DEPARTMENT

OF
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CLASS NOTES
of
UG - B.E. COURSE
IN
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER VISION-FCV

Course Code : 21EC651

(Institutional Elective)
(Module - 1 / Unit No. 1)
Third Year B.E. – 6th Semester
January - June 2024
Academic Year : 2022-23
2021 Scheme

Staff Incharges
Dr. Pavithra G.

Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering

Shavigemalleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout,
Banashankari, Bangalore-560078, Karnataka
Tel : +91 80 26662226 26661104 Extn : 2731 Fax : +90 80 2666 0789
Web - http://www.dayanandasagar.edu Email : [email protected]
( An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Approved by AICTE & ISO 9001:2008 Certified )
( Accredited by NBA, National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) with 'A' grade & NIRF Rated )

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COURSE OBJECTIVES:

1. . To understand the concepts of image processing techniques for computer vision.

2. To study spatial domain image enhancement and image analysis.
3. To study different compression techniques.
4,To expose the students to various applications of Computer Vision.

COURSE OUTCOMES:

After completion of the course, the graduates will be able to

Relate human visual system with the fundamentals of IP techniques and describe
CO1 the process of image formation in the eye and its implications with its image file
formats and demonstrate and analyze the different relationships between the pixels.
Apply and analyze various image enhancement techniques in spatial and frequency
CO2
domain
Apply and analyze the properties and applications of different image transforms
CO3
with effectiveness in various image compression schemes.
CO4 Analyze the various applications of Computer Vision.

Mapping of Course Outcomes (CO) to Program Outcomes (PO) :

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
CO1 3 2 2
CO2 3 2 2 2
CO3 3 2 2 2 2
CO4 3 3 2 3 3 2 2

Module Contents of the Module Hrs CO Levels

Fundamentals of vision: Elements of visual perception:

Image formation in the eye, Brightness adaptation and
1 Discrimination, image display, Fundamental Steps, 8 CO1
Components. Basic relationship between pixels, Different
Image data types, Types of images.

Module-1
Introduction to Image Processing
1) Introduction

An image is a two-dimensional function that represents a measure of some characteristic

such as brightness or colour of a viewed scene. An image is a projection of a 3D scene into a
2D projection plane. It can be defined as a two-variable function f (x, y) where for each
position (x, y) in the projection plane, f (x, y) defines the light intensity at this point.
Analog Image

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An analog image can be mathematically represented as a continuous range of values
representing position and intensity. An analog image is characterised by a physical
magnitude varying continuously in space. For example, the image produced on the screen of
a CRT monitor is analog in nature.
Digital Image
A digital image is composed of picture elements called pixels. Pixels are the smallest sample
of an image. A pixel represents the brightness at one point. Conversion of an analog image
into a digital image involves two important operations, namely, sampling and quantisation,
which are illustrated in Fig. 1.1. Analog image Sampling Quantisation Digital image Fig. 1.1

Advantages of Digital Images The advantages of digital images are summarised below:
The processing of images is faster and cost-effective.
Digital images can be effectively stored and efficiently transmitted from one place to
another.
When shooting a digital image, one can immediately see if the image is good or not.
Copying a digital image is easy.
The quality of the digital image will not be degraded even if it is copied for several times.
Whenever the image is in digital format, the reproduction of the image is both faster and
cheaper.
Digital technology offers plenty of scope for versatile image manipulation.
Drawbacks of Digital Images Some of the drawbacks of digital image are given below:
Misuse of copyright has become easier because images can be copied from the Internet just
by clicking the mouse a couple of times.
A digital file cannot be enlarged beyond a certain size without compromising on quality.
The memory required to store and process good-quality digital images is very high.
For real-time implementation of digital-image-processing algorithms,
The processor has to be very fast because the volume of data is very high.

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2) Elements of Visual Perception .

The Human Visual System (HVS) is one of the most complex systems in existence. Our
visual system allows us to organise and understand the many complex elements in our
environment. The visual system consists of an eye that transforms light into neural signals,
and the related parts of the brain that process the neural signals and extract necessary
information.
Anatomy of the Human Visual System
The human eye is a slightly asymmetrical sphere with an approximate sagittal diameter or
length of 24 to 25 mm and a transverse diameter of 24 mm. It has a volume of about 6.5 cc.
The view of a human eye is shown in Fig. below

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1) The cross-sectional view of the eye shows three different layers. They are (i) the external
layer formed by the sclera and cornea, (ii) the intermediate layer, divided into two parts—
anterior (iris and ciliary body) and posterior choroids, (iii) the internal layer or the sensory
part of the eye, the retina
2) The cornea is tough transparent tissue that covers the anterior surface of the eyes
Continuous with cornea , the sclera is an opaque membrane that encloses the remainder of
the optic globe
3) The choroid lies directly below the sclera . The membrane contains a network of blood
vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to the eye
4) The choroid coat is heavily pigmented and helps to reduce the amount of extraneous light
entering the eye and backscatter within the optic globe. At its anterior extreme , the choroid
is divided into ciliary body and the iris. The latter contracts or expands to control the
amount of light that enters eye. The central opening of the iris(the pupil) varies in diameter
from approx. 2 to 8 mm. The front of the iris contains visible pigment of the eye, whereas
contains a black pigment
5) The lens is made up of concentric layers of fibrous cells and is suspended by fibres that
attach to the ciliary body . It contains 60 to 70 % water,about 6% fat and more protein than
any other tissue in the eye. The lens is coloured by slightly yellow pigmentation that
increases with age
6) The innermost membrane of the eye is retina , which lines the inside of the wall’s entire
posterior portion .When the eye is properly focussed, the light from an object outside the eye
is imaged on retina . Pattern vision is afforded by the distribution of the discrete light
receptors over the surface of retina.
7) There are two classes of receptors : cones and rods . The cones in each eye number
between 6 to 7 million . They are located primarily in central position of the retina , called
the fovea , and are highly sensitive to colour . Humans can resolve fine details with these
cones because one is connected to it’s own nerve end. Muscles controlling the eye rotate the
eyeball until the image of an object of interest falls on fovea . Cone vision is called photopic
or bright light vision
8) The number of rods is much larger .Some 75 to 150 million are distributed over the retinal
surface . The larger area of distribution and the fact that several rods are connected to single
nerve and reduces the amount of details discernible by these receptors . Rods serve to give a

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general , overall picture of the field of view. They are not involved on color vision and are
sensitive to low levels of illumination For example, objects appear brightly in daylight ,
when seen by moon appears colourless forms because only rods are stimulated . This
phenomenon is known as scotopic or dim - light vision.
Image formation in the eye

The distance between the centre of the lens and the retina along the visual axis is approx 14
mm to 17 mm, the latter taking place when the eye is relaxed and focused at distance greater
than about 3m.

The geometry in fig illustrate how to obtain the dimension of an image formed on the
retina. For example , suppose that a person is looking at a tree 15m high at a distance of
100m. Letting h denote the height of the object in the retinal image, the geometry of fig 2.3
yields 15/100 = h/17 or h=2.55mm. The retinal image primarily focuses on the region of the
fovea

3) Key stages in Digital image processing

1) Image acquisition

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2)Image enhancement-
Image enhancement is the process of adjusting digital images so that the results are more
suitable for display or further image analysis

3)Image Restoration

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4) Morphological processing

5) Segmentation

6) Object Recognition

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7) Representation & Description

8) Compression

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9) Color image processing

4) Image sampling and quantization

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Brightness and Contrast
Brightness is the psychological concept or sensation associated with the amount of light
stimulus. Light source intensity depends upon the total light emitted and the size of the
solid angle from which it is emitted. Two sources of equal intensity do not appear equally
bright. Luminance, the intensity per unit area, is a psychophysical property that can be
measured. The term contrast is used to emphasise the difference in luminance of objects. The
perceived brightness of a surface depends upon the local background which is illustrated in
Fig. . In Fig. , the small square on the right-hand side appears brighter when compared to
the brightness of the square on the left-hand side, even though the gray level of both the
squares are the same. This phenomenon is termed ‘simultaneous contrast’

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5) ELEMENTS / Components OF AN IMAGE-PROCESSING SYSTEM

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The different elements in an image-processing system are (i) image-acquisition element

which involves image sensors like CCD sensors, CMOS sensors, and image scanners, (ii)
image-storage devices, (iii) image-display devices and (iv) image processing elements.
The different elements in an image-processing system are (i) image-acquisition element
which involves image sensors like CCD sensors, CMOS sensors, and image scanners, (ii)
image-storage devices, (iii) image-display devices and (iv) image processing elements

Image Sensors - It refers to sensing.

The image sensor captures incoming light, convert it into an electrical signal, measure that
signal, and output it to supporting electronics.
An image sensor is a 2D array of light-sensitive elements that convert photons into
electrons.
CCD (Charged Coupled Device) and CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Conductor)
image sensors are widely used in image-capturing devices like digital cameras.
Image sensors have two elements that are required to capture digital images.
The first is a physical device (sensor) that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we
wish to convert to image.
The second is a digitizer that is used for converting the output of a physical sensing device
into digital form.
Two elements are required to acquire the digital images. The first is the physical device that
is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we wisht o image (sensor). The second,
called a digitizer, is a device for converting the output of the physical sensing device into the
digital form.

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6) Representing Digital image

1) NEIGHBOR HOOD PIXEL

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2)ADJACENCY

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3) DISTANCE MEASURES

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7) IMAGE TYPES
Images can be broadly classified under four categories: (i) Black and white or binary images,
(ii) grayscale images, (iii) colour images, and (iv) multispectral image
Binary Images

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Gray scale image

Color image

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Multispectral imaging captures image data within specific wavelength ranges across the
electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths may be separated by filters or detected with the
use of instruments that are sensitive to particular wavelengths, including light from
frequencies beyond the visible light range, i.e. infrared and ultra-violet. It can allow
extraction of additional information the human eye fails to capture with its visible receptors
for red, green and blue
8) APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

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 Question Bank

Module 1

[1] What is Digital image processing. Explain its pros and cons

[2] With a neat diagram explain the Elements of Visual Perception

[3] Explain the Key stages in Digital image processing

[4] Explain a) Image sampling and quantization b) Brightness and Contrast

[5] With a neat diagram explain the elements / Components of an Digital image
processing

[6] list some of the basic relationship between pixels

[7] What is an image ? How is it broadly classified

[8] List the applications of Digital image processing

[9] How do we represent a digital image ? Explain the advantages & disadvantages of
digital image

[10] Refer all problems done in class.

TEXTBOOKS:

1. R.C. Gonzalez, R.E. Woods, “Digital Image Processing”, 3rd edition, Pearson Education,
2009.
2. S. Jayaraman, S. Esakkirajan, T. Veerakumar, “Digital Image Processing”, 2009, Mc Graw
Hill Education, India.
3. Dr. Vipula Singh,” Digital Image Processing with MATLAB & LabVIEW”, Reed Elsevier
India Pvt. Ltd., India.
4. Dr. Pavithra G., et.al., “Image Processing & Machine Vision”, Notion Press Publications,
2021, India.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. R.C. Gonzalez, R.E. Woods, S.L. Eddins, “Digital Image Processing using MATLAB”, 2nd
Edition, Addison Wesley, 2009.
2. Anil. K. Jain, “Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing”, Pearson Education, 2002.
3. B. Chanda and D. Dutta Majumdar, “Digital image processing and analysis”, PHI, New
Delhi, India, 2003.
4. Dr. Pavithra G. et.al., “Computer Vision & Techniques”, ISBN 978-1-68509-224-5, Notion
Press Publications, 2021, India.

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 Vision & Mission of the Institute

Vision:
 To impart quality technical education with a focus on Research and Innovation emphasizing
on Development of Sustainable and Inclusive Technology for the benefit of society.

Mission:
 To provide an environment that enhances creativity and Innovation in pursuit of Excellence.
 To nurture teamwork in order to transform individuals as responsible leaders and
entrepreneurs.
 To train the students to the changing technical scenario and make them to understand the
importance of sustainable and inclusive technologies.

Vision & Mission of the Department

Vision :
 To achieve continuous improvement in quality technical education for global competence
with focus on industry, societal needs, research and professional success.

Mission:
 Offering quality education in Electronics and Communication Engineering with effective
teaching learning process in multidisciplinary environment.
 Training the students to take-up projects in emerging technologies and work with team
spirit.
 To imbibe professional ethics, development of skills and research culture for better
placement opportunities.

Program Education Objectives

After four years, the students will be
PEO1: Successful in industry, academia, or entrepreneurship as a result of a strong teaching
learning process, with keen interest in pursuing higher studies in various domains.
PEO2: Capable of leading technological and managerial projects for serving industry and society
with knowledge of Electronics and Communication Engineering.
PEO3: Competent professional capable of adapting to changing technological scenarios and
societal needs, with expertise in relevant domains.
Program Specific Outcomes

PSO1 : Design, develop and integrate electronic circuits and systems using current practices and
standards.
PSO2 : Apply knowledge of hardware and software in designing Embedded and
Communication systems.

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