 8th Ed.
by Tom Floyd and David Buchla
CHAPTER 2
Circuit File Results
R1 = 25% or less
Question 1: Answer B
AA02 Question 2: Answer D
Question 3: Answer A
Question 4: Answer C
CHAPTER 3
Circuit File Results
R1 = 1 kΩ:
I = 50 mA
R1 = 10 kΩ:
E03-06
I = 5 mA
R1 = 4.7 MΩ:
5.319 μA
R1 = 1 MΩ:
E03-07
25 µA
E03-12 VR = 4.86 V
IT = 12.01 nA
P03-66 VR1 = 12 V
R1 is open.
IT = 9.091 mA
P03-67 VR1 = 20 V
No fault.
IT = 10.001 mA
VR1 = 9.999 pV
P03-68
VR2 = 10 V
R1 is shorted.
VX1 = VX2 = VX3 = 16 V
P03-69 VX4 = 1.111 nV
Lamp X4 is shorted.
IT = 14.211 µA
P03-70 VX6 = 120 V
Lamp X6 is open.
243
CHAPTER 4
Circuit File Results
R4 = 100 Ω:
E04-07A
IT = 20 mA
R4 = 200 Ω:
E14-07B
IT = 15.519 mA
R2 = 5.6 kΩ:
VS = 9.5 V
R2 = 3.9 kΩ:
E04-08
VS = 7.8 V
IT = 1 mA
VR1 = 1 V
E04-09
VR2 = 3.3 V
VR3 = 4.7 V
Original circuit:
E04-11A
VT = 18 V
VS3 reversed:
E04-11B
VT = 6 V
Original circuit:
VS = 15 V
E04-13 VS = 30 V:
VR1 = 10 V
VR2 = 20 V
VS = 50 V:
VR3 = 13 V
E04-14
VS = 25 V:
VR3 = 6.5 V
VS = 50 V:
R4 = 3.43 kΩ
E04-15
VS = 20 V:
R4 = 430 Ω
R2 = 68 Ω:
VR1 = 5.467 V
VR2 = 4.533 V
R2 = 180 Ω:
E04-16
VR1 = 3.13 V
VR2 = 6.87 V
R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 220 Ω:
VR1 = 1 V
VR2 = 2.2 V
VR3 = 6.8 V
R1 = 680 Ω, R2 = 680 Ω:
E04-17
VR1 = 3.333 V
VR2 = 3.333 V
VR3 = 3.333 V
VS = 25 V:
VAB = 2.000 V
VAC = 18.400 V
E04-18A
VBC = 16.400 V
VBD = 23.000 V
VCD = 6.600 V
244
Circuit File Results
VS = 50 V:
VAB = 4.000 V
VAC = 36.800 V
E04-18B
VBC = 32.800 V
VBD = 46.000 V
VCD = 13.200 V
Ground at Point E:
VA = 100 V
VB = 75 V
VC = 50 V
VD = 25 V
VE = 0 V
Ground at Point D:
VA = 75 V
VB = 50 V
E04-21A
VC = 25 V
VD = 0 V
VE = -25 V
Ground at Point C:
VA = 50 V
VB = 25 V
VC = 0 V
VD = -25 V
VE = -50 V
Ground at Point A:
VA = 0 V
VB = -25 V
E04-21B
VC = -50 V
VD = -75 V
VE = -100 V
VR1 = 10 V
P04-58 VR2 = VR3 = VR4 = 33 µV
R1 is open.
IT = 74.607 µA
P04-59 VR6 = 0.076 pV
R6 is shorted.
IT = 12.024 nA
P04-60 VR2 = 12 V
R2 is open.
IT = 48.203 nA
P04-61 VX4 = 48 V
Lamp X4 is open.
IT = 73.314 µA
P04-62
No fault.
IT = 20.837 mA
P04-63 VR4 = 20.833 pV
R4 is shorted.
245
CHAPTER 5
Circuit File Results
E05-07A VS = VR1 = VR2 = VR3 = VR4 = VR5 = 25 V
E05-07A VR3 = 25 V
IT = 278.572 mA
IR1 = 100 mA
E05-08
IR2 = 178.571 mA
IT = IR1 + IR2
IT = 64.805 mA
IR1 = 20 mA
E05-09A
IR2 = 9.091 mA
IR3 = 35.714 mA
IT = 86.783 mA
IR1 = 20 mA
IR2 = 9.091 mA
E05-09B
IR3 = 35.714 mA
IR4 = 21.978 mA
ΔIT = 21.978 mA = IR4
IT = 8 A
RT = 2 Ω
E05-11
IR1 = 5 mA, IR2 = 12 mA:
IT = 17 mA = IR1 + IR2
E05-13
IR1 = 5 mA, IR2 = 12 mA, IR3 = 3 mA:
IT = 20 mA = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Circuit A:
IR2 = 50 mA
E05-14 Circuit B:
IR2 = 50 mA
IT = 111.999 mA
IT = 35.346 mA
IR1 = 2 mA
E05-20 IR2 = 4.255 mA
IR3 = 9.091 mA
IR4 = 20 mA
IR1 = 14.211 pA
IR2 = 6.667 mA
P05-50
IR3 = 5.455 mA
R1 is open.
IR1 = 54.545 mA
IR2 = 36.364 mA
P05-51 IR3 = 0 A
IR4 = 21.429 mA
R3 is open.
RT = 284.892 kΩ
P05-52
No fault.
RPIN1_PIN4 = 340.146 Ω (RCALC = 340.146 Ω)
P05-53 RPIN2_PIN3 = 9.624 kΩ (RCALC = 8.431 kΩ)
R10 is open.
246
CHAPTER 6
Circuit File Results
R3 = 100 Ω:
RT = 60 Ω
R3 = 82 Ω:
E06-06
RT = 55.055 Ω
R5 in circuit:
RT = 148.403 Ω
E06-07
R5 removed from circuit:
RT = 156.717 Ω
IR1 = 8.929 mA
IR2 = 9.3 mA
E06-08 IR3 = 5.852 mA
IR4 = 3.448 mA
Measured matches calculated (?)
VS = 10 V:
VR1 = VR2 = 5.152 V
E06-09A VR3 = 4.848 V
VR4 = 1.584 V
VR5 = 3.264 V
VS = 20 V:
VR1 = VR2 = 10.303 V
E06-09B VR3 = 9.697 V
VR4 = 3.168 V
VR5 = 6.528 V
VS = 5 V:
VR1 = VR2 = 2.576 V
E06-09C VR3 = 2.424 V
VR4 = 0.792 V
VR5 = 1.632 V
R4 = 1 kΩ:
VR1 = VR2 = 4.693 V
VR3 = 2.180 V
E06-10A
VR4 = 1.127 V
VR5 = 0.716 V
VR6 = 0.411 V
R4 = 2.2 kΩ:
VR1 = VR2 = 4.447 V
VR3 = 2.066 V
E06-10B
VR4 = 1.487 V
VR5 = 0.945 V
VR6 = 0.542 V
No load:
VOUT = 3.401 V
RL = 10 kΩ:
E06-11
VOUT = 2.577 V
RL = 100 kΩ:
VOUT = 3.296 V
IRL1 = 113.387 µA
VRL1 = 11.338 V
E06-12
IRL1 = 54.989 µA
VRL1 = 5.498 V
247
Circuit File Results
Original bridge circuit:
E06-18A VRL = 3.479 V
IRL = 3.479 mA
Original bridge circuit:
E06-18B VRL = 1.17 V
IRL = 1.17 mA
VR2 = 9.6 V
E06-22 IR2 = 0 A
R2 is open.
VR2 = 12 V
E06-23 IR2 = 12 nA
R2 is open.
VR7 = 3.025 pV
E06-24 IR7 = 3.025 mA
R7 is shorted.
VR3 = 7.714 V
P06-64 IR3 = 8.882 pA
R3 is open.
VR2 = 10 µV
IR2 = 10 mA
P06-65
IR3 = IR4 = 2.703 nA
R2 is shorted.
VR1 = -24 V
P06-66 IR1 = 0 A
R1 is open.
IT = 487.685 µA
P06-67
No fault.
VR6 = 5.242 V
P06-68 IR6 = 5.237 nA
R6 is open.
VR4 = 3.736 pV
P06-69 IR4 = 3.736 mA
R4 is shorted.
VR3 = -1.22 V
P06-70 IR3 = 1.22 nA
R3 is open.
VR1_R3 = 6 V
P06-71 VR2_R4 = 6 V
R5 = 0 Ω
248
CHAPTER 7
Circuit File Results
S1 closed:
Normally energized bulb on
Normally de-energized bulb off
S2 closed:
P07-30
Normally energized bulb off
Normally de-energized bulb off
Dee-energized bulb is open.
The design itself is faulty. R1 limits the current below the 30 mA current
P07-31 required to energize the relays so that the relays are always in a de-energized
state.
CHAPTER 8
Circuit File Results
VS = 120 VRMS:
E08-10A VR1 = 76.923 VRMS
VR2 = 43.077 VRMS
VS = 10 VPK:
E08-10B VR1 = 6.409 VPK
VR2 = 3.589 VPK
Peak voltage = 35.350 VPK
P08-52
Period = 1.000 ms
VR3 = 120 VRMS
P08-53 IR3 = IT = 120.344 nARMS
R3 is open.
IR1 = 5.588 pARMS
P08-54 IR2 = 50 mARMS
IR3 = 15.151 mARMS
Amplitude = 5.000 V
P08-55
Period = 1.000 ms
VS = 5.000 V
VR1 = 5.000 V - 4.194 V = 0.806 V
VR2 = 4.194 V - 3.226 V = 0.968 V
P08-56
VR3 = 3.226 V – 1.774 V = 1.452 V
VR4 = 1.774 V – 0.000 V = 1.774 V
No fault
249
CHAPTER 9
Circuit File Results
Original circuit:
VC1 = 14.994 V
VC2 = 3.190 V
VC3 = 6.186 V
C4 = 0.47 µF added:
E09-07
VC1 = 13.297 V
VC2 = 2.829 V
VC3 = 6.044 V
VC4 = 2.829 V
Voltages across C1 through C4 decreased.
f = 10 kHz:
E09-17A
IT = 1.782 mARMS
f = 25 kHz:
E09-17B
IT = 4.455 mARMS
IT = 44.329 µARMS
VC1 = 10 VRMS
P09-50
VC2 = 4.433 VRMS
C2 is leaky.
IT = 12.566 mARMS
P09-51 IC2 = 22.347 pARMS
C2 is open.
VC1 = 14.447 pVRMS
IC2 = 4.524 mARMS
P09-52
IC3 = 9.953 mARMS
C1 is shorted.
τ ≈ 505 µs
P09-53
No fault.
VC1 = 0.09 pV
P09-54 VC2 = 2.693 V
C1 is shorted.
CHAPTER 10
Circuit File Results
IT = 1.888 mARMS
E10-03 VR1 = 4.153 VRMS
VC1 = 9.097 VRMS
f = 1.5 kHz:
IT = 4.997 mARMS
E10-11A
IR1 = 4.545 ARMS
IC1 = 2.075 ARMS
f = 3.0 kHz:
E10-11B
IT = 6.161 mARMS
IT = 6.720 mARMS
IR2 = 4.722 mARMS
E10-14 IC2 = 4.781 mARMS
VZ1 = 7.047 VRMS
VZ2 = 3.211 VRMS
250
Circuit File Results
f = 10.0 kHz:
IT = 4.299 mARMS
E10-15A
VR1 = 4.299 VRMS
VC1 = 14.37 VRMS
f = 5.0 kHz:
IT = 2.209 mARMS
E10-15B VR1 = 2.209 VRMS
VC1 = 14.836 VRMS
A lower frequency results in higher capacitive reactance and total impedance.
f = 20.0 kHz:
IT = 7.701 mARMS
E10-15C VR1 = 7.701 VRMS
VC1 = 12.871 VRMS
A higher frequency results in lower capacitive reactance and total impedance.
VR1 = 17.057 VRMS
P10-49 VC1 = 945.301 mVRMS
C1 is leaky.
IC2 = 18.694 mARMS
P10-50 VC2 = 18.694 pVRMS
C2 is shorted.
IT = 181.028 mARMS
P10-51
No fault.
Dc voltage at junction of R1 and R2 i 4.5 VDC with no ac component.
P10-52 VC1 = 2.5 VRMS
C1 is open.
VC1 maximum = VS
P10-53 τ ≈ 1.548 ms
R2 is open.
Pulse voltage is identical on both sides of C1.
P10-54
C1 is open.
Original circuit:
P10-55A
Phase shift = 27.4°
C1 shorted:
P10-55B
Phase shift = 15.9°
CHAPTER 11
Circuit File Results
Alternate positive and negative spikes with amplitude equal to the applied
E11-07
source followed by exponential decay to 0 V.
Time constant (τ) = 823.5 ns
Charging voltages:
1 τ = 9.207 mV
2 τ = 12.711 mV
3 τ = 13.974 mV
4 τ = 14.429 mV
E11-09 5 τ = 14.592 mV
Discharging voltages:
1 τ = 5.488 mV
2 τ = 1.977 mV
3 τ = 712.021 µV
4 τ = 256.470 µV
5 τ = 92.082 µV
251
Circuit File Results
Original circuit:
E11-12A
IT = 785.511 µARMS
VS = 12 VRMS, f = 4.9 kHz, L = 680 µH:
E11-12B
IT = 568.765 mARMS
IL1 = IT = 491.19 mARMS
IL2 = 491.19 mARMS
P11-29
IL3 = 7.581 pARMS
L3 is open.
Switch on top contact:
VL1 = 304.684 pVRMS
VL2 = 1.008 nVRMS
VL3 = VL3 = 12 VRMS
Switch on bottom contact:
P11-30
VL1 = 0.001 pVRMS
VL2 = 8.168 VRMS
VL3 = VL3 = 3.829 VRMS
L1 is shorted.
Switches on left contact:
VR1 = 4.918 VDC
VL1 = 209.368 mVRMS
X1 blinking and X2 lighted.
Switches on right contact:
P11-31
VR1 = 4.918 VDC
VL1 = 209.368 mVRMS
X1 lighted and X2 blinking.
No fault.
IL1 = IT = 22.444 mARMS
IL2 = 3.99 pARMS
P11-32
IL3 = IL4 = 22.444 mARMS
L2 is open.
VL1 = VR1 = 15 VRMS
VL2 = VR2 = 2.142 nVRMS
P11-33 IL3 = 2.357 ARMS
IL4 = 403.789 µARMS
L3 is shorted.
CHAPTER 12
Circuit File Results
f = 10 kHz:
E12-02A
IT = 199.082 µARMS
f = 5 kHz:
E12-02B IT = 224.979 µARMS
A lower frequency results in lower inductive reactance and total impedance.
f = 20 kHz:
E12-02C IT = 145.779 µARMS
A higher frequency results in higher inductive reactance and total impedance.
E12-06 VR1 = 8.436 VRMS
E12-07 VL1 = 2.098 VRMS
252
Circuit File Results
f = 15 kHz:
IT = 8.331 mARMS
E12-10A
IR1 = 4.545 mARMS
IL1 = 6.982 mARMS
f = 8 kHz:
E12-10B
IT = 13.858 mARMS
IT = 0.871 mARMS
IR2 = 0.605 mARMS
E12-12 IL2 = 0.627 mARMS
VZ1 = 8.048 VRMS
VZ2 = 1.995 VRMS
VR1 = 4.603 VRMS
VR2 = 6.177 VRMS
E12-13
VL1 = 8.878 VRMS
VL2 = 7.864 VRMS
IR1 = IT = 8 mARMS
IR2 = 8 mARMS
P12-44 VL1 = 8 µVRMS
IL1 = 2.525 nARMS
R2 is shorted.
IL1 = IT = 12.115 mARMS
IR1 = 12.115 mARMS
P12-45 VL2 = 9.934 VRMS
IL1 = 9.943 nARMS
L2 is open.
IL1 = IT = 134.862 mARMS
P12-46 VL1 = 134.862 pVRMS
L1 is shorted.
VR2 = 8.56 VRMS
P12-47 IR2 = 9.508 pARMS
R2 is open.
IT = 4.092 mARMS
P12-48
No fault.
Voltages on both sides of L1 are identical.
P12-49
L1 is shorted.
CHAPTER 13
Circuit File Results
E13-05 fr = 40.932 kHz
f = 5.03 kHz:
IT = 89.682 mARMS
E13-07A VR1 = 8.968 VRMS
VL1 = 285.82 VRMS
VC1 = 281.4 VRMS
f = 4.03 kHz:
IT = 7.215 mARMS
E13-07B VR1 = 721.488 VRMS
VL1 = 18.367 VRMS
VC1 = 28.341 VRMS
253
Circuit File Results
f = 6.03 kHz:
IT = 8.123 mARMS
E13-07C VR1 = 812.254 mVRMS
VL1 = 31.148 VRMS
VC1 = 21.182 VRMS
fr = 23.239 kHz
fCL = 22.426 kHz
E13-12
fCH = 24.032 kHz
BW = 1.606 kHz
fr = 13.001 kHz
fCL = 12.657 kHz
E13-13 fCH = 13.342 kHz
BW = 658 Hz
Output voltage at resonance = -8.166 dB = 39.1 mVRMS
E13-17A fr = 455.019 kHz
IL1 = 5.078 mARMS
E13-17B
IC1 = 5.213 mARMS
E13-19A fr = 2.323 kHz
IT = 470.076 µARMS
E13-19B IL1 = 6.823 mARMS
IC1 = 6.872 mARMS
No load:
fr = 40.937 kHz
fCL = 39.455 kHz
E13-23A fCH = 42.439 kHz
BW = 2.984 kHz
Q = 13.7
Output voltage at resonance = 952.968 mVRMS
1 kΩ load:
fr = 41.126 kHz
fCL = 36.805 kHz
E13-23B fCH = 45.818 kHz
BW = 9.013 kHz
Q = 4.56
Output voltage at resonance = 870.069 mVRMS
fr = 40.926 kHz
fCL = 36.972 kHz
E13-24 fCH = 44.830 kHz
BW = 7.858 kHz
Output voltage at resonance = -9.481 dB = 336 mVRMS
IT = 7.014 nARMS
P13-38 VL1 = 7 VRMS
L1 is open.
IT = 16.403 nARMS
P13-39
No fault.
IT = 50.188 mARMS
P13-40 IC1 = 5.591 pARMS
C1 is open.
IR1 = IL1 = 106.381 mARMS
P13-41 VL1 = 106.381 pVRMS
L1 is shorted.
IC1 = IL2 = 79.341 mARMS
P13-42 VC1 = 79.341 pVRMS
C1 is shorted.
254
Circuit File Results
IT = IR1 = IR2 = IL1 = 288.144 µARMS
P13-43 VL1 = 0.288 pVRMS
L1 is shorted.
CHAPTER 14
Circuit File Results
E14-04 VSEC = 359.964 VRMS
E14-05 VSEC = 23.998 VRMS
VPRI = 169.706 VPK
VSEC = 0 VPK
P14-46
ISEC = 0 ARMS
Secondary winding open.
VPRI = 21.078 VPK
VSEC = 0 VPK
P14-47
ISEC = 0 ARMS
Secondary winding open.
VPRI = 13.578 VPK
P14-48 VSEC = 27.154 VPK
No fault.
VPRI = 5 VRMS
P14-49
IPRI = 5.63 pARMS
CHAPTER 15
Circuit File Results
VMIN = 1.688 V
E15-03 VMAX = 2.323 V
VAVE = 2.000 V
E15-06 Maximum VR1 = 22.696 V
VC1 = VS
P15-29
C1 is open.
τ = 4.7 µs
P15-30
R2 is open.
τ = 7.753 µs
P15-31
No fault.
τ = 20.198 µs
P15-32
L1 is open.
CHAPTER 16
Circuit File Results
VIN = 24.996 VP sine wave
E16-05
VOUT = 24.312 VP positive rectified half wave
VIN = 24.996 VP sine wave
E16-06
VOUT = 24.115 VP rectified full wave
VD1 = 5 VDC
P16-43
D1 is open
VD2 = 1.315 pV
P16-44
D2 is shorted
255
Circuit File Results
VR1 = VR2 = 3.645 VDC
VR3 = 2.710 VDC
P16-45 VD1 = 0.653 VDC
VR4 = 2.057 VDC
No fault.
VD2 = 1.97 VDC
P16-46
D2 is open
VD1 = 239.555 mVDC
P16-47
D1 is leaky
VIN = VOUT = 49.992 mVP
P16-48 IT = 3.533 µARMS
D1 is shorted
VIN = 169.706 VP sine wave
P16-49 VOUT = 168.961 positive rectified half wave
D2 is open
RD3 = 0 Ω
P16-50
D3 is shorted
VIN = 35.350 VP sine wave
P16-51 VOUT = ±5.743 V clipped sine wave
No fault.
VD1 = VR2 = 9.901 VDC
P16-52
D1 is open.
CHAPTER 17
Circuit File Results
IB = 0.080 mADC
E17-01A IC = 7.927 mADC
IE = 8.004 mADC
VB = 8.825 VDC
VC = 22.079 VDC
E17-01B
VE = 7.997 VDC
VCE = 14.082 VDC
VOUT (min) = 9.925 V
VOUT (max) = 11.304 V
E17-03
VAC = 1.397 VPP
VDC = 10.615 V
No emitter bypass capacitor:
VIN = 19.997 mVPP
E17-04A
VOUT = 90.475 mVPP
AV = −4.52
With emitter bypass capacitor:
VIN = 2.000 mVPP
E17-04B
VOUT = 325.240 mVPP
AV = −162.6
VIN = 2.817 mVPP
E17-05 VOUT = 398.808 mVPP
AV = −319.1
VIN = 2.828 VPP
E17-06 VOUT = 2.807 VPP
AV = 0.993
With 8Ω load:
E17-07A
VOUT = 1.753 VPP with minimal crossover distortion
256
Circuit File Results
With 16Ω load:
E17-07B
VOUT = 1.788 VPP with minimal crossover distortion
VGS = −1.097 VDC
E17-10
VDS = 8.856 VDC
RCB is infinite
P17-47
Collector-base junction is open.
VIN = 141.400 mVPP
VOUT = 1.380 VPP
P17-48
AV = −9.760
No fault.
VDS = 12.295 VDC
P17-49
Drain is shorted to source.
IR2 = 0 A
P17-50 VB = 5.146 VDC
R2 is open.
VIN = 1.414 VPP
VOUT = 1.369 VPP
P17-51
AV = 0.968
No fault.
VIN = 19.879 VPP
VOUT = 34.642 VPP
P17-52 AV = −1.728
IC2 = 0 A
C2 is open.
VIN = 2.000 VPP
P17-53 VG = 0 VPP
C1 is open.
CHAPTER 18
Circuit File Results
VIN = 199.997 mVPP
E18-05A VOUT = 4.454 VPP
AV = 22.3
VIN = 199.997 mVPP
E18-05B VOUT = 6.580 VPP
AV = 32.9
VIN = 199.999 mVPP
E18-06 VOUT = 19.929 VPP
AV = -99.6
VIN = 199.994 mVPP
E18-07 VOUT = 4.599 VPP
AV = 23.0
VIN = 99.997 mVPP
E18-09 VOUT = 9.965 VPP
AV = −99.7
P18-28 Ri is open.
P18-29 Ri is open.
VIN = 2.000 VPP
VOUT = 7.857 VPP
P18-30
AV = −3.93
No fault.
257
Circuit File Results
VIN = 2.000 VPP
P18-31 VOUT = -21.000 VDC
Op-amp is faulty (inputs open)
VOUT (op-amp) = 2.861 VPP
P18-32 Vout = 0.000 VPP
C1 is open.
CHAPTER 19
Circuit File Results
VUTP = 1.877 V
E19-01
VLTP = 1.395
E19-02 VOUT = −9.996 VDC
E19-03 VOUT = −6.979 VDC
E19-04 VOUT = −2.496 VDC
E19-05 VOUT = −4.899 VDC
VOUT (min) = −2.248 V
E19-06
VOUT (max) = 2.294 V
R3 = 1 kΩ:
E19-07A VOUT (positive) = +201 mV
VOUT (negative) = -198 mV
R3 = 100 Ω:
VOUT (positive) = +197 mV
E19-07B
VOUT (negative) = −198 mV
Pronounced ringing on rising and falling edges.
Comparator:
Square wave with VMIN = −19.339 V, VMAX = 19.347 V
E19-09
Integrator:
Triangle wave with VMIN = −14.916 V, VMAX = 14.479 V
E19-10 fC = 3.005 kHz
E19-11 fC = 5.507 kHz
VOUT = −1.496 VDC
P19-29
R2 is open.
V− (op-amp) = 2.432 VDC
P19-30 VOUT = 2.432 VDC
Op-amp is fault (inputs open)
VOUT (min) = −2.266 V
P19-31 VOUT (max) = 2.276 V
No fault.
P19-32 C1 is open.
258
CHAPTER 20
Circuit File Results
Bias voltage per original circuit:
E20-08A VOUT (min) = 667.627 mV
VOUT (max) = 4.667 V
Bias voltage reversed and changed to 2 V:
VOUT (min) = 20.346 V
E20-08B
VOUT (max) = 24.346 V
Output driven to positive supply railed.
Vin (diff) = 10.00 mVPP
Vout = 3.88 VPP
P20-32 AV = 388
RG (calc) = 517 Ω
1 kΩ gain setting resistor is leaky.
Vout positive clipping at 599 mV
P20-33 Vout negative clipping at −5.570 V
D1 is shorted.
VD1 = 0 VPP
P20-34
D1 is shorted.
VD1 = 6 VDC
P20-35 IRL = 6 mADC
D1 is open.
VR2 = 199.799 mVDC
P20-36 IRL = 1.188 mADC
R2 is open.
Vin = 2.0 VPK 1 kHz sine wave
P20-37 Vout = 2.0 VPK 1 kHz sine wave
Diode is open
259
260
PART FOUR
Special Topics
261
262
CIRCUIT BREADBOARDING AND
A MEASUREMENTS
Breadboarding a Circuit
The term breadboarding refers to the process of installing components on a circuit board and
interconnecting them to form a specified circuit. One common type of circuit board used for
constructing circuits in the laboratory is shown in Figure A-1. It consists of rows of small sockets
into which component leads and jumper wires are inserted.
Figure A-1
A typical circuit board used for breadboarding.
In this particular configuration, all five sockets in each row are connected together and are
effectively one electrical point as shown in the bottom view. All the sockets arranged on the outer
edges of the board are typically connected together as shown. These two strips of sockets are
normally used to distribute the supply voltages and ground to the circuit.
263
Figure A-2
Examples of breadboarding a circuit.
As examples of breadboarding a circuit, Figure A-2 shows how both simple series and
parallel resistive circuits might be connected on the circuit board.
264
Figure A-3
Example of measuring voltage in a circuit.
Voltage Measurement
To measure voltage in a circuit using a multimeter, the following general steps should be taken:
1. Insert the red (positive) meter lead into the connector labeled for voltage (V) on the meter and
insert the black meter lead into the connector labeled common (COM).
2. Set the function switch to the volts position (select either dc or ac).
3. Set the range switch (the range switch and function switch are often the same) to the lowest
setting that is higher than the voltage you expect to measure.
4. Select the two points in the circuit between which you want to measure the voltage.
5. Place the red meter lead on the point closest to the positive side of the circuit and the black lead
on the point closest to the negative or ground side of the circuit as shown in Figure A-3.
6. Read the voltage.
265
Current Measurement
To measure current in a circuit using a multimeter, the following general steps are taken:
1. Insert the red (positive) meter lead into the connector labeled for current (A or mA) on the
meter and insert the black meter lead into the connector labeled common (COM).
2. Set the function switch to the amps position (select either dc or ac).
3. Set the range switch to the lowest setting that is higher than the current you expect to measure.
4. Select the point in the circuit at which you want to measure the current.
5. Turn off the power and break the circuit at the selected point by simply lifting a component
lead or one end of a jumper wire from the socket. This permits the ammeter to be placed in
series with the current path.
6. Insert the ammeter in the break by connecting the red lead to the point closest to the positive
side of the circuit and the black lead to the point closest to the negative or ground side of the
circuit as shown in Figure A-4.
7. Turn the power back on and read the current.
266
Figure A-4
Example of measuring current in a circuit.
267
Resistance Measurement
To measure resistance in a circuit using a multimeter, the following general steps are taken:
1. Insert one meter lead into the connector labeled for ohms (Ω) on the meter and the other lead
into the connector labeled common (COM). Zero the ohmmeter if necessary.
2. Set the function switch to the ohms (Ω) position.
3. Select an appropriate multiplier setting (×1, ×10, etc.).
4. Disconnect power from the circuit.
5. Remove the resistor to be measured or lift one lead so that it is disconnected from the rest of
the circuit. If you wish to measure total resistance, none of the components has to be removed.
6. Connect the ohmmeter leads across the selected resistor as shown if Figure A-5. Polarity does
not matter.
7. Read the resistance and reconnect the resistor and the power.
268
Figure A-5
Example of measuring resistance in a circuit.
269
DELTA-WYE (Δ-TO-Y) AND WYE-DELTA (Y-TO-Δ)
B NETWORK CONVERSIONS
A resistive delta (Δ) network has the form shown in Figure B-1(a). A wye (Y) network is shown in
Figure B-1(b). Notice that letter subscripts are used to designate resistors in the delta network and
that numerical subscripts are used to designate resistors in the wye.
Figure B-1
Delta and wye networks.
Conversion between these two forms of circuits is sometimes helpful in areas such as bridge
analysis and three-phase power systems. In this section, the conversion formulas and rules for
remembering them are given.
Δ-to-Y Conversion
It is convenient to think of the wye positioned within the delta, as shown in Figure B-2. To convert
from delta to wye, we need R1, R2, and R3 in terms of RA, RB, and RC. The conversion rule is as
follows:
Each resistor in the wye is equal to the product of the resistors in two adjacent delta
branches, divided by the sum of all three delta resistors.
Figure B-2
“Y within Δ” aid for conversion formulas.
270
In Figure B-2, RA and RC are “adjacent” to R1:
RA RC
R1 = (1)
RA + RB + RC
Also, RB and RC are “adjacent” to R2:
RB RC
R2 = (2)
RA + RB + RC
and RA and RB are “adjacent” to R3:
RA RB
R3 = (3)
RA + RB + RC
Y-to-Δ Conversion
To convert from wye to delta, we need RA, RB, and RC in terms of R1, R2, and R3. The conversion rule
is as follows:
Each resistor in the delta is equal to the sum of all possible products of wye resistors
taken two at a time, divided by the opposite wye resistor.
In Figure B-2, R2 is “opposite “ to RA:
R1R2 + R1R3 + R2 R3
RA =
R2
(4)
Also, R1 is “opposite” to RB:
R1R2 + R1R3 + R2 R3
RB =
R1
(5)
and R3 is “opposite” to RC:
R1R2 + R1R3 + R2 R3
RC =
R3
(6)
The following two examples illustrate conversion between these two forms of circuits.
271
Example 1
Convert the delta network in Figure B-3 to a wye network.
Figure B-3
Solution Use Equations (1), (2), and (3):
RA RC ( 220 Ω)(100 Ω)
R1 = = = 25 Ω
RA + RB + RC 220 Ω + 560 Ω + 100 Ω
RB RC (560 Ω)(100 Ω)
R2 = = = 63.6 Ω
RA + RB + RC 880 Ω
RA RB (220 Ω)(560 Ω)
R3 = = = 140 Ω
RA + RB + RC 880 Ω
The resulting wye network is shown in Figure B-4.
Figure B-4
272
Example 2
Convert the wye network in Figure B-5 to a delta network.
Figure B-5
Solution Use Equations (4), (5), and (6):
R1R2 + R1R3 + R2 R3
RA =
R2
(1.0 kΩ)(2.2 kΩ) + (1.0 kΩ)(5.6 kΩ) + (2.2 kΩ)(5.6 kΩ)
= = 9.15 kΩ
2 .2 k Ω
R R + R1R3 + R2 R3
RB = 1 2
R1
(1.0 kΩ)(2.2 kΩ) + (1.0 kΩ)(5.6 kΩ) + (2.2 kΩ)(5.6 kΩ)
= = 20.1 kΩ
1.0 kΩ
R R + R1R3 + R2 R3
RC = 1 2
R3
(1.0 kΩ)(2.2 kΩ) + (1.0 kΩ)(5.6 kΩ) + (2.2 kΩ)(5.6 kΩ)
= = 3.59 kΩ
5 .6 k Ω
The resulting delta network is shown in Figure B-6.
Figure B-6
Application of Δ-to-Y Conversion to the Simplification of a Bridge Circuits
In Chapter 6 of the textbook, you saw how Thevenin’s theorem can be used to simplify a bridge
circuit. Now you will see how Δ-to-Y conversion can be used for conversion of a bridge circuit to a
series parallel form for easier analysis.
Figure B-7 illustrates how the delta (Δ) formed by RA, RB, and RC can be converted to a wye
(Y), thus, creating an equivalent series-parallel circuit. Equations (1), (2), and (3) are used in this
conversion.
273
Figure B-7
Conversion of a bridge circuit to a series-parallel configuration.
In a bridge circuit, the load is connected across points C and D. In Figure B-7(a), RC
represents the load resistor. When voltage is applied across points A and B, the voltage from C to D
(VCD) can be determined using the equivalent series-parallel circuit in Figure B-7(c) as follows. The
total resistance from point A to point B is
( R1 + RD )( R2 + RE )
RT = + R3
( R1 + RD ) + ( R2 + RE )
Then
VAB
IT =
RT
The resistance of the parallel portion of the circuit in Figure B-7(c) is
( R1 + RD )( R2 + RE )
RT(p) =
( R1 + RD ) + ( R2 + RE )
The current through the left branch is
RT ( p )
IAC = I T
R1 + RD
The current through the right branch is
RT ( p )
IAD = I T
R2 + RE
274
The voltage at point C with respect to point A is
VCA = VA − IACRD
The voltage at point D with respect to point A is
VDA = VA − IADRE
The voltage from point C to point D is
VCD = VCA − VDA = (VA − IACRD) − (VA − IADRE)
= IADRE − IACRD
VCD is the voltage across the load (RC) in the bridge circuit of Figure B-7(a). The current through the
load can be found by Ohm’s law:
VCD
IC =
RC
Example 3
Determine the load voltage and the load current in the bridge circuit in Figure B-8. Notice that
the resistors are labeled for convenient conversion using the previous formulas. RC is the load
resistor.
Figure B-8
Solution First convert the delta formed by RA, RB, and RC to a wye:
RA RC (2.2 kΩ)(18 kΩ)
R1 = = = 1.73 kΩ
RA + RB + RC 2.2 kΩ + 2.7 kΩ + 18 kΩ
RB RC (2.7 kΩ)(18 kΩ)
R2 = = = 2.12 kΩ
RA + RB + RC 22.9 kΩ
RA RB (2.2 kΩ)(2.7 kΩ)
R3 = = = 259 Ω
RA + RB + RC 22.9 kΩ
275
The resulting equivalent series-parallel circuit is shown in Figure B-9.
Figure B-9
Now determine RT and the branch currents in Figure B-9.
( R1 + RD )( R2 + RE ) (6.43 kΩ)(6.02 kΩ)
RT = + R3 = + 259 Ω = 3.37 kΩ
( R1 + RD ) + ( R2 + RE ) 6.43 kΩ + 6.02 kΩ
V 120 V
IT = AB = = 35.6 mA
RT 3.37 kΩ
The total resistance of the parallel part of the circuit, RT(p) , is 3.11 kΩ.
RT( p ) 3.11 kΩ
IAC = I T = 35.6 mA = 17.2 mA
R1 + RD 1.73 kΩ + 4.7 kΩ
RT( p ) 3.11 kΩ
IAD = I T = 35.6 mA = 18.4 mA
R2 + RE 2.12 kΩ + 3.9 kΩ
The voltage across the load is
VCD = IADRE − IACRD
= (18.4 mA)(3.9 kΩ) − (17.2 mA)(4.7 kΩ)
= 71.8 V − 80.8 V = −9 V
The load current
VCD − 9 V
IC = = = −500 μA
RC 18 kΩ
276
PART FIVE
Laboratory Solutions for
Experiments in Electronics Fundamentals and
Electric Circuits Fundamentals
Eighth Edition
David Buchla
277
278
Table of Contents
Note: Answers for Application Assignments are found in Part Two of this manual.
Checkup 1 ................................................................................................................................... 281
Checkup 2 ................................................................................................................................... 282
Checkup 3 ................................................................................................................................... 283
Checkup 4 ................................................................................................................................... 284
Checkup 5 ................................................................................................................................... 285
Checkup 6 ................................................................................................................................... 286
Checkup 7 ................................................................................................................................... 287
Checkup 8 ................................................................................................................................... 288
Checkup 9 ................................................................................................................................... 289
Checkup 10 ................................................................................................................................. 290
Checkup 11 ................................................................................................................................. 291
Checkup 12 ................................................................................................................................. 292
Checkup 13 ................................................................................................................................. 293
Checkup 14 ................................................................................................................................. 294
Checkup 15 ................................................................................................................................. 295
Checkup 16 ................................................................................................................................. 296
Checkup 17 ................................................................................................................................. 297
Checkup 18 ................................................................................................................................. 298
Checkup 19 ................................................................................................................................. 299
Checkup 20 ................................................................................................................................. 300
Checkup 21 ................................................................................................................................. 301
Experiment 1 ............................................................................................................................... 302
Experiment 2 ............................................................................................................................... 306
Experiment 3 ............................................................................................................................... 307
Experiment 4 ............................................................................................................................... 308
Experiment 5 ............................................................................................................................... 310
Experiment 6 ............................................................................................................................... 311
Experiment 7 ............................................................................................................................... 313
Experiment 8 ............................................................................................................................... 314
Experiment 9 ............................................................................................................................... 315
Experiment 10 ............................................................................................................................. 316
Experiment 11 ............................................................................................................................. 318
Experiment 12 ............................................................................................................................. 319
Experiment 13 ............................................................................................................................. 320
Experiment 14 ............................................................................................................................. 321
Experiment 15 ............................................................................................................................. 322
Experiment 16 ............................................................................................................................. 323
Experiment 17 ............................................................................................................................. 324
Experiment 18 ............................................................................................................................. 325
Experiment 19 ............................................................................................................................. 326
Experiment 20 ............................................................................................................................. 327
Experiment 21 ............................................................................................................................. 329
Experiment 22 ............................................................................................................................. 330
Experiment 23 ............................................................................................................................. 331
Experiment 24 ............................................................................................................................. 332
279
Experiment 25..............................................................................................................................333
Experiment 26..............................................................................................................................334
Experiment 27..............................................................................................................................335
Experiment 28..............................................................................................................................337
Experiment 29..............................................................................................................................339
Experiment 30..............................................................................................................................340
Experiment 31..............................................................................................................................342
Experiment 32..............................................................................................................................344
Experiment 33..............................................................................................................................346
Experiment 34..............................................................................................................................348
Experiment 35..............................................................................................................................350
Experiment 36..............................................................................................................................352
Experiment 37..............................................................................................................................353
Experiment 38..............................................................................................................................354
Experiment 39..............................................................................................................................355
Experiment 40..............................................................................................................................356
Experiment 41..............................................................................................................................358
Experiment 42..............................................................................................................................359
Experiment 43..............................................................................................................................361
Experiment 44..............................................................................................................................363
Experiment 45..............................................................................................................................365
Appendix A Constructing a Read Switch Motor .........................................................................366
Multisim Troubleshooting Solutions ...........................................................................................367
280
Checkup 1
1. c
2. b
3. d
4. d
5. d
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. d
10. a
11. In scientific notation, a quantity is expressed as a product of a number between 1 and 10 and
a power of ten. In engineering notation, a quantity is expressed as a number with one to three
digits to the left of the decimal point and a power of ten exponent that is a multiple of three.
12. The abscissa is the x-axis and is normally used to plot the independent variable; the ordinate
is the y-axis and is normally used to plot the dependent variable.
13. a) ohms b) farads
c) hertz d) henries
e) volts f) joules
14. a) Ω b) F
c) W d) Hz
e) C f) A
15. a) 1.05 × 103 b) 5.75 × 10−2
c) 2.51 × 104 d) 8.90 × 10−4
e) 4.91 × 10−6 f) 1.35 × 10−4
16. a) 5.20 × 103 b) 59.2 × 103
c) 76.0 × 106 d) 1.90 × 10−3
e) 0.122 × 103 f) 5.09 × 10−12
17. a) 1.24 μA b) 7.5 kΩ
c) 47 kHz d) 33 nF
e) 2.2 ps f) 95 mH
18. a) 0.000 070 amps b) 50 000 000 Hz
c) 0.000 000 010 farads d) 5000 milliwatts
e) 0.022 volts f) 0.0033 microfarads
19. a) 10.2 × 103 or 1.02 × 104 b) 91.9 × 103 or 9.19 × 104
c) 32.5 × 10−3 or 3.25 × 10−2 d) 4.83 × 10−6
e) 291 × 10−6 or 2.91 × 10−4 f) 57.3 × 106 or 5.73 × 107
20. The independent variable.
21. The divisions are spaced equally and values assigned increase (to the right) by a fixed amount.
281
Checkup 2
1. c
2. b
3. b
4. a
5. c
6. d
7. b
8. a
9. a
10. b
11. To assure that the correct values were used and to have a record of the circuit “as built”
12. Minimum value = 5.32 kΩ, maximum value = 5.88 kΩ
13. A positive value of VAB means that point A in the circuit is more positive than point B; the
location of ground does not alter this fact.
14. a) 9.1 kΩ +/−10%
b) 5.6 MΩ +/−5%
c) 10 Ω +/−5%
d) 47 kΩ +/−10%
e) 5.1 Ω +/−5%
15. a) yellow - violet - yellow - silver
b) brown - gray - brown - gold
c) yellow - orange - red - gold
d) brown - black - gold - sliver
e) red - violet - green - gold
16. The terms “positive” and “negative” are relative terms when used with voltages as voltage is
measured with respect to some reference point. By selecting a reference point that is higher
than some voltage and lower than others, both positive and negative voltages can be
measured. Similarly, if a voltage is positive when measured from A to B, then it must be
negative when measured from B to A.
17. a) +22.6 V
b) −22.6 V
c) +18.9 V
d) −18.9 V
e) −3.7 V
f) +3.7 V
18. Voltage
282
Checkup 3
1. c
2. e
3. d
4. a
5. a
6. d
7. d
8. d
9. a
10. c
11. 5V
12. a) The peak would shift to the left and have a higher maximum value. The maximum
occurs when the variable resistance is equal to the fixed resistance.
b) The graph would ideally be a hyperbola, with power approaching infinity for R=0 and
approaching zero as R approached infinity. Note that the power still is maximum when
the variable resistance is equal to the fixed resistance (namely zero).
13. a) 200 mA b) 4W
14. It must be in series. The positive terminal must be connected to the more positive point in the
circuit.
15. a) 833 mA
b) 2.5 W (assuming the same resistance)
283
Checkup 4
1. d
2. b
3. a
4. d
5. a
6. b
7. b
8. b
9. a
10. c
11. 1.97 MΩ
12. The battery connections are shown in C-4-1.
Figure C-4-1
13. Place the leads of a voltmeter across the power supply. Then move the positive probe
through the circuit, one component at a time, toward the ground probe and note when the
meter reading drops to zero. The open is between the point where full voltage is read and the
zero reading.
14. a) 10.6 V
b) 70.7 mA
15. 4.5%
16. a) 26 Ω
b) 8Ω
17. If all resistors were 20% larger, the current in the circuit would be reduced but the resistance
ratios and voltage drops would have been the same.
284
Checkup 5
1. a
2. d
3. d
4. a
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. d
9. d
10. b
11. The total circuit conductance is increased because the addition of more resistors provided
more current paths.
12. In parallel circuits, the addition of branches does not affect the voltage drop or current in any
other branch. If household wiring were done in series, a failure or an open in any path would
affect all other loads in the circuit.
13. a) 7A
b) 17.1 Ω
c) 40. Ω
14. IR1 = 208 μA
IR2 = 142 μA
15. a) 50 mW
b) 7.07 V
16. R2 is most likely open. From Ohm’s law the branch currents should be:
IR1 = 1.2 mA, IR2 = 800 μA, and IR3 = 545 μA.
The total current should be 2.55 mA. Since 800 μA is missing from the total, it is likely that
the branch containing R2 is open.
285
Checkup 6
1. c
2. b
3. d
4. a
5. c
6. a
7. c
8. c
9. a
10. d
11. VL = 1.89 V
IL = 126 μA
12. 302 Ω
13. Although the two methods are not fully independent, they serve as a check that computed
answers are reasonable and illustrate that there is often more than one way to solve a
problem.
14. The replacement of a source with a jumper is only valid for sources that have very low
internal resistance such as a power supply or battery.
15. No. There are no series or parallel combinations in a loaded Wheatstone bridge; therefore,
the methods of Experiment 10 cannot be applied to solving the circuit.
286
Checkup 7
1. d
2. d
3. a
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. b
8. a
9. c
10. a
11. The connection to form a latching relay is shown in Figure C-7-1. One of the unused,
normally-open contacts is wired in parallel with the switch as shown.
Figure C-7-1
12. The release voltage of a relay is less than the pull-in voltage because of hysteresis. In the
case of a relay, the current (and thus the voltage) required to produce a magnetic field strong
enough to energize the relay is greater than that needed to maintain the field.
B1 = 100 At
B2 = 100 At
13. a) The field strengths (NI) of both coils are identical.
b) The flux intensities are the same if the lengths are the same.
14. Faraday’s law states that a changing magnetic field will induce a voltage across a coil. In a
dc generator, a spinning magnet and fixed coil (sometimes a spinning coil and fixed magnet)
are used to produce a changing magnetic flux through the coil that produces the observed
voltage.
15. a) 50 × 10−3 Wb/m2
b) 5 × 10−6 Wb
287
Checkup 8
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. b
6. a
7. c
8. c
9. d
10. b
11. a) 339 Vpp
b) 16.7 ms
12. 8000
13. a) 40 Vp
b) 35° (lagging)
14. The phasor drawing is shown in Figure C-8-1.
Figure C-8-1
15. The frequency is approximately 326 MHz.
16. a) 5.8 ns
b) approximately 9.9 ns (a 24% error)
17. A ×10 probe is normally provided with general purpose oscilloscopes because it provides a
high impedance connection to the scope (less loading effect) and extends the frequency
response (and rise time) of the scope over a ×1 probe.
288
Checkup 9
1. a
2. c
3. b
4. d
5. d
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. b
10. d
11. a) 0.032 μF
b) about 760 μs
12. Connect an ohmmeter across the capacitor’s terminals using a high resistance scale. If the
capacitor can store and hold a charge, the resistance should increase as the capacitor charges
toward a very high reading. When performing this test, the polarity of the meter should be
observed.
13. The capacitive reactance is greater than 1.0 kΩ (value of R1).
14. Approximately 0.022 μF
15. 220 pF, which is 0.00022 μF
289
Checkup 10
1. b
2. d
3. a
4. a
5. a
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. a
10. a
11. In a series circuit, the current is common to all components, so it is logical to use it as the
reference (although the generator voltage is sometimes preferred). In a parallel circuit, the
generator voltage is common to all components; therefore, it is the logical choice as a
reference.
12. a) 339 Hz
b) 707 μA
c) 7.07 V
13. The phasor diagram is shown in Figure C-10-1.
Figure C-10-1
14. No. The magnitude of the 1.0 kΩ resistors in relation to the impedance of the original circuit
is large enough to seriously affect circuit measurements. The phase angle of the capacitive
branch would change from −90° to −87.4° and the total impedance would change from
10.8 kΩ to 12.1 kΩ.
290
Checkup 11
1. b
2. d
3. a
4. d
5. a
6. d
7. a
8. c
9. c
10. c
11. Four factors affecting coil inductance are
a) number of turns
b) core material
c) cross-sectional area
d) coil length
12. A smaller inductor will work but stores less energy and will have a smaller time constant.
The larger inductor is easier to observe.
13. In the RC circuit, source current leads source voltage, whereas in the RL circuit, source
voltage leads source current. This is true for both series or parallel circuits.
14. a) 550 μH b) 3.89 V
15. To observe the exponential response of the circuit, it is necessary to have a period of 10 time
constants (five for the rise; five for the fall). The predicted time constant was 212 μs, so a
period of 2.12 ms is the shortest period that should be selected. This puts an upper limit of
about 471 Hz for the circuit with the component values given. The frequency could be
increased slightly above the 300 Hz called for in the experiment.
16. XL = 19.0 kΩ L1 = 30.3 mH
291
Checkup 12
1. d
2. a
3. c
4. c
5. c
6. c
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. b
11. By making both signals appear to have the same amplitude, the phase shift can be measured
along any horizontal line on the scope with minimal error. If this is not done, the only place
that the phase shift can be measured accurately is in the exact center of both signals.
12. The generator supplies the total current to the circuit; the generator voltage is common to all
components and is in phase with the current in the resistor. Therefore, the phase angle
between the total current and the resistor current is the same as the phase angle between the
generator current and generator voltage.
13. a) −63.4°
b) The phasor diagram is shown in Figure C-12-1.
Figure C-12-1
14. a) 222 ∠ 12.9° Ω
b) 45.1 ∠ 12.9° mA
c) 3.38 V
d) 28.6°
292
Checkup 13
1. a
2. c
3. a
4. c
5. c
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. a
10. b
11. a) 1.125 MHz
b) 20 Ω
c) 35.4
12. The parallel resistance will lower the Thevenin resistance of the generator, thus raising the Q
of the circuit.
13. a) CMIN = 49.2 pF, CMAX = 442.5 pF
b) At 535 kHz, QL = 67.2 At 1605 kHz, QL = 201.6
c) At 535 kHz, BW = 7.96 kHz At 1605 kHz, BW = 7.96 kHz
14. a) 550 Ω
b) 22
293
Checkup 14
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. c
5. a
6. c
7. c
8. b
9. c
10. b
11. A power transformer is designed to operate at a specific frequency and can be optimized for
this frequency. An impedance matching transformer must operate over a wide range of
frequencies, and is therefore not as efficient.
12. a) 93%
b) 150 mA
c) 0.233
13. A tapped transformer has a continuous winding with multiple connections that provide a
variety of turns ratios. A multiple winding transformer has two or more windings. With
multiple windings, the leads from each winding are electrically isolated, whereas in a tapped
transformer, electrical isolation is not provided by the common winding.
14. An isolation transformer is a special power transformer with a 1:1 ratio. It electrically isolates
the ground in two different circuits and permits “floating” measurements to be made.
15. The fuse will need to carry up to 105 mA. A fuse with a slightly higher rating should be
used. A 1/8 amp fuse is a good choice.
16. a) PL = 238 mW
b) n = 0.4
294
Checkup 15
1. c
2. c
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. d
7. d
8. a
9. a
10. d
11. Connect the inductor and a known resistor, R, in series with the square wave generator and
measure the time constant. Find L from the formula L = Rτ (where τ is the time constant).
12. a) The original time constant is 100 μs. To lengthen the time constant to 330 μs, the
easiest change is to either increase R or increase C by a factor of 3.3. If R is selected,
the value is 33 kΩ instead of 10 kΩ. If C is selected, the new value is 0.033 μF.
b) For the required time constant, L = 3.3 H. See Figure C-15-1.
C-15-1
13. a) 56.4 μs
b) 1.77 kHz
c) See Figure C-15-2.
Figure C-15-2
295
Checkup 16
1. d
2. d
3. a
4. a
5. a
6. c
7. c
8. c
9. b
10. c
11. Different ranges of an ohmmeter provide different current to the device whose resistance is
being measured. Since the forward resistance of a diode varies as the amount of current
changes, the resistance will depend on the range selected.
12. a) diode is shorted
b) diode is open
c) no fault
d) power supply may be off or resistor is open
13. a) If all diodes are good, the ripple frequency from the bridge is twice the input ripple
frequency. If any diode is open, the output ripple frequency will be the same as the
input ripple frequency.
b) The open diode will have the full ac secondary voltage across it.
14. a) 16.4 V (assuming 0.7 V diode drops)
b) 3.5 mA
296
Checkup 17
1. a
2. a
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. a
7. a
8. d
9. d
10. c
11. This is cutoff clipping. When the collector voltage rises, the current in the collector resistor
drops. At the limit, the collector reaches VCC and the transistor current is zero (cutoff).
12. a) 7.36 V
b) 5.96 V
c) Self-bias
13. The input resistance of the BJT amplifier is approximately 4.8 kΩ (computed from
re*β || R1 || R2) = (54 Ω*120 || 22 kΩ || 100 kΩ = 4.8 kΩ). The input resistance of the JFET
amplifier is approximately 1 MΩ (the gate resistance).
14. 112 (loaded gain)
15. 7.8 (loaded gain)
16. 20 (to make the loop gain = 1).
297
Checkup 18
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. b
6. d
7. d
8. a
9. c
10. d
11. Virtual ground refers to a point in a circuit which acts like a circuit ground in maintaining a
voltage equal to ground reference but unlike ground does not sink current.
12. Open-loop gain does not involve negative feedback from the output to the input. Closed-loop
gain uses negative feedback to establish the amplifier gain.
13. a) The ratio of Rf to Ri is 13:1.
b) There are many reasonable answers. Possible values are Rf = 47 kΩ and Ri = 3.6 kΩ.
The circuit with these values is shown in Figure C-18-1.
Figure C-18-1
14. a) +5.0 V
b) 1.0 V
c) 100 μA
d) 100 μA
e) +0.3 V The voltage across Rf (4.7 V) is subtracted from the voltage at the inverting input).
298
Checkup 19
1. c
2. a
3. a
4. d
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. d
9. b
10. a
11. The waveforms are shown in Figure C-19-1.
Figure C-19-1
12. +5.0 V
13. a) AV1 = −37 AV2 = −17.9
b) Vout = (−37 × Vin1) + (−17.9 × Vin2)
14. a) In an integrating circuit, the output is proportional to the area under the input signal. In
a differentiating circuit, the output is proportional to the rate of change of the input
signal.
b) A resistor and an inductor can be used for either circuit. RL circuits are not widely used
because they are more expensive than RC circuits. In addition, inductors are large and,
because of coil resistance, are not as close to ideal components as capacitors.
299
Checkup 20
1. b
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. c
6. d
7. d
8. c
9. a
10. b
11. R7 balances the common-mode gain so as to cancel common-mode signals.
12. The differential gain will be 1 if RG is open.
13. It charges to the peak voltage of the input signal.
14. The circuit will respond faster to changes in the input but the peak voltage will not remain on
the capacitor as long.
15. The capacitor will be charged to the negative peak.
300
Checkup 21
1. c
2. a
3. b
4. c
5. c
6. d
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. c
11. Compensation refers to a circuit that produces a voltage to cancel the effect of an unwanted
thermocouple voltage due to the reference junction.
12. The third wire allows the wire resistance to the thermocouple to be “split” into two separate
arms of the bridge, thus canceling the effect of wire resistance.
13. 1) Reduce the anode voltage to a point that causes the anode current to drop below the
holding current.
2) Apply a voltage between the anode and cathode that opposes the conduction
(commutation).
14. Turn it on at the zero-crossing of the ac.
301
Experiment 1: Metric Prefixes, Scientific Notation, and Graphing
Procedure:
Some possible responses are listed in Table 1-3.
Table 1-3
Instrument Control Metric Unit Meaning
Oscilloscope SEC/DIV ms 10−3 s
Oscilloscope SEC/DIV μs 10−6 s
Function Gen Range kHz 103 Hz
DMM Function kΩ 103 Ω
Oscilloscope V/DIV mV 10−3 V
Table 1−4
Length in Length in
Dimension Millimeters Meters
A 7.2 mm 7.2 × 10−3 m
B 15.4 mm 15.4 × 10−3 m
C 9.0 mm 9.0 × 10−3 m
D 31.3 mm 31.3 × 10−3 m
E 14.0 mm 14.0 × 10−3 m
F 6.0 mm 6.0 × 10−3 m
G 10.2 mm 10.2 × 10−3 m
Table 1-5
Scientific Engineering Metric
Number Notation Notation Value
0.0829 V 8.29 × 10−2 V 82.9 × 10−3 V 82.9 mV
48,000 Hz 4.8 × 104 Hz 48 × 103 Hz 48 kHz
2,200,000 Ω 2.2 × 10 Ω6
2.2 × 10 Ω 6
2.2 MΩ
−5 −6
0.000 015 A 1.5 × 10 A 15 × 10 A 15 μA
7,500 W 7.5 × 10 W
3
7.5 × 10 W 3
7.5 kW
−8 −9
0.000 000 033 F 3.3 10 F 33 × 10 F 33 nF
270,000 Ω 2.7 × 105 Ω 270 × 103 Ω 270 kΩ
−5 −6
0.000 010 H 1.0 × 10 H 10 × 10 H 10 μH
302
Table 1−6 Table 1−7
Metric Engineering Metric Unit Mathematical Metric Unit Metric Unit
Value Notation in Operand Operation in Operand in Result
100 pF 100 × 10−12 F milli multiplied by milli = micro
12 kV 12 × 103 V kilo multiplied by micro = milli
85.0 μA 85.0 × 10−6 A nano multiplied by kilo = micro
50 GHz 50 × 109 Hz milli multiplied by mega = kilo
33 kΩ 33 × 103 Ω micro divided by nano = kilo
250 mV 250 × 10−3 V micro divided by pico = mega
7.8 ns 7.8 × 10−9 s pico divided by pico = unit
2.0 MΩ 2.0 × 106 Ω milli divided by mega = nano
Table 1−8 Inductance, L, of coils
wound on identical iron cores (mH).
Length, Number of Turns , N (t)
l (cm) 100 200 300 400
2.5 3.9 16.1 35.8 64.0
5.5 1.7 7.5 16.1 29.3
8.0 1.2 5.1 11.4 19.8
12.0 0.8 3.3 7.5 13.1
Plot 1-1
303
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) kW b) mA
c) pF d) ns
e) MΩ f) μH
2. a) megawatt b) nanoampere
c) microjoule d) millivolt
e) kilohm f) gigahertz
3. a) 3.2 × 101
b) −1.1 × 10−6
c) 1.9 × 10−2
d) 5.0 × 10−2
4. a) −6.3 × 105 b) 7.6 × 106
c) 3.1 × 109 d) −2.2 × 10−5
5. a) −630 × 103 = −630 k b) 7.6 × 106 = 7.6 M
c) 3.1 × 109 = 3.1 G d) −22 × 10−6 = −22 μ
6. Steps in preparing a linear graph:
1. Choose a scale factor that enables all of the data to be plotted on the graph.
2. Number the major divisions along each axis.
3. Label each axis to indicate the quantity being measured and the measurement units.
4. Plot the data points with a small dot with a small circle around each point.
5. Draw a smooth line that represents the data trend.
6. Title the graph.
304
For Further Investigation:
The data from Table 1-8, plotted on log-log paper.
305
Experiment 2: Laboratory Meters and Power Supply
Procedure:
1. Each secondary division is worth 0.5 V. The meter reads 15.0 V.
2. Each secondary division is worth 5.0 V. The meter reads 150 V.
3. The voltmeter reads 25.5 V.
4. The ohmmeter reads 175 Ω. On the 12 V DC VOLTS scale, the reading is 2.4 V.
5. The ohmmeter reads 155 Ω. On the 30 V AC VOLTS scale, the reading is 21.9 V.
6, 7. Answers vary depending on particular power supply.
9. Reading on the power supply meter: 5.0 V. Reading on the DMM: 4.98 V.
10. Reading on the power supply meter: 12. V. Reading on the DMM: 12.0 V.
11. Reading on the power supply meter: 0 V. Reading on the DMM: 0.01 V.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The precision of a typical 3 1/2 digit DMM is one part in 2000. The precision of a power
supply meter depends on the type of meter but is typically one part in 100. This question can
lead to a post-lab discussion of the difference between resolution and accuracy.
2. An autoranging meter automatically switches to the appropriate range to display the
measured quantity.
3. A multiple scale is one with more than one range on the scale. A complex scale is used for
more than one function on the same scale.
4. A linear scale has equally spaced divisions across the meter face; a nonlinear scale does not.
5. Each secondary mark has a value of 0.2. The meter reading is 3.2.
6. The three basic measurements are voltage, resistance, and current. Many DMMs have
additional capabilities.
For Further Investigation:
Results will vary depending on equipment and meter used.
306
Experiment 3: Measurement of Resistance
Procedure:
Answers for both tables depend on the particular resistors used. Note that the sum of the
readings on Table 3-3 (column 3) is approximately constant.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Answer depends on the potentiometer used. Normally, the resistance is a minimum between
terminals 1 and 2 and maximum between terminals 2 and 3 when the shaft is rotated fully
CW.
2. a) Answers vary.
b) Check result with another meter or measure a known resistor with the meter in question.
3. a) brown - red - black - silver
b) blue - gray - red - silver
c) white - brown - brown - silver
d) yellow - violet - green - silver
e) brown - black - gold - silver
4. a) 22 Ω (5%)
b) 750 Ω (10%)
c) 510 Ω (5%)
d) 9.1 Ω (5%)
e) 820 kΩ (10%)
5. a) largest value = 28,350 Ω
b) smallest value = 25,650 Ω
6. A rheostat is a two-terminal variable resistor used to control current in a circuit. A
potentiometer is a three-terminal variable resistor with a wiper that slides along a fixed
resistance. A potentiometer can be connected as a rheostat by leaving open one of the fixed
terminals.
For Further Investigation:
Although not as meaningful statistically as standard deviation, the average deviation is easy
to find by computing the average value and finding the variation of each resistor from the
average. Results vary but the student will observe that all (or nearly all) are within the
deviation specified by the tolerance.
307
Experiment 4: Voltage Measurement and Reference Ground
Procedure:
Table 4-2 Table 4-3
Measured Measured
Value Voltage Voltage Difference
Calculation
VS +10.0 V VA +10.0 V
VAB = VA − VB = +1.64 V
VAB +1.64 V VB +8.36 V
VBC = VB − VC = +3.38 V
VBC +3.38 V VC +4.98 V
VCD = VC − VD = +4.98 V
VCD +4.98 V VD 0.0 V (ref)
Table 4-4
Measured
Voltage Voltage Difference
Calculation
VA +5.02 V
VAB = VA − VB = +1.64 V
VB +3.38 V
VBC = VB − VC = +3.38 V
VC +0.0 V (ref)
VCD = VC − VD = +4.98 V
VD −4.98 V
Table 4-5
Measured
Voltage Voltage Difference
VA +1.64 V Calculation
VAB = VA − VB = +1.64 V
VB 0.0 V (ref)
VBC = VB − VC = +3.38 V
VC −3.38 V
VCD = VC − VD = +4.98 V
VD −8.36 V
Table 4-6
Measured
Voltage Voltage Difference
VA 0.0 V (ref) Calculation
VAB = VA − VB = +1.64 V
VB −1.64 V
VBC = VB − VC = +3.38 V
VC −5.02 V
VCD = VC − VD = +4.98 V
VD −10.0 V
308
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The voltage difference calculations indicate that the voltage difference is independent of the
ground reference point. Voltage is frequently defined with respect to ground (using a single
subscript), but voltage difference is measured between the two points named by the
subscripts.
2. Reference ground is the point in a circuit defined as 0 V. All other voltages in a circuit are
referenced to this point.
3. −12 V
4. −70 V
5. +8.3 V
For Further Investigation:
The voltage difference calculations should be the same as the results in Tables 4-3 to 4-6.
309
Experiment 5: Ohm’s Law
Procedure:
Table 5-2 (R1) (0.996 kΩ)
VS = 2.0 V 4.0 V 6.0 V 8.0 V 10.0 V
I= 2.0 mA 4.0 mA 6.0 mA 8.0 mA 10.0 mA
Table 5-3 (R2) (1.52 kΩ)
VS = 2.0 V 4.0 V 6.0 V 8.0 V 10.0 V
I= 1.3 mA 2.7 mA 4.0 mA 5.3 mA 6.7 mA
Table 5-4 (R3) (2.20 kΩ)
VS = 2.0 V 4.0 V 6.0 V 8.0 V 10.0 V
I= 0.9 mA 1.8 mA 2.7 mA 3.6 mA 4.5 mA
Plot 5-1
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The slope represents the conductance of each resistor. For R1, the slope is 1.0 mS; for R2 the
slope is 0.67 mS, for R3 the slope is 0.45 mS.
2. The slope is lower for larger resistors.
3. a) The current is doubled.
b) The current is doubled.
4. 2.0 kΩ
5. 0.5 A
For Further Investigation:
Measured data for a Jameco 120299 CdS cell is shown
below and in plot 5-2. Room light was held constant for
these measurements.
Table 5-5 (CdS Cell)
VS = 2.0 V 4.0 V 6.0 V 8.0 V 10.0 V
I= 1.99 mA 3.97 mA 5.96 mA 8.03 mA 10.21 mA
Plot 5-2
310
Experiment 6: Power in DC Circuits
Procedure:
Table 6-1
Variable VT V1 V2 Power in R2:
Resistance IT = (measured) (measured) P2
RT
Setting (R2)
0.5 kΩ 3.75 mA 10.12 V 1.88 V 7.0 mW
1.0 kΩ 3.24 mA 8.76 V 3.24 V 10.5 mW
2.0 kΩ 2.55 mA 6.89 V 5.11 V 13.0 mW
3.0 kΩ 2.11 mA 5.68 V 6.32 V 13.3 mW
4.0 kΩ 1.79 mA 4.84 V 7.16 V 12.8 mW
5.0 kΩ 1.56 mA 4.21 V 7.79 V 12.1 mW
7.5 kΩ 1.17 mA 3.18 V 8.82 V 10.4 mW
10.0 kΩ 0.94 mA 2.55 V 9.45 V 8.9 mW
Plot 6-1
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The resistance of R2 at the peak is 2.7 kΩ (matching load). The data should support the
answer that it is approximately 3 kΩ.
2. The total current was decreasing.
3. Since R1 is a fixed resistor the current in it will decrease as the resistance of R2 increases. The
power equation P = I2R shows that the power must also go down as R2 increases. Student
may also observe that the tabulated voltage drop across R1 is lower as the resistance of R2
increases indicating lower power in R1.
311
4. a) 15 mA
b) 337.5 mW
c) A 1/4 watt = 250 mW. A 1/4 watt resistor should not be used.
5. Size.
6. It is dissipated as heat.
For Further Investigation:
See Plot 6-2 for current and voltage plots. The solid line represents the current; the dotted
line represents the voltage. The current-voltage product is the same as Plot 6-1.
Plot 6-2
312
Experiment 7: Series Circuits
Procedure:
Table 7-1 Table 7-2
Listed Measured Computed Measured
Component Value Value Value Value
R1 1.0 kΩ 996 Ω IT 2.98 mA 3.0 mA
R2 1.5 kΩ 1.52 kΩ VAB 2.98 V 2.96 V
R3 2.2 kΩ 2.20 kΩ VBC 4.47 V 4.46 V
R4 330 Ω 332 Ω VCD 6.58 V 6.54 V
RT = 5.03 kΩ 5.05 kΩ VDE 0.98 V 0.99 V
7. −15.0 + 2.96 + 4.46 + 6.54 + 0.99 = −0.05 V √
8. Answers vary but should be similar to result from step 7.
9. −15.0 + 0 + 15.0 + 0 + 0 = 0 V √ (The +15.0 V reading is across the open).
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The numbers used in the summation are the same regardless of the starting point. The
commutative property of mathematics applies to Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
2. There was no current in the circuit of step 9; yet Kirchhoff’s voltage law was found to be
valid.
3. The open fuse would have 120 V across it.
4. VX = 3 V.
5. a) 4V
b) 0.4 A
c) 20 Ω
For Further Investigation:
The three currents will all be the same, approximately 1.9 mA. The same current flows
throughout a series circuit.
Note: The solutions to Multisim troubleshooting problems are on page 367-369.
313
Experiment 8: The Voltage Divider
Procedure:
Table 8-1
Listed Measured RX
Resistor VX = VS
R VX(measured)
Value Value
T
R1 330 Ω 333 Ω 1.34 V 1.34 V
R2 470 Ω 473 Ω 1.90 V 1.90 V
R3 680 Ω 683 Ω 2.75 V 2.75 V
R4 1000 Ω 998 Ω 4.01 V 4.01 V
Total 2478 Ω 2487 Ω 10.0 V 10.0 V
9. Computed: Vmin = +2.61 V Vmax = +8.17 V.
10. Measured: Vmin = 2.54 V Vmax = 8.10 V.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) Output voltage is unchanged. b) Power dissipated is a factor of ten less.
2. a) Vout = 0 V b) Vout = 10.0 V
3. The range of output voltages increases. Vmin = 0.44 V Vmax = 9.7 V.
4. VA = 10 V VB = 1.0 V VC = 0.10 V VD = 0.010 V
5. Vmin 0 V Vmax = 6.67 V.
For Further Investigation:
The student should find that a load resistance of ten times the divider resistance it is across
will decrease the output voltage by less than 10%.
314
Experiment 9: Parallel Circuits
Procedure: Measured resistors are: R1 = 3.30 kΩ, R2 = 4.71 kΩ, R3 = 6.82 kΩ, R4 = 9.97 kΩ
Table 9-2
R1 R1|| R2 R1||R2||R3 R1||R2||R3||R4
RT (measured) 3.30 kΩ 1.93 kΩ 1.51 kΩ 1.31 kΩ
IT (measured) 9.15 mA
5. The voltage across each resistor is the same as the source voltage.
Table 9-3
VS VS VS VS
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 =
R1 R2 R3 R4
I (computed) 3.64 mA 2.55 mA 1.76 mA 1.20 mA
Table 9-4
R R RT R
I1 = T IT I2 = T IT I3 = IT I4 = T IT
R
R1 R2 3 R4
I (computed) 3.63 mA 2.54 mA 1.76 mA 1.20 mA
8. 9.15 mA = 3.64 mA + 2.55 mA + 1.76 mA + 1.20 mA √
9. The new total current is 7.95 mA.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Subtract the observed current from the original total current. The difference is the “missing”
current due to an open branch. Apply Ohm’s law to find the open resistance.
2. The short is a very low resistance path causing the current to go very high. If the power
supply does not have short circuit current limiting, a fuse will blow or damage will result.
3. a) Current should be 167 mA. b) The 820 Ω resistor is open.
4. I4 is entering the junction and is equal to 25 mA.
5. The high current in the short may cause a fuse to open or could cause another open to occur.
For Further Investigation:
The student should be able to confirm Kirchhoff’s current law through the measurements.
315
Experiment 10: Series-Parallel Combination Circuits
Procedure: Measured resistors are: R1 = 2.22 kΩ, R2 = 4.69 kΩ, R3 = 5.63 kΩ, R4 = 9.96 kΩ
2. a) R1 YES R2 NO R3 NO R4 YES
b) R1 NO R2 YES R3 YES R4 NO
3. Equivalent Circuit: 10. Equivalent circuit:
Table 10-2 Table 10-3
Computed Computed Measured
Voltage Ohm’s Measured R1,2 6.91 kΩ 6.90 kΩ
Divider Law
R3,4 15.59 kΩ 15.6 kΩ
RT 14.7 kΩ 14.7 kΩ 14.7 kΩ
RT 4.79 kΩ 4.78 kΩ
IT 0.82 mA
IT 2.51 mA
V1 1.81 V 1.82 V 1.81 V
I1,2 1.74 mA
V2,3 2.09 V 2.10 V 2.09 V
I3,4 0.77 mA
V4 8.13 V 8.16 V 8.13 V
V1 3.86 V 3.84 V
I2 0.45 mA
V2 8.16 V 8.16 V
I3 0.37 mA
V3 4.34 V 4.33 V
VT 12.0 V 12.0 V 12.0 V
V4 7.67 V 7.67 V
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) The voltage divider rule was applied to an equivalent series circuit.
b) Yes. The voltage divider rule can be applied to any set of series resistor for which the
total voltage across the resistors is known. The voltage divider rule can be applied to
each series branch in Figure 10-3 independently to find the voltage drops across each
resistor.
2. Answers vary. One possible path around the outside loop is:
−12.0 V + 4.33 V + 7.67 V = 0 √
3. The currents entering and leaving the junction are equal. This can be shown as:
2.51 mA = 1.74 mA + 0.77 mA √
316
4. a) The path through R1 − R2 is open.
b) Check the resistors to see if a +12 V drop is across one or the other. If not, check for a
drop across the connection points.
5. +24 V.
For Further Investigation:
Student should summarize a procedure for solving the problem. The total resistance seen by
the voltage source is 1.74 kΩ and the total current is 6.90 mA. The voltage and current for
each resistor are as follows:
V1 = 12.0 V I1 = 5.45 mA
V2 = 6.80 V I2 = 1.45 mA
V3 = 5.20 V I3 = 0.93 mA
V4 = 5.20 V I4 = 0.52 mA
317
Experiment 11: The Superposition Theorem
Procedure: Measured resistors for this experiment: R1 = 4.69 kΩ, R2 = 6.8 kΩ, R3 = 9.90 kΩ
Table 11-2 Computed and measured resistances.
Quantity Computed Measured
Step 4 RT (VS1 operating alone) 8.74 kΩ 8.73 kΩ
Step 7 RT (VS2 operating alone) 9.98 kΩ 10.1 kΩ
Table 11-3 Computed and measured current and voltage.
Computed Current* Computed Voltage Measured Voltage
I1 I2 I3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3
Step 5 +0.57 +0.34 +0.23
Step 6 +2.67 V +2.31 V +2.28 V +2.69 V +2.32 V +2.32 V
Step 8 −0.68 −1.00 +0.32
Step 9 −3.19 V −6.80 V +3.18 V −3.18 V −6.80 V +3.18 V
Step 10 −0.11 −0.66 +0.55 −0.52 V −4.49 V +5.46 V −0.50 V −4.49 V +5.49 V
(totals)
*all currents are shown in milliamps
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) −5.0 V + (−0.51 V) + (−4.49 V) + 10 V = 0 √
b) −1.09 mA = −0.66 mA + 0.55 mA √
2. The actual direction of current is the opposite of the assumed direction.
3. The sign of all results would be reversed. Since the original assumed direction of current is
also reversed, the net result is that there is no effect on the circuit.
4. a) Replace all sources except one with their internal resistance.
b) Compute the current or voltage due to the one source acting alone.
c) Repeat steps a and b for all sources.
d) Algebraically sum the results.
5. Current due to VS1 is = 54.5 mA. Current due to VS2 = −145.5 mA. Net current = −91 mA
For Further Investigation:
The results indicate that the superposition theorem does not apply to power.
318
Experiment 12: Thevenin’s Theorem
Procedure:
Measured resistors: R1 = 274 Ω, R2 = 556 Ω, R3 = 680 Ω, RL1 = 151 Ω, RL2 = 471 Ω, RL3 = 810 Ω
2. Load voltage calculation (using equivalent circuits and the voltage divider theorem):
a) RL1 + R2 = 151 Ω + 556 Ω = 707 Ω
b) (RL1 + R2) || R3 = 707 Ω || 680 Ω = 347 Ω
c) VL1, 2, 3 = 10 V* (347 Ω/594 Ω) = 5.62 V
d) VL1 = 5.62 V* (151 Ω/707 Ω) = 1.20 V
Table 12-2 Table 12-3
Computed Measured Computed Measured
VL1 1.20 V 1.20 V VL1 1.19 V 1.20 V
VL2 2.76 V 2.76 V VL2 2.74 V 2.76 V
VL3 3.72 V 3.70 V VL3 3.69 V 3.71 V
VTH 7.13 V 7.12 V VTH 7.13 V 7.12 V
RTH 751 Ω 751 Ω RTH 751 Ω 751 Ω
8. The Thevenin circuit consists of a 7.12 V source in
series with a 751 Ω resistor as shown on the right
(Measured results are given.)
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The original circuit and the Thevenin circuit are equivalent as seen by the load resistor.
2. The load current in a short is 9.5 mA for both circuits.
3. Calculations are simplified.
4. The voltage and resistance looking from the output are not affected by R1, therefore it is not
part of the Thevenin circuit.
5.
For Further Investigation:
When the voltage across the load is one-half the unloaded voltage, the internal Thevenin
resistance is dropping the same voltage as the load resistor is dropping. Application of the
voltage divider theorem shows that the two resistances must be equal.
319
Experiment 13: The Wheatstone Bridge
Procedure:
Measured resistors: R1 = 99 Ω, R2 = 151 Ω, R3 = 332 Ω, RL = 475 Ω, R4 = 970 Ω (max)
Table 13-2
Computed Measured
VA 6.0 V 5.98 V
VB 7.52 V 7.50 V
RTH 60 Ω 59 Ω
R′TH 248 Ω 246 Ω
VL 0.92 V 0.91 V
Evaluation and Review Questions
1. Doubling the load resistance is not doubling the total resistance; therefore, the current is not
halved.
2. a) Yes. See the equivalent circuit in Figure 13-4 for example.
b) No. In a balanced bridge, there is no current in the load.
3. a) The Thevenin resistance would increase causing the total current to decrease.
b) In a balanced bridge, there is no current in the load. Doubling all bridge resistors keeps
the bridge balanced, so has no effect on the current in the load.
4. a) Load current would increase.
b) Doubling the voltage has no effect on the balance (although is does affect the
sensitivity).
The balanced bridge will remain in balance with no load current.
5. The voltage between point A and B is zero or no current is sensed in the load.
For Further Investigation:
In 150 feet of wire, the short can be located to within about 1 foot.
320
Experiment 14: Magnetic Devices
Procedure:
1. Relay diagrams will vary but should show the connections to the coil and contacts, terminal
numbers, and measured coil resistance (test relay measured 59 Ω).
3−6. The pull-in and release voltages depend on the specific relay. A typical small 12 V relay that
was tested is given as an example:
Table 14-1
Pull-in Release
Voltage Voltage
Steps 3 and 4 Trial 1 7.4 V 3.4 V
Trial 2 7.4 V 3.2 V
Step 5
Trial 3 7.5 V 2.9 V
Step 6 Average 7.43 V 3.17 V
7. Red light turns on when S1 is closed; it stays on when S1 is open.
8. Relay “buzzes” and both red and green LEDs are rapidly switched on and off. This occurs
because when power is applied through the NC contact, the relay coil energizes opening the
NC contact and removing power from the coil. With power removed, the NC contact closes,
and the process repeats.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Answers depend on the particular relay tested. The relay tested for this experiment had a coil
resistance of 59 Ω. The average pull-in current was 126 mA.
2. The tested relay had an average release current of 53.7 mA.
3. The hysteresis of the test relay was 7.43 V − 3.16 V = 4.27 V.
4. a) SPDT means there is one switch with two contacts.
b) DPST means there are two switches, each with one contact.
5. a) Relay coil could be open, control voltage could be off or too low, or switch S1 is not
making contact.
b) With switch closed, check voltage on relay coil; if it is correct, the relay is likely bad.
For Further Investigation:
The reversing circuit is shown below.
321
Experiment 15: The Oscilloscope
Procedure: Table 15-1 (computed values shown)
Power Number of Oscilloscope DMM
Supply VOLTS/DIV Divisions of (measured (measured
Setting Setting Deflection voltage) voltage)
1.0 V 0.2 V/DIV 5.0 DIV 1.0 V 1.0 V
2.5 V 0.5 V/DIV 5.0 DIV 2.5 V 2.5 V
4.5 V 1.0 V/DIV 4.5 DIV 4.5 V 4.5 V
8.3 V 2.0 V/DIV 4.15 DIV 8.3 V 8.3 V
Table 15-2 (computed values shown)
Signal Number of Oscilloscope Oscilloscope
Generator VOLTS/DIV Divisions Measured Measured
Amplitude Setting (peak-to-peak) (peak-to-peak) (rms)
1.0 Vrms 0.5 V/DIV 5.6 DIV 2.8 Vpp 1.0 Vrms
2.2 Vrms 1.0 V/DIV 6.2 DIV 6.2 Vpp 2.2 Vrms
3.7 Vrms 2.0 V/DIV 5.25 DIV 10.5 Vpp 3.7 Vrms
4.8 Vrms 2.0 V/DIV 6.8 DIV 13.6 Vpp 4.8 Vrms
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) Answers vary.
b) Answers depend on the specific equipment used but generally favor the DMM. An
analog oscilloscope linearity is typically 3% and has less resolution than a DMM. A
digital scope depends on the resolution and accuracy of the digitizer.
2. Vertical controls: control the vertical axis of the oscilloscope and coupling of the input signal.
Trigger controls: determine when the horizontal sweep occurs and the source of triggers.
Horizontal controls: control the horizontal axis (typically the time axis) of the oscilloscope.
Display controls: control the CRT.
3. Trigger controls.
4. a) 17.0 Vpp b) 6.01 Vrms
5. The signal is 56.6 Vpp. Use 10.0 volts/div control to spread the signal over 5.7 divisions.
6. When viewing two waveforms on an analog (dual trace) oscilloscope, select ALTernate to
view high frequencies, CHOP for low frequencies (below about 1kHz).
For Further Investigation:
Most oscilloscopes will have a 1 kHz square wave output at a small connector labeled
Probe Comp. The operator’s manual typically will show how to adjust the probe and
representative waveforms of a properly compensated probe. Forgetting to check probe
compensation and not initializing the control setup of an oscilloscope are the two most
common operator errors.
322
Experiment 16: Sine Wave Measurements
Procedure:
Table 16-1*
Signal Generator Computed Oscilloscope Number of Measured
Dial Frequency Period SEC/DIV Divisions Period
1.25 kHz 0.8 ms 0.1 ms/div 8.0 div 0.8 ms
1.90 kHz 0.526 ms 0.1 ms/div 5.26 div 0.53 ms
24.5 kHz 40.8 μs 5.0 μs/div 8.16 div 40.8 μs
83.0 kHz 12.0 μs 2.0 μs/div 6.0 div 12.0 μs
600.0 kHz 1.67 μs 0.2 μs/div 8.35 div 1.67 μs
*computed values shown.
Table 16-2
Signal Gen. Voltage Voltage
Voltage across R1 across R2
Measured 1.0 Vpp 0.28 Vpp 0.72 Vpp
Computed 1.0 Vpp 0.28 Vpp 0.72 Vpp
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) Answers vary.
b) Signal generator calibration, oscilloscopes time-base error, reading error.
2. −1.0 V + 0.28 V + 0.72 V = 0 √
3, a) 126 ms
b) 7.9 Hz
4. 10 μs/div
5. a) Connect CH 1 to one side of the component and CH 2 to the other side of the component.
b) Calibrate both channels and set the VOLTS/DIV to the same setting for each channel.
c) Use difference function to measure voltage across the ungrounded component. (For
some oscilloscopes, ADD the channels and INVERT CH 2).
Note: You may want to emphasize the danger inherent in attempting to measure voltages that are not
referenced to ground. If the scope ground clip is connected to a point in the circuit other than ground, the
circuit under test can be destroyed and/or a shock may occur when the ground clip is connected. A shock
hazard is also present when measuring “transformerless” ac appliances such as found in certain inexpensive
TV sets. These appliances connect one side of the ac line directly to the chassis. If a two-wire plug is
connected to the outlet in reverse, or a technician attempts to “hot-wire” the input ac voltage, the entire chassis
can become “hot” with respect to ground. Connecting a scope ground to the chassis can lead to a direct short
across the ac power. The best solution is to connect the test circuit through an isolation transformer.
For Further Investigation:
It is possible to obtain a stable display at 5 Hz with a small signal, but it is necessary to use
NORMAL triggering and care in adjusting the trigger level control.
323
Experiment 17: Pulse Measurements
Procedure:
Data shown on Tables 17-1, 17-2, 17-3, and 17-4 was taken with an H-P 3311A Function
Generator and a Tektronix 2246 oscilloscope (100 MHz bandwidth).
Table 17-1 Table 17-2 Table 17-3
Oscilloscope. Signal Generator. Signal Generator.
(square wave output) (with 1000 pF capacitor
BW 100 MHz across output)
Rise time, t(r) 64 ns
t(r) 3.5 ns Rise time, t(r) 1.40 μs
Fall time, t(f) 67 ns
Fall time, t(f) 1.27 μs
Period, T 10.0 μs
Pulse width, tw 5.0 μs
Percent duty cycle 50%
Table 17-4
Signal Generator.
(pulse output)
Rise time, t(r) 11.7 ns
Fall time, t(f) 9.1 ns
Period, T 10.0 μs
Pulse width, tw 1.56 μs
Percent duty cycle 15.6%
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Answers depend on equipment used. If the rise time of the scope is at least 4 times faster
than the measured rise time, the result is not bandwidth limited, otherwise it is (3% error).
2. The oscilloscope should have a rise time of 2.5 ns which represents a minimum bandwidth of
140 MHz.
3. When the X10 horizontal magnifier is used, the sweep is moving faster to increase the
horizontal gain by a factor of ten. The faster sweep means that the time per division across
the screen is reduced by a factor of ten.
4. There are 4.0 horizontal divisions between the 10% and 90% levels. The rise time is 8.0 ms.
5. The rise time would be 0.8 ms.
For Further Investigation:
Delayed sweep (also called Horizontal ALT magnification) is described in the Tektronix
booklet The XYZ’s of Using a Scope and an example is given in Exercise 10 of that booklet.
The example shows how to use it for a rise time and pulse width measurement.
324
Experiment 18: Capacitors
Procedure:
1,2. See Table 18-1 on right. Table 18-1
Listed Ohmmeter Test Voltmeter Test
4. Closing S1 causes the series Capacitor Value Pass/Fail Pass/Fail
LED to flash.
C1 100 μF pass very slow-fail
5. Opening S1 and closing S2 C2 47 μF pass very slow-fail
causes the parallel LED to flash.
C3 1.0 μF pass pass
6. V1 = 3.4 V V2 = 7.0 V C4 0.1 μF difficult to see pass
Observations: The series LED
C5 0.01 μF cannot see-fail pass
flashes quickly.
7. Q1 = 340 μC Q2 = 333 μC (computed from measured voltages).
Observations: The parallel LED flashes for a shorter time than in step 5.
8. V1 = 10.1 V V2 = 10.1 V
Observations: The series LED flashes for a much longer time than in step 4.
9. Q1 = 1010 μC Q2= 475 μC (computed from measured voltages).
10. The series LED flashes because only the capacitor charging current passes through it. The
parallel LED is on nearly steady because of capacitive filtering action.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The total stored charge was less for the series capacitors.
2. The charge would be smaller and the LED would flash for an even shorter time.
3. a) 3.0 μF b) 0.67 μF c) The larger voltage is across the 1.0 μF capacitor.
4. 683 = 68,000 pF = 0.068 μF 102 = 1,000 pF = 0.001 μF 224 = 220,000 pF = 0.22 μF
5. 47 pF is coded as 470 10,000 pF is coded as 103 0.033 μF is coded as 333
For Further Investigation:
Capacitor waveform: (10 Hz) Series LED waveform (10 Hz)
Plot 18-1 Plot 18-2
325
Experiment 19: Capacitive Reactance
Procedure:
(computed values shown on tables)
Table 19-2
Capacitor C1 Capacitor C2
Voltage across R1, VR 0.532 V 0.283 V
Total current, I 0.532 mA 0.283 mA
Voltage across C, VC 0.846 V 0.959 V
Capacitive reactance, XC 1.59 kΩ 3.39 kΩ
Computed capacitance, C 0.10 μF 0.047 μF
Table 19-3
Series Parallel
Capacitors Capacitors
Step
Voltage across R1, VR 0.197 V 0.68 V
(a)
Total current, I 0.197 mA 0.68 mA
(b) Voltage across capacitors, VC 0.98 V 0.73 V
(c) Capacitive reactance, XCT 4.98 kΩ 1.08 kΩ
(d) Computed capacitance, CT 0.032 μF 0.147 μF
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The total series reactance is the sum of the capacitive reactances, whereas the parallel
reactance is the product-over-sum of the reactances as shown in Table 19-3.
2. The capacitance of the series capacitors is the product-over-sum of the capacitances, whereas
the parallel reactance is the sum of the capacitances as shown in Table 19-3.
3. The smaller capacitance would have a higher capacitive reactance.
4. Measure the voltage across the capacitor and determine the current in the capacitor by
applying Ohm’s law to the resistor. Apply Ohm’s law (XC = VC/I) to these values to find the
reactance of the capacitor. Find the capacitance by applying the formula:
1
C=
2πfX C
5. The capacitive reactance is: 796 Ω.
For Further Investigation:
The circuit was tested with a generator that had a maximum output of 17 Vpp. The voltage
across the load resistor was 12 Vdc with approximately 0.7 Vpp of ripple.
326
Experiment 20: Series RC Circuits
Procedure:
Computed values are shown. Measured values were within 7% of these values.
Table 20-2
Frequency VR VC I XC Z
500 Hz 0.63 V 2.93 V 0.092 mA 31.8 kΩ 32.5 kΩ
1000 Hz 1.18 V 2.75 V 0.173 mA 15.9 kΩ 17.3 kΩ
1500 Hz 1.62 V 2.52 V 0.238 mA 10.6 kΩ 12.6 kΩ
2000 Hz 1.95 V 2.28 V 0.287 mA 7.96 kΩ 10.5 kΩ
4000 Hz 2.59 V 1.51 V 0.381 mA 3.98 kΩ 7.88 kΩ
8000 Hz 2.88 V 0.84 V 0.423 mA 1.99 kΩ 7.08 kΩ
8. Impedance and Voltage Phasors for 1000 Hz:
Plot 20-1
9. Impedance and Voltage Phasors for 4000 Hz:
Plot 20-2
327
10. Frequency response:
Plot 20-3
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Z= 6.8 kΩ 2 + 7.96 kΩ 2 = 10.5 kΩ Vs = 1.95 V 2 + 2.28 V 2 = 3.0 V
2. Connect the output across the resistor because the maximum voltage at high frequencies is
developed across the resistor.
3. a) The total impedance decreases as the frequency increases.
b) The capacitive reactance decreases but the resistance remains constant; therefore the
total impedance becomes more resistive. Hence, the phase angle is smaller.
4. VC will be smaller at any given frequency and VR will be larger.
5. Measure the voltage across each component. The open component will have VS across it.
For Further Investigation:
328
Experiment 21: Parallel RC Circuits
Procedure: (computed values shown)
Table 21-1 (f = 1.0 kHz)
Listed Measured Voltage Computed
Value Value Drop Current
R1 100 kΩ 100 kΩ 2.96 V 29.6 μA
RS1 1.0 kΩ 1.00 kΩ 35.2 mV 35.2 μA
RS2 1.0 kΩ 1.00 kΩ 18.7 mV 18.7 μA
C1 1000 pF 1000 pF
6. XC1 = 159 kΩ ZT = 84.6 kΩ Plot 21-1
7. IT = 35.4 μA
Table 21-2 (f = 2.0 kHz)
Listed Measured Voltage Computed
Value Value Drop Current
R1 100 kΩ 100 kΩ 2.97 V 29.7 μA
RS1 1.0 kΩ 1.00 kΩ 47.7 mV 47.7 μA
RS2 1.0 kΩ 1.00 kΩ 37.7 mV 37.7 μA
C1 1000 pF 1000 pF
Plot 21-2
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) The total impedance is lowered. b) The phase angle increases.
2. a) Current in R1 is still approximately 30 μA.
b) The capacitor current is approximately 5 times larger than that found in step 4 or 93.5 μA.
c) The total current is approximately 98.2 μA.
3. Current would be smaller in the capacitor but is the same in the resistor. Total current is less.
4. a) The cutoff frequency is 265 kHz.
b) The branch currents are equal.
c) Above this frequency, the capacitor
has more current than the resistor.
5. If the stray capacitance is larger, the
cutoff frequency will be lower.
For Further Investigation:
See plot to the right.
Plot 21-3
329
Experiment 22: Inductors
Procedure:
1. Observations: Neon bulb fires when switch is opened but not when switch is closed.
2. Observations The bulb will fire with 1 V or less from the power supply.
Plot 22-1
Table 22-1
Computed Measured
Time constant, τ 0.21 ms 0.22 ms
5. Observations: In parallel, the time constant is shorter. Consequently, the rise of the resistor
voltage and fall of the inductor voltage is faster. In series, the time constant is longer, and the
waveforms change at a slower rate.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The opening of the switch interrupts the current and causes a very large change in current in
the circuit. This large change in current induces a voltage transient across the inductor,
according to Lenz’s law, which is sufficient to ionize the gas in the neon bulb.
2. The arc is caused by the induced voltage that appears across the coil in response to the large
change in current when the switch is opened.
3. The inductance of two 100 mH inductors connected in series is 200 mH. The inductance of
two 100 mH inductors connected in parallel is 50 mH.
4. The time constant would be 10 times larger.
5. A higher frequency does not change the time constant. However, at higher frequencies, there
is less time for the current to change so the voltage across the resistor approaches a dc level
and the inductor voltage approaches a square wave.
For Further Investigation:
The measurement of the time constant, as performed in this experiment, can be used with a
known resistor to determine the inductance of an unknown inductor.
330
Experiment 23: Inductive Reactance
Procedure: (computed values shown on tables)
Table 23-2
Inductor L1 Inductor L2
Voltage across R1, VR 0.847 V 0.847 V
Total current, I 0.847 mA 0.847 mA
Voltage across L, VL 0.532 V 0.532 V
Inductive reactance, XL 628 Ω 628 Ω
Computed inductance, L 100 mH 100 mH
Table 23-2
Series Parallel
Step
Inductor Inductor
Voltage across R1, VR 0.622 V 0.954 V
(a)
Total current, I 0.622 mA 0.954 mA
(b) Voltage across inductors VL 0.782 V 0.300 V
(c) Inductive reactance, XL 1.26 kΩ 314 Ω
(d) Computed inductance, L 200 mH 50 mH
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) The computed sum is 1.256 kΩ.
b) The computed product-over-sum is 314 Ω.
c) The inductive reactance of series inductors is additive. The inductive reactance of
parallel inductors uses the product-over-sum rule.
2. Ignoring mutual inductance, the inductance of series inductors is additive. The inductance of
parallel inductors uses the product-over-sum rule.
3. If the actual frequency is higher than the measured frequency, the inductive reactance will
appear higher than its actual value and, in turn, will cause the measured inductance to appear
high. If the actual frequency is lower than the measured frequency, the reverse is true.
4. Determine the current in the resistor by applying Ohm’s law. Apply Ohm’s law (XL = VL/I)
X
to find the reactance of the inductor. Find the inductance by: L = L
2πf
5. 15.7 kΩ
For Further Investigation:
A small power transformer was tested using a 330 Ω series resistor at a frequency of 20 kHz
(to increase the voltage across the windings). Results indicated an inductive reactance from
center tap to either side of 220 Ω but an inductive reactance of both sides taken together of
1000 Ω. The computed inductance of each side alone was 1.7 mH but together was 8 mH!
Results were checked and verified as mutual inductance was higher than expected.
331
Experiment 24: Series RL Circuits
Procedure:
Table 24-1 Table 24-2 (f = 25 kHz)
Listed Measured VR VL I XL ZT
Component Value Value
1.6 Vpp 2.5 Vpp 0.16 mApp 15.6 kΩ 18.6 kΩ
L1 100 mH 98 mH
R1 10 kΩ 9.94 kΩ
Plot 24-1
Table 24-3
Computed Measured Time Phase Angle
Phase Angle Period Difference Method 1 Method 2
θ T Δt θ θ
57.5° 40.0 μs 6.5 μs 58.5° 60°
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) The impedance increases.
b) The impedance increases.
2. a) The phase angle (seen by the generator) will increase.
b) The phase angle (seen by the generator) will increase.
3. Answers will vary. A 1.7% error was observed in the test circuit.
4. The computed critical frequency is 15.9 kHz and the phase shift at this frequency is 45°.
5. a) The current in the inductor is the same as in the resistor: 30 mA.
b) The inductive reactance is 377 Ω.
c) The voltage across the inductor is 11.3 V.
d) The source voltage is 11.7 V.
e) The phase angle is 75°.
For Further Investigation:
The Lissajous figure method should give a result consistent with Table 24-3.
332
Experiment 25: Parallel RL Circuits
Procedure:
Table 25-1
Listed Measured Voltage Computed
Value Value Drop Current
R1 3.3 kΩ 3.30 kΩ 5.88 Vpp 1.78 mApp
RS1 47 Ω 47 Ω 123 mVpp 2.62 mApp
RS2 47 Ω 47 Ω 87 mVpp 1.85 mApp
L1 100 mH 100 mH 1.85 mApp
RW (L1 resistance) 155 Ω
Table 25-2
Phase Angle
Between: Computed Measured
IT and IR 46.1° 45°
IR and IL 90° 88°
IT and IL 43.9° 43°
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) IT = 1.85 mA 2 + 1.78 mA 2 = 2.57 mA √
b) The inductor’s resistance and measurement error contribute to the differences read.
2. The coil resistance makes the inductor look more resistive; hence reduces the phase angle.
3. The sense resistors should be small compared to the impedance in the branch they are used.
4. a) The total current would equal the resistor current.
b) The phase angle would be 0°.
c) The generator voltage rises due to the reduced drop across its Thevenin resistance.
5. a) The total current would decrease.
b) The phase angle would decrease.
c) The generator voltage rises due to the reduced drop across its Thevenin resistance.
For Further Investigation:
The loading effects depend on the Thevenin impedance of the generator. The total
impedance of the circuit is 2.3 kΩ; a 600 Ω generator represents about 26% of this
impedance.
333
Experiment 26: Series Resonance
Procedure:
Table 26-1 Table 26-2
Listed Measured Computed Measured
Value Value
RT 425 Ω
L1 100 mH 101 mH fr 5003 Hz 5072 Hz
C1 0.01 μF 0.010 μF Q 7.48
R1 100 Ω 101 Ω VRS1 124 mVpp
RS1 47 Ω 47 Ω f2 5409 Hz
RW (L1 resistance) 292 Ω f1 4645 Hz
BW 669 Hz 764 Hz
12. The voltage across the inductor and capacitor are equal; approximately Q times VS. (7.5 Vpp)
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) Answers will vary. For the test circuit, the difference was 1.4%.
b) Measurement of components, voltage, frequency, and non-ideal components.
2. a) The total impedance at resonance is the equivalent resistance found in step 3; for the test
circuit, this was 425 Ω. (Note that coil resistance in test circuit was relatively high).
b) At resonance, the circuit appears resistive, and the phase shift is zero.
3. a) The voltages are out of phase and their sum is not greater than the source voltage;
Kirchhoff’s voltage law is still satisfied at each instant in time.
b) Yes.
4. a) The resonant frequency is the same.
b) The Q is doubled so the bandwidth is halved.
5. a) 712 kHz.
b) Q = 22.4 and BW = 31.8 kHz.
For Further Investigation:
Data taken for test circuit:
f (Hz) I (mA)
Current (mA)
4000 0.74
4250 1.00
4500 1.34
4750 2.04
5000 2.46
5250 2.06
5500 1.49
5750 1.15
6000 0.69
Plot 26-1
334
Experiment 27: Parallel Resonance
Procedure:
Table 27-1 Table 27-2
Listed Measured Computed Measured
Value Value
fr 2228* Hz 2170 Hz
L1 100 mH 101 mH Q 4.84
C1 0.047 μF 0.0505 μF BW 460 Hz 506 Hz
RS1 1.0 kΩ 1.03 kΩ BW
fi = 115 Hz
RW (L1 resistance) 292 Ω 4
*listed values of components give 2251 Hz
Table 27-3
Computed Frequency VRS1 I Z
fr − 5fi = 1652 Hz 350 mV 340 μA 2.94 kΩ
fr − 4fi = 1768 Hz 285 mV 275 μA 3.64 kΩ
fr − 3fi = 1883 Hz 230 mV 222 μA 4.50 kΩ
fr − 2fi = 1998 Hz 175 mV 169 μA 5.92 kΩ
fr − 1fi = 2113 Hz 148 mV 143 μA 6.99 kΩ
fr = 2228 Hz 134 mV 130 μA 7.69 kΩ
fr + 1fi = 2343 Hz 144 mV 139 μA 7.19 kΩ
fr + 2fi = 2458 Hz 185 mV 179 μA 5.59 kΩ
fr + 3fi = 2573 Hz 235 mV 227 μA 4.40 kΩ
fr + 4fi = 2688 Hz 275 mV 269 μA 3.72 kΩ
fr + 5fi = 2803 Hz 325 mV 314 μA 3.18 kΩ
Plot 27-1
335
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) In a series resonant circuit, the impedance is minimum at the resonant frequency; in a
parallel resonant circuit, the impedance is maximum at the resonant frequency.
b) In a series resonant circuit, the current is maximum at the resonant frequency; in a
parallel resonant circuit, the current is minimum at the resonant frequency.
2. At resonance, current and voltage are in phase.
3. Ignoring the inductor’s resistance, the current in the inductor is the source voltage divided by
the inductive reactance; current in the capacitor is the source voltage divided by the
capacitive reactance.
4. The Q depends on XL and RW for the coil. The circuit Q will be different than that of the
inductor if there is additional resistance in the circuit.
5. a) fr = 5033 Hz
b) XL = 3.16 kΩ
c) Q = 26.4
d) BW = 191 Hz.
For Further Investigation:
One way to calibrate the frequency is to note the amplitude of the frequency response at two
points, then take the scope out of X-Y mode and change the sweep generator to a constant
output frequency. Tune the generator until the same amplitude is found and the frequency is
measured.
336
Experiment 28: Passive Filters
Procedure:
Measured values of components used in this experiment are: L1 = 101 mH, C1 = 0.100 μF, C2
= 0.099 μF, C3 = 0.033 μF, RL1 = 681 Ω, RL2 = 1.61 kΩ.
Measured results are shown on all tables and plots.
Table 28-2
Frequency VRL1
500 Hz 2.06 V
1000 Hz 1.94 V
1500 Hz 1.65 V
2000 Hz 1.29 V
3000 Hz 0.74 V
4000 Hz 0.44 V
8000 Hz 0.12 V
Table 28-3
Frequency VRL2
500 Hz 0.07 V
1000 Hz 0.39 V
1500 Hz 1.01 V
2000 Hz 1.70 V
3000 Hz 2.51 V
4000 Hz 2.77 V
8000 Hz 2.92 V
Table 28-4
Frequency VRL1
500 Hz 0.69 V
1000 Hz 1.50 V
1500 Hz 2.06 V
2000 Hz 1.81 V
3000 Hz 1.18 V
4000 Hz 0.85 V
8000 Hz 0.40 V
337
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Pi filter cutoff frequency = 1800 Hz (approximate)
T filter cutoff frequency = 2400 Hz (approximate)
2. The cutoff frequency for the filter in Experiment 20 was nearly the same as the T filter but
the frequency response of both the pi and T filters is steeper, indicating better filtering action.
3. a) Plot 28-1 (pi filter): low pass
b) Plot 28-2 (T filter): high pass
c) Plot 28-3 (resonant filter): band pass
4. The voltage across the two components (inductor and capacitor) is the difference between the
source voltage and the voltage measured across the load resistor. Thus the response curve is
that of a notch filter instead of a bandpass filter.
5.
For Further Investigation:
Student results vary. A 100 mH inductor and a 0.1 μF capacitor were tested in parallel and
then connected to a series 680 Ω resistor. The signal generator was kept at a constant 3.0 V.
Data taken across the resistor is tabulated below:
Frequency Vresistor
500 Hz 2.68 V
1000 Hz 2.04 V
1500 Hz 0.51 V
1640 Hz 0.40 V
2000 Hz 0.44 V
3000 Hz 0.64 V
4000 Hz 1.34 V
6000 Hz 1.86 V
8000 Hz 2.14 V
fr
Plot 28-4
338
Experiment 29: Transformers
Procedure:
Results for a Triad F-26-X transformer (115 Vrms primary to 12.6 Vrms center-tapped
secondary) are shown in Table 29-1.
Table 29-1
Primary winding resistance, RP 18 Ω
Secondary winding resistance, RS 1 Ω*
Turns ratio, n (computed) 0.11
Turns ratio, n (measured) 0.126
% difference 13%
*limit of meter
5. Observations: Primary and secondary voltages are in phase.
Vp = 14 Vpp; VS = 1.75 Vpp
6. Observations: Secondary voltages are 180° out of phase with each other.
Vp = 14 Vpp; VS (measured from each side of the line to the center-tap) = 0.83 Vpp
7. Test speaker (8 Ω), VSPKR = 100 mV
8. Answers depend on the particular Thevenin impedance and the speaker impedance. For a
600 Ω Thevenin impedance and an 8 Ω speaker, the computed optimum turns ratio is 0.115.
9. Using the Triad TY30X impedance-matching transformer and same speaker, VSPKR = 355 mV.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) Anwers vary. For the Triad F-26-X transformer tested, the resistance ratio was 0.056.
b) The wire size could be different and measurement error is present, especially for the
very small secondary winding resistance.
2. The computed turns ratio assumes an ideal transformer which implies that all of the flux gener-
ated in the primary winding passes through the secondary winding. The Summary of Theory
cites several other factors that contribute to the difference between the ideal and the actual
transformer. These include losses due to magnetizing current, eddy current, and coil resistance.
3. The voltage across the speaker increased because the impedance-matching transformer causes the
load to appear larger to the source. This means that more power can be delivered to the load.
4. The power delivered to an ideal transformer is equal to the power delivered to the load; hence
if there is no load, there is (ideally) no power delivered to the primary.
5. a) The power delivered to the primary is 23 watts; ideally, this is all delivered to the load.
b) The secondary current is 0.958 mA.
c) The turns ratio is 0.209.
For Further Investigation:
Magnetizing current decreases as frequency is raised. Data for a Triad TY-30X impedance-
matching transformer indicate a current of 1.3 mA at 1 kHz and 0.53 mA at 10 kHz.
339
Experiment 30: Integrating and Differentiating Circuits
Procedure:
Table 30-1 Table 30-2
Listed Measured Computed Measured
Value Value
RC time
0.106 ms* 0.10 ms
L1 100 mH 101 mH constant
C1 0.01 μF 0.010 μF * includes RTH of 600 Ω
C2 1000 pF 1040 pF
R1 10 kΩ 9.98 kΩ
Plot 30-1 Plot 30-2
Step 6 - Triangle waveform results:
Capacitor waveform looks sinusoidal, centered about 0.5 V (170 Vpp).
Step 7 - Square wave with 1000 pF capacitor:
Resistor waveform is similar to Plot 30-1, except frequency is 10× higher.
Step 8 - Square wave with 100 mH inductor:
Plot 30-3
340
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) The total resistance in the charging circuit includes the Thevenin resistance. By setting
the output square wave with the generator disconnected, the Thevenin resistance affects
only the RC time constant, not the final charging voltage.
b) Measure the resistance and the time constant for the circuit; solve for C.
2. a) Answers will vary.
b) Component measurements, oscilloscope calibration, instrument reading error.
3. The capacitor does not have time to fully charge and discharge.
4.
5. The signal path could be open, causing a capacitively coupled path to the scope. At low
frequencies, the input signal is differentiated.
Note: This can be demonstrated by setting up a signal generator for a large amplitude 100 Hz
square wave. Attach a test lead from the generator and use an alligator clip to connect the
generator to the insulated tip of an oscilloscope probe. Another way of showing a
differentiated pulse is to connect the generator to a protoboard and probe on an adjacent row.
For Further Investigation:
RTH = 5.0 kΩ. VTH = 1.0 Vpp. VC will charge toward 1.0 V with a time constant of 50 μs.
341
Experiment 31: Diode Characteristics
Procedure:
Table 31-2
Table 31-1 VF VR1 IF
Listed Measured (measured) (measured) (measured)
Component
Value Value
0.45 V 3.8 mV 11 μA
R1 330 Ω 331 Ω
0.50 V 16.3 mV 49 μA
R2 1.0 MΩ 1.05 MΩ
0.55 V 83 mV 250 μA
D1 forward resistance 500 Ω*
0.60 V 230 mV 695 μA
D1 reverse resistance no reading
0.65 V 690 mV 2.08 mA
*depends on meter
0.70 V 1.85 mV 5.59 mA
Table 31-3 0.75 V 4.58 mV 13.8 mA
VR VR2 IR
(measured) (measured) (computed)
5.0 V 454 mV 0.43 μA
10.0 V 890 mV 0.85 μA
15.0 V 1.3 V 1.24 μA
6. The addition of heat causes the voltage across the diode to drop resulting in an increase in
diode current. Cooling the diode does the opposite.
9. Heat again causes an increase in diode current; cooling the diode does the opposite.
342
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. rac(0.5 V) = 418 Ω rac (0.6 V) = 55 Ω rac (0.7 V) = 8.5 Ω
2. The diodes reverse resistance is constant. The change in voltage divided by the change in
current is approximately the same for each data point taken.
3. Answers vary. For the diode tested, the maximum power dissipated in the diode was
10.4 mW.
4. The barrier potential is decreased with the addition of heat.
5. The meter leads must be identified for the polarity of the voltage present on the ohms
function. (The normal positive lead can have a negative potential). The diode resistance is
measured in both directions. The cathode is connected to the most negative lead when the
resistance is lowest.
6. The anode of the diode is lead 1.
For Further Investigation:
A straight line plot will be observed on the semilog plot paper.
Plot 31-2
343
Experiment 32: Rectifier Circuits
Procedure:
Plot 32-1
Table 32-1 Half-wave rectifier circuit.
Without Filter Capacitor With Filter Capacitor
Computed Measured Computed Measured Measured Ripple
Frequency
VIN(rms) VSEC(rms) VLOAD(peak) VLOAD (peak) VLOAD (dc) VRIPPLE
12.6 V ac 14.4 Vrms 20.3 Vp 20.0 Vp 19.1 Vdc 1.4 Vpp 60 Hz
Plot 32-2
Table 32-2 Full-wave rectifier circuit.
Without Filter Capacitor With Filter Capacitor
Computed Measured Computed Measured Measured Ripple
Frequency
VSEC (rms) VSEC (rms) VLOAD (peak) VLOAD (peak) VLOAD (dc) VRIPPLE
6.3 V ac 7.3 Vrms 10.2 Vp 9.8 Vp 9.5 Vdc 0.35 Vpp 120 Hz
5. A second parallel load resistor increases the load current and the ripple voltage.
Table 32-3 Bridge rectifier circuit.
Without Filter Capacitor With Filter Capacitor
Computed Measured Computed Measured Measured Ripple
Frequency
VSEC (rms) VSEC (rms) VLOAD (peak) VLOAD (peak) VLOAD (dc) VRIPPLE
12.6 V ac 14.5 Vrms 20.5 Vp 19.5 Vp 19.0 Vdc 0.65 Vpp 120 Hz
8. The output voltage drops. The ripple voltage is doubled; ripple frequency is 60 Hz.
344
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The full-wave circuit is more efficient and has less ripple than the half-wave circuit.
2. Given a specific transformer and load, the bridge circuit has a higher output voltage and
current (nearly double). For both configurations, the diode current is approximately one-half
the dc load current, but because of the bridge’s higher output voltage, the diode currents will
be greater.
3. If a diode is open in a bridge circuit, the ripple frequency will be halved.
4. If the scope ground is the same as the center-tap of the transformer, the probes need to be
connected as shown to avoid placing a direct short across the secondary.
5. a) The bridge output voltage is the peak voltage minus two diode drops = 24 Vdc.
b) The full-wave output voltage is one-half peak voltage minus one diode drop = 12 Vdc.
For Further Investigation:
The test circuit output had approximately 1 mV of ripple. The ripple waveform showed only
the tip of the positive waveform. Noise level was less than 1 mV.
345
Experiment 33: Bipolar Junction Transistors
Procedure:
Table 33-1
Listed Measured
Value Value
R1 33 kΩ 32.8 kΩ
R2 100 Ω 104 Ω
Values shown are for a 2N3904 transistor.
Table 33-2
Base Current = 50 μA Base Current = 100 μA Base Current = 150 μA
VCE VR2 IC VR2 IC VR2 IC
(measured) (measured) (computed) (measured) (computed) (measured) (computed)
2.0 V 0.900 V 8.65 mA 1.91 V 18.4 mA 2.93 V 28.2 mA
4.0 V 0.931 V 8.95 mA 2.01 V 19.3 mA 3.14 V 30.2 mA
6.0 V 0.955 V 9.18 mA 2.13 V 20.5 mA 3.38 V 32.5 mA
8.0 V 0.992 V 9.54 mA 2.23 V 21.4 mA 3.58 V 34.4 mA
Plot 33-1
346
Table 33-3
Current Gain, βdc
VCE IB = 50 μA IB = 100 μA IB = 150 μA
3.0 V 176 189 193
5.0 V 192 200 209
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. For the test transistor, the βdc was not constant at all points (see Plot 33-1). This has an effect
on linearity as the gain will change as the operating point changes.
2. It would raise all of the curves.
3. Answers vary. For the test transistor, maximum power dissipated was 8 V × 34 mA =
272 mW.
IC
4. a) βdc =
IB
IC IC IC / IB β dc
α= = = =
I E I C + I B I C / I B + I B / I B β dc + 1
b) Answers vary. The alpha for the test transistor was approximately 0.995.
5. VCE would equal VCE. Without base current, there would be no collector current and the
supply voltage would appear across the transistor.
For Further Investigation:
The transistor curve tracer confirms the result plotted in Plot 33-1. Heating the transistor
causes the beta to rise.
347
Experiment 34: The Common-Emitter Amplifier
Procedure:
Table 34-1 Table 34-2
Resistor Listed Measured DC Computed Measured
Value Value Parameter Value Value
R1 47 kΩ 47.3 kΩ VB 1.76 V 1.74 V
R2 10 kΩ 10.1 kΩ VE 1.06 V 1.10 V
R3 10 kΩ 10.1 kΩ IE 0.48 mA
R4 100 Ω 99 Ω VC 6.66 V 6.56 V
RE 2.2 kΩ 2.20 kΩ VCE 5.60 V 5.46 V
RC 6.8 kΩ 6.92 kΩ
RL 10 kΩ 10.1 kΩ
Table 34-3
AC Computed Measured
Parameter Value Value
Vb = Vin 10 mVpp 10 mV*pp
re 52 Ω
Av 78.8 75
Vc = Vout 788 mVpp 750 mVpp
Rin(T) 3.19 kΩ 3.0 kΩ
*Based on setting VS to 1.0 Vpp
7. Vin and Vout are 180 degrees out of phase.
8. The gain drops when C2 is opened.
9. The gain rises with RL removed.
10. Transistor is cutoff since there is no path for base current. (Note that a measurement of VCE
could mislead student to thinking transistor is near saturation; however, the power supply
voltage is across the reverse biased base-collector junction, not across RC).
11. Transistor is saturated. VC and VE are nearly the same and current is limited only by RC and
RE. Maximum current is in the collector circuit.
348
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. When C2 is open, the ac resistance of the emitter circuit is increased. Since voltage gain is
the ratio of the ac collector resistance divided by the ac emitter resistance, the gain is reduced.
2. Monitoring the output voltage ensures that the amplifier is performing normally during the
test. If the output is clipped or distorted, the measurement is invalid.
3. The collector resistance is too high causing saturation to occur at approximately 0.5 mA.
(Approximately 20 kΩ in the collector circuit will give these conditions).
4. a) dc base voltage = + 0.7 V
b) dc collector voltage = + 0.1 V
5. Measure VCE. If VCE is near zero, the transistor is saturated; if VCE is equal to VCC the
transistor is cutoff.
6. A “stiff” voltage divider implies that the load current is small compared to the current in the
divider (normally IL is <0.1 of Idivider). For voltage divider bias, this means that a change in
conditions (variations in transistors or other circuits parameters) will have little effect on the
base voltage.
For Further Investigation:
The lower cutoff frequency is approximately 80 Hz. The capacitors affect only the lower
cutoff frequency. If C1 and C2 are switched, the new lower cutoff frequency is approximately
3.1 kHz (due to C1).
349
Experiment 35: Field-Effect Transistors
Procedure:
Table 35-1
Listed Measured
Value Value
R1 33 kΩ 32.8 kΩ
R2 100 Ω 100 Ω
Values shown are for a 2N5458 transistor: Table 35-2
Gate Voltage = 0 V Gate Voltage = −1.0 V Gate Voltage = −2 V
VDS VR2 ID VR2 ID VR2 ID
(measured) (measured) (computed) (measured) (computed) (measured) (computed)
1.0 V 0.320 V 3.2 mA 0.208 V 2.1 mA 0.109 V 1.1 mA
2.0 V 0.510 V 5.1 mA 0.310 V 3.1 mA 0.133 V 1.3 mA
3.0 V 0.604 V 6.0 mA 0.345 V 3.5 mA 0.140 V 1.4 mA
4.0 V 0.639 V 6.4 mA 0.357 V 3.6 mA 0.142 V 1.4 mA
6.0 V 0.640 V 6.4 mA 0.364 V 3.6 mA 0.145 V 1.5 mA
8.0 V 0.645 V 6.5 mA 0.367 V 3.7 mA 0.147 V 1.5 mA
Plot 35-1
10. Between VGS and 0 V and −1 V, the test transistor had a transconductance of 2760 μS.
350
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) Measure the drain current in the flat portion of the VGS = 0 V curve.
b) Answers vary. IDSS for the test transistor was found to be 6.5 mA.
2. Tie gate and source leads together.
3. a) The transconductance is not constant. This can be seen by measuring it using two
different changes of VGS.
b) The VGS curves are not equally far apart.
4. Answers vary. VGS(off) for the test transistor was found to be −3.5 V.
5. The gate-source junction of a JFET forms a PN diode. If a positive gate voltage is applied to
this junction, it would be forward-biased, causing diode conduction and lowering the input
impedance.
For Further Investigation:
Data for a 2N5458 transistor is shown. The plot of I D versus VGS is linear as shown below
as the dashed line. ID versus VGS is the solid line.
Table 35-3
VGS ID ID
(measured) (measured)
(computed)
0.0 V 6.5 mA 2.55 mA
−0.5 V 4.9 mA 2.21 mA
−1.0 V 3.7 mA 1.92 mA
−1.5 V 2.5 mA 1.58 mA
−2.0 V 1.5 mA 1.22 mA
−2.5 V 0.71 mA 0.84 mA
−3.0 V 0.16 mA 0.40 mA
−3.5 V 0.02 mA 0.14 mA
Plot 35-2 and 35-3 shown together
−4.0 V (pinchoff) 0 0
−4.5 V 0 0
−5.0 V 0 0
351
Experiment 36: Feedback Oscillators
Procedure:
Resistors: R1 = 9.98 kΩ, R2 = 3.31 kΩ, RE1 = 50 Ω*, RE2 = 1.01 kΩ, RC = 2.69 kΩ
*Potentiometer set to 50 Ω
Table 36-2 Table 36-3
DC Computed Measured AC Computed Measured
Parameter Value Value Parameter Value Value
VB 3.01 V 2.97 V Vb 100 mVpp 100 mVpp
VE 2.31 V 2.32 V re 61.5 Ω
IE 2.18 mA Av 43.9 39.0
VC 6.11 V 6.07 V Vc 4.39 Vpp 3.90 Vpp
5. The measured frequency decreased to 781 kHz. (Slight distortion noted on bottom of
waveform before and after this change).
6. Both the amplitude and the frequency of the oscillator decreased.
Table 36-4 Table 36-5
Colpitts Computed Measured Hartley Computed Measured
Oscillator Value Value Oscillator Value Value
Frequency 1.06 MHz 1.04 MHz Frequency 969 kHz 961 kHz
Vpp 7.4 Vpp Vpp 5.5 Vpp
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. The amount of feedback decreased.
2. The two conditions are positive feedback and a loop gain equal to or greater than 1.
3. Temperature change can cause a frequency drift in an oscillator.
4. In the Hartley oscillator, an inductor is used to provide positive feedback from the tank
circuit; in a Colpitts oscillator, a capacitor is used to supply positive feedback.
5. a) Gain will increase, so the output will increase and clip.
b) Feedback voltage will increase, output will increase and clip.
c) Gain will decrease, so oscillation may cease.
d) Output will decrease.
For Further Investigation:
The oscillator frequency measured for the test circuit was 990 kHz, with a varying amplitude
(probably due to thermal effects.) Freeze spray caused oscillations to cease. As the
temperature rose, the circuit resumed oscillating.
352
Experiment 37: The Differential Amplifier
Procedure:
Resistors: RB1 = 47.2 kΩ, RB2 = 47.0 kΩ, RE1 = 47.6 Ω, RE2 = 48.1 Ω, RT = 9.92 kΩ,
RC = 9.90 kΩ.
Table 37-2 Table 37-3
Measured Values AC Computed Measured
DC Computed
Parameter Value Value
Parameter Value Q1 Q2
re 44.9 Ω
IE 557 μA
Vb(Q1) 100 mVpp 100 mVpp
IB 2.78 μA*
VA(ac) 50 mVpp 50 mVpp
VB −0.13 V −0.162 V −0.149 V
Vv(d) 54.4 48
VE −0.83 V −0.77 V −0.76 V
Vc(Q2) 5.4 Vpp 4.8 Vpp
VA −0.86 V −0.79 V
Acm −0.50 −0.52
VC(Q2) 6.43 V 5.84 V
*using measured βdc = 200)
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Computed = 40.6 dB. Measured 39.3 dB.
2. The current in the tail resistor has emitter currents from both transistors.
3. Ignoring the tail resistor, the signal at point A is between RE2 + re(Q2) and ground. The input
signal is applied to the base of Q1 and is between re(Q1) + RE1 + RE2, + re(Q2) and ground. The
voltage at point A is found by applying the voltage divider rule. The gain is 0.5.
4. By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, VA = −1.26 V.
5. RC shorted, Q2 open, RE2 open.
For Further Investigation:
The addition of the current source will significantly improve the common-mode rejection
ratio. The test circuit measured 66 dB for CMRR.
353
Experiment 38: Op-Amp Characteristics
Procedure:
Resistors: Rf = 1.01 MΩ, Ri = 10.2 kΩ, RC = 10.2 kΩ, R1 = 102 kΩ, R2 = 102 kΩ, RA = 102 Ω,
RB = 101 Ω, RC = 102 kΩ, RD = 102 kΩ.
Table 38-1
Specified Value Measure
Step Parameter d Value
Minimum Typical Maximum
2d Input offset voltage, VIO 2.0 mV 6.0 mV 0.66 mV
3d Input bias current, IBIAS 80 nA 500 nA 98 nA
3e Input offset current, IOS 20 nA 200 nA 1 nA
4b Differential gain, Av(d) 1000
4c Common-mode gain, Acm 0.032
4d CMRR 70 dB 90 dB 89.9 dB
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. (+) means non-inverting input.
(−) means inverting input.
2. The dc voltage that must be applied between the op-amp’s inputs to produce zero volts
output.
3. The input bias current is the average of the input currents; the input offset current is the
difference between the input currents when the output voltage is 0 V.
4. Differential gain is the amplification of the voltage between the inputs of the op-amp;
common mode gain is the amplification of the voltage present at both inputs of the op-amp.
5. A common-mode signal was placed on both inputs of the op-amp and the gain was measured.
The differential gain was computed. The ratio of the differential gain to the common-mode
gain was calculated and then converted to dB. A high CMRR means that less common-mode
noise will appear at the output.
For Further Investigation:
The measured slew rate was 800 mV/μs. (min. specified = 300 mV/μs. typical = 700 mV/μs.)
354
Experiment 39: Linear Op-Amp Circuits
Procedure:
Table 39-1
Rf Ri Vin Acl(NI) Vout V(−) Rin
Measured Measured Measured Computed Computed Measured Measured Measured
Value Value (pin 6) (pin 2)
10.2 kΩ 1.02 kΩ 500 mVpp 11 5.5 Vpp 5.5 Vpp 500 mVpp 5 MΩ
Table 39-2
Rf Ri Vin Acl(NI) Vout V(−) Rin
Measured Measured Measured Computed Computed Measured Measured Measured
Value Value (pin 6) (pin 2)
10.2 kΩ 1.02 kΩ 500 mVpp −10 −5.0 Vpp −4.95 Vpp 0V 1.0 kΩ
3. The circuit is shown to the right. The closed-loop gain
was −47 with a 100 mVpp input. The output becomes
slew-rate limited when the input frequency is above
10 kHz. With 100 mVpp input, fMAX was approximately
40 kHz. With 500 mVpp input, fMAX was approximately
10 kHz. For a slew rate, S, at a frequency, f, the output is
limited to Vout(pp) < S/πf.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Amplifier 1 gain = 20 log (11) = 20.8 dB.
Amplifier 2 gain = 20 log (10) = 20.0 dB.
2. Operational amplifiers are dc amplifiers using positive and negative power supplies to enable
the input to go above and below ground reference.
3. a) Acl(NI) = 2.
b) Acl(I) = −1.
4. a) Unity gain.
b) Voltage-follower.
5. A square wave due to the amplifier operating with open-loop gain.
For Further Investigation:
The ohmmeter accuracy depends on the standard resistor, meter used and the op-amp. The
test circuit readings were within 3% of a lab DMM.
355
Experiment 40: Nonlinear Op-Amp Circuits
Procedure:
Table 40-1
VOUT Vref
Threshold
Red On Green On
+2.1 V −2.0 V 0.001 V
Plot 40-1
3. Duty cycle changes as R3 is varied. Output B slope changes to follow.
Table 40-2
Trouble Symptoms
No negative power supply Red LED on, B goes to positive saturation
Red LED open A = −2 V to positive sat.
B = negative sat. + small deviations
C1 open B goes to a square wave (saturation).
R4 open no change in A; B goes toward negative sat.
Plot 40-2 Plot 40-3
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Vref(min) = −714 mV Vref(max) = +714 mV
2. The LEDs drop a maximum of about 2.0 V at the op-amp’s current limit.
3. a) R4 establishes a virtual ground at the inverting input through negative feedback and
stabilizes the operating point. Without it, the output will saturate.
b) The output went to a negative saturation.
356
4. Differentiator circuit.
5. Higher amplitude due to longer charging of the capacitor until clipping occurs on both the
positive and negative peaks.
For Further Investigation:
The output switches between positive and negative saturation. The positive trip point was
+0.61 V and the negative trip point was −0.61 V. This can be observed by comparing input
and output waveforms on a two-channel oscilloscope.
357
Experiment 41: The Wien Bridge Oscillator
Procedure:
2. The output saturates on both positive and negative peaks. Freeze spray causes circuit to
change; some components cause oscillations to cease, others cause changes in the saturation
level.
Table 41-2 Table 41-3
fr Measured Voltages
Measured Vout(pp) V(+)(pp) V(−)(pp) VGATE
Computed (pin 6) (pin 6) (pin 3) (pin 2)
1.59 kHz 1.46 kHz
4.0 Vpp 1.5 Vpp 1.5 Vpp −1.0 Vpp
5. The phase shift between the output and the feedback voltage is 0 degrees (positive feedback).
6. Very little effect with freeze spray. The output is much more stable.
Table 41-4
Measured Voltages—Extra Diode
Vout(pp) V(+)(pp) V(−)(pp) VGATE
(pin 6) (pin 3)
(pin 2)
4.6 Vpp 1.56 Vpp 1.56 Vpp −1.29 Vdc
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Feedback fraction is very close to 1/3. The measured result agrees with theory.
2. The extra diode causes C3 to charge for a smaller part of the cycle decreasing VG. This causes
the FET resistance to drop and (temporarily) increases the op-amp’s gain. The op-amp’s
output increases until the charge on C3 is returned to the proper level for a stable output.
3. The diode causes the negative half-cycle of the output to charge the capacitor and bias the
FET with a negative bias voltage.
4. The frequency is halved to 790 Hz.
5. Use a ganged resistor for R1 and R2 or a ganged capacitor for C1 and C2.
For Further Investigation:
The bulb will help stabilize the output. Some instability remains as can be demonstrated by
touching the non-inverting input.
358
Experiment 42: Active Filters
Procedure:
Table 42-2
Listed Measured Values
Component
Values
1 2 3 4
R1 to R4 8.2 kΩ 8.17 kΩ 8.37 kΩ 8.00 kΩ 8.22 kΩ
C1 to C4 0.01 μF 0.010 μF 0.010 μF 0.010 μF 0.010 μF
Ri1 10 kΩ 10.1 kΩ
Rf1 1.5 kΩ 1.50 kΩ
Ri2 22 kΩ 21.9 kΩ
Rf2 27 kΩ 26.8 kΩ
Table 42-3
Frequency VRL
500 Hz 2.55 V
1000 Hz 2.52 V
1500 Hz 2.45 V
2000 Hz 1.72 V
3000 Hz 0.45 V
4000 Hz 0.14 V
8000 Hz 0.009 V
Plot 42-1
Note: Data from Table 42-3 is also plotted on Plot 42-2 shown on the next page.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) The cutoff frequency is approximately 2 kHz.
b) Answers vary.
2. The transition region is much steeper.
3. The output voltage is reduced by a factor of 104 (80 dB) which is approximately 250 μV.
4. Actual filter is very close to theoretical roll-off rate.
5. a) Answers vary. Required gain for first section is 1.152.
b) Required gain for second section is 2.235.
359
For Further Investigation:
The 6-pole filter will have a theoretical roll-off of −120 dB. Gains for each section are listed
in Table 42-1. The frequency determining resistors and capacitors will depend on the student
design.
Measured response
Note: The theoretical response is
shown to emphasize roll-off rate (−80
dB/decade), not the cutoff frequency.
It is therefore plotted to the right of
the filter’s expected response.
Plot 42-2 (Data from Table 42-3)
360
Experiment 43: The Instrumentation Amplifier
Procedure:
Table 43-1
Listed Measured
Resistor
Value Value
R1 10 kΩ 9.87 kΩ
R2 10 kΩ 9.87 kΩ
RG 470 Ω 463 Ω
R3 10 kΩ 9.91 kΩ
R4 10 kΩ 9.87 kΩ
R5 10 kΩ 9.88 kΩ
R6 8.2 kΩ 8.10 kΩ
R8 100 kΩ 101 kΩ
R9 100 kΩ 100 kΩ
Table 43-2
Step Parameter Computed Measured
Value Value
Differential Input Voltage, Vin(d) 300 mVpp 300 mVpp
3 Differential Gain, Av(d) 43.5 43.0
Differential Output Voltage, Vout(d) 13.1 Vpp 13.0 Vpp
Common-mode Input Voltage, Vin(cm) 10 Vpp 10.0 Vpp
4 Common-mode Gain, Av(cm) 0.008
Common-mode Output Voltage, Vout(cm) 80 mVpp
5 CMRR′ 74.6 dB
8. The differential signal, provided by the 555 timer, was a 682 Hz (measured) square wave
with amplitude of approximately 200 mV. The differential-mode signal was amplified by the
IA but the 10 Vpp common-mode signal, provided by the signal generator, was almost
completely eliminated from the output as viewed on an oscilloscope.
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Any noise that comes into the IA in differential-mode form cannot be eliminated from the
output. This includes thermal noise, shot noise, or other noise from the source. It can also
include any common-mode signal that has been converted to a differential signal.
2. A CMRR′ of 130 dB means the ratio of the differential- to common-mode gain is 3.16 × 106.
This implies that the common-mode gain for the experiment is 43/3.16 × 106 = 13.6 × 10−6.
The expected output signal is 10 Vpp × 13.6 × 10−6 = 136 μVpp.
3. The oscillator signal was a differential mode signal but the signal generator was a common-
mode signal.
4. The reference ground for the 555 timer needs to be isolated from the reference ground for the
IA. The simplest way to do this is power it from an independent source.
361
5. Both inputs to the IA are balanced and have relatively high input impedance. (In the
experiment, the input impedance was 100 kΩ, but it can be much higher).
For Further Investigation:
When RB was replaced with a CdS cell, the frequency varied from 520 Hz (dark) to 7.9 kHz
(bright room light). An application is a digital light meter (or any other case where the
intensity of light needs to be assigned a numeric value).
362
Experiment 44: Active Diode Circuits
Procedure:
Ch-1 0 V Ch-1 0 V
Ch-2 0 V Ch-2 0 V
This "jump" is only present when
Diode D2 is not in the circuit.
Vertical = 1 V/div Horizontal = 1 ms/div Vertical = 1 V/div Horizontal = 100 μs/div
Vertical μs/div
Plot 44-1 Plot 44-2
4. With the extra diode, the output of the op-amp is pulled to one diode drop below ground
during the negative half cycle. As a result, it does not have a large change in voltage, and the
slew rate limiting, shown in Plot 44-2, is eliminated.
Ch-1 0 V
Ch-2 0 V
Vertical == 11 V/div
V/divHorizontal
Horizontal==1 1ms/div
ms/div
Plot 44-3
6. Any portion of the negative portion of the input sine wave can be removed by adjusting R3.
When the dc voltage is less than –2 V, the entire sine wave appears at the output; when it is
above +2 V, only a positive dc level is observed.
7. Reversing the diode causes a portion of the positive signal to be removed. When the dc
voltage is greater than +2 V, the entire sine wave appears at the output; when it is less than
-2 V, only a negative dc level is observed.
8. When the reference level on pin 3 is set for zero volts, an active positive clamping circuit is
observed at the output. With a 4 Vpp input signal, the dc level on the output can be adjusted
from about -2.3 V (measured) to about +5.0 V (measured).
9. When the reference level on pin 3 is set for zero volts, an active negative clamping circuit is
observed at the output. With a 4 Vpp input signal, the dc level on the output can be adjusted
from about –5.0 V (measured) to about +2.0 V (measured).
10. The output is a dc level that follows the peak. There is about 100 mV of “droop” at 200 Hz
with a 4 Vpp input signal.
363
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. a) Pin 6 will be about +1.7 V (one diode drop higher than the input).
b) Pin 2 will be +1.0 V.
2. a) Pin 6 will be approximately –13 V (negative saturation) because the feedback path is open.
b) Pin 2 will be 0 V.
3. The current limit of the op-amp (about 25 mA).
4. Approximately ±5 V.
5. The load resistor forms an unwanted voltage divider with the input signal and must be much
larger than the input resistance of 10 kΩ to avoid loading effects.
For Further Investigation:
The circuit is a full-wave negative rectifier. Reversing the diode creates a positive full-wave
rectifier. It is common for every other cycle to have higher amplitude. This is caused by a
gain difference in the two paths – it can be balanced by changing the gain in one of the paths
using a variable resistor.
364
Experiment 45: The SCR
Procedure:
Table 45-1 Table 45-2
Listed Measured Transistor
Resistor SCR
Value Value Latch
R1 1.0 kΩ 993 Ω VAK (off state) 13.5 V 13.5 V
R3 160 Ω 161 Ω VAK (on state) 0.803 V 0.769 V
R4 1.0 kΩ 1.001 kΩ VGate Trigger 0.768 V 0.736 V
R5 10 kΩ 9.94 kΩ VR4 3.42 V 3.83 V
IHolding (min) 3.42 mA 3.83 mA
7. S1 turns on the SCR. S2 turns it off.
8.
Plot 45-1
Evaluation and Review Questions:
1. Lower anode voltage so that the current drops below the holding current.
2. Commutation refers to the process of interrupting anode current or “opening” a solid-state switch.
3. A short to the anode removes the load resistance for the power supply. The power supply’s
short circuit current may be higher than the SCR’s peak current.
4. The LED is on all the time and S2 would not be able to turn it off.
5. The voltage across R4 is proportional to the conduction current. The SCR is on for a shorter
time and the back of the SCR waveform will drop earlier.
For Further Investigation:
Waveforms are similar to those in Plot 45-1 but the photocell will cause the SCR trigger point
to vary according to the light level. Applications include alarms, automatic night lighting
control, or light control of a process.
365
Experiment – Appendix A: Constructing a Reed Switch Motor
Procedure
If students have difficulty with the motor, make sure the rotor spins freely and is in balance. A
modified motor that worked very well is shown here. The modification (shown in the power point
slides that go with this series) was to use 400 turns on the coil and put two series green LED
across the coil. (The LEDs blink as the motor turns, producing an interesting effect). By
collapsing the magnetic field faster with the LEDs, the motor spun even faster. The schematic for
the modified motor is given here.
Magnetic
Electromagnet reed switch
S2
S1 LEDs (green)
on/off
VS +
3.0 V
Questions
1. The motor works in repulsion. When a magnet passes by the reed switch, it closes causing the
coil to produce a like field near the rotor’s magnet, pushing it away.
2. The repulsion force needs to occur only when the magnet is next to the reed switch. This will
only occur if the motor turns counterclockwise (of course it can be changed by reversing the
position of the coil and reed switch).
366
Multisim Troubleshooting Solutions
The following are the file names and simulated troubles for the circuits. The password for the Global
Restrictions is testbench. Circuits can be read on the website by choosing “Files of type: msm” in the
Open window.
Folder Name: Lab-07
File Name Fault
EXP7-4-nf none
EXP7-4-f1 R2 is open
EXP7-4-f2 VS = 12 V but should be 15 V
EXP7-4-f3 R3 is shorted
Folder Name: Lab-08
File Name Fault
EXP8-3-nf none
EXP8-3-f1 potentiometer has open pin 3
EXP8-3-f2 R1 is shorted
EXP8-3-f3 source voltage is 8 V but should be 10 V
Folder Name: Lab-10
File Name Fault
EXP10-2-nf none
EXP10-2-f1 R3 is open
EXP10-2-f2 R1 is shorted
EXP10-2-f3 R4 is open
Folder Name: Lab-11
File Name Fault
EXP11-1-nf none
EXP11-1-f1 VS1 open
EXP11-1-f2 R3 open
EXP11-1-f3 VS1 is reversed
Folder Name: Lab-12
File Name Fault
EXP12-3-nf none
EXP12-3-f1 R2 is shorted
EXP12-3-f2 R3 is open
EXP12-3-f3 RL is 60 ohms but should be 150 ohms due to leakage.
Folder Name: Lab-13
File Name Fault
EXP13-7-nf none
EXP13-7-f1 RL is shorted
EXP13-7-f2 R1 shorted
EXP13-7-f3 R2 is actually only 220 ohms (by adding “leakage”)
Folder Name: Lab-19
File Name Fault
EXP19-2-nf none
EXP19-2-f1 R1 open
EXP19-2-f2 C1 open
EXP19-2-f3 C3 has leakage resistance
367
Folder Name: Lab-20
File Name Fault
EXP20-2nf none
EXP20-2f1 R1 shorted
EXP20-2f2 C1 shorted
EXP20-2f3 C1 has leakage resistance
Folder Name: Lab-21
File Name Fault
EXP21-2-nf none
EXP21-2-f1 RS2 shorted
EXP21-2-f2 R1 open
EXP21-2-f3 C1 shorted
Folder Name: Lab-23
File Name Fault
EXP23-2-nf none
EXP23-2-f1 R1 has leakage of 0 ohms
EXP23-2-f2 L1 shorted
EXP23-2-f3 Ammeter open
Folder Name: Lab-26
File Name Fault
EXP26-3-nf none
EXP26-3-f1 L1 is open
EXP26-3-f2 Bode plotter input connected to wrong side of inductor
EXP26-3-f3 C1 has 50 ohms leakage
Folder Name: Lab-27
File Name Fault
EXP27-3-nf none
EXP27-3-f1 L1 open
EXP27-3-f2 leads to Bode plotter are reversed (no circuit fault)
EXP27-3-f3 C1 has leakage resistance
Folder Name: Lab-28
File Name Fault
EXP28-3-nf none
EXP28-3-f1 C2 open
EXP28-3-f2 RL open
EXP28-3-f3 function generator has -800 mV dc offset
Folder Name: Lab-30
File Name Fault
EXP30-3nf none
EXP30-3f1 L1 has leakage resistance
EXP30-3f2 C1 open
EXP30-3f3 R1 has leakage resistance
Folder Name: Lab-32
File Name Fault
EXP32-3-nf none
EXP32-3-f1 D1 has leakage resistance
EXP32-3-f2 R1 is shorted
EXP32-3-f3 T1 pins 1 and 3 shorted
368
Folder Name: Lab-34
File Name Fault
EXP34-3-nf none
EXP34-3-f1 RE open
EXP34-3-f2 C2 open
EXP34-3-f3 R2 open
Folder Name: Lab-37
File Name Fault
EXP37-2-nf none
EXP37-2-f1 RC Shorted
EXP37-2-f2 C2 open
EXP37-2-f3 -12 Volt DC open
Folder Name: Lab-39
File Name Fault
EXP39-3-nf none
EXP39-3-f1 Switch J1 shorted
EXP39-3-f2 Rf open
EXP39-3-f3 Ri1 shorted
Folder Name: Lab-40
File Name Fault
EXP40-3-nf none
EXP40-3-f1 Generator set to 100 Hz instead of 1 kHz
EXP40-3-f2 Green LED is open
EXP40-3-f3 R4 open
Folder Name: Lab-41
File Name Fault
EXP41-3-nf none
EXP41-3-f1 C2 is incorrect value (0.0047 micro); can be found by inspection.
EXP41-3-f2 C3 shorted. May look like R4 or FET is the problem; needs to be
removed for confirmation.
EXP41-3-f3 Q1 is shorted from drain to source
Folder Name: Lab-43
File Name Fault
EXP43-2-nf none
EXP43-2-f1 R4 shorted
EXP43-2-f2 R5 open
EXP43-2-f3 RG open
Folder Name: Lab-44
File Name Fault
EXP44-4-nf none
EXP44-4-f1 VS+ and VS- reversed
EXP44-4-f2 R1 shorted
EXP44-4-f3 D1 Shorted
369
370
PART SIX
Partial List of CEMA Skills
371
372
PARTIAL SKILLS LIST
EIA CONSUMER ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURER’S
ASSOCIATION (CEMA)
BEHAVIOR SKILLS AND WORK HABITS
Implement responsibilities of job position including exhibiting dependability and meeting
organizationally defined expectations.
Follow rules, regulations, and policies as established, including interpreting employer/employee
handbook and procedures.
Understand and practice cost effectiveness.
Practice time management and follow work schedule.
Assume responsibility for own decisions and actions.
Exhibit pride.
Display initiative in undertaking new tasks.
Show assertiveness appropriate to the situation.
Seek work challenges.
Understand and apply ethical principles to decision making.
Comply with company standards including dress, personal hygiene, and cleanliness.
Understand the importance of providing good customer service (internal and external).
Respond constructively to suggestions for improvement.
Provide praise and suggestions for improvement.
Channel/control emotional reactions constructively.
Recognize problems and work toward their solution.
Exhibit positive behavior.
Exhibit sensitivity to internal and external customer needs.
Treat people with respect.
Recognize nonverbal communication.
Understand interactive relationships required for effective teamwork.
Understand team’s operating procedures.
Adapt as necessary to complete the team task.
Evaluate outcome
GENERAL
Demonstrate an understanding of proper safety techniques for all types of circuits.
Demonstrate an understanding of and comply with relevant OSHA safety standards.
Demonstrate an understanding of proper troubleshooting techniques.
Demonstrate an understanding of basic assembly skills using hand and power tools.
Demonstrate an understanding of acceptable soldering/desoldering techniques.
Demonstrate an understanding of proper solderless connections.
Demonstrate an understanding of use of data books and cross references/technical manuals and
requisition of electronic components.
Demonstrate an understanding of the interpretation and creation of electronic schematics,
drawings, and flow diagrams.
373
Demonstrate an understanding of design curves, tables, graphs, and recording of data.
Demonstrate an understanding of color codes and other component descriptors.
Demonstrate an understanding of site electrical and environmental survey.
Demonstrate the use of listening skills or assistive devices to assess signs and symptoms.
DC CIRCUITS
Demonstrate an understanding of sources of electricity in dc circuits.
Demonstrate an understanding of principles and operation of batteries.
Demonstrate an understanding of the meaning of and relationships among and between voltage,
current, resistance, and power in dc circuits.
Demonstrate an understanding of measurement of resistance of conductors and insulators.
Demonstrate an understanding of application of Ohm’s law to series, parallel, and series-parallel
circuits.
Demonstrate an understanding of magnetic properties of circuits and devices.
Demonstrate an understanding of the physical, electrical characteristics of capacitors and
inductors.
Understand principles and operations of dc series circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate dc series circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair dc series circuits.
Understand principles and operations of dc parallel circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate dc parallel circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair dc parallel circuits.
Understand the principles and operations of dc series-parallel and bridge circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate dc series-parallel and bridge circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair dc series-parallel and bridge circuits.
Understand principles and operations of the Wheatstone bridge.
Understand principles and operations of dc voltage divider circuits (loaded and unloaded).
Fabricate and demonstrate dc voltage divider circuits (loaded and unloaded).
Troubleshoot and repair dc voltage divider circuits (loaded and unloaded).
Understand principles and operations of dc RC and RL circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate dc RC and RL circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair dc RC and RL circuits.
Demonstrate an understanding of measurement of power in dc circuits.
AC CIRCUITS
Demonstrate an understanding of sources of electricity in ac circuits.
Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of an ac signal.
Demonstrate an understanding of the principles of operation and characteristics of sinusoidal and
nonsinusoidal waveforms.
Demonstrate an understanding of basic motor/generator theory and operation.
Demonstrate an understanding of measurement of power in ac circuits.
Demonstrate an understanding of the principle of operation of various power conditioning devices
(transformers, surge suppressers, uninterruptable power systems).
Demonstrate an understanding of the principle and operation of safety grounding systems
(arresters, ground fault interrupters, etc.).
Understand principles and operation of ac capacitive circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate ac capacitive circuits.
374
Troubleshoot and repair ac capacitive circuits.
Understand principles and operation of ac inductive circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate ac inductive circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair ac inductive circuits.
Understand principles and operations of ac circuits using transformers.
Demonstrate an understanding of impedance matching theory.
Fabricate and demonstrate ac circuits using transformers.
Troubleshoot and repair ac circuits using transformers.
Understand principles and operations of ac differentiator and integrator circuits (determine RC
and RL time constants).
Fabricate and demonstrate ac differentiator and integrator circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair ac differentiator and integrator circuits.
Understand principles and operations of ac series and parallel resonant circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate ac series and parallel resonant circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair ac series and parallel resonant circuits.
Understand principles and operations of ac RC, RL and RLC circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate ac RC, RL, and RLC circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair ac RC, RL, and RLC circuits.
Understand principles and operations of ac frequency selective filter circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate ac frequency selective filter circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair ac frequency selective filter circuits.
DISCREET SOLID STATE
Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of semiconductor materials.
Demonstrate an understanding of pn junctions.
Demonstrate an understanding of bipolar junction transistors.
Demonstrate an understanding of field effect transistors (FETs/MOSFETs).
Demonstrate and understanding of special diodes and transistors.
Understand principles and operations of diode circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate diode circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair diode circuits.
Understand principles and operations of optoelectronic circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate optoelectronic circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair optoelectronic circuits.
Understand principles and operations of single stage amplifiers.
Fabricate and demonstrate single stage amplifiers.
Troubleshoot and repair single stage amplifiers.
Understand principles and operations of thyristor circuits (SCR, TRIAC, DIAC, etc.).
Fabricate and demonstrate thyristor circuits (SCR, TRIAC, DIAC, etc.).
Troubleshoot and repair thyristor circuits (SCR, TRIAC, DIAC, etc.).
ANALOG CIRCUITS
Understand principles and operations of multistage amplifiers.
Fabricate and demonstrate multistage amplifiers.
Troubleshoot and repair multistage amplifiers.
Understand principles and operations of linear power supplies and filters.
Fabricate and demonstrate linear power supplies and filters.
375
Troubleshoot and repair linear power supplies and filters.
Understand principles and operations of operational amplifier circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate operational amplifier circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair operational amplifier circuits.
Understand principles and operations of audio power amplifiers.
Fabricate and demonstrate audio power amplifiers.
Troubleshoot and repair audio power amplifiers.
Understand principles and operations of active filter circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate active filter circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair active filter circuits.
Understand principles and operations of sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal oscillator circuits.
Fabricate and demonstrate sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal oscillator circuits.
Troubleshoot and repair sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal oscillator circuits.
BASIC AND PRACTICAL SKILLS PART 1
Read and apply various sources of technical information.
Determine if a solution is reasonable.
Demonstrate ability to use a simple electronic calculator.
Round and/or truncate numbers to designated place value.
Compare order and determine equivalencies of real numbers (e.g. fractions, decimals,
percentages).
Solve problems and make applications involving integers, fractions, decimals, percentages.
Translate written and/or verbal statements into mathematical expressions.
Convert, compare, and compute with common units of measurement within and across
measurement systems.
Read scales on measurement devices and make interpolations where appropriate.
Collect and organize data into tables, charts, and/or graphs.
Identify patterns, note trends, and/or draw conclusions from tables, charts, maps, and/or graphs.
Compute and interpret mean, median, and/or mode.
Simplify and solve algebraic expressions and formulas.
Select and use formulas properly.
Understand and use scientific notation.
Use properties of exponents and logarithms.
Determine slope, midpoint, and distance.
Graph functions.
Recognize, classify, and use properties of lines and angles.
Apply Pythagorean theorem.
Identify basic functions of sine, cosine, and tangent.
Compute and solve problems using basic trigonometric functions.
Understand principles of electricity including its relationship to the nature of matter.
BASIC AND PRACTICAL SKILLS PART 2
Demonstrate basic keyboard skills.
Maintain state-of-the art skills through participation in in-service or other training.
Participate in continuing education.
Understand and apply continuous improvement principles.
Demonstrate knowledge of the business products/services.
376
Use effective written and other communication skills.
Use telephone etiquette including relaying messages accurately.
Employ appropriate skills for gathering and relating information.
Interpret written, graphic, and oral instructions.
Interact with co-workers and customers in a logical, clear, and understandable manner.
Use language appropriate to the situation.
Participate in meetings in a positive and constructive manner.
Use job-relating terminology.
Write technical reports, letters, and memoranda as appropriate to the audience.
Document work projects, procedures, test, and equipment failures.
Identify the problem.
Clarify purposes and goals.
Identify available solutions and their impact, including evaluating credibility of information.
Evaluate options.
Set priorities.
Select/implement options/decisions including predicting results of proposed action.
Organize personal workloads.
Participate in brainstorming sessions to generate new ideas and solve problems.
377
378
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