DISCIPLINES OF THOUGHT

YEAR 3 THINKING FURTHER

& ACTIVITY WORKSHEETS
ACS (Independent) TOK/DOT Department
Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For the 2023 Edition

This book would not have been possible without the original chapter contributors, Dr
Adrian Kwek and Mdm Dheepa Narayanan; without the editor of previous editions of
the book, Mr Phee Beng Chang; or without the amendments and input from the
members of the 2022 curriculum redevelopment team, Ms Lianne Chua and Mr
Kenneth Ong.

Gratitude must also be expressed to the Dean of the DOT/TOK Department, Ms

Daphne Teo, for her offered support and who provided the impetus for the
curriculum review.

Jacob Mok
The Editor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ii

INTRODUCTION 1
WHAT ARE DISCIPLINES OF THOUGHT (DOT)? 2

UNIT 1: SCIENCE 3

i of iii
ACS (Independent)
TOK/DOT Department

LESSON 1: HOW SCIENCE WORKS 4

LESSON 2: SCIENCE AND PSEUDO-SCIENCE 7

LESSON 3: THE NATURE OF THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE 10

UNIT 2: MATHEMATICS 18
LESSON 1: HOW DO WE KNOW MATH? 19

LESSON 2: IS MATH DISCOVERED OR INVENTED? 22

LESSON 3: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATHEMATICS 23

UNIT 3: HISTORY 27
Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ii of iii
ACS (Independent) TOK/DOT Department
Table of Contents

LESSON 1: WHAT IS HISTORY? 28

LESSON 2: HOW ACCURATE ARE HISTORICAL CLAIMS? 33
LESSON 3: SOURCES OF HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE 37

iii of iii
ACS (Independent) Introduction
TOK/DOT Department By Jacob Mok

INTRODUCTION
By Jacob Mok

1 of 40
ACS (Independent) Introduction
TOK/DOT Department By Jacob Mok

WHAT ARE DISCIPLINES OF THOUGHT (DOT)?

2 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department

Thinking Further

Have you thought about these or similar questions before? If so, have you come to
any answers to any of them? Summarise your preliminary answers (if any) to such
questions below.

Yes, I have thought about similar questions such as “How to study a certain subject
efficiently” which is similar to wondering about “How do we acquire knowledge”. I
believe that in order to acquire knowledge, many key disciplines are needed such as
open- mindedness and focus.

3 of 40
 What are Disciplines of Thought (DOT)?
By Jacob Mok

UNIT 1: SCIENCE
By Jacob Mok

4 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department

Lesson 1: How Science Works

By Jacob Mok

LESSON 1: HOW SCIENCE WORKS

Thinking Further

Think about your science classes so far (in the classroom and in the laboratories).
Which of the 3 components are you being exposed to? How are they being exposed to
you? How do they help you gain scientific knowledge?

1. In my science classes, both in the classroom and in the laboratory, I have been
actively engaged with all three components of the scientific method: experimentation,
interpretation and analysis, and theory formulation. These components are integral to
how we acquire scientific knowledge, and they are presented to us in dynamic and
hands-on ways. Experimentation: Through practical lessons and laboratory work, we
are exposed to the process of experimentation. Teachers and instructors guide us in
conducting experiments, where we manipulate variables and observe outcomes. For
example, in a chemistry class, we might mix different substances to observe chemical
reactions and understand how they interact. These experiments provide us with
tangible evidence and firsthand experience, helping us grasp scientific concepts in a
concrete manner.
2. Interpretation and Analysis: Following experimentation, we are taught how to
interpret the data we've collected and analyze the results. This step involves using
various tools and methods to extract meaningful information from our observations. In
a biology class, for instance, we might examine microscope slides of cells to identify
their structures and functions. By honing our analytical skills, we learn how to draw
conclusions from raw data and make sense of complex phenomena.
3. Theory Formulation: As we progress in our studies, we are encouraged to develop
hypotheses and theories that explain the patterns and trends we observe through
experimentation. Teachers guide us in understanding existing theories and models,
and then challenge us to formulate our own hypotheses based on our newfound
knowledge. For instance, in a physics class, we might explore the laws of motion and
develop hypotheses about the behavior of objects under varying conditions. This
process fosters critical thinking and creativity, allowing us to contribute to the ever-
evolving body of scientific understanding.

5 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department

Thinking Further

Think about the other disciplines and subjects that you have been exposed to in your
years of formal schooling. Are any or all of the 3 components of the scientific method
also present in any of these other disciplines and subjects? Which ones? How so?

For instance, in our Language Arts lessons, the component of interpretation is semi-
present. When analyzing literature, we are encouraged to make interpretations of
characters, situations, and themes based on evidence found within the text. While
this form of interpretation lacks the empirical rigor of scientific experimentation, it
shares similarities with the scientific method's hypothesis formulation and analysis
steps. We formulate hypotheses about a character's motivations or a story's
underlying message, and we then analyze textual evidence to support our
interpretations. However, unlike scientific experiments, where hypotheses are tested
through controlled procedures, literary interpretations are open to subjective
perspectives and diverse viewpoints.

Likewise, mathematics also aligns with the scientific method, particularly through
interpretation and analysis. When dealing with data sets or mathematical
relationships, tables and graphs become integral tools. These visual representations
are to be interpreted and analyzed to discern patterns, trends, and relationships.
Consider a scenario where we're studying the growth of a population over time. By
plotting the data on a graph, we can interpret the trajectory of the population's
increase or decrease and potentially formulate hypotheses about the factors
influencing this trend. This analysis closely mirrors the scientific method's emphasis
on observation, data analysis, and forming explanatory hypotheses.

In summary, the scientific method's components—observation, hypothesis

formulation, and analysis—transcend the boundaries of pure scientific disciplines.
They are present in subjects like Language Arts and mathematics, albeit with
variations that acknowledge the unique nature of each field. While the interpretative
aspect of these disciplines doesn't always align with the controlled experimentation
of the natural sciences, it does showcase the broader application of systematic inquiry
and critical thinking across diverse areas of knowledge.

Lesson 1: How Science Works

By Jacob Mok

6 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department

I wish to investigate how different colours of light affect the growth rate of plants.
My hypothesis is that plants will grow best under red light.

I will have to test how high the plant can grow in a set period of time using a
measuring tape. I will also have to employ different variables, which will be a
range of different coloured lights to put the plant under.

If the plant under the red light will glow the highest, it will show that my
hypothesis is true. Other than that, I could also prove my hypothesis true by
seeing whether the plant under the red light has more amount of leaves or deeper
roots.

7 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department

Lesson 1: How
Science Works
By Jacob Mok
Theory
-formulation (How many times and on which entities will you need to repeat
your experimentorder
in for you to confidently assert that your hypothesis is true?
Why?
):

I will have to repeat the experiment at least three times with at least three
different colours of lights, including red light, the plant is exposed to. Therefore, I
can calculate the average of all the readings for the different variables and see if
the plant exposed to red coloured light has the highest average height.

8 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 2: Science and Pseudo-Science
By Jacob Mok

Thinking Further

Do you think any research endeavour can switch from science to pseudo-science and
vice versa? What sort of things must happen for this switch to occur?

Research endeavours can shift between science and pseudo-science based on factors
like methodology and adherence to scientific principles. A move from science to
pseudo-science can occur due to declining reliance on anecdotes and lack of
falsifiability to carry out large experiments. A move towards pseudo-science can
occur when rigorous scientific methodologies are abandoned in favor of anecdotal
evidence, personal experiences, or unverified claims. Pseudo-scientific endeavors
often lack proper experimental controls and systematic data collection. For example:
Homeopathy, an alternative medical practice, is often criticized for its lack of scientific
basis. Its remedies are highly diluted and proponents claim that the more dilute a
substance is, the more potent it becomes. However, this claim is not falsifiable or
supported by rigorous experimental evidence, making it a pseudoscientific approach.

So what sort of things must happen for this switch? 1. When previously unverified
claims gain empirical support and become consistent with accepted scientific
principles, they can transition into genuine scientific endeavors. 2. Pseudo-scientific
ideas may become more scientific when their claims are formulated in a way that
allows them to be tested and potentially refuted through experimentation. However,
This shift requires a commitment to empirical validation.

LESSON 2: SCIENCE AND PSEUDO-SCIENCE

9 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 2: Science and Pseudo-Science
By Jacob Mok

ACTIVITY
Discuss with your peers whether the following are pseudo-scientific.

1. Feng Shui 2. Phrenology(The study of skull

shapes to determine mental faculties
and character)

10 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 2: Science and Pseudo-Science
By Jacob Mok

Feng shui and phrenology both have lack in supporting evidence and vague claims. There's no scientific
basis for the concept of "energy" as described in Feng Shui, and the effects it purports to have on one's
life lack consistent, measurable outcomes. Phrenology is the outdated belief that personality traits and
mental characteristics can be determined by examining the bumps and contours of a person's skull. This
theory has been thoroughly discredited by modern neuroscience, as there is no direct correlation
between skull shape and specific mental faculties. There is no real supporting evidence for Anti-Vax
claims such as that the vaccines contain microrobots or the presence of other unproven devices.
However, certain speculations such as that the vaccine may cause long term health issues may be
possible and contain certain truth until proved wrong.

The claims of the anti-vax proponents make extreme and baseless claims about vaccines, such as
the assertion that vaccines contain microchips for tracking individuals or that vaccines are a part of
Feng Shui practitioners sometimes
a grand conspiracy to control the population. Likewise,
assert that specific arrangements of objects in a space can lead to dramatic
improvements in health, wealth, and overall well-being. For example, they might
claim that rearranging furniture in a certain way will bring prosperity or cure
ailments.

The concept of “Patternsin the iris of the eye provide information about a person's
overall health.” In iridology is vague because t he claim does not define the specific
patterns or colors that would indicate particular health conditions. It also lacks a
clear scientific basis for how variations in iris appearance would correlate with
specific diseases or health states.
11 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 2: Science and Pseudo-Science
By Jacob Mok

Are there internally inconsistent claims made by practitioners in the field? Which
ones?

In the field of Feng Shui, practitioners can exhibit internally inconsistent claims
when they assert that a certain arrangement enhances both wealth and health
simultaneously, even though these outcomes might involve conflicting spatial
orientations. Together with the inconsistent recommendations, there are often
conflicting energy theories too.Feng Shui often relies on concepts of energy flow (Qi)
to influence a person's well-being. However, the various schools of Feng Shui
sometimes present conflicting theories about how this energy operates, undermining
the consistency of the practice.

Are the claims put forth provable? How are they proven?

The claims made in areas like Feng Shui, iridology, and the anti-vaccination
movement are difficult to prove scientifically. Feng Shui talks about arranging things
in special ways for good luck, but demonstrating its effectiveness for everyone is
difficult due to the subjective nature of "good luck" and the lack of consistent
scientific evidence. While anecdotal stories exist, controlled studies that conclusively
prove Feng Shui's benefits are limited.
Some anti-vaxxers claimed that there was a possibility of nanocomputers being
placed in vaccines as the vaccine contained lipid nanoparticles. However, these lipid
nanoparticles simply serve as protective carriers for vaccine components, enhancing
their delivery into cells, hence proving these conspiracy theories wrong.

12 of 40
Are the theories in the field open to negative evaluation?
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department

LESSON 3: THE NATURE OF THE SCIENTIFIC

ENTERPRISE
Thinking Further

Think about your own experiences in the science laboratories. When your
experimental results do not follow the theoretical projection, do you immediately
suspect that the scientific theory is mistaken? What other explanations can there be?
Cite an example from your own experiences as a young scientist to make your point
here.

No, I do not immediately suspect the scientific theory is mistaken. Rather, I've learned
to consider a range of alternative explanations for such inconsistencies. While it's true
that the theory itself might need reevaluation in some cases, there are often other
factors that contribute to unexpected results.

ACTIVITY 1
Discuss whether you think science is objective or subjective with your peers. Write
your answer in 300 words or less.

Science is a blend of both objectivity and subjectivity. It rigorously pursues objectivity

by adhering to empirical methods and systematic testing. Yet, subjectivity seeps in
through researchers' biases, cultural contexts, and paradigm shifts. This dialectic is
integral to the advancement of knowledge, underlining science's evolving nature.
While objectivity is strived for, subjectivity can taint results when external motivations
or biases influence the experimental process. For instance, experiments driven by
genuine curiosity tend to yield more objective outcomes. Conversely, when a scientist
is motivated by money, the potential for subjectivity increases, compromising the
objectivity of findings. Hence, while science leans towards objectivity, acknowledging
and minimizing subjective influences are crucial for maintaining the integrity of the

13 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise
By Jacob Mok

scientific process.

Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise

By Jacob Mok

14 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department

ACTIVITY 2
The following is an excerpt from a play. In this excerpt, the well-known struggle
Galileo Galilei faced in attempting to overcome the Geocentric paradigm (that the
stars and planets revolved around Earth) with the Heliocentric one (that Earth, along
with the other planets in the Solar System, revolved around the Sun), is dramatised.
Read the excerpt to get a flavour of how hard paradigm shifts can occur.

EXCERPT FROM THE LIFE OF GALILEO BY BERTOLT BRECHT

GALILEO (at the telescope): As your Highness doubtless knows for some time past
we astronomers have been in great difficulties with our calculations. For these we use
a very old system which appears to coincide with philosophy, but not, alas, with facts.
According to this old system - Ptolemaic - the movements of the stars are presumed
to be extremely complicated. For instance, the planet Venus is supposed to follow an
orbit of this sort. (on a blackboard he draws the epicyclical orbit of Venus
according to the Ptolemaic conception) But even accepting such complicated
movements, we are still not able to calculate the positions of the stars correctly. We
do not find them in the places where they apparently should be. And furthermore
there are certain movements of the stars for which the Ptolemaic system has no
explanation at all. Movements of this sort seem to me to be described by the little
stars round the planet Jupiter, which I have recently discovered. Would the
gentlemen care to begin with an observation of the satellites of Jupiter, the Medicean
stars?

ANDREA (pointing to the stool in front of the telescope): Please sit here.

THE PHILOSOPHER: Thank you, my child. I fear that things are not quite as simple
as all that. Signor Galilei, before we apply ourselves to your famous instrument we
would like to have the pleasure of a disputation. The theme: Can such planets exist?

THE MATHEMATICIAN: A formal disputation.

GALILEO: I thought you could simply look through the telescope and convince
yourselves.

ANDREA: Here, please.

THE MATHEMATICIAN: Of course, of course. Naturally, you know that according to

the ancients, stars revolving about a centre, Other than the earth cannot exist, nor
can there be stars which have no support in the Heavens?

15 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise
By Jacob Mok
GALILEO: Yes.

THE PHILOSOPHER: And quite apart from the possibility of such stars, which the
mathematician (he bows to the mathematician) appears to doubt, I would, in all
modesty, as a philosopher, like to pose the question: are such stars necessary?
Aristotelis divini universum…

GALILEO: Should we not continue in the vernacular? My cot-league, Signor

Federzoni, does not understand Latin.

THE PHILOSOPHER: Is it of importance that he should understand us?

GALILEO: Yes.

THE PHILOSOPHER: Excuse me. I thought he was your lens-grinder.

ANDREA: Signer Federzoni is a lens-grinder and a scholar.

THE PHILOSOPHER: Thank you, my child. If Signor Federzoni insists…

GALILEO: I insist.

THE PHILOSOPHER: The argument will lose in elegance, but it is your house.-
The cosmos of the divine Aristotle, with its mystical, music-making spheres and
crystal domes and the gyrations of its heavenly bodies and the oblique angle of the
sun’s orbit and the secrets of the satellite tables and the rich catalogue of
constellations in the southern hemisphere and the inspired construction of the
celestial globe, is a conception of such symmetry and beauty that we should do
well to hesitate before disturbing that harmony.

GALILEO: How would it be if your Highness were now to observe these impossible
as well as unnecessary stars through this telescope?

THE MATHEMATICIAN: One might be tempted to reply that your telescope,

showing something which cannot exist, may not be a very reliable telescope, eh?

GALILEO: What do you mean?

THE MATHEMATICIAN: It would be much more helpful, Signor Galilei, if you

were to tell us the reasons which lead you to the assumption that in the highest
spheres of the immutable Heavens stars can move freely through space.

THE PHILOSOPHER: Reasons, Signor Galilei, reasons.

GALILEO: The reasons? - When a glance at the stars themselves and my own
observations will demonstrate the phenomenon. Sir, the disputation is becoming
absurd.

16 of 40
ACS (Independent)
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise

THE MATHEMATICIAN: If one could be sure that you would not excite yourself
further, one might suggest that what is in your telescope and what is in the
Heavens may be two different things.

THE PHILOSOPHER: That could not have been more courteously expressed.

FEDERZONI: You think we painted the Medicean stars on the lens!

GALILEO: Are you accusing me of fraud?

THE PHILOSOPHER: But how could we? In the presence of his Highness!

THE MATHEMATICIAN: Your instrument - whether one calls it your child or

your pupil - is certainly most cleverly made, no doubt about that!

THE PHILOSOPHER: And we are entirely convinced, Signer Galilei, that neither
you nor anyone else would dare to bestow the illustrious name of our ruling house
on stars whose existence was not beyond all possible doubt. (they all bow low to
the Grand Duke)

COSIMO (looks round to the court ladies): Is there something not right with my
stars?

THE OLDER COURT LAPY (to the Grand Duke): Everything is all right with the
stars, your Highness. The gentlemen are only asking whether they really and truly
are there.

(pause)

THE YOUNGER COURT LADY: One is said to be able to see every hair on the
Great Bear through that instrument.

FEDERZONI: Yes, and all sorts of things on the Bull.

GALILEO: Well, will you gentlemen now look through it, or not?

THE PHILOSOPHER: Certainly, of course.

THE MATHEMATICIAN: Of course.

(pause, suddenly Andrea turns and walks stiffly across the whole room)

(his mother catches hold of him)

SICNORA SARTI: What’s the matter with you?

ANDREA: They’re stupid. (he tears himself loose and runs off)

THE PHILOSOPHER: Deplorable child.

17 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 1: Science
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise
By Jacob Mok
THE CHAMBERLAIN: Your Highness, gentlemen, may, I remind you that the
Court Ball opens in three-quarters of an hour?
Unit 1: Science

By Jacob
Mok THE MATHEMATICIAN: Why mince matters? Sooner or later Signer Galilei
will have to reconcile himself with the facts. His planets of Jupiter would break
through the crystal spheres. It is quite simple.

FEDERZONI: You’ll be astonished! There are no crystal spheres.

THE PHILOSOPHER: Every school-book will tell you they exist, my good man.

FEDERZONI: Then hurrah for new school-books.

THE PHILOSOPHER: Your Highness, my worthy colleague and I rely on the

authority of none less than the divine Aristotle himself,

GALILEO (almost obsequiously): Gentlemen, belief in the authority of Aristotle is

one thing; facts, tangible facts, are another. You say that according to Aristotle
there are crystal spheres up there and therefore certain movements cannot take
place because the stars would have to break through those spheres. But what if you
can confirm those movements? Perhaps that will persuade you that those crystal
spheres simply don’t exist. Gentlemen, I beseech you in all humility to trust your
eyes.

THE MATHEMATICIAN: My dear Galileo, old-fashioned though it may sound to

you, I am accustomed among other things to read Aristotle, and I can assure you
that there I do trust my eyes.

GALILEO: I am used to seeing members of all faculties shutting their eyes against
every fact and behaving as though nothing has happened. I offer my observations,
and they smile. I place my telescope at their disposal so that they can convince
themselves, and they quote Aristotle. But the man had no telescope.

THE MATHEMATICIAN: Certainly not. Certainly not.

THE PHILOSOPHER (sweepingly): If Aristotle - an authority recognized not only

by the entire learning of antiquity but also by the Holy Fathers of the Church - if
Aristotle is to be dragged through the mud, then it seems, to me at least, that a
continuation of this discussion is superfluous. I avoid pointless discussion.
Enough!

GALILEO: Truth is the child of time, not of authority. Our ignorance is infinite, so
let us diminish it by a fraction. Why try to be so clever now, when at last we can
become a little less stupid? I have had the unbelievable good fortune to lay my

18 of 40
ACS (Independent)
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise

hands on a new instrument by means of which one can see one tiny corner of the
universe a little clearer. Not much -but a little. Make use of it!

THE PHILOSOPHER: Your Highness, ladies and gentlemen, I am just asking myself
where all this may lead.

GALILEO: I would suggest that as scientists it is not for us to ask where the truth
may lead us.

19 of 40
ACS (Independent)
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise

Unit 1: Science

By Jacob Mok
THE PHILOSOPHER (furiously): Signor Galilei, the truth may lead us to absolutely
anything.

GALILEO: Your Highness. On nights such as these, all over Italy telescopes are
being turned towards the Heavens. Jupiter’s moons will not make milk any
cheaper. But they have never been seen before, and they are there. From that the
man in the street draws the conclusion that there may be many more things to see
if only he opens his eyes. You owe him that confirmation. It is not the movements
of a few distant stars that make all Italy prick up its ears, but the news that
opinions hitherto held inviolable have now begun to totter -and everyone knows
there are too many of those. Gentlemen, let us not defend dying teachings.

FEDERZONI: You, as teachers, should hasten their end.

THE PHILOSOPHER: I should prefer your man not to proffer advice in a scientific
disputation.

GALILEO: Your Highness. My work in the Great Arsenal of Venice brought me

into daily contact with draughtsmen, builders and instrument makers. These
people taught me many a new way of doing things. Illiterate, they relied on the
evidence of their five senses, in most cases regardless of where such evidence
might lead them…

THE PHILOSOPHER: Oho!

GALILEO: Very like our mariners, who a hundred years ago left our shores
without knowing what sort of other shores they might reach, if any at all. It seems
that today, in order to find that high curiosity which made the true greatness of
ancient Greece, one has to resort to the shipyards.

THE PHILOSOPHER: After all that we have heard here, I have no longer any
doubt that Signor Galilei will find admirers in the shipyards.

THE CHAMBERLAIN: Your Highness, to my dismay I find that this

extraordinarily instructive conversation has become somewhat long drawn out.
Your Highness must rest a while before the Court Ball.

(at a sign the Grand Duke bows to Galileo, The Court rapidly begins to leave)

SIGNORA SARTI (places herself in front of the Grand Duke and offers him a
plate of pastries): A biscuit, your Highness?

(the older court lady leads the Grand Duke out)

GALILEO (running after them): But really, you gentlemen need only look through
the instrument!

20 of 40
ACS (Independent)
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Nature of the Scientific Enterprise

THE CHAMBERLAIN: His Highness will not fail to obtain an opinion on your claims
from the greatest living astronomer, Father Christopher Clavius, Astronomer-in-Chief
at the Papal College in Rome.
Unit 1: Science

By Jacob Mok

21 of 40
 —Bertolt Brecht, The Life of Galileo, Scene 3,
accessed June 5, 2022,
ACS (Independent) http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupt
Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department a/lifeofgalileo.pdf

Why do you think the audience members did not wish to look into the telescope? Do
you think they have good reason to not look into the telescope?

Even if the audience members had looked into the telescope and saw what Galileo
wanted them to see, do you think they would have changed their minds about the
nature of planetary motion? What sort of counterproposals to what they would have
seen can you find in the excerpt you have just read?

By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

UNIT 2: MATHEMATICS
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

22 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: How Do We Know Math?
& Dheepa Narayanan
By Kenneth Ong

LESSON 1: HOW DO WE KNOW MATH?

Thinking Further

Is mathematical knowledge largely based on reasoning or on experimental procedure

like in science? Is it even possible for mathematics to be based entirely on reasoning?
I believe mathematical knowledge is primarily built upon logical deduction rather than
experimental procedures. This strong foundation ensures that mathematical
conclusions are derived from established axioms and logical steps, making mathematics
a highly abstract and self-contained field of study. In summary, while mathematics is
predominantly based on reasoning and proof, its significance transcends the abstract as
it finds manifestations in the structures and patterns of the natural world.

ACTIVITY 1
Many claims are made in the various subjects that you study. For example, ‘Water is
a compound that is made up of elements’, ‘The sum of angles in a triangle is equal to
180 degrees’, and ‘Sir Stamford raffles could speak Malay fluently’. Have you ever
wondered about how certain we can be about such claims? In mathematics, many, if
not all, of the claims we make come from logical reasoning. So, if we are perfectly
logical, then our inferences should lead us to knowledge claims that gives us absolute
certainty. However, reasoning must be based on premises and they are sound only if
these premises are true. These are fundamental concepts or things we observe that
are self-evident. These foundational concepts or assumptions are known as axioms.

List 3 axioms. (You may need to do some research.)

1. Axiom of Identity: P = P.
2. Axiom of Non-Contradiction: A statement cannot be both true and false.
3. Axiom of Peano Arithmetic: 0 is a natural number, and every natural
number has a unique successor.

By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

23 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: How Do We Know Math?
Are the axioms you identified truly axioms—i.e., truly self-evident?

While the axioms I identified are often treated as foundational and self-evident in
their respective contexts, the concept of "self-evidence" can vary depending on
philosophical perspectives and the level of abstraction.

24 of
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: How Do We Know Math?
& Dheepa Narayanan
40

25 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: How Do We Know Math?
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

ACTIVITY 2
How can we be certain about knowledge in mathematics? Apart from appealing to
the method of logical deductions to give us certainty, how about the fact that
mathematics has given us such an amazing understanding of our world? Let us take
the example of the definition of a sexagon, namely that “A sexagon is a polygon with
six sides and six angles”. If you start with such a definition, you can be sure that all
sexagons have six sides independent of your experience of sexagons. Suppose we go
beyond this with the proposition that the sum of the exterior angles of a sexagon is
360 degrees, do we not need some evidence to back our claim? Hence, we need to
verify that proposition with our experience.

What is the sum of 2 unicorns plus 3 unicorns? Did you say that it is 5 unicorns?
How did you get such a number? Did you have to go out into the world to experience
it? And how can you if unicorns do not exist? And yet, we can somehow know that if
unicorns are one day found to exist, then the sum of 2 unicorns plus 3 unicorns is 5
unicorns.

Beyond this, there are conjectures which are knowledge claims that have not been
proven. This does not mean that they are not true.

Discuss how certain you are about the knowledge claims that you are taught in
mathematics and why. Do some of them feel more certain than others?
the certainty of knowledge claims varies based on the nature of the claims and their
foundations. Simple claims in mathematics, such as the use of numerals to represent
quantities and basic operations like addition and subtraction, tend to inspire a higher level
of certainty. These concepts are widely applicable and frequently encountered in the real
world. For instance, when we count objects or calculate expenses, we directly observe the
validity of these claims in practical scenarios. The foundational nature of these concepts
within our day-to-day experiences contributes to their perceived certainty.

However, as mathematical concepts become more complex and abstract, the level of
certainty can diminish. Claims that involve advanced topics like advanced calculus, abstract
algebra, or higher-dimensional geometry may feel less certain to many individuals because
they are farther removed from direct, tangible experiences. The assurance of these claims
often relies on the rigor of mathematical proofs, logical deductions, and the consistency of
mathematical frameworks. Lesson 2: Is Math Discovered or Invented?

26 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Building Blocks of Mathematics
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

LESSON 2: IS MATH DISCOVERED OR INVENTED?

ACTIVITY
Think about the points made by the mathematical realist or the anti-realist. To what
extent do you agree with them? What other explanations can there be? Discussing
with your peers, cite an example from your own experiences as mathematics students
to make your point here.
Mathematical realism and anti-realism are two philosophical positions that provide contrasting
perspectives on the nature of mathematical entities and their existence.

Mathematical realists assert that mathematical objects and concepts exist independently of
human thought or perception. They argue that mathematical truths are discovered rather than
invented and that mathematical entities have an objective reality. For example lets take the
concept of prime numbers, a mathematical realist would argue that prime numbers exist as
abstract entities with inherent properties, regardless of whether humans are aware of them.

On the other hand anti-realist contend that mathematical entities are human constructs and
don't possess independent existence. They argue that mathematical truths are the result of
linguistic conventions, logical rules, and human thought processes. Another example is that
imaginary numbers could suggest that they are mathematical constructs invented to solve
certain equations, such as those involving square roots of negative numbers.
27 of 40

From my perspective of a mathematics student, I have always wondered about the concept of
prime numbers. For example when I’m, playing with building blocks, when I have 3 or 5 blocks I
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department

LESSON 3: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATHEMATICS

Thinking Further

Do you think that it is possible for mathematical axioms to be proven?

axioms are considered to be statements that are accepted as true without

requiring proof within the context of that particular system. attempting to prove
axioms using other statements would lead to an infinite regress of proofs, as those
other statements would themselves depend on further axioms or proofs. If they
could be proven, they would not be axioms but theorems instead.

If mathematical axioms cannot be proven, why do we then take them to be true?

Many axioms are statements that align with our intuitive understanding of basic
concepts. For example, the axiom that states "the shortest distance between two
points is a straight line" corresponds to our everyday experience of geometry. And
axioms are based on observations or measurements from the physical world. If we
cant even accept axioms, mathematical exploration is useless as it is the starting
point.

Thinking Further

Which geometric system do you think is the “true” or the “better” one? Why do you
think it is “true” or “better”?

28 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Building Blocks of Mathematics
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

Discuss how you could make a mathematical rule about triangles. Do we go out into
the world and measure real triangles? How many triangles do we have to measure to

29 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Building Blocks of Mathematics
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan
make a mathematical rule? What does this tell us, if anything, about mathematical
knowledge?

Thinking Further

How do we come to decide whether Euclidean geometry or Einstein’s Theory is the

“true” or the “better” one?

ACTIVITY
Much of the thinking we do in secondary school mathematics is connected to
deductive reasoning. In deductive reasoning, we start with one or more premises.

30 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Building Blocks of Mathematics
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan
Premises are statements which can be either true or false. The following are examples
of premises.

Premise 1: If we are bitten by a snake, we will surely die.

Premise 2: Adam is bitten by a snake.

From here, we make a logical inference to reach a logically certain conclusion. The
following is an example of the conclusion.

Conclusion: Therefore, Adam will surely die.

31 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Building Blocks of Mathematics
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

32 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 2: Mathematics
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 3: The Building Blocks of Mathematics
By Kenneth Ong & Dheepa Narayanan

33 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

UNIT 3: HISTORY
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

34 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: What is History?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

LESSON 1: WHAT IS HISTORY?

Thinking Further

Which view of history most appeals to you? Why?

I think the scientific objective school of historical interpretation strongly resonates with
me due to its grounding in empirical evidence and its commitment to presenting an
accurate representation of the past. This viewpoint offers a principled foundation for
historical inquiry, emphasizing the importance of meticulous research, thorough
documentation analysis, and cross-referencing of sources to construct a reliable and
unbiased narrative. In a world where misinformation and biased narratives can easily
shape public perception, the scientific objective school's commitment to evidence-based,
impartial
Pick exploration
any two of theproblems
views. What past is crucial.
can you identify with them?
The relativist subjective school emphasizes the relativity of interpretations over time,
asserting that our understanding of historical figures' intentions and beliefs may be
clouded by our present-day perspectives. As we attempt to bridge the gap between the
past and the present, there is a possibility of projecting our contemporary values onto
historical figures, thereby distorting their true beliefs and intentions.

On the other hand, the radical school challenges traditional narratives and seeks to expose
power dynamics and hidden agendas in historical events. The radical approach might
inadvertently lead to the politicization of history, where historical events are interpreted
through a predetermined ideological lens, possibly skewing the accuracy of the analysis.

ACTIVITY
In the following excerpt, a historian muses on why it is important to study history.
Read the article in pairs and discuss the subsequent questions with your partner.

EXCERPT FROM WHY STUDY HISTORY? BY PETER N. STEARNS

History should be studied because it is essential to individuals and to society, and

because it harbours beauty. There are many ways to discuss the real functions of the
subject—as there are many different historical talents and many different paths to
historical meaning. All definitions of history's utility, however, rely on two
fundamental facts.

40

History Helps Us Understand People and Societies

35 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: What is History?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong
In the first place, history offers a storehouse of information about how people and
societies behave. Understanding the operations of people and societies is difficult,
though a number of disciplines make the attempt. An exclusive reliance on current
data would needlessly handicap our efforts. How can we evaluate war if the nation is
at peace—unless we use historical materials? How can we understand genius, the
influence of technological innovation, or the role that beliefs play in shaping family
life, if we don't use what we know about experiences in the past? Some social
scientists attempt to formulate laws or theories about human behaviour. But even
these recourses depend on historical information, except for in limited, often
artificial cases in which experiments can be devised to determine how people act.
Major aspects of a society's operation, like mass elections, missionary activities, or
military alliances, cannot be set up as precise experiments. Consequently, history
must serve, however imperfectly, as our laboratory, and data from the past must
serve as our most vital evidence in the unavoidable quest to figure out why our
complex species behaves as it does in societal settings. This, fundamentally, is why
we cannot stay away from history: it offers the only extensive evidential base for the
contemplation and analysis of how societies function, and people need to have some
sense of how societies function simply to run their own lives.

History Helps Us Understand Change and How the Society We Live in

Came to Be

The second reason history is inescapable as a subject of serious study follows closely
on the first. The past causes the present, and so the future. Any time we try to know
why something happened—whether a shift in political party dominance in the
American Congress, a major change in the teenage suicide rate, or a war in the
Balkans or the Middle East—we have to look for factors that took shape earlier.
Sometimes fairly recent history will suffice to explain a major development, but
often we need to look further back to identify the causes of change. Only through
studying history can we grasp how things change; only through history can we begin
to comprehend the factors that cause change; and only through history can we
understand what elements of an institution or a society persist despite change.

The Importance of History in Our Own Lives

36 of
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: What is History?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong
These two fundamental reasons for studying history underlie more specific and
quite diverse uses of history in our own lives. History well told is beautiful. Many
of the historians who most appeal to the general reading public know the
importance of dramatic and skilful writing—as well as of accuracy. Biography and
military history appeal in part because of the tales they contain. History as art and
entertainment serves a real purpose, on aesthetic grounds but also on the level of
human understanding. Stories well done are stories that reveal how people and
societies have actually functioned, and they prompt thoughts about the human
experience in other times and places. The same aesthetic and humanistic goals
inspire people to immerse themselves in efforts to reconstruct quite remote pasts,
far removed from immediate, present-day utility. Exploring what historians
sometimes call the “pastness of the past”—the ways people in distant ages
constructed their lives—involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and ultimately
another perspective on human life and society. History Contributes to Moral
Understanding

faced in difficult History also provides a terrain for moral

settings. People who contemplation. Studying the stories of individuals and
have weathered situations in the past allows a student of history to test
adversity not just in his or her own moral sense, to hone it against some of
some the real complexities individuals have work of fiction,
but in real, historical circumstances can provide
inspiration. “History teaching by example” is one phrase that describes this use of
a study of the past—a study not only of certifiable heroes, the great men and
women of history who successfully worked through moral dilemmas, but also of
more ordinary people who provide lessons in courage, diligence, or constructive
protest.

History Provides Identity

History also helps provide identity, and this is unquestionably one of the reasons
all modern nations encourage its teaching in some form. Historical data include
evidence about how families, groups, institutions and whole countries were
formed and about how they have evolved while retaining cohesion. For many
Americans, studying the history of one's own family is the most obvious use of

37 of
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: What is History?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong
history, for it provides facts about genealogy and (at a slightly more complex level)
a basis for understanding how the family has interacted with larger historical change.
Family identity is established and confirmed. Many institutions, businesses,
communities, and social units, such as

40

38 of
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 1: What is History?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong
Give an example of an event that appears not to be worthy of historical recording.

Cultural shifts and notable attendees. The recording of the local cultural
gathering could serve as a snapshot of changing societal norms and values over
time. If the event is attended by individuals who later become influential figures
in politics, arts, or other fields, it could become relevant to their biographies and
the larger contexts of their lives.

It allows us to analyse human behavior, societal patterns, and the influence of

various factors on societies over time. Studying history helps us comprehend how
and why things change. Individuals and groups can understand their origins,
evolution, and contributions to larger historical narratives, fostering a sense of
belonging and cohesion.

Events such as the development of prominent societies and particular nations.

This would aid in allowing people outside of these societies to understand how
these societies came to be. Such as the Industrial Revolution, fall of berlin wall in
1989 and influence of Confucianism on East Asian societies

39 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department

Lesson 2: How Accurate are Historical Claims?

By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

LESSON 2: HOW ACCURATE ARE HISTORICAL CLAIMS?

40 of 40
Thinking Further

What is an “original memory”? Do you think it is possible to have Unit

ACS (Independent) an 3:original
History
TOK/DOT
memory? Department

Why
It isora why not? recollection of an event or experience as it was perceived t that
firsthand
point of time it occurred. This cant be affected by other factors such as
variability in interpretation or emotions and swaying opinions. Factors such as
emotions, biases, personal interpretations, and the passage of time influence
how memories are formed and remembered. Emotions during the event, as well
as those experienced during subsequent recollections, can alter the memory's
details.
How important do you think is the role of memory in eye-witness testimony and
why?
Eye-witness testimony is pivotal in legal proceedings and historical
documentation, relying on memory to provide firsthand accounts of events. While
memory is crucial for preserving details, it has complexities that affect the
reliability of such accounts. Memories can be distorted by factors like bias and
suggestibility, leading to inaccuracies in recollection. The reconstruction of
memories upon retrieval can result in alterations, potentially leading to false
memories or misidentifications even when ecnological advancements of
polygraphs(lie
List two ways indetectors).
which memory can be affected by error.
Memory is susceptible to errors through processes like the misinformation effect
and suggestibility. The misinformation effect occurs when exposure to inaccurate
information after an event distorts subsequent recollection, leading individuals to
remember false details. Suggestibility involves the incorporation of external
suggestions or leading questions into memory, causing the formation of false
memories or alterations to existing ones. These errors highlight the malleable
nature of memory, where external influences and cues can impact the accuracy of
recollections.

41 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 2: How Accurate are Historical Claims?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

ACTIVITY
Look at the following photographs
(or photograph pairings
) which serve some agenda
or another and answer the questions
that follow.

1. Benito Mussolini Removes Horse Handler

Photographer unknown
, Benito Mussolini Removes Horse Handler
, 1942, accessed June 5, 2022,
https://phamd.weebly.com/historical
-tampering.html

2. Cottingley Fairies

Elsie Wright, Frances Griffiths with Fairies

, 1917, first published inThe Strand
Magazine, accessible via Wikimedia Foundation, accessed June 5, 2022,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/71/Cottingley_Fairies_1.jpg

Temp

42 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 2: How Accurate are Historical Claims?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong
3. Russian Soldiers Raising the Soviet Flag

Yevgeny Khaldei, Raising a flag over the

Reichstag
, 1945, accessible via Wikimedia Foundation,
accessed June
5, 2022,https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/14/Reichstag_flag_original.jpg

4. The Controversial Qinghai

–Tibet railway

Liu Wei-qiang, Qinghai-Tibet Railway opening green passageway for wild animals
, 2006, first
published in an event sponsored by China Central Television,
republished in Jane Qiu,
“Acclaimed photo
was faked”, Nature451, No. 1035 (2008)
. Web accessible via
https://media.springernature.com/relative
-
r300-703_m1050/springer -
static/image/art%3A10.1038%2F4511034b/MediaObjects/41586_2008_Article_BF4511034b_Figa_HT
ML.jpg?as=webp

43 of 40
If you were a historian encountering these photographs for the first time, which
doctored photograph would you find least convincing? Why? What does this tell you
about how we judge the veracity of photographs?
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department Lesson 2: How Accurate are Historical Claims?
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

What do you think were the intentions behind each “photograph”?

Agendas need not only be satisfied by doctoring photographs. What are some other
ways by which “historical” claims can be made?

44 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department

Lesson 3: Sources of Historical Knowledge

By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

LESSON 3: SOURCES OF HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE

Thinking Further

Which part of Tacitus’s passage do you think led people to coin the phrase “Nero
fiddled while Rome burned”?

“he had mounted his private stage, and typifying the ills of the present by the
calamities of the past, had sung the destruction of Troy"

After reading both excerpts, do you think that it is reasonable to conclude that Nero
fiddled while Rome burned? Why or why not?

How do you think a secondary source historian can improve on the fidelity of his or
her work to the facts?

They should engage in corroborative work, by ensuring that the inferences

made from primary sources are corroborated by multiple primary sources. This
way, their inferences and claims would be more accurate and reliable.

Lesson 3: Sources of Historical Knowledge

By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong

45 of 40
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department

ACTIVITY
The following is a fun group activity about a fictitious case to tease out some of issues
with historical sources. Read the write-up below and answer the questions that
follow. (It is recommended that this activity be done in groups.)

To many in the community, Mrs Brown was a mystery. She died three days ago
when her house burnt down. The fire chief said that the cause of the fire was faulty
wiring. She lived only with her pet cat. Her neighbours only saw her when she
went out for milk and a few groceries. Mrs Brown has no known surviving
relatives. Firefighters were not able to save the house but gathered the following
items from the smouldering pyre:

- Two World War II medals, one American, one Japanese.

- A jar of coins from around the world.
- A metal box containing letters, many of them signed “From your loving
Bobo,” dated in the 1940s, postmarked “Honolulu”.
- Three photographs:
⬧One of a young couple: the woman in a wedding dress, the man in a suit with the
date “January 1941” written on the back.
⬧The second photo, a sepia print, also a wedding photo with a fake European
seaside scene behind the couple.
⬧The third photo is of two men, one Caucasian (possible American), one Japanese,
with their arms around each other’s shoulders.

Based on the evidence that has been made available to you, construct a history of Mrs
Brown.

40
Lesson 3: Sources of Historical Knowledge
By Adrian Kwek & Kenneth Ong
46 of
Consider one other student’s/group’s interpretation of the evidence and give three
reasons why it is not believable.
ACS (Independent) Unit 3: History
TOK/DOT Department

Respond to any other student’s/group’s three objections to your/your group’s

interpretation of the evidence.

From the activity, what can you learn about the challenge(s) facing a historian in
reconstructing history? In constructing Mrs Brown’s history, were you a primary or
secondary source historian?

47 of 40
ACS (Independent) TOK/DOT Department

End of Thinking Further/Activity Booklet

40

48 of