Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Acid gas removal plants, including MEA,

DEA, MDEA, and hot potassium
carbonate systems (Benfield and
Catacarb), corrosion and metallurgy.
Non-academic, edited collection by John Fletcher

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14547.35368

Abstract
This edited collection is a practical guide for engineers working in the field and not ment
as an academic publication. This review provides an in-depth examination of corrosion
challenges in acid gas removal processes within the oil and gas sector, with a specific
focus on amines, like Monoethanolamine (MEA), Diethanolamine (DEA), Methyl
Diethanolamine (MDEA), and hot potassium carbonate systems, including Benfield and
Catacarb processes. It assesses the influence of chemical properties and operational
conditions on corrosion, providing a comprehensive understanding of the underlying
mechanisms.

The paper emphasizes the significance of design, operational factors, and material
selection in amine-treating plants, addressing issues like temperature effects, amine
solution concentration, and acid gas loading on corrosion rates. It also explores the
complexities of managing corrosion in MDEA plants, including the occurrence of stress
corrosion cracking in carbon steel and stainless steel.

Additionally, the review examines the impact of design and operating variables in hot
potassium carbonate plants (Benfield and Catacarb) and suggests effective corrosion
control strategies, such as material selection and inhibitor usage. The critical role of
continuous corrosion monitoring for maintaining plant integrity and safety is
highlighted.

1
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 4
Background ..................................................................................................................... 6
Amine Treating Plants Process......................................................................................... 8
Corrosion in Amine Treating Plants .................................................................................. 9
MDEA Methyl Diethanolamine Plant Corrosion ............................................................. 14
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steel ................................................................... 15
Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking .............................................................................. 15
Amine plant inspection guidelines:............................................................................ 17
Wet H2S Cracking and Blistering ................................................................................... 19
Stress Corrosion Cracking in Stainless Steel ................................................................. 20
Chloride Cracking ...................................................................................................... 20
Polythionic Cracking .................................................................................................. 20
Stress cracking, further reading. ................................................................................ 21
Influence of Design and Operating Variables ................................................................. 23
The main operational factors include: ....................................................................... 24
Secondary Operating Variables ..................................................................................... 28
Keep it clean .............................................................................................................. 28
Corrosion Control in Amine Treating Plants, Use of Alloy Equipment. ........................... 33
Reboilers.................................................................................................................... 35
Lean Amine Pump Material Selection: ....................................................................... 39
Lean Amine Pump Material Selection Further reading: .............................................. 39
Other General Guidelines for Alloy Equipment .............................................................. 40
General Guidelines for Alloy Equipment Further reading: .......................................... 43
Corrosion Inhibitors ....................................................................................................... 43
Corrosion Monitoring ..................................................................................................... 44
Continuous monitoring paper to note ........................................................................ 46

2
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Process Description Hot Potassium Carbonate Plants (Benfield process/Hot Carbonate

Plant) ............................................................................................................................. 47
Benfield & Catacarb Process: ........................................................................................ 48
Catacarb Process: ..................................................................................................... 48
Benfield process/Hot Carbonate Plant Further reading: ............................................ 49
Corrosion in Hot Potassium Carbonate Plants: General or Preferential Corrosion ........ 50
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steel ................................................................ 51
Stress Corrosion Cracking Further reading ................................................................ 51
Stress Corrosion Cracking: Stainless Steels in amine treating plant ............................. 53
SCC in amine-treating plant further reading .............................................................. 53
Influence of Design, Operating Variables....................................................................... 55
Primary Variables ....................................................................................................... 55
Secondary Variables .................................................................................................. 55
Additional Considerations ......................................................................................... 56
Design and Operating Benfield Catacarb Further reading .......................................... 56
Corrosion Control in Hot Carbonate Treating Plants...................................................... 57
Hot Carbonate Treating Plants, Corrosion Control, Further reading: ......................... 58
Hot Carbonate Other General Guidelines .................................................................. 59
Hot Carbonate Corrosion Control, Further reading.................................................... 59
Corrosion Inhibitors in Carbonate Plants ...................................................................... 60
Corrosion Inhibitors in Carbonate Plants, Further reading: ....................................... 60
Corrosion Monitoring in Carbonate Plants ................................................................. 61
Corrosion Monitoring in Carbonate Plants further reading ......................................... 61
Further reading .............................................................................................................. 62

3
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Introduction
Acid gas removal is a critical process in the oil and gas industry to meet environmental
and safety regulations. This literature review paper explores the corrosion challenges
encountered in acid gas removal plants, focusing on three commonly used amines:
monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), and methyl diethanolamine (MDEA).

Additionally, it looks at hot potassium carbonate systems, specifically the Benfield and
Catacarb processes, primarily employed for CO2 removal. This review aims to provide
insights into the corrosion problems associated with the removal of CO2 and H2S using
these processes, offering valuable information for engineers and professionals in the
field.

For the removal of CO2, hot potassium carbonate systems such as Benfield and
Catacarb are the primary choice. This review focuses on corrosion issues that can arise
in CO2 and H2S removal plants when utilizing these processes.

MDEA v DEA v MEA

Methyl Diethanolamine (MDEA): Chemical Structure: MDEA has a methyl group and two
hydroxyl (OH) groups attached to a nitrogen atom, giving it the formula
CH₃N(C₂H₄OH)₂.Flammability: MDEA is not highly flammable but can burn under
certain conditions.Toxicity: MDEA is considered to be less irritating and toxic compared
to MEA and DEA. However, it can still cause skin, eye, and respiratory tract irritation
upon exposure.

Diethanolamine (DEA): Chemical Structure: DEA consists of two hydroxyl groups and
two ethylene groups attached to a nitrogen atom, with the formula
HN(C₂H₄OH)₂.Flammability: DEA has a low flammability risk but can burn at high
temperatures or if exposed to an ignition source.Toxicity: DEA can be harmful upon
prolonged exposure. It can irritate the skin and eyes and may have potential health
effects on the liver and kidneys. DEA has also been studied for possible links to
carcinogenicity.

Monoethanolamine (MEA): Chemical Structure: MEA has one ethylene group and one
hydroxyl group attached to a nitrogen atom, giving it the formula
NH₂C₂H₄OH.Flammability: MEA is also not highly flammable, but it can burn or emit
toxic fumes when heated to decomposition.Toxicity: MEA is more toxic and corrosive

4
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

than MDEA and DEA. It poses significant risks of skin, eye, and respiratory irritation, and
prolonged exposure can lead to more serious health issues.

Toxicity: MEA is the most toxic, followed by DEA, with MDEA being the least toxic of the
three. All can irritate, but MEA is particularly corrosive and harmful. Flammability: All
three substances have low flammability risks but can burn under specific conditions.
However, they are not generally considered highly flammable materials.

Benfield Process:

Chemical Composition: Uses a hot potassium carbonate solution with Diethanolamine

(DEA) as an activator and often includes vanadium compounds as corrosion inhibitors.
Toxicity: The primary toxicity concerns in the Benfield process arise from DEA and
vanadium compounds. DEA can be harmful upon prolonged exposure, causing skin and
eye irritation, and potential liver and kidney effects. Vanadium compounds can be toxic
if ingested or inhaled, leading to respiratory and skin irritation. Flammability: The hot
potassium carbonate solution itself is not flammable, but DEA can burn under certain
conditions. The overall process is not considered highly flammable, but standard fire
safety precautions should be observed, especially considering the presence of DEA.

Catacarb Process:

Chemical Composition: Similar to the Benfield process, it uses a hot potassium

carbonate solution but employs different activators (like alkanolamine and borate) and
also uses vanadium compounds as inhibitors. Toxicity: The toxicity in the Catacarb
process is mainly associated with the specific activators used and vanadium
compounds. While alkanolamine can be irritating to skin and eyes, the toxicity profile is
generally less severe than DEA. However, borates and vanadium compounds can be
toxic, particularly if inhaled or ingested. Flammability: Like the Benfield process, the
Catacarb process is not inherently flammable due to the aqueous nature of the
potassium carbonate solution. The activators and inhibitors used do not significantly
increase the flammability risk.

In summary, both the Benfield and Catacarb processes involve chemicals that can be
toxic but are generally not highly flammable. The main hazards arise from exposure to
DEA, alkanolamine, borates, and vanadium compounds. Appropriate handling, safety
precautions, and personal protective equipment are essential when working with these
processes to mitigate potential health risks.

5
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Background
Acid gas removal plants are designed to eliminate carbon dioxide (CO2) or hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) from gas and liquid streams. They play crucial roles in hydrogen
manufacturing and ammonia plants. These plants also handle sour gas streams from
various sources, including production facilities, crude units, catalytic reformers,
hydrotreaters, fluid catalytic crackers, and hydrocrackers.

Three common types of amines are typically used in acid gas removal plants.
Monoethanol amine (MEA) and diethanol amine (DEA) have long histories of use for
both CO2 and H2S removal. On the other hand, methyl diethanol amine (MDEA) is a
newer entrant. Additionally, di-isopropanol amine (DIPA) is utilized in SCOT tailgas
plants in locations like Port Arthur and Philadelphia. While DIPA plants share similar
corrosion challenges with acid gas removal plants, they won't be discussed in detail
here.

Hot potassium carbonate systems, such as Benfield and Catacarb, have been
preferred choices primarily for CO2 removal for several years. This section delves into
these processes and the factors in design and operation that impact corrosion.

Amine and potassium carbonate plants employ chemical solvent processes that rely
on reversible chemical reactions. Some processes utilize solvents dependent on the
physical absorption of acid gases in solution. Examples include Shell's Sulfinol Process
(utilizing Sulfolane or tetrahydrothiophene dioxide) and Fluor's Solvent (utilizing
propylene carbonate) and Purisol (utilizing NMP or N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone). While Fluor
Solvent and Purisol are used in hydrogen plants at Plants...and Pascagoula, this
chapter won't delve into these processes.

Corrosion issues and critical areas are shared among all acid gas removal processes:

1. Corrosion arising from extreme turbulence during the flash of acid gas (e.g., at
pressure letdown valves and downstream piping, and the regenerator feed
tray/distributor).
2. Corrosion in the regenerator overhead system due to the presence of wet acid
gas without the alkaline solvent (including the regenerator shell above the feed
tray).
3. Corrosion in the hot, lean system (reboiler, hot piping, bottom of regenerator).
Although the exact mechanism(s) is not fully understood, it is related to
temperature.

6
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

These problems will be discussed in greater detail later in this section, along with
corrosion issues specific to particular processes.

7
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Amine Treating Plants Process

The diagram below displays a flow diagram of a typical amine-treating unit. In this
process, acidic gases like hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide react with specific amines
to form stable compounds at lower temperatures, which can be broken down through
heating. For instance, the reaction between hydrogen sulfide and DEA can be
represented as follows:

2R2 NH + H2S ↔ R2NH2SH2 NR2

DEA and MEA are the most commonly used amines. They offer advantages such as high
reactivity and lower solvent costs. However, they have limitations in handling
compounds like COS, CS2, mercaptans, and oxygen-bearing gases. Additionally, they
tend to have higher utility costs compared to MDEA and hot potassium carbonate
processes. MEA is prevalent in CO2 removal plants, while DEA is favoured in H2S
removal plants.

MDEA has been a recent option with mixed results: it performs well in H2S or H2S/CO2
plants but requires careful corrosion control in CO2-only plants. MDEA and proprietary
MDEA blends offer two key benefits:

A) Selectivity: They effectively absorb H2S while rejecting most CO2, resulting in a
richer feed to the sulfur plant. The selectivity of MDEA can be adjusted for specific
processes through blending.

B) Lower regeneration costs: The lower heat of reaction with H2S and CO2, coupled
with the ability to operate at 50% MDEA concentration, significantly reduces the heat
required for regenerating MDEA. This leads to steam savings in the regenerator.

In an amine-treating plant, sour gas is exposed to cool amine at high pressures, where
the amine absorbs H2S and/or CO2. The purified process gas exits from the top of the
absorber column, while the amine solution rich in H2S and CO2 is withdrawn from the
bottom. It is then preheated through a heat exchanger and sent to the regenerator or
stripper column. In the regenerator, at elevated temperatures and reduced pressures,
the acid gases are separated from the amine and collected as the overhead product.
The "lean amine," which is mostly free of acid gas components, is drawn from the
bottom, cooled, and returned to the absorber column to repeat the cycle. CO2 waste is
either sold or vented to the atmosphere, while H2S waste is incinerated or processed
further to recover elemental sulfur.

8
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Absorber columns typically operate at temperatures ranging from ambient to

approximately 150°F (65.5C), and pressures range from 100 psi (689kPa) to several
thousand psi. Regenerator bottom temperatures generally fall between 240°F and
280°F, 115°C to 138°C with pressures usually just a few psi. Most amine-treating plants
are equipped with a filtration system to remove scale, solids, hydrocarbons, and other
impurities, minimizing erosion and localized corrosion caused by scale deposits. This
system includes mechanical filtration and, in some cases, carbon absorbers. MEA
plants often incorporate a reclaimer, although the boiling Point of other amines makes
reclamation impractical. The MEA reclaimer receives a slipstream from the regenerator,
boils off the amine, and returns it to the regenerator. The reclaimer's bottoms
concentrate on degradation products, which are periodically discarded.

Corrosion in Amine Treating Plants

Amine treating processes have a long history of use, and the inherent corrosion
challenges have been extensively documented in both published literature. Despite the
wealth of knowledge available on this subject, corrosion issues remain prevalent. Older
plants that have operated smoothly for years can suddenly encounter problems when
minor operational changes occur, such as introducing new feedstocks like
hydrocrackers or increasing feed rates.

The type and severity of corrosion and the methods for its mitigation depend on several
variables. The most significant factors include the type of gas being treated, the choice
of amine solution (MEA, DEA, MDEA), operating temperatures, solvent concentration,
acid gas loading, the purity of the solvent, feed rates as a percentage of design, flow
velocities, the use of inhibitors, and equipment design and metallurgy.

In general, aqueous amine solutions, due to their alkaline nature, are non-corrosive to
carbon steel when they are not heavily loaded with H2S or CO2. Consequently, most
equipment in these plants is constructed from carbon steel and experiences minimal or
no corrosion. Absorber columns and cold piping, in particular, are rarely subject to
corrosion and are typically made of carbon steel with a nominal corrosion allowance.

Amine solutions tend to release acid gases when heated, creating corrosive conditions.
To control hot amine corrosion, it is essential to limit the regeneration temperatures,
the concentration of the solution, and the level of impurities in the amine solution. This
can be achieved through measures such as reclamation or filtration. Proper material
selection for components is also crucial in mitigating corrosion.

9
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Figure 1Materials for Amine Gas Treating Plants

Fig 1 illustrates areas in an amine plant that have the potential for corrosion. One of the
sections in amine plants that often experience severe corrosion is the hot regenerator
bottoms system. Corrosion incidents may occur in the reboiler, reboiler return line,
lower part of the column, hot amine piping, and rich/lean amine exchangers. Corrosion
in these areas is typically non-uniform and can manifest as pitting or highly localized
attack in turbulent zones.

10
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Fig 2 and Fig 3 (below) provide examples of corrosion associated with turbulence and
velocity in amine piping. While corrosion inhibitors are often used in CO2 removal
plants, carbonic acid corrosion can still occur in the overhead system, especially in the
overhead condenser, if the inhibitor and alkaline amine are not carried overhead. This
form of corrosion manifests as localized erosion-corrosion.

Fig 2 Corrosion Related to Turbulence e and Velocity in Amine Piping

11
Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Fig 3 Corrosion Related to Turbulence e and Velocity in Amine Piping

12
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Typically, upgrading to T-304 stainless steel is the solution for condenser tube
corrosion. If air coolers are employed, inlet and outlet headers should also be made
from stainless steel. Carbonic acid corrosion can also affect metals in turbulent
sections of piping and the liquid impingement zones of the reflux drum.

Overhead corrosion in regenerators is a challenge in H2S removal plants, which

typically do not use inhibitors. This type of corrosion has seen an increase with the use
of high-nitrogen crude feedstocks. Addressing this issue often involves cracking or
hydrotreating high-nitrogen stocks.

By addressing these corrosion challenges and employing proper mitigation strategies,

amine-treating plants can maintain their efficiency and reliability in the long run.

The amine-treating process produces cyanide and ammonia, which are carried
overhead into the regenerator, condensed in water, and then refluxed back to the
regenerator.

Due to their limited ability to escape from the system, ammonia and cyanides can
accumulate in high concentrations. Consequently, the regenerator's overhead often
contains elevated levels of ammonium bisulfide (NH4HS) and frequently an excess of
ammonia.

Alkaline sour water corrosion poses a challenge in plants that process hydrocracker,
coker, or FCC gases. Experience has shown that stainless steels (such as Types 304
and 316) corrode at a similar rate to carbon steel in these environments.

To mitigate corrosion, several control measures are employed, including the use of
ammonium polysulfide to convert cyanides into harmless thiocyanates, the use of
reflux bleed streams to minimize NH4HS buildup in reflux loops, adhering to velocity
limits (typically 20 fps) in steel piping, and utilizing titanium grade 2 condenser tubes.

The reflux bleed stream serves the purpose of removing NH3 and managing the
concentration of ammonium bisulfide, which would otherwise accumulate in the
overhead system. Ideally, the presence of NH4HS should be limited to a maximum of
2% to 3%, although achieving this may not always be feasible. Nonetheless, reducing
NH4HS to even 5% to 10% is considered desirable. Additionally, the reflux bleed piping
allows for the purging of any trapped hydrocarbons in the overhead system.

13
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

MDEA Methyl Diethanolamine Plant Corrosion

The adoption of Methyl Diethanolamine (MDEA) in higher concentrations than
Diethanolamine (DEA) or Monoethanolamine (MEA) has led many refineries to transition
to MDEA, aiming to boost operational efficiency. This shift is evident in various facilities,
including a U.S. ammonia plant, an H2S plant, multiple H2S/CO2 plants, and several
natural gas processing plants, where MDEA is now the preferred choice

These plants all adhere to the prescribed limits of a maximum 50% solution
concentration and loadings of 0.45 moles of acid gas per mole of amine. Suppliers of
MDEA, such as Dow and Union Carbide, assert that it is non-corrosive when used within
this 50% solution concentration range. Nevertheless, companies have experience and
industry surveys indicate that corrosion control is contingent on the specific acid gas
encountered and the cleanliness of the amine solution.

In plants processing hydrogen sulfide (H2S), the use of Methyl Diethanolamine (MDEA)
generally results in minimal corrosion, thanks to the protective sulfide scale formed by
H2S on metal surfaces. However, in some carbon dioxide (CO2) processing plants, such
as ammonia and hydrogen production facilities, significant corrosion issues have been
observed with MDEA use. Notably, it is advised that plants using MDEA should refrain
from using corrosion inhibitors designed for Monoethanolamine (MEA), as they may
worsen corrosion in MDEA systems.

MDEA is more susceptible to degradation compared to other amines, and it is believed

that most corrosion can be prevented by maintaining the MDEA free from degradation
products. Since MDEA cannot be reclaimed, this is best achieved by preventing oxygen
ingress and incorporating carbon absorbers alongside mechanical filters to eliminate
impurities. Mechanical filters are effective at removing solid contaminants, while
carbon absorbers excel at removing hydrocarbons, which can cause foaming.

Regular replacement of carbon absorbers is essential. Most users rely on iron (Fe)
measurements to gauge when it's time to change the filters. Although there is no fixed
Fe concentration threshold to follow, Fe levels typically decrease significantly upon
installing new filters, then gradually rise and stabilize before eventually increasing
again. Filters should be replaced before this final rise occurs. With proper filtration and
maintenance practices, MDEA corrosion is typically no more severe than inhibited MEA
and often remains less severe.

14
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steel

Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking

The presence of amine solutions can lead to stress corrosion cracking in non-stress-
relieved carbon steel. Typically, MEA has a propensity to induce steel cracking under
milder conditions, such as lower temperatures, compared to DEA or MDEA. There have
been documented instances in the industry where MEA caused cracking even at
ambient temperatures, while DEA-induced cracking has occurred down to 140°F 60°C.
DEA and MDEA exhibit similar behaviour regarding stress corrosion cracking.

In 1991, amine stress corrosion cracks were detected in lean DEA piping operating at
150°F 65°C in hydrotreater plants. Testing revealed that the piping had not undergone
stress relief or had received inadequate stress relief. Although the line's temperature
was 150°F 65°C when the leakage occurred, temperatures had reached as high as
190°F 88°C during its 17 years of operation.

Carbon steel components in amine service are most susceptible to cracking in areas of
the plant where the operating temperatures are highest. Stress corrosion can occur
rapidly and extensively in locations like regenerator bottoms, where temperatures
range from 240°F 115°C to 280°F 138°C, but the severity decreases as the temperature
decreases.

To prevent stress corrosion cracking in non-stress-relieved equipment, which operates

at low temperatures during service, it is essential to perform a water wash before
shutdown steam-out. Water-washing with distilled water or steam condensate
effectively removes residual amines, which can cause cracking in non-stress-relieved
equipment when exposed to heat during steam-out. In 1974, residual amines during
steam-outs led to the cracking of a non-stress-relieved MEA absorber column in some
refineries.

The most reliable approach to prevent stress corrosion cracking is to stress-relieve

welds used in amine service. It is recommended that stress relief is used for all
pressure vessels in MEA service, regardless of operating temperature. For piping in MEA
service, stress relief is recommended if it operates above 100°F 38°C.

Even intermittent service lines, like the Regenerator pump-out line to the amine storage
tank, should be considered for stress relief. Stress relief guidelines for DEA and MDEA
plants can be somewhat less stringent than those for MEA. Again, stress relief is
advised for all pressure vessels, regardless of operating temperature. For piping, butt
welds (typically 2 inches 50mm and larger) should undergo stress relief when operating
above 100°F 38°C, while socket and seal welds (typically 1½ inches 38mm and smaller)
do not necessitate stress relief.

15
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Table 1 Amine Plant Inspection Guidelines

Table above: provides inspection guidelines for existing plants where original stress
relief measures were not as extensive.

From a technical standpoint, it is not deemed necessary to inspect DEA and MDEA
vessels operating below 150°F 65°C unless the presence of more than 50 ppm H2S is
detected. In such cases, refer to inspection guidelines for wet H2S cracking. If
equipment has ever been in MEA service, it should undergo inspection once as an MEA
vessel (regardless of its current service) and subsequently based on the guidelines for
its present service.

When repairing stress-relieved equipment in hot amine service, it is imperative to

stress-relieve repair welds to prevent cracking. Even a small weld on the exterior of a
column or vessel can lead to stress corrosion cracking on the inner surface. Cracks
may also initiate from seemingly inconspicuous sources, such as an arc strike on a
vessel wall or fillet welded support shoes on the exterior of hot piping.

Vessels should undergo stress relief following ASME Code-approved practices,

including a full circumferential band of heat, rather than localized treatment on one
side only. For comprehensive guidelines on equipment inspection and repair, consult
API Recommended Practice 945, "Avoiding Environmental Cracking in Amine Units."
This publication also provides a comprehensive overview of amine and wet H2S
cracking in amine plants. This includes any absorber overhead K.O. drum

16
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Table 2 Stress Relief Guidelines for Newly Constructed Amine Plants.

Amine plant inspection guidelines:

• Some vessels otherwise exempt from the requirements for amine stress
corrosion cracking inspection may require special inspection for wet H2S
cracking.
• Any evidence of or history of hydrogen blistering in a vessel necessitates
inspecting all welds internally using wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing
(WFMT).
• WFMT stands for wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing.
• From a technical viewpoint, the CRTC Materials and Equipment Unit does not
consider it necessary to inspect DEA and MDEA vessels operating at less than
150°F unless more than 50 ppm H2S are present. In that case, refer to
inspection guidelines for wet H2S cracking.
• If not done previously, schedule a one-time internal inspection of the bottom
third of the regenerator column. Any future inspections will be determined by
your findings.
• Piping 1-1/2 inches and smaller need not be inspected.
• UT stands for shear wave ultrasonic testing.
• Inspection is necessary unless stress corrosion has occurred elsewhere in the
plant below 150°F. This publication also provides a comprehensive overview of
amine and wet H2S cracking in amine plants.

17
Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Table 3 Amine Plant Inspection Guideline

18
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Wet H2S Cracking and Blistering

The term "wet H2S cracking" encompasses various forms of cracking mechanisms,
including hydrogen-induced cracking, stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking,
sulfide stress cracking, and hydrogen blistering. These mechanisms can become active
when carbon steel is exposed to H2S and liquid water. While a minimum H2S level of 50
ppm is commonly used for inspection purposes, it's worth noting that some cracks
have been identified in vessels with H2S levels in the water below 50 ppm.

Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) can manifest in various components made of carbon
steel, including columns, vessels, heat exchanger shells, and piping. A notable incident
in 1990 involved a DEA regenerator, which experienced sulfide cracking in the bottom
head and lower shell due to the improper application of an oxidizing corrosion inhibitor.

Additionally, a catastrophic failure occurred in 1984 involving a Union Oil amine

absorber, where stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking was initiated by SSC in
hard welds. To prevent SSC, it is necessary to limit the hardness of carbon steel welds
to a maximum of 200 BHN (Brinell Hardness).

Hydrogen blisters can develop in various areas of H2S removal plants. The majority of
blisters tend to form in the regenerator overhead system. Cyanides present in the
overhead system can promote blistering by deteriorating the protective iron sulfide film
on the steel surfaces. Blistering has also been observed in both the upper and lower
sections of ammonia scrubbers, which are employed in amine plants in newer units. In
highly loaded MEA plants (0.4 moles acid gas/mole amine), hydrogen blisters may form
in the bottom of the absorbers, even in the absence of cyanide and ammonia.

To control cyanides, ammonium polysulfide is sometimes introduced into the overhead

system of the cracking unit (e.g., FCC or hydrocracker) upstream of the amine plant.
However, most amine plants do not use ammonium polysulfide injection as a
permanent solution but rather as a temporary measure. Typically, a plant would
consider implementing polysulfide injection if corrosion rates were high and a spot FeCl
test indicated the presence of cyanides. (The FeCl test is qualitative for cyanides, while
ion chromatography is the most reliable quantitative test.

Generally, we recommend a nominal polysulfide injection rate of five to ten times the
stoichiometric amount required to react with cyanides in the process. Polysulfide rates
can be optimized by monitoring hydrogen activity using hydrogen probes.

If polysulfide is introduced into the regenerator overhead system, it is advisable to use

ammonium polysulfide instead of sodium polysulfide. Both forms will reflux back into
the regenerator column and mix into the circulating amine solution. However, sodium
polysulfide results in the accumulation of undesirable high levels of sodium ions in the

19
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

amine, whereas ammonium polysulfide decomposes in the column. Another advantage

of ammonium polysulfides is their faster reactivity with cyanides.

Stress Corrosion Cracking in Stainless Steel

Stainless steels are vulnerable to two distinct forms of stress corrosion cracking in acid
gas removal plants: chloride cracking and polythionic cracking. These cracking
mechanisms specifically affect austenitic stainless steels, such as those belonging to
the Type 300 series.

Chloride Cracking

Chloride Cracking Stainless steel tubes have experienced chloride stress corrosion
cracking in various components of amine plants, including regenerator reboilers, rich-
lean heat exchangers, and MEA reclaimers. Chlorides can infiltrate the system through
produced water or by coming into contact with caustic, carbonate, or make-up water.

Due to the significant presence of sodium chloride in most commercial grades of

sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate, it is imperative to use low-chloride-
containing chemicals in plants equipped with stainless steel components. Other
sources of chloride contamination include feed impurities and the water source used
for preparing amine solutions.

For makeup in amine plants with stainless steel reboilers, it is not definitively
established what constitutes acceptable levels of chloride. However, it is suggested
that chloride concentrations in the amine solution should not surpass 500 ppm
chloride. Levels beyond this threshold can potentially induce chloride SCC (Stress
Corrosion Cracking) in stainless steel tubes unless U-tube bundles have been stress-
relieved or straight sections have been adequately annealed or stress-relieved post-
straightening.

Polythionic Cracking

Polythionic Cracking Stainless steels have experienced failures in hydrogen sulfide

removal plants due to stress corrosion cracking caused by polythionic acids.
Polythionic cracking results from the formation of acidic components through the
oxidation of iron sulfide corrosion byproducts. Polythionic acid-induced stress
corrosion cracking is exclusive to stainless steel grades susceptible to sensitization
and, consequently, prone to intergranular corrosion.

The generation of polythionic acids can occur in amine-treating plants solely during
shutdowns when equipment might remain in contact with moisture and oxygen.

20
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Initially, iron sulfide scale forms due to the corrosion of carbon steel equipment and
subsequently deposits in stainless steel piping. During shutdowns, this scale appears
to oxidize sufficiently to create an acidic environment conducive to cracking.

Intergranular stress corrosion cracking of sensitized stainless steel has also been
observed in CO2 removal plants. To mitigate these risks, we recommend the following
practices for both H2S and CO2 removal plants:

1. Avoid using standard stainless steel grades like Type 304 for welding or U-tubes
requiring stress relief. Instead, opt for low-carbon or stabilized grades like Types
304L, 316L, 321, or 347 in such applications.
2. Review stress relief procedures to ensure they do not sensitize equipment.
3. Employ electric resistance stress relief methods for exchanger U-tubes.
4. Apply a soda ash wash to sensitized stainless steel equipment.

By adhering to these guidelines, the susceptibility of stainless steel components to

stress corrosion cracking can be significantly reduced.

Stress cracking, further reading.

Re: Stainless steels are vulnerable to two distinct forms of stress corrosion cracking in
acid gas removal plants: chloride cracking and polythionic cracking.

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) in stainless steel, particularly in acid gas removal
plants, involves two main mechanisms: chloride cracking and polythionic cracking.
These mechanisms primarily affect austenitic stainless steels like the Type 300 series.

Chloride Cracking: Studies have shown that chloride stress corrosion cracking can
occur in various components of amine plants such as regenerator reboilers, rich-lean
heat exchangers, and MEA reclaimers. Chlorides can infiltrate the system through
multiple sources, including produced water, caustic, carbonate, or make-up water. The
significant presence of sodium chloride in commercial grades of sodium hydroxide and
sodium carbonate makes it imperative to use low-chloride-containing chemicals in
plants with stainless steel components (Spencer et al., 2014).

Polythionic Cracking: Polythionic acid stress corrosion cracking is a well-known issue in

petroleum refineries and has been extensively researched. Studies indicate that more
highly alloyed materials are more resistant to sensitization than most austenitic
stainless steels and are virtually unattacked in polythionic acid solutions containing up
to 1% chloride. Polythionic acid has been identified as a primary causative agent in SCC
(Baylor, 1985).

In conclusion, both chloride and polythionic acid stress corrosion cracking pose
significant threats to austenitic stainless steels in acid gas removal plants.

21
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Understanding these mechanisms and the sources of contamination is crucial for

preventing such failures.

22
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Influence of Design and Operating Variables

Design and operational factors significantly impact corrosion levels in acid gas removal
facilities. When operational adjustments are made to enhance plant capacity, there's
often an uptick in corrosion. Extensive data, particularly for MEA/CO2 installations,
demonstrates how design and operational elements affect corrosion This section
provides an overview of the impact of various such factors. The concepts discussed
mainly pertain to corrosion in carbon steel within MEA systems; however, DEA and
MDEA systems exhibit comparable patterns.

In many corporate amine facilities, special alloys are employed for key components like
regenerator bottoms and reboilers. Yet, under extreme conditions, even these alloys
are prone to corrosion. Therefore, it's crucial to focus on design and operational
specifics to reduce corrosion, as well as to cut down on downtime and maintenance
costs.

23
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

The main operational factors include:

• Temperature
• Concentration of the Amine Solution
• Acid Gas Concentration

Temperature: Corrosion strongly correlates with temperature, increasing as the

temperature rises. The regenerator bottoms system typically experiences the highest
temperatures and consequently the most severe corrosion. Amine solutions maintain
low corrosion levels due to their high alkalinity until temperatures exceed
approximately 250°F 121°C. Beyond this point, carbon steel experiences notable
corrosion, necessitating the use of special alloys or inhibitors. This corrosion is likely
linked to contaminants and by-products in the amine, such as heat-stable salts and
acidic compounds.

In MEA reclaimers, temperatures over 300°F 149°C – 325°F 163°C on tube metals can
lead to both amine degradation and corrosion, even in stainless steel. Therefore,
operational and design strategies should aim to prevent excessively hot tube metal
surfaces. Further details on the reclaimer operation can be obtained from the CRTC
Light Hydrocarbon Processing Team.

Concentration of the Amine Solution: The concentration of the amine solution, which
includes both free amine and amine bound as heat-stable salts, also impacts
corrosion. For MEA solutions, concentrations above 20% by weight in water often lead
to significant corrosion, as higher concentrations necessitate increased regeneration
temperatures, degrading the amine. DEA concentrations can be higher, around 25 to
30%, while MDEA is usable up to 50%.

24
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Table 4 Effect of Acid Gas Concentration and Temperature on Corrosion:

The information presented in Table 4 is derived from pilot plant studies and is intended
to demonstrate general patterns. It's important to note that actual corrosion rates in a
commercial plant might vary from these findings. The data illustrates trends but should
be interpreted with caution when applied to full-scale operations, as various factors in a
commercial setting can influence corrosion rates differently compared to a pilot plant
environment.

Acid Gas Concentration: Expressed as moles of acid gas per mole of amine, acid gas
concentration is another crucial variable. This factor is related to the acid gas feed rate
and the solution circulation rates designed for the plant. Overloading a plant's capacity
or operating beyond its design limits can cause severe corrosion. For MEA systems,
acid gas (H2S or CO2) concentrations exceeding 0.40 moles per mole of MEA
significantly corrode carbon steel equipment. The thresholds for H2S/DEA systems are
slightly higher, around 0.4 to 0.6 moles of H2S per mole DEA. These limits are set both
by equilibrium factors (the ideal is 0.5 moles H2S per mole DEA in H2S/DEA reactions)
and corrosion considerations. High concentrations of dissolved H2S or CO2 that
cannot react with the amines lead to the formation of highly corrosive amine
compounds.

Table 4 illustrates how CO2 gas concentration and temperature affect corrosion in an
MEA system. Table 5 provides optimal and maximum recommended acid gas

25
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

concentrations and MEA levels. New inhibitors might allow for operation at higher
concentrations and loadings than currently recommended. Monitoring and controlling
amine solution strengths and acid gas concentrations are crucial. Regular solution
analyses are recommended for optimal operation. If plants must exceed design
capacities, it's advisable to use slightly higher solution concentrations with moderate
loadings instead of normal solution strength and high loadings.

Summary – Key Factors: The three main variables of temperature, solution

concentration, and acid gas concentration are interdependent. Keeping any two
constant will typically result in increased corrosion as the third increases. The critical
threshold of the third variable is influenced by the levels of the other two.

Table 5 Optimal and Maximum Acid Gas Loadings and MEA Concentrations:

This refers to the recommended and upper limit levels for acid gas concentrations and
MEA (Monoethanolamine) concentrations in the system. Optimal levels are those that
ensure efficient operation with minimal corrosion, while maximum levels are the highest
safe concentrations that can be tolerated without causing excessive damage or
inefficiency. These thresholds are crucial for maintaining the balance between
operational efficiency and the longevity of the equipment, especially in the context of
corrosion control. The specific values for these optimal and maximum levels will
depend on various factors, including the specific process design, the type of acid gas
being absorbed, and the operational parameters of the plant.

26
Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

27
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Secondary Operating Variables

The secondary factors include:

• Purity of the Amine Solution (keep it clean)

• Flow Velocity and Turbulence

Keep it clean

The purity of amine solutions is crucial in preventing corrosion and foaming issues in amine
treatment systems. Operational difficulties often arise from the contamination or deterioration
of these solutions. It's essential to identify and mitigate sources of contamination for efficient,
long-term operation.

Common contaminants include by-products of amine degradation, heat-stable salts, oxygen,

hydrocarbons (both in dissolved and liquid forms), and various solids.

Amine degradation: is a notable issue, often occurring via oxidation (in the presence of
oxygen), which leads to the formation of corrosive organic acids. To minimize this risk, it is
recommended to maintain amine storage and surge vessels under a gas blanket to exclude air.

Air leakage: Additionally, care should be taken to prevent air leakage into the system,
particularly at points like pump suctions, which can significantly exacerbate the problem. The
introduction of organic oxygen scavengers into the system can help reduce corrosion, but it's
important to regulate their use to prevent build-up in critical areas like reboilers and heat
exchangers.

Heat-stable salts: The formation of heat-stable salts poses another challenge. These salts
result from reactions between organic acids (such as hydrocyanic, formic, acetic, and oxalic
acids, which can form during the amine process or from oxygen contamination) and amines.
For example, hydrocyanic acid (HCN) reacting with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can create
thiocyanic acid (HSCN), which in turn reacts with an amine to produce a heat-stable amine
thiocyanate salt. These salts are termed "heat-stable" because they cannot be easily removed
from the amine by heating, making them particularly problematic in the system.

Heat-stable salts control: Controlling the concentration of heat-stable salts in amine

solutions is critical due to their correlation with increased corrosion. As the amount of these
salts rises, the corrosive nature of the solution intensifies. Particularly at elevated levels, an
excessive stripping of the amine i.e. process aimed at removing absorbed gases can lead to
further corrosion. This is often attributed to the insufficient presence of sulfide ions needed to
form and sustain a protective layer of iron sulfide on carbon steel surfaces.

Total amine concentration: Union Carbide, a key industry player, advises maintaining the
concentration of heat-stable salts below 10% of the total amine concentration. For instance, in
a solution with 25% amine, the heat-stable salts should not exceed 2.5% by weight. Practical

28
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

experience within the industry supports this guideline, indicating that keeping heat-stable
salts within the range of 2.5 to 3.0% by weight effectively minimizes corrosion.

Hot Spots: Solution degradation can also result from excessively high temperatures or
localized overheating. Areas like reboiler hot spots are particularly prone to this issue, where
high temperatures can break down the amine, creating corrosive by-products. Contaminants
such as carbonyl sulfide (COS) or carbon disulfide (CS2) can further degrade
Monoethanolamine (MEA) solutions. These contaminants should be removed, especially in
MEA/CO2 processes, as Diethanolamine (DEA) and Methyl Diethanolamine (MDEA) are
less susceptible to such degradation. Maintaining the temperature of regenerator bottoms as
low as feasible, while still above the boiling point of the amine, is also recommended to
reduce degradation.

Liquid hydrocarbons: In addition, contamination from dissolved or entrained liquid

hydrocarbons can lead to various operational problems, including fouling, overheating,
increased corrosion, and foaming. Solid impurities such as iron sulfide, along with
magnesium, calcium, silicate, and other inorganic compounds, are also problematic. Calcium
and magnesium salts often originate from using untreated water for make-up, instead of
steam condensate, emphasizing the importance of water quality in amine systems.

Solids: Solids present in amine solutions, such as iron sulfide particles, are a significant
concern as they can lead to erosion-corrosion, foaming, and fouling. These solids may
originate from the corrosion processes within the acid gas removal plant or might enter along
with the feed gas. As they accumulate, they can form a black, sticky, and abrasive sludge. In
areas with turbulent flow, this sludge can exacerbate erosion-corrosion. It also tends to
accumulate in areas with lower flow rates, such as exchanger surfaces and trays, leading to
severe foaming issues. Pitting and localized corrosion often occur beneath these sludge
deposits.

Filtration and reclamation: To maintain solution cleanliness, Diethanolamine (DEA) and

Methyl Diethanolamine (MDEA) systems primarily use filtration, whereas
Monoethanolamine (MEA) systems incorporate both filtration and reclamation processes.
Effective filtration systems utilize mechanical filters to remove such sludge and solid
impurities. These filters should handle the entire solution flow, ideally filtering out particles
in the 5–10 micron range. The amine solution should ideally contain no more than 100 parts
per million (ppm) of solids. Monitoring of filter performance is typically done using
differential pressure indicators, which signal when a filter is becoming clogged. For systems
with heavy filtration demands, automatic backwash filters or specialized bag filters, such as
those made by 3M, are recommended.

Dissolved organic impurities and carbon absorption: In DEA and MDEA systems, where
reclamation isn’t feasible, carbon absorption is employed to remove dissolved organic
impurities that contribute to foaming. Carbon absorbers play a critical role in MDEA plants
due to the ease with which MDEA degrades. While they are also beneficial in DEA systems,
they are not as crucial. Ideally, a minimum of 10% of the amine solution should pass through
carbon filters, though in smaller plants, this can be as much as 100%. It's advisable to
maximize the flow through carbon filters where possible. Typically, a sock filter is installed

29
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

after the carbon absorbers to capture any carbon fines, ensuring the cleanliness of the amine
solution.

30
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Foaming, and fouling: In Monoethanolamine (MEA) processing plants, the use of

reclaimers is a key strategy to mitigate corrosion, foaming, and fouling. The reclamation
process rejuvenates the MEA solution by eliminating high-boiling and nonvolatile
substances, which include heat-stable salts, suspended solids, and iron compounds. This
process is recognized as an efficient and widely adopted approach to reduce contamination in
MEA solutions.

Reclaimers: Reclaiming involves a semi-continuous batch distillation of a small portion –

typically 1% to 3% – of the circulating hot, lean MEA solution. This approach selectively
removes impurities that can't be eliminated through regular regeneration. The frequency and
duration of the reclamation cycle are dependent on the level of contamination in the solution.
Heavily contaminated systems require more frequent reclamation cycles. In practice, it's
observed that operational issues in some plants are linked to extending the reclaimer cycle for
too long, leading to an accumulation of impurities. Reclaimers are generally brought into
operation when the degradation level of the MEA solution surpasses 1%, or about 10% of the
total solvent concentration. By maintaining these parameters, reclaimers effectively prolong
the useful life of the MEA solution, enhancing the overall efficiency and longevity of the
plant’s operation.

In MEA processing plants, the addition of soda ash or caustic soda plays a crucial role in the
reclaimer system. These additives are used in specific quantities to release MEA bound with
heat-stable salts and neutralize volatile acids. The choice of soda ash or caustic soda is
important; low-chloride variants, like natural soda ash or rayon or mercury cell grade caustic
soda, are preferred to prevent chloride stress corrosion cracking in stainless steel equipment,
particularly in reclaimer tubes.

Soda ash or caustic soda: Historically, some operations have run reclaimers without the
addition of soda ash or caustic soda. However, this approach is not advisable as it can lead to
enhanced degradation of the solution and fail to recover amine tied up in heat-stable salts.

The use of caustic soda as an economical means to manage heat-stable salts and related
corrosion issues has been implemented in several facilities. For instance, some refineries have
adopted caustic injection in various DEA and MDEA plants. The injection of caustic has
proven effective in reducing corrosion rates, particularly in scenarios where erosion-corrosion
was observed due to high levels of heat-stable salts.

To prevent chloride stress corrosion cracking in stainless steel equipment, particularly in

reclaimer tubes, it's important to use low-chloride variants of soda ash or caustic soda.
Options like natural soda ash or caustic soda produced using rayon or mercury cell methods
are recommended. These types of soda ash and caustic soda have reduced chloride content,
minimizing the risk of chloride-induced corrosion in stainless steel components commonly
found in amine treating systems. This consideration is crucial for maintaining the integrity
and longevity of the equipment

31
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

The process works by breaking up heat-stable salts, with the caustic dissociating organic
acids from the amines and forming less corrosive sodium salts. While Union Carbide asserts
that sodium salts are less corrosive than heat-stable salts, this view is not universally accepted
in the industry. There's also a potential risk of sodium salt precipitation in low-temperature
equipment (<120°F <49°C), leading to operational issues like plugging. Such scenarios
necessitate the removal of sodium salts, typically through water washing.

Moreover, there have been reports from companies like Dow and Texaco that caustic
additions might increase foaming in the system. Therefore, the decision to use caustic soda
must consider these factors, and it is essential to consult with process experts to determine the
appropriate procedures and concentrations for caustic injection.

Flow Velocity and Turbulence: High flow velocities or turbulence can lead to localized
erosion-corrosion. Design limits typically set a maximum fluid flow of 6 feet per second
1.8m/sec for carbon steel. Areas of turbulence require special attention, and the use of
long-radius bends or stainless steel is recommended. Care is needed where the
solution enters vessels, reboilers, and exchangers.

Erosion-corrosion is common in lean amine pumps and rich amine pressure letdown
valves, often necessitating the use of stainless steel, sometimes hard-faced with
Stellite. Pump cavitation can also lead to accelerated corrosion. Proper placement and
pressure management of the amine solution can help extend equipment life and reduce
corrosion. Control valves and downstream piping on the rich solution stream should be
made of stainless steel to minimize corrosion.

32
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Corrosion Control in Amine Treating Plants, Use of Alloy

Equipment.
In amine-treating plants, carbon steel is predominantly used for the majority of
equipment due to its compatibility with amine solutions under normal operating
conditions. However, there are specific scenarios where alternative materials are
necessary:

High-Corrosion Areas: In parts of the plant where the amine solution becomes highly
corrosive, often due to high temperatures or the presence of certain contaminants,
stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant alloys are used instead of carbon steel.

Handling Heat Stable Salts: Areas prone to accumulation of heat stable salts, which
can cause corrosion, might require materials more resistant than carbon steel.

Amine Regeneration Sections: Parts of the plant where amine is regenerated,

especially at higher temperatures, may need materials that can withstand the harsher
conditions.

Contact with Acid Gases: Sections that come into direct contact with acid gases, such
as H2S and CO2, might require materials with higher corrosion resistance than carbon
steel.

Special Equipment and Piping: Certain specialized equipment, like reboilers, heat
exchangers, and sections of piping that are subject to higher flow rates or temperatures,
often use stainless steel or other alloys to prevent erosion and corrosion.

The choice of material in amine-treating plants is a critical aspect of design and

operation, balancing cost with the need for durability and resistance to corrosion under
various operating conditions.

33
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Rich/Lean Exchanger:

The hot lean amine side is usually constructed from Type 304L stainless steel, although
carbon steel may be sufficient in some gas plants.

The cold rich side is made of carbon steel.

In MEA/CO2 plants without H2S, 70-30 Cu-Ni has been used when carbon steel was
inadequate. However, 70-30 Cu-Ni is not recommended if oxidative inhibitors (like
amine guard) are used due to the risk of pitting; Type 304L stainless steel is preferable in
these cases.

Absorber Bottom Control Valve and Pressure Letdown Valve to Regenerator:

These valves, prone to acidic erosion-corrosion, are typically stellite-hardfaced Type

304 stainless steel.

Rich Amine Piping:

The piping from the absorber bottom control valve to the accumulator and from the
pressure letdown valve to the regenerator is also made of Type 304L stainless steel to
prevent acidic erosion-corrosion.

Regenerator:

The regenerator is clad with Type 304L stainless steel in two areas to combat corrosion:

Above the feed tray where acidic corrosion is a risk.

Below the bottom tray to protect against hot amine corrosion.

Regenerator Overhead Acid Gas Cooler:

The tubes in this cooler are usually Type 304L stainless steel.

If it's an air-cooled exchanger, Type 304L is also used for the inlet and outlet headers.

In plants for H2S removal where cyanide- and ammonia-induced corrosion might occur,
titanium tubes have been employed.

Overhead Reflux Return Piping:

This piping is made of Type 304L stainless steel to avoid acidic corrosion.

Hot Lean Piping:

34
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Certain sections of the hot lean piping are Type 304L stainless steel to prevent hot
amine corrosion, including:

Piping from the regenerator to the rich/lean exchanger.

Piping to and from the reclaimer (only in MEA systems).

Piping to and from the reboiler.

Reclaimer (MEA Systems):

The tubes in the reclaimer are made of Type 304L stainless steel to counter hot amine
corrosion.

Reboilers
Reboiler tube corrosion is a significant operational challenge in acid gas removal plants,
often requiring a multifaceted approach to resolve. In plants handling hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2), stress-relieved stainless steel tubes, such as Types
304L and 321, are commonly employed. These materials are chosen for their ability to
withstand the corrosive environments typically found in these plants.

MEA and CO2 (no H2S): In Monoethanolamine (MEA) plants specifically designed for
CO2 removal where sulfur compounds are absent, Monel—a nickel-copper alloy—often
finds application due to its excellent resistance to high-temperature corrosion.
However, it is important to note that both stainless steel and Monel tubes can
experience corrosion under certain conditions across various plant types.

The root causes of tube corrosion in these settings are typically twofold:

High Localized Temperatures: Elevated temperatures can exacerbate corrosion,

particularly in areas where the heat is not evenly distributed. Hot spots in reboilers can
accelerate the breakdown of the amine solution and create conditions conducive to
corrosion.

Inadequate Stripping in the Regenerator: When the regenerator fails to adequately

strip acid gases from the amine solution, these gases can carry over to the reboiler. In
the reboiler, they are subjected to high temperatures, which can lead to the formation of
corrosive substances and subsequent tube corrosion.

Addressing these issues often requires a comprehensive evaluation of the plant’s

operating conditions, including temperature management and the efficiency of the gas
stripping process in the regenerator. Implementing corrective measures, such as

35
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

optimizing operational parameters and possibly modifying equipment design, can

mitigate these corrosion challenges and enhance the overall reliability of the plant

36
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Titanium: Has emerged as a promising material in challenging environments where

traditional materials like Monel and stainless steel struggle with corrosion resistance
and durability, particularly in services with a history of poor performance or short
lifespans (under five years). The shift towards titanium is driven by its superior corrosion
resistance in severe service conditions.

The experience with titanium reboilers, however, is somewhat limited. For example, a
couple of installations at H2S processing plants in the US, which have been operational
since the mid-1970s, provide valuable insights. In these plants, the use of austenitic
stainless steel led to issues such as intergranular corrosion and cracking, as well as
corrosion under baffles due to hot spots. These challenges prompted the transition to
titanium for reboiler tubes.

While titanium offers enhanced corrosion resistance, it does have a susceptibility to

hydriding. Hydriding can make the titanium tubes brittle, although it doesn't
compromise their corrosion resistance. This brittleness necessitates careful handling of
the tubes, especially during plant shutdowns or maintenance activities. The risk of
hydriding underscores the need for meticulous operational and maintenance practices
when using titanium in such critical applications.

The decision to use titanium, therefore, involves weighing its superior corrosion
resistance against its handling sensitivities and the specific demands of the plant's
operating environment.

Low-pressure steam: Using low-pressure steam (around 50 psi) can be a more

economical choice instead of titanium, preventing high skin temperatures and flux
rates. Monitoring inlet temperatures to avoid superheating is essential. Design elements
like limited U-tube length to prevent water hammer, ample shell-side vapour space, and
a simmering action rather than violent boiling in reboilers are important. In existing units
with vapour binding issues, modifying the tube arrangement can help. A square-pitch
tube pattern aids in cleaning and reduces the high-velocity scrubbing action of two-
phase flow. Elevating the tube bundle and ensuring it's always covered by liquid can
prevent localized drying and overheating.

37
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Design: In amine-treating plants, optimizing the design of reboilers is key to enhancing

circulation and minimizing the formation of acid gas pockets. Implementing multiple
entry points for the amine solution and several vapour exit locations can significantly
improve the flow and distribution within the reboiler. This improved circulation helps
ensure a more uniform distribution of both the amine solution and the heat, thereby
reducing the likelihood of acid gas accumulating in certain areas of the reboiler.

Conducting regular analyses of the amine solution both entering and exiting the reboiler
is essential for monitoring the effectiveness of the acid gas stripping operation. These
analyses provide valuable insights into the performance of the reboiler and help identify
any issues with acid gas removal efficiency. A high concentration of acid gases in the
reboiler can be indicative of suboptimal stripping performance, which, in turn, can
contribute to increased corrosion rates in the reboiler tubes.

For new plant designs, it's important to incorporate lessons learned from existing
installations. This includes designing reboilers and associated systems in a way that
promotes effective gas stripping and minimizes the risk of corrosion. However, in
situations where design changes or operational modifications are not practical or
feasible in existing plants, there might be limitations in extending the service life of the
reboiler bundle. In such cases, managing and anticipating reduced bundle life becomes
a part of the operational strategy, with a focus on regular monitoring and maintenance
to mitigate the impacts as much as possible.

38
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Lean Amine Pump Material Selection:

The lean amine pump in acid gas removal plants is typically made of Type 304 stainless
steel. Proper design and operation of the lean amine pump, considering factors like
flow rate, pressure, and pump design, can minimize the chances of cavitation and
ensure longer service life, whether the pump is made of Type 304 stainless steel or
carbon steel.

Lean Amine Pump Material Selection Further reading:

Cavitation Resistance of Stainless Steel: Studies have shown that certain coatings and
treatments can enhance the cavitation resistance of stainless steel, a common
material for lean amine pumps. For example, thermal spray coatings, such as Stellite® 6
applied by high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) processes, have demonstrated lower cavitation
rates and volume losses compared to untreated 304 stainless steel. These coatings
could be considered for repair and prevention of cavitation damage in pumps (Kumar et
al., 2005).

Impact of Flow Conditions on Cavitation: The influence of flow conditions, such as

velocity and turbulence, on the corrosion and cavitation resistance of stainless steel is
significant. Research on AISI 304L stainless steel has shown that both laminar and
turbulent flow regimes can affect the nucleation rates of metastable pitting events,
which are precursors to cavitation. This highlights the importance of considering flow
dynamics in the design and operation of lean amine pumps (Wharton & Wood, 2004).

39
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Other General Guidelines for Alloy Equipment

The selection of appropriate alloys for equipment in acid gas removal plants is
influenced by various factors, including the type of acid gas (H2S or CO2), the specific
process employed (MEA, DEA, MDEA), the inhibitors used (such as Dow, Amine Guard),
as well as considerations related to flow dynamics (turbulence or flow velocity) and the
nature of the corrosion environment (hot regenerator areas or cooler overhead
sections). Some general guidelines for alloy usage are as follows:

Stainless Steels: Austenitic stainless steels, specifically Types 304 or 304L, are
commonly used in critical areas of all plants, including high-temperature zones and
overhead condensers. In H2S/DEA plants where cyanide-induced corrosion is a
concern, titanium is preferred for condenser tubes due to its superior corrosion
resistance in such environments. Type 410 stainless steel, which contains 11-13%
chromium, is generally not recommended for use in amine plants due to its poor
performance; instead, Type 304 stainless steel is preferred for components like trays
and valve trim when an alloy is necessary. Stellite hard-facing over Type 304 stainless
steel is effective for pressure letdown valves, where high turbulence can lead to
erosion-corrosion.

Welding and Stress Relief: When welding or stress-relieving stainless steel

equipment, it's important to use extra-low carbon grades or stabilized grades of
stainless steel to prevent sensitization, which can lead to intergranular corrosion.
Sensitization occurs when chromium carbides form at grain boundaries, depleting the
surrounding areas of chromium and making them susceptible to corrosion.

Monel and 70-30 Cu-Ni: Copper and nickel-based alloys, specifically Monel and 70-30
Cu-Ni, have particular applications and limitations in acid gas removal plants Monel is
Not suitable for high-temperature areas in H2S removal plants due to its susceptibility
to sulfur-related corrosion. However, Monel exhibits excellent high-temperature
corrosion resistance in sulfur-free MEA/CO2 systems. It can outperform stainless steel
in reboilers where tube metal temperatures exceed 300°F. The use of certain inhibitors,
like Union Carbide's amine guard, can lead to pitting corrosion in Monel, especially in
CO2/MEA systems. Therefore, its use in plants with Monel reboilers is discouraged.

40
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

70-30 Copper-Nickel (Cu-Ni): This alloy is not suitable in high-temperature areas of

H2S removal plants. In sulfur-free MEA/CO2 systems, 70-30 Cu-Ni can be a viable
choice for rich/lean exchangers or lean MEA coolers, particularly when carbon steel
does not provide adequate corrosion resistance.

Brass Alloys: Generally, brass alloys are not suitable for use in acid gas removal plants.
The high alkalinity of the solutions in these plants can lead to significant corrosion in
brass alloys.

These guidelines help in selecting appropriate materials for equipment in acid gas
removal plants, ensuring both operational efficiency and longevity. The choice of alloys
must consider the specific environmental conditions, including the presence of sulfur
compounds and the operational temperatures, to prevent issues like pitting, corrosion,
and material degradation.

Titanium: Regenerator Overhead Condensers in H2S/DEA regenerator overhead

condensers, where cyanide corrosion has adversely affected the lifespan of austenitic
stainless steels, Titanium Grade 2 tubes have shown superior performance. These
tubes are in use in DEA regenerator overhead condensers at locations around the
world. Notably, previous titanium bundles in these condensers experienced hydriding
and required replacement after 12–19 years of service. Titanium tubes have also been
successful in MEA and DEA/H2S reboilers at Plants...since the mid-1970s, where
austenitic stainless steel encountered issues like intergranular corrosion/cracking and
hot spot under baffle corrosion. A hydro-test conducted in 1990 on a DEA reboiler
revealed no leaks, although a portion of the bundle had been previously plugged. The
plugging may be partly attributed to handling, as most leaks were found in the outer
rows of the bundle. When opting for titanium in regenerator overhead condensers or
amine reboilers, Grade 2 (commercially pure titanium) is recommended for the tubes.
The same material should be used for the carcass, with either Grade 2 or Grade 12 for
the tubesheet. Careful attention to avoiding galvanic couples is crucial to reducing the
risk of titanium hydriding, which can make the tubes brittle.

These insights highlight the importance of material selection in critical components of

acid gas removal plants. Titanium Grade 2 offers a viable solution in environments
where other materials fail due to specific corrosive agents, but its application must be
carefully considered and monitored to ensure long-term reliability and prevent issues
such as hydriding.

41
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Water-cooled heat exchangers: In water-cooled heat exchangers, there's often a need

to balance the resistance to corrosion on both the process side and the cooling water
side. In plants utilizing CO2 and Monoethanolamine (MEA), this isn't a significant issue
since tubes made of 70-30 Copper-Nickel alloy are resistant to most cooling waters and
processed fluids. However, in plants dealing with Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), the choice of
material becomes more complex, particularly when the use of seawater or low-quality
cooling water makes carbon steel unsuitable.

Stainless steel, while effective in lean amine coolers with fresh water, is prone to pitting
or cracking in brackish or seawater environments. Although Monel alloy is not suitable
for seawater cooling, bimetallic tubes with a composition of 70% Copper and 30%
Nickel have seen some use but with limited success. Titanium stands out for its
excellent seawater resistance and has been effectively used in lean amine coolers.
Furthermore, titanium tubes with thinner walls (20 gauge) can be economically
comparable to thicker (16 gauge) 70-30 Copper-Nickel tubes.

The selection of materials for heat exchangers in environments dealing with Hydrogen
Sulfide (H2S) and seawater is a complex issue due to the corrosive nature of these
substances. Here are some relevant insights from recent research:

42
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

General Guidelines for Alloy Equipment Further reading:

Stainless Steel in Seawater: Stainless steel, such as Nicrofer 3620, can fail quickly in
seawater environments due to pitting, which makes it unsuitable for heat exchangers
where seawater is used as a cooling medium. This suggests a need for materials with
higher molybdenum content for better resistance to corrosion (J. V. D. Horst & J. A.
Henley, 1974).

Copper-Nickel Alloys in Seawater: Alloys like 70-30 Copper-Nickel (Cu-Ni) have been
studied for their electrochemical behaviour in sulfide-polluted seawater. These alloys,
commonly used in heat exchangers, show varying corrosion behaviour depending on
the temperature and concentration of sulfides. Understanding the specific conditions in
which these alloys perform optimally is crucial for their effective use in H2S-rich
environments (K. Habib, 1992).

High-Temperature Heat Exchangers: Research on fluid flow and heat transfer in high-
temperature heat exchangers, which could be applicable in hydrogen production
plants, emphasizes the importance of thermal performance. This is relevant for
environments dealing with sulfuric acid decomposition, a process linked to H2S
handling. Innovative designs such as fused ceramic layers and various channel
geometries can enhance the efficiency and adaptability of heat exchangers in such
challenging conditions (V. Ponyavin et al., 2008).

Corrosion in Thermal Desalination Plants: In thermal desalination plants, which often

encounter similar challenges to those dealing with H2S and seawater, the material
selection for heat exchangers is critical due to the aggressive chemical environment.
Understanding the corrosion and erosion behaviour of different materials in these
settings provides valuable insights for material selection in similar environments (A.
Malik et al., 2015).

Corrosion Inhibitors
For an extended period, Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) removal facilities have utilized organic,
water-soluble filming amines like Kontol K-12 and Betz WS-58 as corrosion inhibitors.
These filming amines are designed to prevent sludge accumulation, but their
effectiveness in inhibiting corrosion has been inconsistent. One US plant, for instance,
has been using Betz WS-58 for over a decade. During this period, there has been no
occurrence of hydrogen blistering, and corrosion rates measured on coupons have
mostly stayed below 10 mils per year (mpy). However, there have been instances where

43
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

corrosion rates in the rich amine stream, particularly through the rich/lean heat
exchangers, have spiked to as high as 26 mpy.

In recent years, Diethanolamine (DEA) plants in locations in the USA have seen positive
results using oxygen scavengers/metal passivation like Nalco 5173, which help in
forming stable sulfide films. Plants like Port Arthur's 841 and 842, along with the now-
defunct AVU 144 plant, have effectively used Nalco 5173 to control oxygen, which
adversely affects the amine. Since 1990, a DEA plant in in USA has been using 5173 to
address issues with iron sulfide fouling. Despite occasional pump issues disrupting
continuous injection of the inhibitor, Nalco 5173 has been shown to stabilize heat-
stable salt formation when applied consistently over a six-month duration.

The key to the success of passivating inhibitors like Nalco 5173 lies in maintaining the
correct dosage in the circulating solvent or overhead system. Insufficient dosing can
lead to accelerated corrosion. For instance, underfeeding Nalco 5173 in the USA led to
sulfide cracking and other corrosion issues. After about a year of using 5173, significant
sulfide cracking was observed in the bottom of the DEA regenerator, severe pitting in the
hottest rich amine exchanger, and hydrogen blistering in steel coupons in a rich amine
line.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) removal plants, primarily those using Monoethanolamine (MEA),
have for over 30 years employed oxidative inhibitors like Union Carbide's Amine Guard.
These inhibitors contain metals such as vanadium, arsenic, and antimony, which
promote the formation of stable oxide films on carbon and stainless steel surfaces.
However, in the presence of H2S, these oxidative inhibitors become ineffective as
sulfide film formation competes with oxide formation. Furthermore, they tend to
increase corrosion in materials like Monel and 70-30 Copper-Nickel.

The usage of oxidative inhibitors is declining due to environmental concerns and

disposal restrictions. An alternative to MEA with inhibitors is Methyldiethanolamine
(MDEA), which can be utilized at higher concentrations without the need for inhibitors.
However, oxidative inhibitors should be avoided in MDEA plants as they can exacerbate
corrosion.

Corrosion Monitoring

To ensure the success of an inhibitor program, continuous monitoring of corrosion

rates within the system is essential. This is typically achieved using both retractable
corrosion coupons and corrosometer probes. Field experiences suggest that
retractable coupons often yield more reliable data in various flow conditions, including

44
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

turbulent and laminar flows. On the other hand, corrosometers have the advantage of
providing continuous data without the need to regularly remove and replace coupons.

Choosing the correct location for installing these probes or coupons is crucial,
especially when corrosion in the plant is highly localized. It's recommended for new
plants to incorporate probe connections with 1½" 38mm full port gate valves in critical
areas. These include places like the reboiler outlet vapour lines and the rich amine
piping that runs between the rich/lean exchanger and the regenerator.

However, probes may not be effective in all scenarios, such as in conditions where
pitting corrosion occurs or where the fluid velocities and turbulence are high enough to
cause fatigue failure of the probe element. In such cases, especially in highly turbulent
areas like the reboiler outlet line, retractable corrosion specimens tend to provide
better results.

For routine monitoring, corrosion coupons are typically removed every 2 to 4 weeks for
evaluation. To enhance the accuracy and reliability of the data obtained from these
coupons, it's advisable to supplement them with inspection data. In CO2 removal
plants, monitoring the iron (Fe) content in the solution, and in H2S removal plants,
observing the frequency of filter changes, can offer additional insights into the relative
corrosion rates within the system.

Continuous monitoring of corrosion rates in CO2 and H2S removal plants using
corrosion coupons and corrosometer probes is vital for maintaining the integrity of the
system. Here are some insights from recent research:

45
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Continuous monitoring paper to note

Corrosion Monitoring in CO2 Capture Plants: In CO2 capture pilot plants, corrosion
coupons, online monitoring, and plant inspections are used to identify critical zones for
corrosion, including stripper sumps, high-temperature lean solvent pipes, reboilers, and
reclaimers. This approach has been effective in evaluating the performance of carbon
steel and austenitic stainless steel in these environments (S. D. Vroey et al., 2013).

Rapid, Non-Destructive Monitoring Method: A rapid, non-invasive methodology using

H2S uptake rates of concrete has been developed to monitor sulfide-induced corrosion
in sewers. This approach could potentially be adapted for monitoring in plants dealing
with H2S, offering quicker and less invasive corrosion monitoring (Xiaoyan Sun et al.,
2014).

Advanced Corrosion Monitoring Techniques: Newer technologies in corrosion

monitoring aim to provide instantaneous corrosion rate information and universal
applicability. These technologies have shown greater sensitivity than traditional
methods and are useful in various industrial monitoring situations (A. Denzine & M.
Reading, 1997).

Corrosion Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring: The review of conventional and
emerging sensor technologies emphasizes their potential in continuous real-time in-situ
monitoring of infrastructure. These technologies, including optical fibre sensors and
passive wireless sensors, could be relevant for monitoring environments with CO2 and
H2S (R. Wright et al., 2019).

Corrosion in the Presence of Trace Amounts of H2S: Research using linear polarization
probes, electrical resistance probes, and weight loss coupons to monitor corrosion
rates in CO2-saturated solutions with trace amounts of H2S under single and
multiphase flow conditions. The results showed the formation of protective films that
limited corrosion rates (B. Brown et al., 2004).

This research underscores the importance of using a combination of monitoring

techniques, such as corrosion coupons and advanced sensor technologies, for effective
corrosion management in CO2 and H2S removal plants. These approaches help identify
critical areas prone to corrosion and provide real-time data for timely maintenance and
prevention strategies.

46
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Process Description Hot Potassium Carbonate Plants

(Benfield process/Hot Carbonate Plant)
Hot potassium carbonate processes, similar to amine processes, utilize an aqueous
solution of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) but operate at higher temperatures, typically
between 230°F 110°C and 240°F 116°C These processes are primarily used for CO2
removal, as they are unsuitable for gas streams containing only H2S. The most well-
known hot potassium carbonate processes that include both an activator and inhibitor
are:

Benfield Process: Uses Diethanolamine (DEA) as an activator and Vanadium

compounds as inhibitors.

Catacarb Process: Employs Alkanolamine and Borate as activators, and also

Vanadium as an inhibitor.

In these processes, CO2 absorption occurs according to the reaction CO 2 + H2O +

K2CO3 ↔ 2KHCO 3 under high pressure. The setup of a hot carbonate plant is quite
similar to an amine plant, with the exception that rich/lean exchangers are not
necessary due to the higher operating temperatures that prevent bicarbonate salt
precipitation. Rich solution lines are steam traced to maintain high temperatures to the
regenerator.

Fig 4 Typical Flow Diagram: Hot Carbonate Plant

47
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Benfield & Catacarb Process:

This process, developed by Union Carbide is used for removing CO2 (Carbon Dioxide),
H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide), and COS (Carbonyl Sulfide) from sour gases at absorber
pressures of 150 psi 1034kPa or more. It is known for low utility costs, high CO2 removal
efficiency, low corrosion, and low plant investment.

A typical Benfield plant utilizes a 25-30% K2CO3 solution with about 3% DEA as an
activator. Vanadium compounds (like vanadium pentoxide and potassium
metavanadate) are used as inhibitors, typically around 0.5% concentration.

Prepassivation, known as vanadation, is crucial for protecting the equipment from

corrosion. This involves circulating a potassium carbonate solution with about 0.8%
potassium metavanadate for 2-5 days at temperatures just below boiling. This forms a
protective Fe3O4 oxide layer. After shutdowns, re-vanadation is generally not required
unless repairs are made or new steel is installed.

Catacarb Process:
Developed by Eickmeyer and Associates, the main difference from the Benfield process
is the use of an undisclosed activator and continuous air blowing to maintain the
inhibitor in the correct valence state. Vanadium, as an inhibitor, needs to be in the +5
valence state to be effective. The Catacarb process employs air injection to keep
vanadium well oxidized. Unlike Benfield solutions, the Catacarb process does not use
air injection but maintains vanadium's valence state through a chemical oxidizing agent.

48
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Benfield process/Hot Carbonate Plant Further reading:

Potassium metavanadate (KVO3) is a common corrosion inhibitor for the Benfield
solution in CO2 absorbers. It is effective in chloride environments at certain
concentrations but less effective in sulfide environments. This study highlights the
varying efficiency of KVO3 depending on the environment, which is crucial for its use in
hot potassium carbonate processes (Nurdin et al., 2018).

A study examined the corrosion behaviour of A106 carbon steel absorber for CO2
removal in amine-promoted hot potassium carbonate solution (Benfield solution). The
study found that various operating parameters such as solution velocity, temperature,
%K2CO3, CO2 loading, %DEA, and the presence of solution contaminants influenced
the corrosion rate. Potassium metavanadate (KVO3) was used as a corrosion inhibitor in
this study (Hamada, Zewail, & Farag, 2014).

The effectiveness of various inhibitors, including sodium metavanadate and vanadium

pentoxide, on steel corrosion in boiling solutions of potassium carbonate was
evaluated. Sodium metavanadate and vanadium pentoxide were found effective in
preventing corrosion in carbonate solutions saturated with carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide (Bienstock & Field, 1961).

Despite using inhibitors, intensive corrosion of mild steel walls has been observed in
several Benfield installations. Laboratory tests in simulated Benfield solutions
established a relationship between the inhibitor content necessary to suppress active
dissolution and pitting corrosion and the total content and molar ratio of the carbonates
(Lunarska & Szyprowski, 1994).

49
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Corrosion in Hot Potassium Carbonate Plants: General

or Preferential Corrosion
Hot potassium carbonate systems, the potential areas for corrosion are notable.
Generally, lean carbonate solutions, due to their alkaline nature, are not corrosive to
carbon steel, making it a common material for most equipment in these plants.
However, when these carbonate solutions are hot and contain CO2, they become
corrosive to carbon steel. This is the reason why proprietary processes like Benfield and
Catacarb incorporate inhibitors to protect the system. A well-designed and properly
inhibited system should ideally be non-corrosive to carbon steel. Yet, for critical
equipment like reboiler tubes and in areas with high turbulence (such as pressure
letdown valves and piping into the regenerator), stainless steel is still necessary.

Corrosion inhibition in both the Benfield and Catacarb processes relies on a protective,
adherent iron oxide layer (Fe3O4) on the carbon steel. The vanadium inhibitor plays a
crucial role in making the solution sufficiently oxidizing to form and maintain this
protective layer. The reduction of vanadium from V+5 to V+4 impairs the solution's
ability to passivate steel. Bicarbonate and Fe+2, which can form in the solution, are
detrimental to the protective film. Bicarbonate isn't present during initial passivation
but forms after exposure to CO2. Though solutions with bicarbonate can maintain the
oxide film, they may not be oxidizing enough to reform it in damaged areas. Once the
passive layer is lost, especially in high-velocity and turbulent areas, it is challenging to
restore.

Whenever equipment repairs are conducted in a carbonate plant, it's crucial to

repassivate the steel, regardless of the equipment's size or location. Neglecting this
step can lead to severe corrosion, as evidenced by incidents like the one at Pascagoula
where a condensate leak into the absorber led to significant corrosion and the need for
extensive equipment replacement. Once initiated, corrosion can be extremely difficult
to control without resorting to higher-grade materials like Type 304L stainless steel.

The presence of H2S further complicates the situation. While small amounts of H2S are
tolerable, higher concentrations (above a few hundred ppm) reduce the effectiveness
of the vanadium inhibitor, shifting it from V+5 to V+4. There is a competing dynamic
between the formation of an oxide scale and a sulfide scale, with neither being stable,
leading to severe corrosion. This was exemplified by the 4000 mpy corrosion rate at
SACROC in 1986. At H2S concentrations above several thousand ppm, a stable sulfide
scale forms, and vanadium inhibitors are unnecessary. However, the exact H2S level at
which corrosion becomes manageable is not precisely defined. In scenarios where H2S
levels are expected to be moderate (between a few hundred to a few thousand ppm), an
amine process might be more suitable than a carbonate process.

50
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Corrosion can also be a significant issue in regenerator overhead systems, as the

nonvolatile inhibitor doesn't protect these areas. Acidic corrosion, often localized and
resembling carbonic acid erosion-corrosion can occur in overhead condensers and
turbulent flow areas. Implementing stainless steel (Type 304) for condenser tubes has
been a solution. In cases where air coolers are used, both the tubes and the inlet and
outlet headers should be of stainless steel to prevent serious corrosion that can occur
in carbon steel headers.

Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steel

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) in carbon steel is a significant concern in

environments involving carbonate solutions. This type of cracking occurs when the
electrochemical potential of the carbon steel in contact with the carbonate solution
falls within a specific range. Such incidents have been documented in various industrial
settings.

For instance, at the North Snyder gas plant (SACROC), the regenerator reboiler shell
experienced cracking approximately two-thirds of the way through at a circumferential
weld that had not been stress-relieved. Stress-relieved welds are less susceptible to
SCC as the process reduces residual stresses that contribute to the cracking.
Additionally, SCC has been observed behind strip lining panels in an absorber tower,
highlighting that it can occur in less expected locations within a system.

These examples underline the importance of stress relief in major equipment used in
plants dealing with carbonate solutions. Stress-relieving is a heat treatment process
applied to welded or fabricated parts to reduce internal stresses caused by welding,
machining, or other processes. This treatment significantly lowers the risk of SCC by
stabilizing the metal structure and making it less prone to cracking under stress,
especially in corrosive environments.

In summary, for facilities that use carbonate solutions and have equipment made of
carbon steel, implementing stress-relieving procedures for major equipment and
welded parts is crucial to mitigate the risk of stress corrosion cracking. This proactive
measure is an essential part of maintaining the integrity and safety of industrial systems
operating in such environments.

Stress Corrosion Cracking Further reading

The research on Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) in carbon steel, particularly in

environments involving carbonate solutions, provides valuable insights into the
complexities of this phenomenon in industrial contexts.

SCC in Carbon Steel in Carbonate/Bicarbonate Solutions (Foroulis, 1987): It was found

that potassium carbonate solutions containing dissolved CO2 can induce SCC in

51
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

carbon steel under sufficient tensile stresses. SCC occurs within a specific
electrochemical potential range (-0.85 to -0.55V SCE). Importantly, inhibitors like
metavanadate, at concentrations above 0.2 wt% NaVO3, effectively prevent SCC in
these environments.

Fractography of SCC in Carbon Steels (Poulson, 1975): This study revealed that the
crack path in carbon steels is influenced by both heat treatment and environmental
conditions. In environments producing thick corrosion products, intergranular cracking
is observed, while environments leading to thin film formation result in transgranular
cracking.

Effect of Environmental Factors on SCC in Aqueous Amine Solutions (Tsumoto &

Sugimoto, 1993): The research demonstrated that the susceptibility of carbon steel to
intergranular SCC in monoethanolamine (MEA) solutions increase with a decrease in
pH and a rise in impurities like thiosulfate and hydroxyethylethylenediamine (HEED).

SCC in Pipeline Steels in Low and High pH Solutions (Fang et al., 2003): This review
identified two mechanisms of SCC in pipeline steels. High pH SCC, typically caused by
concentrated bicarbonate-carbonate solutions, involves anodic dissolution for crack
initiation and propagation. Low pH SCC involves dissolution at the crack tip and sides,
coupled with hydrogen ingress into the steel.

Influence of AC Current Density on SCC of Pipeline Steel (Zhu et al., 2014): This study
investigated the impact of various AC current densities on SCC in X80 pipeline steel
within concentrated carbonate/bicarbonate solutions. It was observed that the SCC
susceptibility of the steel increased with the AC current density, particularly above a
critical threshold.

These findings underscore the criticality of understanding the specific environmental

conditions and material characteristics influencing SCC in carbon steel. This
knowledge, including awareness of potential ranges, environmental factors, and the
use of effective inhibitors, is vital in designing strategies to prevent SCC in various
industrial applications.

52
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Stress Corrosion Cracking: Stainless Steels in amine

treating plant
In hot potassium carbonate plants, as in amine-treating plants, austenitic stainless
steel reboilers are susceptible to chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking (SCC).
This type of cracking is a critical issue, which also discusses potential sources of
chlorides. To mitigate the risk of chloride SCC, it is essential to limit chloride
concentrations in the environment to a maximum of 500 ppm.

Additionally, these environments pose a risk of intergranular corrosion, particularly in

stainless steel. To prevent this, it's crucial to use extra-low carbon grades of stainless
steel for welded or stress-relieved components. These lower carbon variants help avoid
sensitization, which is the primary cause of intergranular corrosion. Sensitization
occurs when chromium carbides form at the grain boundaries during certain thermal
processes, weakening the steel's corrosion resistance.

In summary, managing the risks of chloride SCC and intergranular corrosion in

stainless steels within hot potassium carbonate plants involves careful control of
environmental chloride levels and the use of specific grades of stainless steel that are
less prone to sensitization. For more detailed information on these issues and their
management, Section 3733 provides comprehensive guidance.

SCC in amine-treating plant further reading

The insights from research on stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in stainless steels within
chloride-rich environments are highly relevant to industries such as hot potassium
carbonate plants. SCC is a complex phenomenon influenced by various factors, and
these studies shed light on its mechanisms and mitigation strategies:

Identification of Damaging Environment for SCC: One crucial aspect is identifying the
corrosive environments responsible for SCC in austenitic stainless steels. Diagnostic
techniques proposed in the study by B. Poulson and H. Gartside (1978) can be valuable
in situations where the damaging environment is unknown, especially in complex
industrial settings like potassium carbonate plants.

Propagation of SCC in Chloride Solutions: Research by H. Kwon (1992) on ferritic

stainless steels in hot chloride solutions highlights the susceptibility of these materials
to hydrogen-induced failures. This information can be extrapolated to austenitic

53
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

stainless steels used in hot potassium carbonate environments, emphasizing the

significance of material composition and treatment.

Mechanism of SCC in Austenitic Stainless Steels: Investigations into the mechanism of

SCC in austenitic stainless steels, as discussed in the study by K. Leu and J. Helle
(1958), reveal that SCC is a dynamic process involving corrosion and mechanical
cracking. The initial corrosive attack is influenced by the behaviour of the passivating
film on the steel.

Effects of Chloride on SCC in Stainless Steel: Studies like the one by Donghai Du et al.
(2016) explore the effects of chloride and oxygen on SCC in cold-worked austenitic
stainless steel. These findings emphasize the role of factors such as cold working,
dissolved oxygen, and chloride in accelerating SCC crack growth.

Role of Hydrogen in SCC: Research by Lijie Qiao and X. Mao (1995) investigates the role
of hydrogen in SCC of austenitic stainless steel in hot chloride solutions. This research
suggests that hydrogen can promote anodic dissolution and SCC, highlighting the
importance of managing hydrogen levels in environments like hot potassium carbonate
plants to mitigate SCC risk.

These studies collectively underscore the complexity of managing SCC in stainless

steels, especially within chloride-rich environments. Understanding the specific
environmental factors and the properties of the material is essential for predicting,
preventing, and mitigating SCC risks effectively. This knowledge is invaluable for
ensuring the integrity and safety of industrial equipment and processes in such
challenging conditions.

54
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Influence of Design, Operating Variables

Corrosion in hot potassium carbonate plants is significantly influenced by the process
design and operating variables, much like in amine plants. Understanding and
controlling these variables is crucial in mitigating corrosion, especially in critical
equipment such as regenerator bottoms and reboilers. Let's discuss the primary and
secondary variables affecting corrosion:

Primary Variables
Temperature: High temperatures are a common area for severe corrosion, particularly in
regenerator reboilers. Although vanadium inhibitors are used to protect these areas, the
use of alloy equipment is often necessary due to the extreme conditions.

Solution Strength: In licensed hot potassium carbonate processes, solution strengths

are typically maintained within a recommended range of 25–30%. Deviating from this
range, particularly above it, does not necessarily worsen corrosion but can lead to
crystallization issues, causing erosion and instrument plugging.

Acid Gas Loading: The maximum allowable acid gas loading in carbonate plants is set
by the Licensor. This is typically defined in terms of the maximum conversion of
carbonate to bicarbonate in the solution. Exceeding these limits can have adverse
effects on the system.

Secondary Variables
Solution Cleanliness: Contamination of carbonate solutions, either by dissolved or
entrained hydrocarbon sludge and suspended solids, can significantly enhance
corrosion. As in amine plants, carbon filtration is essential not only for preventing
foaming but also for reducing corrosion by lowering the iron content in the solution.

Velocity/Turbulence: Increased velocity and turbulence enhance the corrosiveness of

hot potassium carbonate solutions. For this reason, carbon steel velocity is limited to 6
feet per second (fps). Union Carbide, for example, recommends specific velocity limits
for Benfield plants: 2 fps for a 2-inch pipe, 6.5 fps for a 10-inch pipe, and 12 fps for a 26-
inch pipe. Vapor phase velocities are limited to 70 fps.

55
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Additional Considerations
Pumps and Pressure Letdown Valves: The issues of corrosion and mechanical stress in
these components are similar to those in amine plants. The mechanical design of the
rich solution inlet to the regenerator is crucial to mitigate failures from excess vibration,
which can occur due to about one-third of CO2 flashing when the pressure is reduced.

Vibration: Excessive vibration can damage the protective oxide film on equipment,
leading to catastrophic corrosion.

In summary, the design and operation of a hot potassium carbonate plant must
carefully consider these variables to prevent corrosion. Detailed guidelines and
recommendations can be found in Section 3734, which provides valuable information
on managing these factors effectively.

Design and Operating Benfield Catacarb Further reading

A study using the Six Sigma methodology reviewed corrosion incidents in Hot Potassium
Carbonate acid gas removal plants, identifying several root causes for corrosion
incidents. The methodology was found to be useful in understanding and overcoming
corrosion problems in these plants (Harjac & Moss, 2007).

Zhang and Martin (2013) summarized available corrosion data of steels in solutions with
dissolved carbon dioxide, considering plant operating experiences and laboratory
testing results. They analyzed the corrosion mechanisms, important factors, inhibitor
effects, and corrosion cracking in carbonate-bicarbonate solutions, which are relevant
to hot potassium carbonate processes (Zhang & Martin, 2013).

Another study by Harjac et al. (2008) using the Six Sigma methodology, focused on
identifying root causes for corrosion incidents in Hot Potassium Carbonate acid gas
removal plants, emphasizing the importance of inhibitor concentration, presence of
hydrocarbons, process conditions, and galvanic interactions (Harjac & Moss, 2008).

Harjac et al. (2007) investigated the influence of steel surface condition and solution
chemistry on the critical inhibitor concentration required for spontaneous passivation of
carbon steel in hot potassium carbonate plant solutions. They found that the inhibitor
concentration needed depended on solution composition and steel surface condition,
with an inhibitor concentration of 30 g/l sometimes required to ensure spontaneous
passivation (Harjac, Moss, & Linton, 2007).

56
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Corrosion Control in Hot Carbonate Treating Plants

Hot potassium carbonate plants, specifically the Benfield and Catacarb processes, are
not corrosive to carbon steel when appropriate corrosion inhibition measures are in
place. However, without proper corrosion inhibition, these plants can be highly
corrosive to carbon steel equipment. The following equipment typically requires
materials other than carbon steel due to the corrosive nature of the environment:

Absorber: Below the first tray, T304L cladding is often used to protect the carbon steel
from corrosion.

Absorber Bottom Control Valve and Pressure Letdown Valve to Regenerator: These
valves are typically constructed with stellite-hard-faced T304 to withstand the effects of
acidic erosion-corrosion.

Piping from Absorber Bottom Control Valve to Accumulator and from Pressure
Letdown Valve to Regenerator: This piping is usually made from T304L to prevent acidic
erosion-corrosion.

Regenerator: The upper section of the regenerator, located above the feed tray, is often
clad with T304L to protect it from the corrosive environment.

Regenerator Overhead Acid Gas Cooler: In this exchanger, T304L tubes are used to
resist corrosion. If it's an air cooler, both the inlet and outlet headers should also be
made from T304L.

Reboiler: Reboiler tubes are typically manufactured from T304L stainless steel to
withstand corrosive conditions.

Lean Carbonate Pump: This pump is usually made from T304 stainless steel. However,
in certain cases, carbon steel can be used if potential corrosion issues are carefully
managed, particularly considering velocity and turbulence effects.

It's important to note that these equipment material recommendations are made to
ensure the integrity and longevity of the equipment in hot potassium carbonate plants.
Proper material selection is crucial for preventing corrosion-related issues in these
industrial settings.

57
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Hot Carbonate Treating Plants, Corrosion Control, Further reading:

The corrosion behaviour of carbon steel in hot potassium carbonate solutions,
particularly in the context of Benfield and Catacarb processes, has been studied
extensively. Key findings from these studies include:

Research on the passivity breakdown of carbon steel in hot potassium carbonate (HPC)
solutions typical of acid gas processing plants indicates that resistance to pitting
increases with rising equivalent carbonate concentration. Pitting corrosion is not an
issue in concentrated carbonate solutions with pH values of 8.5 to 9.5, suggesting that
chlorides should not usually be a concern to plant integrity (Harjac, Atrens, Moss, &
Linton, 2007).

A study examining the corrosion behaviour of A106 carbon steel absorber in amine-
promoted hot potassium carbonate solution (Benfield solution) found that increasing
solution velocity, temperature, %K2CO3, CO2 loading, and the presence of solution
contaminations increase the corrosion rate. However, increasing the %DEA in solution
decreases the corrosion rate (Hamada, Zewail, & Farag, 2014).

Six Sigma review of root causes of corrosion incidents in hot potassium carbonate acid
gas removal plant. A review of correspondence showed that a sulfide layer was thought
to provide some protection at Moomba. However, this protection has occurred in a
rather uncontrolled manner since it was not part of the plant design. Santos Ltd., 91
King William Street, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia (S.J. Harjac A. Atrens
C.J. Moss London 2007)

58
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Hot Carbonate Other General Guidelines

Avoid Sensitization: Use extra-low carbon steel or stabilized grades of stainless steel for
welding or stress relief to prevent sensitization.

Avoid Brass Alloys: Brass alloys should be avoided due to the high alkalinity of the
solutions in carbonate plants.

Water-Cooled Exchangers: Choose materials for water-cooled exchangers based on the

cooling water source: Fresh Cooling Water: Stainless steel tubes are suitable. Seawater
or Poor-Quality Water (No H2S): Consider 70-30 Cu-Ni (copper-nickel) tubes.

Presence of H2S: Use titanium tubes. These guidelines are essential for selecting the
right materials and ensuring corrosion resistance in carbonate plant equipment.

Hot Carbonate Corrosion Control, Further reading

Titanium has been highlighted for its significant role in technical progress for
electrochemical plants due to its ability to maintain corrosion stability in aggressive
environments. This makes it a suitable choice for areas in carbonate plants where
corrosion resistance is critical (Riskin, 2019).

A study comparing the corrosion behaviour of titanium, stainless steels, and nickel-base
alloy in desalination plant conditions found that titanium exhibited the highest corrosion
resistance, followed by superaustenitic stainless steel and Hastelloy C-276. This
supports the use of titanium in environments with the presence of H2S (Al-Malahy &
Hodgkiess, 2003).

For high-temperature aggressive environments, duplex tubing made from different

materials, including stainless steel and nickel-based alloys, has been suggested. This
aligns with the recommendation of using extra-low carbon steel or stabilized grades of
stainless steel for welding or stress relief to prevent sensitization (Mankins, 2000).

A comparison of corrosion resistance and performance of copper-nickel alloys and

titanium alloys in MSF distillation plants indicates that copper-nickel alloys show higher
corrosion rates than titanium alloys. This finding supports the preference for titanium in
the presence of H2S and 70-30 Cu-Ni for seawater or poor-quality water without H2S
(Al-Odwani, El-Sayed, Al-Tabtabaei, & Safar, 2006).

The corrosion behaviour of copper/nickel alloys in distilled water was studied to

understand their performance in desalination plants. The results demonstrated that
Cu/30Ni alloy exhibited better corrosion resistance than Cu/10Ni, particularly at
ambient temperatures (Mantzavinos, Hodgkiess, & Lai, 2001).

59
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Corrosion Inhibitors in Carbonate Plants

Corrosion inhibitors are crucial in carbonate plants like Benfield and Catacarb
processes to prevent operational issues and unexpected shutdowns. An essential
procedure in these plants is prepassivation, where clean metal surfaces are treated by
circulating a hot carbonate solution containing 0.8% vanadium throughout the
equipment for several days. This pre-treatment forms protective vanadate-iron oxide
films.

These protective films are maintained by properly inhibited carbonate solutions

(typically containing 0.5% vanadium). It's important to ensure that vanadium
compounds remain in a fully oxidized +5 valence state to be effective as inhibitors.
Reduction of vanadium to +4 due to sulfur contamination can reduce their effectiveness
and lead to corrosion.

Detection of this reduction can sometimes be observed as a colour change from brown
or yellow to green. In carbonate systems, corrosion protection relies on these protective
films, and accelerated corrosion can occur at localized breaks in the film, especially in
areas of high turbulence or where metal surfaces come into contact.

These practices are essential for corrosion control in carbonate plants, ensuring the
integrity of equipment and preventing corrosion-related issues.

Corrosion Inhibitors in Carbonate Plants, Further reading:

The effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors in carbonate plants, such as those used in
Benfield and Catacarb processes, is a well-researched topic. The following insights
from various studies highlight the importance and effectiveness of these inhibitors:

Sodium metavanadate and vanadium pentoxide effectively inhibit corrosion in

carbonate solutions saturated with carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide (Bienstock &
Field, 1961).

A study on the corrosion behaviour of A106 carbon steel in amine-promoted hot

potassium carbonate solution (Benfield solution) shows that adding potassium
metavanadate as a corrosion inhibitor effectively reduces the corrosion rate (Hamada,
Zewail, & Farag, 2014).

60
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Green corrosion inhibitors, such as those derived from plant extracts, are emerging as
low-cost, eco-friendly alternatives, though they may not specifically target carbonate
systems (Abd-El-Nabey, Abd‐ El‐Khalek, El-Housseiny, & Mohamed, 2020).

In Benfield installations, despite using inhibitors, intensive corrosion of mild steel walls
has been observed, indicating the need for proper inhibitor concentration relative to the
solution composition (Lunarska & Szyprowski, 1994).

In conclusion, while vanadium-based inhibitors are effective in carbonate systems, the

shift towards greener alternatives and the need for tailored inhibitor concentration
based on the system's composition are important considerations for optimal corrosion
control

Corrosion Monitoring in Carbonate Plants

Monitoring the iron content of carbonate solutions is a primary method for corrosion
monitoring in carbonate plants. Iron levels exceeding 100 ppm are considered a cause
for concern, indicating a potential corrosion issue. Regular and precise monitoring of
iron content helps in early detection and maintenance to prevent corrosion-related
problems.

Iron corrosion in different environments, including aqueous carbonate solutions, is

influenced by various factors. Corrosion monitoring methods are essential to control
the environment and maintain material integrity (Groysman, 2009).

Corrosion Monitoring in Carbonate Plants further reading

The study of protective iron carbonate layer dissolution in a CO2 corrosion environment
provides insights into the corrosion rate increase due to the dissolution of the iron
carbonate layer, emphasizing the importance of monitoring iron content for corrosion
control (Yang, Brown, & Nešić, 2013).

61
 Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

Further reading
(Additional to the “further reading” in various sections)

1. Acid Gas Removal Plants: Author: B. (Barbara) Cooke.

2. Ploetz, J. P. “MDEA Plant Corrosion Coupon Rack,”11-15-88, File 75.16.86.01.
3. Potter, G. L. “Survey of Corrosion Experience in MDEA-Based Amine Systems,”
November 30, 1990, File 75.16.31.01.
4. Piehl, R. L. “MDEA Conversion,” 9-28-87, File 75.16.31.1; “MDEA Survey,” 10-19-
88 memo to File 75.16.31.1., “MDEA Conversion,” 4-28-89, File 75.16.31.02.
5. Richert, J. P., A. J. Bagdasarian, and C. A. Shargay. “Stress Corrosion Cracking of
Carbon Steel in Amine Systems,” presented at Corrosion '87, 3-9 to 2-13-87, San
Francisco, paper #187.
6. Richert, J. P., A. J. Bagdasarian, and C. A. Shargay. “Extent of Stress Corro- sion
Cracking in Amine Plants Revealed by Survey,” Oil and Gas Journal, June 5, 1989,
p. 45.
7. Bagdasarian, A.J., C. A. Shargay, and J. W. Coombs, “Stress Corrosion Cracking
of Carbon Steel in DEA and `ADIP' Solutions,” Materials Perfor- mance, May
1991, pp. 63–67.
8. Klehn, R. “Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking Discharge Lean Piping,” February 26,
1992, File 75.16.86.
9. Ferrell, D. E. “Cracked H2S Absorber, C-4001, H2S Plant, Irving Refinery,”
Materials Laboratory Report, File No. P-460.14, February 20, 1975.
10. Ballard, D. “How to Operate an Amine Plant,” Hydrocarbon Processing, April
1966.
11. Butwell, K. F. “How to Maintain Effective MEA Solutions,” Hydrocarbon
Processing, April 1968.
12. Dingman, J. C., D. L. Allen, and T. F. Moore. “Minimize Corrosion in MEA Units,”
Hydrocarbon Processing, September 1966.
13. Williams, E., and H. P. Leckie. “Corrosion and Its Prevention in an MEA Gas
Treating Plant,” Materials Protection, July 1968.
14. Pegors, S. R. “5 H2S Foaming Report,” Refinery Memorandum, June 7, 1989.
15. Wagner, E. J. “Pascagoula 1992 Amine Plant High Corrosion Rates,”
16. Longworth, A. L. “DEA Task Force Recommendation Report,” Refinery Report,
August 5, 1992.
17. Keller, A. E., R. M. Kammiller, F. C. Veatch, A. L. Cummings, J. C. Thompsen, and
S. M. Mecum, “Heat Stable Salt Removal from Amines by the HSSX Process
Using Ion Exchange,” pp. 4–5. Presented at the Laurence Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference," March 2, 1992.

62
Journal of Integrity, Corrosion & Inspection, Volume 3, Issue 2, Jan 2024

18. Atkins, K. T. G. “Corrosion in CO2 Removal Plant Towers,” Ammonia Plant Safety,
a CEP Technical Manual published by AIChE, Volume 16, 1974.
19. 18. Schutt, H. U. “Intergranular Wet Hydrogen Sulfide Cracking,” Paper #454.
Presented at NACE Corrosion 92 Conference.
20. Kolff, S. W., Technical Department KEMIRA B.V. “Corrosion of a CO2 Absorber
Tower,” Plant/Operation Progress, Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1986), pp. 65–72. Presented
at AIChE 1985 Summer National Meeting, Aug. 25-28, 1985, File 75.16.31.2
(literature).
21. Bienstock, D., and J. H. Field. “Corrosion Inhibitors for Hot-Carbonate Systems,”
Corrosion, December 1961.
22. Conners, J. S., and A. J. Miller. “Operating Problems Related to Gas Treating,” Oil
and Gas Journal, February 2, 1950.
23. Dingman, J. C. “Effect of MEA Variables on Corrosion,” Chemical Engr. Prog.,
Safety in Air and Ammonia Plants, Volume 9, 1967.
24. Goar, B. C. “Today's Gas Treating Processes,” No. 1 and 2, Oil and Gas Journal,
July 12, 1971 and July 19, 1975
25. Hafsten, R. J. “Literature Survey—Corrosion in Amine Gas Strippers,” API
Subcommittee on Corrosion, May 2, 1957.
26. Hawkes, E. N., and B. F. Mago. “Stop MEA CO2 Unit Corrosion,” Hydrocarbon
Processing, August 1971.
27. Hitchcock, E. A. “Modern CO2 Removal,” AMPO 74, ICI Operating Symposium,
1974.
28. Mottley, J. R., and D. R. Fincher. “Inhibition of MEA Solutions,” Materials
Protection, Vol. 2, No. 8, 26-30, 1963.
29. Nathan, C. C. “Corrosion Inhibitors,” NACE Publication, 1973. Nelson, W. L.
“Questions on Technology,” Oil and Gas Journal, June 20, 1966. Strelzoff, S.
“Choosing the Optimum CO2 Removal System,” Chemical Engineering,
September 15, 1975.

63