Unit-2

DC Motors

Syllabus
DC Motors - principle of operation, types of DC Motors, torque equation, characteristics and
application of shunt, series and compound motors, speed control of DC Motors - armature voltage
and field flux control methods, three-point starter, Brake test, Swinburne’s test, Hopkinson’s test-
separation of stray losses in a DC motor
Four-point starters and Retardation test

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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, the reader will able to
❖ Explain the constructional details and operating principle of a DC motor
❖ Define back e.m.f. and explain its significance
❖ Outline the voltage equation of a DC motor
❖ Find the condition for maximum power of a DC motor
❖ Explain various types of DC motors
❖ Formulate torque and speed equations of a DC motor
❖ Explain different types of starters of a DC motor
❖ List the factors controlling motor speed
❖ Explain various speed control methods of a DC motor
❖ Explain Ward Leonard method of speed control
❖ Illustrate various characteristics of a DC motor
❖ List the various applications of DC motors
❖ List the testing methods of DC machines
❖ Determine the efficiency of a given DC machine using Swinburne’s test
❖ Determine the efficiency of a given DC machine using Brake test
❖ Determine the efficiency of a given DC machine using regenerative or Hopkinson’s
test
❖ Determine the efficiency of a given DC machine using retardation or running down
test
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2.1 Introduction
A DC machine can operate either as a generator or a motor but at present its
usage as a generator is very limited because of wide usage of AC power. A DC motor is
a device which converts DC electric power into mechanical energy. This is done by two
interacting magnetic fields-one stationary, and another one is attached to a moving
part. The DC motors are well known for its superior characteristics such as full torque

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from zero speed, wide field weakening range and excellent control behavior. These
motors are not only the simplest, but also the oldest electric motors. The construction
of DC motor and DC generator is same and hence the constructional details are not
repeated in this chapter.
Applications: Although AC motors are used in most of the cases, DC motors have
many applications and used for multi-purpose applications.
• Higher rating DC motors are used in machine tools, printing presses, conveyors,
fans, pumps, hoists, cranes, paper mills, textile mills etc.
• Smaller rating DC motors (in fractional horsepower rating) are used primarily as
control devices such as taco-generators for speed sensing and servomotors for
positioning and tracking.
• DC motors also used as traction motors in electric locomotives
2.2 Working principle of a DC motor
Its operation is based on the principle that whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.
The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and hence the conductor
moves in the direction of force.
The magnitude of the mechanical force experienced on the conductor is given by,
F = BIL --- (2.1)
Where, B=flux density in tesla (Wb/m ) 2

I =current flowing through conductor in A

L=length of conductor in meters.
In general, if the conductor lies at an angle θ with a magnetic field of flux density B
weber/m2, the mechanical force experienced on a conductor is given by
F = BIL sin θ --- (2.2)
Where  = angle between magnetic field and conductor
Fleming's left-hand rule: This rule states that if the thumb, forefinger and middle
finger of the left hand are stretched in such a way that they are at right angle to each
other mutually and forefinger points towards the direction of magnetic field, the middle
finger towards the direction of flow of current then the thumb will point the direction of
force acting on the conductor.

Figure (2.1): Fleming's left-hand rule

Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Lying in the Magnetic Field:
To understand the force on a current carrying conductor lying in the magnetic
field, let us see the following figure:

(a): Main magnetic field

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 (b): Field due to the current in the conductor

(c): Resultant field

Figure (2.2): Force on a current carrying conductor
Figure 2.2 (a) shows the uniform magnetic field between the two opposite poles.
In figure 2.2 (b) the cross section of a conductor carrying current in inward direction
placed between two magnets, the field being temporarily removed, is shown. By
applying the right-hand thumb rule, the direction of the field around the conductor is
found to be clockwise. If the current carrying conductor shown in figure 2.2 (b) is
placed in the magnetic field shown in figure 2(a), the resultant magnetic field would be
similar to that shown in figure 2.2(c).
The lines of force above the conductor are strengthened, since they are in the
same direction, but the lines of force below the conductor are weakened because the
two fields below the conductor are opposite in directions and hence tends to destroy
each other. Magnetic lines like rubber bands have a tendency to strengthen out and,
therefore, a force is experienced on the conductor in the downward direction, as shown
in the figure 2.2(c). Since all the conductors are placed in the slots provided at the
periphery of the armature, a twist force/torque is developed in the armature and hence
its start rotating.
2.3 Back E.M.F or counter E.M.F
When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the driving
torque, the armature conductors cuts the magnetic flux and hence e.m.f is induced in
them according to Faraday's law of electro magnetic induction. The induced e.m.f acts
in opposite direction to the applied voltage V, according to Lenz's law and so it is called
ZN  P 
as back or counter e.m.f which is given by Eb =    . The supply voltage is
60  A 
sending current through armature conductors against the opposing voltage, Eb. The
electrical power from the supply is spent and the same appears as mechanical power.
In DC motor, power is neither created nor destroyed. The mechanical power is created
in the motor at the expense of electrical power.
Consider a shunt wound motor shown in figure (2.3). When a DC voltage, V is
applied across the motor terminals, the field magnets are excited and armature
conductors are supplied with current. Therefore, driving torque acts on the armature,
which begins to rotate. As the armature rotates, back e.m.f is induced; which opposes
the applied voltage V. The applied V has to force current through the armature against
the back e.m.f. The electric work done, in overcoming and causing the current to flow
against back e.m.f is converted into mechanical energy developed in the armature. This
energy conversion in a DC motor is only possible due to the production of back e.m.f,
Eb.
Net voltage across armature terminals = V − Eb

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 V − Eb
If Ra is armature circuit resistance then, I a = --- (2.3)
Ra

Figure (2.3): Shunt wound motor

Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine the current drawn by
the motor. If the speed of the motor is high, then back e.m.f. is large and hence the
motor will draw less armature current and vice versa.
2.4 Significance of back E.M.F
The presence of back e.m.f makes the DC motor as a self-regulating machine. It
makes the motor to draw armature current just sufficient to develop the torque
required by the load. The armature current is given by,
V − Eb
Ia = --- (2.4)
Ra
(i) When the motor is running at no-load, small torque (Ta=kIa) is required by the motor
to overcome friction and windage. Therefore, a small current is drawn by the motor
armature and the back emf is almost equal to the supply voltage.
(ii) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the load torque becomes greater than the armature
torque and the motor starts to slow down. As motor speed decreases, back emf
decreases and therefore, armature current starts increasing. With increasing Ia,
armature torque increases and at some point, it becomes equal to the load torque.
At that moment, motor stops slowing down and keeps running at this new speed.
(iii) If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque becomes more
than the load torque and the motor starts accelerating. As the motor speed
increases, back emf increases and therefore, armature current decreases. Due to
this reducing armature current, armature developed torque decreases and at some
point, becomes equal to the load torque. That point onwards, motor will stop
accelerating and will start rotating uniformly at this new slightly increased speed.
2.5 Voltage equation of a DC motor

Figure (2.4): DC shunt motor

Let V= applied voltage
Eb = back e.m.f.
Ra = armature resistance
Ia = armature current

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Since back e.m.f. acts in opposition to the applied voltage V, the net voltage across the
armature circuit is V- Eb. Therefore, the armature current Ia is given by
V − Eb
Ia =
Ra
 V = Eb + I a Ra --- (2.5)
This is known as voltage equation of a DC motor.

2.6 Condition for maximum power

The voltage equation of a DC motor is given by
V = Eb + IaRa
By multiplying both sides with Ia
VIa = EbIa + Ia2Ra --- (2.6)
Where VIa= Electrical input to the armature
EbIa = Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature
Ia2Ra = Copper losses in the armature
The gross mechanical power developed by the motor is
Pm= EbIa=VIa-Ia2Ra --- (2.7)
dPm
To get the maximum power, =0
dI a
d
 (VI a − I a 2 Ra ) = 0
dI a
 V − 2 I a Ra = 0  I a Ra = V / 2
But V = Eb + I a Ra
V = Eb + V / 2
 Eb = V / 2 --- (2.8)
Therefore, the gross mechanical power developed is maximum, when back e.m.f. is
equal to half of the applied voltage.
2.7 Types of DC Motors
Like DC generators, there are three types of DC motors characterized by the
connections of field winding in relation to the armature.
(i) Shunt wound motor; in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature.
(ii) Series wound motor; in which the field winding is connected in series with the
armature.
(iii) Compound wound motor; which has two field windings one connected in
parallel with the armature and the other in series with it. Depending upon the
connections of two field windings with the armature the compound motors are
classified into two categories.
(a) Long shunt compound motor; in which the shunt field winding is connected
across the series combination of armature and series field.
(b) Short shunt compound motor; in which the shunt field is connected only
across the armature.
(i) Shunt wound motor
Armature current, Ia = IL-Ish
Shunt field current, Ish= V/Rsh
Back e.m.f., Eb = V-IaRa-BCD --- (2.9)
Power delivered or electrical input to the armature, Pb= EbIa
Power developed in the load, PL= VIL

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 Figure (2.5): Shunt wound motor
(ii) Series wound motor

Figure (2.6): Series wound motor

Armature current, Ia = Ise= IL
Back e.m.f., Eb = V-IaRa-IseRse-BCD --- (2.10)
Power delivered or electrical input to the armature, Pb= EbIa
Power developed in the load, PL= VIL
(iii) Long shunt compound motor

Figure (2.7): Long-shunt compound wound motor

Armature current, Ia =Ise= IL-Ish
Shunt field current, Ish= V/Rsh
Back e.m.f., Eg= V-IaRa-IseRse-BCD --- (2.11)
Power delivered or electrical input to the armature, Pb= EbIa
Power developed in the load, PL= VIL
(iv) Short shunt compound motor
Armature current, Ia = IL-Ish
Series field current, Ise= IL
Back e.m.f., Eb= V-IaRa-IseRse-BCD --- (2.12)
Power delivered or electrical input to the armature, Pb= EbIa
Power developed in the load, PL= VIL

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 Figure (2.8): Short-shunt compound wound motor

Solved Problem-1: A 240V DC shunt motor takes 30A at full load. Find the back e.m.f.
on full load if the resistances of the motor armature and shunt field winding are 0.4Ω
and 120 Ω respectively.
Solution: Given that
V = 240V, IL = 30A, Rsh = 120  , Ra = 0.4 
V 240
I sh = = = 2A
Rsh 120
I a = I L − I sh = 30 − 2 = 28 A
Eb = V − I a Ra = 240 − 28  0.4 = 268.8V
Solved Problem-2: A 4-pole lap connected 220V shunt motor has 450 armature
conductors. It takes 40 A on full load and the flux per pole is 0.01 Wb. The armature
resistance, shunt field resistance and BCD are 0.2 Ω, 110 Ω, 2V respectively.
Determine the speed of the motor at full load.
Solution: Given that
V = 220V, IL = 40A, Rsh = 110  , Ra = 0.2  , Ф=0.01Wb, Z=450, P=4
A=P=4, since the motor being lap connected
V 220
I sh = = = 2A
Rsh 110
I a = I L − I sh = 40 − 2 = 38 A
Eb = V − I a Ra − BCD = 220 − 38  0.2 − 2 = 210.4V
ZN  P 
We know that Eb =  
60  A 
E A  60 210.4  4  60
N= b = = 2805 rpm
ZP 0.01 450  4
Solved Problem-3: A DC series motor working on 220V draws a current of 40A. Its
armature and series filed resistances are 0.03Ω and 0.02 Ω respectively. Calculate the
back e.m.f.
Solution: Given that
V = 220V, IL = 40A, Rse = 0.02  , Ra = 0.03 
I a = I L = I se = 40 A
Eb = V − I a Ra − I a Rse = 220 − 40  0.03 − 40  0.02 = 218V
Solved Problem-4: A DC series motor has armature and series filed resistances are

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0.03Ω and 0.02 Ω respectively. The line draws a current of 30A. The electrical power
equivalent to mechanical is 2.5kW. Calculate the back e.m.f. and terminal voltage
Solution: Given that
IL = 30A, Rse = 0.02  , Ra = 0.03 
Pb=EbIa= 2500W
Pb 2500
Eb = = = 83.3V
Ia 30
I a = I L = I se = 30 A
V = Eb + I a Ra + I a Rse = 83.3 + 30  0.03 + 30  0.02 = 84.8V
Solved Problem-5: A long shunt compound DC motor takes a load current of 30A at
500V and has armature, series filed and shunt filed resistances are 0.05 Ω, 0.03 Ω and
250 Ω respectively. Calculate the back e.m.f. and armature current 1V per brush
contact is allowed.
Solution: Given that
V = 500V, IL = 50A, Ra = 0.05  , Rse = 0.03  ,
Rsh = 250  , BCD=2×1=2V
V 500
I sh = = = 2A
Rsh 250
I a = I L − I sh = 50 − 2 = 48 A
I a = I se = 48 A
Eb = V − I a Ra − I se Rse − BCD
= 500 − 48  0.05 − 48  0.03 − 2
= 494.16V
Solved Problem-6: A short shunt compound DC motor is connected to 200V supply
and takes a line current of 200A. Its armature, series filed and shunt filed resistances
are 0.1 Ω, 0.2 Ω and 50 Ω respectively. Calculate the back e.m.f.
Solution: Given that
V = 200V, IL = 200A, Ra = 0.1  , Rse = 0.2  , Rsh = 50 
I L = I se = 200 A
Voltage across armature
Va = V − I se Rse = 200 − 200  0.2 = 160V
V 160
I sh = a = = 3.2 A
Rsh 50
I a = I L − I sh = 200 − 3.2 = 196.8 A
Eb = V − I a Ra − I se Rse
= 200 − 196.8  0.1 − 200  0.2
= 140.32V
2.8 Torque equation of a DC motor (Ta)
When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the armature
conductors carry current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap.
Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the
armature at a common radius from its centre. Hence a torque is produced around the
circumference of the rotor and the rotor starts rotating. Thus, the torque is nothing but
a twisting or turning moment of a force about an axis, which is given by the product of
force and radius at which this force acts.

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 Figure (2.9): Production of Torque in a DC motor
Let Ta = Torque developed by the armature in N-m
N = Speed in rpm
Ia = Armature current in amps
Eb = Back e.m.f in volts
Mechanical power developed by rotating armature is given by
2 N
Pm = Ta = Ta  --- (2.13)
60
The electrical power spent in the armature is given by
Pe= Eb Ia --- (2.14)
According to conservation of power, power spent must be equal to power generated.
Therefore Pm = Pe
2 N
Ta  = Eb I a
60
60 ZN P 60 1 P
 Ta = Eb I a  =  Ia  = I a Z  
2 N 60 A 2 N 2  A
P
Ta = 0.159ZI a   --- (2.15)
 A
From the above equation, for a given DC motor P, A, Z are constant and hence
T  I a --- (2.16)
Shaft Torque (Tsh): The whole of the armature torque, as calculated above, is not
available for doing useful work, because a certain percentage of it is required for
supplying iron and friction losses in the motor. The torque which is available for doing
useful work is known as shaft torque. It is so called because; it is available at the
shaft.
The motor output is given by
2 N
Pout = Tsh 
60
60 Pout
 Tsh =  --- (2.17)
2 N
The difference (Ta – Tsh) is known as lost torque and is due to friction and iron losses.
Solved Problem-7: The armature of a 4-pole lap wound DC shunt motor has 1200
conductors. The useful flux per pole is 0.04Wb. The friction and windage losses
amount to be 10%. Calculate the shaft torque when the armature current is 50A.
Solution: Given that
P=4, Z=1200, Ф=0.04Wb, Ia=50A
A=P=4, Lap wound connected
Armature torque is given by,

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 P  4
Ta = 0.159ZI a   = 0.159  0.04 1200  50    = 381.6 N − m
 A  4
The friction and windage losses amount to be 10%, the remaining is available at the
shaft, i.e.,
Tsh = 0.9Ta = 0.9  381.6 = 343.4 N − m
Solved Problem-8: A 250V, 4-pole DC shunt motor has wave wound armature 600
conductors. The armature and shunt field resistances are 0.25 Ω and 125 Ω
respectively and the flux per pole is 0.02 Wb. If the motor draws 15A from the mains
neglecting armature reaction, calculate
(i) speed and torque developed in the armature
(ii) shaft torque when rotational losses is equal to 300W
Solution: Given that
V=250V, P=4, Z=600, Ф=0.02Wb, Ra=0.25 Ω, Rsh=125 Ω, IL=15A
A=2, Wave wound connected
V 250
I sh = = = 2A
Rsh 125
I a = I L − I sh = 15 − 2 = 13 A
Eb = V − I a Ra = 250 − 13  0.25 = 246.75V
E A  60 246.75  2  60
(i) Speed, N = b = = 617 rpm
ZP 0.02  600  4
Armature torque is given by,
P 4
Ta = 0.159ZI a   = 0.159  0.02  600 13    = 49.61N − m
 A 2
Pout = Pm − losses = Eb I a − losses
= 246.75 13 − 300 = 2908W
(ii) The motor output is given by
2 N
Pout = Tsh 
60
60 Pout 60 2908
 Tsh =  =  = 45 N − m
2 N 2 617
2.9 Speed equation of a DC motor
The back e.m.f of a DC motor is given by
ZN P
Eb = V − I a Ra = 
60 A
60 A Eb
N= 
ZP 
For a given DC machine A, Z, and P are constant
Eb
N = K --- (2.18)

60A
Where K = is a constant
PZ
Therefore, in a DC motor, speed is directly proportional to back e.m.f. Eb and inversely
proportional to flux per pole, Φ
Speed Relations: If a DC motor has initial values of speed, flux per pole and back
e.m.f. as N1, Φ1, Eb1 respectively and corresponding final values are N2, Φ2, Eb2, then

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 Eb1 E
N1  and N 2  b 2
1 2
N1 Eb1  2
=  --- (2.19)
N 2 Eb 2 1
(a) For a shunt motor, flux practically remains constant so that Φ1= Φ2
N1 Eb1
So, = --- (2.20)
N 2 Eb 2
(b) For a series motor,   I a prior to saturation
N1 Eb1 I a 2
So, =  --- (2.21)
N 2 Eb 2 I a1
Where Ia1 = initial armature current
Ia2 = final armature current
The speed regulation of a motor is the change in speed from full load to no load and is
expressed as a percentage of speed at full load
No load speed − Full load speed N −N
i.e., % speed regulation = 100 = 0 100
Full load speed N
Where No = no load speed
N = full load speed
Solved Problem-9: A DC series motor draws a line current of 100A from the mains
while running at 1000 rpm. Its armature resistance is 0.15Ω and field resistance is 0.1
Ω. Assuming that the flux corresponding to a current of 25A is 40% of that
corresponding to 100A. Find the speed of the motor when it is drawing 25A from 230V
supply.
Solution: Given that
Ia1 = IL1 = 100A, N1 = 1000 rpm, Ra = 0.15  , Rse = 0.1 
When Ia1 = 100A, 1 = 
Ia2 = 25A,  2 = 0.4
Terminal voltage, V = 230V
Eb
For DC motor, N 

N 2 Eb 2 1
 = 
N1 Eb1  2
N V − I a 2 ( Ra + Rse ) 
 2 = 
1000 V − I a1 ( Ra + Rse ) 0.4
N 230 − 25(0.15 + 0.1) 1
 2 = 
1000 230 − 100(0.15 + 0.1) 0.4
N 223.75
 2 =  2.5 = 2.7256
1000 205
 N2 = 1000  2.7286 = 2729 rpm
Solved Problem-10: A 240V DC shunt motor runs on no-load at 800 rpm with no
extra resistance in the field or armature circuit, the armature current being 2A.
Calculate the resistance required in series with the shunt winding so that the motor
may run at 950 rpm when taking a line current of 30A. Shunt winding resistance is
160 Ω, armature resistance is 0.4 Ω. Assure that flux is proportional to field current.
Solution: Given that

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V = 240V, N1 = 800rpm, Ia1 = 2A, N2 = 950rpm, IL = 30A
Rsh = 160  , Ra = 0.4 
V 240
I sh1 = = = 1.5 A
Rsh 160
Eb1 = V − I a1Ra = 240 − 2  0.4 = 239.2V
V 240 240
I sh 2 = = =
Rsh 2 Rsh + R 160 + R
240
I a 2 = I L − I sh 2 = 30 −
160 + R
 240 
Eb 2 = V − I a 2 Ra = 240 −  30 −   0.4
 160 + R 
96 96
= 240 − 12 + = 228 +
160 + R 160 + R
Eb
In case of DC motor, N 

But   I sh
E
N  b
I sh
N 2 Eb 2 I sh1
= 
N1 Eb1 I sh 2
950 E 1.5
 = b2 
800 239.2 (240 /160 + R)
1.5 160 + R
 1.1875 =   Eb 2
239.2 240
1.1875  239.2  240 45448
 Eb 2 = =
1.5(160 + R) 160 + R
96 45448
 228 + =
160 + R 160 + R
 36480 + 228R + 96 = 45448
8872
 228R = 8872  R = = 38.9
228
 Additional resistance required in series with the shunt winding is, R = 38.9 
Solved Problem-11: A 220V DC shunt motor has an armature and field resistances of
0.2 Ω, 110 Ω respectively. At no load the motor takes 5A and runs at 1500rpm. If the
motor draws 52A at rated voltage and rated load, calculate the motor speed and its
rated shaft torque in N-m. The rotational losses at no load and full load are the same.
Neglect armature reaction.
Solution: Given that
V = 220V, Ra = 0.2  , Rsh = 110  , IL1 = 5A, N1 = 1500rpm, IL2 = 52A
V 220
I sh = = = 2A
Rsh 110
I a1 = I L1 − I sh = 5 − 2 = 3 A
Eb 2 = V − I a1Ra = 220 − 3  0.2 = 219.4

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 Armature current on load, I a 2 = I L 2 − I sh = 52 − 2 = 50 A
For shunt motor 2 = 1
Eb 2 = V − I a 2 Ra = 220 − 50  0.2 = 210V
N E
For a dc shunt motor, 2 = b 2
N1 Eb1
E 210
 N 2 = b 2  N1 = 1500 = 1435.7rpm
Eb1 219.4
T  2 N 2
= Pout = Eb 2 I a 2
60
E I  60 210  50  60
 T = b2 a2 = = 70 N − m
2 N 2 2 1435.7
Solved Problem-12: A 4 pole, 230V, DC shunt motor has a total of 620 armature
conductors, which are wave wound. The full-load armature current is 40A, and the
flux per pole is 0.05Wb. The armature resistance is 0.2 Ω. The voltage drop across a
brush is 1 volt. Calculate the full-load speed of the motor.
Solution: Given that
P = 4, V = 230V, Z = 620, A=2
Ia = 40A,  = 0.05 Wb
Ra = 0.2 , BCD = 2 1 = 2V
Eb = V − I a Ra − BCD = 230 − 40  0.2 − 2 1 = 220 V
ZN  P 
Eb =  
60  A 
E  60  A  220  60  2 
N= b   =    = 213 rpm
Z  P  0.05  620  4 
Solved Problem-13: A 220 V DC series motor runs at 1000 rpm when operating at its
full load current of 30A. The motor resistance is 0.5 Ω and the magnetic circuit can be
assumed unsaturated. What will be the speed if the (i) load torque is increased by
44%, and (ii) motor current is 20A.
Solution: Given that
V = 200V, N1 = 1000rpm, Ia1 = 30A, Ra = 0.5 
Eb1 = V − I a1Ra = 200 − 30  0.5 = 185 V
(i) T1 = T , T2 = 1.44T
For a series motor, T  I a 2
T2 I a 2 2
 =
T1 I a12
1.44T I a 2 2
 = 2  I a 2 = 30  1.44 = 36 A
T 30
Eb 2 = V − I a 2 Ra = 200 − 36  0.5 = 182V
We know that for a series motor
Eb Eb
N 
 Ia
N E I
 2 = b 2  a1
N1 Eb1 I a 2

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 13

 N2 182 30
 =  = 0.8198
1000 185 36
 N2 = 1000  0.8198 = 820 rpm
(ii) I a 2 = 20 A
Eb 2 = V − I a 2 Ra = 200 − 20  0.5 = 190V
N 2 Eb 2 I a1
= 
N1 Eb1 I a 2
N 190 30
 2 =  = 1.5405
1000 185 20
 N2 = 1.5405 1000 = 1504.5rpm
Solved Problem-14: 250V DC shunt motor takes 41A at full load. Resistances of motor
armature and shunt field windings are 0.1 Ω and 250 Ω respectively. Find the back
e.m.f. on full load. What will be its generated e.m.f., if working as generator and
supplying 41A to load at terminal voltage of 250V?
Solution: Given that
V = 250V , I 2 = 41A, Ra = 0.1, Rsh = 250
V 250
I sh = = = 1A
Rsh 250
(i)As a shunt motor
I a = I L − I sh = 41 − 1 = 40 A
Back e.m.f, Eb = V − I a Ra = 250 − 40  0.1 = 246V
(ii) As a shunt generator
Ia = IL +Ish = 41+1 = 42A
Generated e.m.f., Eg = V+Ia Ra =250+42  0.1=252.2V
Solved Problem-15: A 220V DC shunt motor runs at 500rpm when the armature
current is 50A. Calculate the speed if the torque is doubled. Given that Ra = 0.2 Ω
Solution: Given that
V = 220V , N1 = 500rpm, I a1 = 50 A
T1 = T , T2 = 2T , Ra = 0.2, N 2 = ?
For shunt motor, T  I a
T2 I a 2
=
T1 I a1
2T I a 2
=  I a 2 = 2 I a1 = 100 A
T I a1
Eb1 = V − I a1 Ra = 220 − 50  0.2 = 210V
Eb 2 = V − I a 2 Ra = 220 − 100  0.2 = 200V
N E
 N  Eb  2 = b 2
N1 Eb1
N 200
 2 =  N 2 = 476 rpm
500 210
Solved Problem-16: A 125 kW, 600V DC series motor has Ra+Rse = 0.15Ω. The full
load current at rated voltage and speed is 220 A. The magnetization characteristic of
the motor is assured to be linear. If it generates an induced e.m.f. of 480V at 600rpm
with field current of 220A, calculate the (a) motor speed at full load current and rated

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 14

voltage and corresponding full load torque, and (b) external resistance to be added in
the motor circuit and also the starting torque if the starting current is restricted to
300A.
Solution: Given that
Output power, P= 125 kW
V=600 V, Eb= 480V,N=600 rpm
Ra+Rse = 0.15 Ω, IL = Ia = Ise =220 A
(a) The full load current at rated voltage and speed is 22V. Given that with a field
current of 220A, the speed of the motor is 600rpm.
 Power developed, P = Ta = Eb I a
60 480  220  60
 Ta = Eb I a  = = 1680.67 N − m
2 N 2  600
(b) The starting current is 300A.
At the time of starting, Eb = 0
V = I st ( Ra + Rse + R)
600 = 300  0.15 + 300 R
600 − 45
R= = 1.85
300
 External resistance added in the motor circuit is
R = 1.85 
For series motor
T  I a  I a 2
Tf I af 2
 =
Tst I st 2
1680.67 2202
 =  Tst = 3125.2 N − m
Tst 3002

2.10 DC Motor Starter

The starter is a device used to start and accelerate a motor. The starting of DC
motor is somewhat different from the starting of all other types of electrical motors.
While starting the DC motor, it draws high current which damages the internal circuit
of the motor if not restricted to some safe limited value. The high starting current can
be avoided by connecting an external resistance in series with the motor's armature
winding and restricts the current to an acceptable level and thus protects the motor
from damage.
2.10.1 Necessity of a starter
The armature current of a DC motor is given by, Ia= (V-Eb)/Ra. When the motor
is at rest, speed N=0 and hence back emf Eb=0 in the armature. Consequently, if the
motor is switched on directly to the mains, the armature will draw a large starting
current (Ias=V/Ra) because of small armature resistance. For example, if a motor with
normal full load current of 25A and an armature resistance of 0.4Ω is connected
directly to a 220V supply, then the armature current, Ias=V/Ra= 220/0.4= 550A, which
is 22 times the normal full load current. This large current would damage the brushes,
commutator, armature winding etc. As the motor speed increases, the back e.m.f.
increases and the difference (V-Eb) goes on decreasing. This results in the gradual
decrease of Ia until the motor attains its stable speed and the corresponding back
e.m.f. Under this condition the armature current reaches its desired value. Thus, it is
found that the back e.m.f helps the armature resistance in limiting the current

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 15

through the armature. In order to avoid the excessive or large starting current, an
external resistance must be connected in series with the armature (only during
starting period), which limits the starting current to a safe value. The starting
resistance is gradually cut out as the motor gains the speed and develops the back
e.m.f.
The following types starters are used for DC motor to limit the starting current:
(i) Two-pint starter----- used for DC series motor
(ii)Three-point starter----- used for DC shunt motor
(iii) Four-point starter----- used for DC compound motor
2.10.2 Two-point starter
Two-point starter is generally used in DC series motors. In DC series motors,
armature coil is connected in series with the field winding. Therefore, at the starting of
the motor, in absence of load, the motor will achieve very high speed which damages
the motor. So, series motor should not be started without any load.

Figure (2.10): 2-Point Starter

Construction and Working:
The circuit diagram of two-point starter is as shown in the figure (2.10). Its
construction is quite similar to a potentiometer or rheostat with tap changing. It
consists of only two terminals L and A. The terminal L connected to positive terminal of
the supply voltage and A is connected to the field winding. The field winding is
connected in series with the armature winding.
Once the supply is given to the DC series motor, the starter handle is moved
from OFF to ON position i.e. to point-1, resulting in full resistance available in series
with the armature winding. This reduces inrush of high starting current to the series
motor. Then starting resistance is gradually cut down and the motor gathers speed,
which will then develop back emf.
Purpose of no-load release coil:
The load current first flow through the no load release coil and then to the
armature as they are connected in series. In normal speed conditions, no-load release
coil holds the connection by staying energized and current flow to the armature
winding and the motor keeps on running in normal state. As the speed of the DC series
motor is inversely proportional to the load current, the motor should not be allowed to
start at no load.
If the DC series motor is stared with no load, then no load release coil will detect
it and it de-energized itself to release the handle to OFF position.
Advantages of 2-point Starter:
• It protects the motor from drawing high starting current.
• It automatically gets off under no-load condition.
Applications of 2-point Starter:
• These starters are used with DC series motors.
• Theses starters are used in railway to start or stop the rail.
• Theses starters are used in cranes.

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 16

2.10.2 Three-point starter
Construction:
A three-point starter for DC shunt motor with protective devices is shown in
figure (2.11). The starter is basically a variable resistance, divided into a number of
sections. The contact points of these sections are called studs and brought out
separately, shown as OFF, 1,2,3,4 - - up to RUN. The three terminals of the starter L, Z
and A are connected respectively to positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and
armature terminal. Point L is further connected to an electromagnet called over load
release (OLR). The second end of the OLR is connected to a point where the handle of
the starter is pivoted. This handle is free to move from its other side against the force of
the spring. This spring brings back the handle to the OFF position under the influence
of its own force. Another parallel path is taken from stud-1 to another electromagnet
called no voltage coil (NVC). The NVC is further connected to terminal ‘F’. The starting
resistance is entirely in series with the armature.

Figure (2.11): 3-Point Starter

Operation:
Initially the starter handle is in the OFF position. To start the motor the DC
supply is switched on. Then the starter handle is slowly moved to the right, as soon as
it comes in contact with stud no-1, the field circuit is directly connected across the line
and at the same time the entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature
and the armature current which is high at start, gets reduced. As the handle is
gradually moved over to the finial stud, the starting resistance is cutout of the
armature circuit in steps. Finally, when the starter handle is in RUN position, the
entire starting resistance gets removed from the armature circuit and the motor starts
rotating with normal speed.
Functions of No Voltage Coil (NVC):
(i) When the starter handle is in RUN position, the no voltage coil is magnetized and
attracts the soft iron piece ‘S’ and keeps the handle in RUN position against the
spring tension. Design of NVC is such that it holds the handle in RUN position
against the spring force as long as supply to the motor is proper and hence it is
also called as hold on coil (HC).
(ii) In case of failure or disconnection of the supply or a break in the field circuit, the

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 17

 NVC coil is deenergized there by releasing the arm, which is pulled back by the
spring force to the OFF position. This prevents the damage of the motor caused
due to accidental starting.
Functions of Over Load Release (OLR) coil:
This coil is provided for the protection of the motor against the flow of excessive
current due to over load or fault. If the motor becomes over loaded beyond a certain
predetermined value, line current (or) armature current increases and hence the
attracting power of the electromagnet i.e. OLR increases, then the movable arm M’ is
lifted and the short circuits the electromagnet i.e. NVC. Hence the NVC demagnetizes
and the starter arm is returned to OFF position with the action of spring force and the
motor is automatically disconnected from the supply.
Advantages of 3-point starter:
• It gives the protection to the motor from overload and short circuit faults.
• It helps in speed control of the motor by adding some extra equipment.
Applications of 3-point Starter:
• It is used with DC Shunt motors
• These starters are used in lathe factories
• These starters are used in spinning mills
Drawbacks of 3-point starter:
In this starter, the NVC and the field winding are connected in series. So, while
controlling the speed of the motor above rated speed, field current is reduced by adding
an extra resistance in series with the field winding. This low value of the current also
passes through NVC, which is unable to create enough electromagnetic pull to
overcome the spring tension. Hence the arm is pulled back to OFF position during the
normal operation of the motor and thus disconnected the motor from the line.
2.10.4 Four-point starter
In a 4-point starter, NVC is connected independently across the supply voltage
instead of connecting it in series with the motor field winding, through the terminal 'N'
in addition to the line (L), field (F) and armature (A) as shown in figure (2.12). When the
arm touches stud No. 1, the line currents divides into three parallel paths, such as:

Figure (2.12): The 4-point starter

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 18

 (i) First passes through the armature winding through the starter resistance, which
will reduce the high inrush of starting current as a whole resistance is added to the
armature winding.
(ii) Second part passes through shunt field and hence the speed of a DC motor is
varied, by varying the field winding current with the help of variable resistance
(iii) Third part passes through NVC and resistance 'R'
As the NVC is independent of shunt field circuit, it is not affected by the change
of the current in the shunt field circuit. It means that, the electromagnetic pull
excreted by the holding coil will always be sufficient and will prevent the spiral spring
from restoring the arm to the OFF position.
Once the motor is started, the starter arm is brought to RUN position, the
armature of the DC motor will run at its full speed and remain connected to the supply
through the starter arm. Thus, the field winding and NVC will get full voltage
independently. Now it’s possible to release the hand from the starter as NVC is
supplied independently, which means the spring tension cannot bring back the starter
arm to OFF position because of the attractive force of the NVC. In case of overload, the
OLR terminal will short circuited the NVC to release the starter arm to the OFF
position.
Advantages of 4-point Starter:
• The four-point starter is suitable for variable speed motors.
Disadvantages of 4-point Starter:
• It cannot control the motor from high speeds. If the field winding of the motor
gets opened under running condition, the field current automatically reduces to
zero. But, as some of the residual flux is still present in the motor and we know
that the relation between speed and flux as N=k/Φ the motor tries to run with
high speed which is dangerous and thus protection is not possible.

Application of 4-point Starter:

• It is used with mainly DC compound motors but it can be used with DC shunt
motors.
• These starters are used in press industries.
• These starters are used in rolling mills
2.10.5 Calculation of starter resistance for DC Shunt Motor
For starting the motor from standstill position to its rated speed, the speed is to
be increased at constant rate. The speed is nothing but an angular acceleration which
depends upon the torque and the torque is proportional to the product of flux Φ and
armature current Ia. If the supply voltage 'V' is constant the flux Φ will remain constant
and hence for maintaining speed as constant armature current Ia must be constant.
V − Ia R
We have the relation N  where N is the speed of the motor and R is the

resistance. For constant values of Ia and Φ, to increase the speed of motor it is required
to change its resistance R.
From figure (2.13), it is seen that the instant the starter is moved to stud-1 or
contactor CM is closed, the current in the circuit reaches a value I1, designated as the
upper current limit, given by
V
I1 = --- (2.22)
R1
Thereafter the current value decreases as the motor speeds up and its back emf rises
as shown in figure (2.14). The current is allowed to reduce to I2, the lower current limit,
given by

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 19

 V − Eb
I2 = --- (2.23)
R1
Where Eb is the back emf at speed N1 reached by the motor. At this instant the starter
is moved to stud-2 or contactor C1 is closed. The current increases instantaneously to
11 as shown in figure (2.14) and satisfies the relationship
V − Eb
I1 = --- (2.24)
R2

Figure (2.13): DC shunt motor starting

Figure (2.14): Variation of armature current and sped w.r.t time for a DC shunt motor
From the eqns. (2.23) and (2.24), we get
I1 R1
=
I 2 R2
Similarly, by moving starter arm to stud-3 and so on we will have the relation as

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 20

 I1 R1 R 2 R3 R4
= = = = = .... --- (2.25)
I 2 R2 R3 R4 R5
I upper current limit
Let  = 1 =
I 2 lower current limit
In general, if n is the number of live studs and therefore (n-1) is the number of sections
in the starter resistance, then
R1 R2 R R
n =   ...  n −1  n
R2 R3 Rn Rn +1
R R
n = 1 = 1
Rn +1 Ra
1n
R 
 =  1  --- (2.26)
 Ra 
Once the designer has selected the upper and lower limits of armature currents during
starting, starter step calculations can proceed on the following lines:
(i) From Eq. (2.22) calculate RI.
(ii) From Eq. (2.26) calculate the number of steps ‘n’ choosing the nearest integral
value.
(iii) Calculate resistances R1, R2 … from Eq. (2.25).
From these the resistance values of various sections of the starter can be found out.
Sometimes the number of sections is specified in addition to the upper current limit.
This problem can be handled by a slightly different manipulation of Eqns. (2.22) to
(2.26).
Solved Problem-17: The armature resistance of a 400V DC shunt motor is 0.25 Ω.
Calculate the value of different resistance elements of a starter for this motor if the
maximum current should not exceed 100 A and the ratio of maximum to minimum
current during starting be about 1.8.
Solution: Given that,
Input voltage, V = 400 V
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.25
Maximum current (Upper current limit), I1 = 100 A
Ratio of maximum to minimum current,  = 1.8
V 400
We have, R1 = = = 4 and
I1 100
1n 1
R   4  n
 = 1   1.8 =  
 Ra   0.25 
By applying logarithmic operation of both sides, we get
1
ln 1.8 = ln 16
n
n = 4.722  5
i.e., the number studs, n = 5
For n =5,
R1
4
R2 = =
= 2.222
 1.8
R 2.222
R3 = 2 = = 1.234
 1.8

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 21

 R3 1.234
R4 = = = 0.686
 1.8
Hence, the starter resistances are
r1 = R1 − R2 = 4 − 2.222 = 1.778
r2 = R2 − R3 = 2.222 − 1.234 = 0.988
r3 = R3 − R4 = 1.234 − 0.686 = 0.548
r4 = R4 − Ra = 0.686 − 0.25 = 0.436
Solved Problem-18: Calculate the resistance steps for the starter of 220 V, DC shunt
motor having an armature resistance of 0.12 Ω and a full load current of 120 A. The
motor is to start against full load and maximum current is not to exceed 180 A.
Solution: Given that,
Input voltage, V = 220 V
Armature resistance, Ra = 0.12
Maximum current (Upper current limit), I1 = 180 A
Minimum current (Lower current limit), I 2 = 120 A
V 220
We have, R1 = = = 1.22 and
I1 180
I1 180
Ratio of maximum to minimum currents,  = = = 1.5
I 2 120
1n 1
R   1.22  n
 = 1   1.5 =  
 Ra   0.12 
By applying logarithmic operation of both sides, we get
1 2.32
ln1.5 = ln10.17 =
n n
2.32 2.32
n= = = 5.72
ln1.5 0.405
n = 5.72  6
i.e. the number studs, n = 6
For n = 6,
R1 1.22
R2 = = = 0.813
 1.5
R2 0.813
R3 = = = 0.552
 1.5
R3 0.542
R4 = = = 0.361
 1.5
R4 0.361
R5 = = = 0.241
 1.5
Hence, the starter resistances ae
r1 = R1 − R2 = 1.22 - 0.813 = 0.407Ω
r2 = R2 − R3 = 0.813 - 0.552 = 0.261 Ω
r3 = R3 − R4 = 0.552 - 0.361 = 0.191 Ω
r4 = R4 − R5 = 0.361 - 0.241 = 0.12 Ω
r5 = R5 − Ra = 0.241 - 0.12 = 0.121 Ω

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 22

Solved Problem-19: A 230 V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 Ω. The
starting armature current must not exceed 50 A. If the number of sections of
resistances in the starter is 5, find the value of resistance in each section.
Solution: Given that,
V=230 V Ra=0.2 Ω, Imax =I1=50 A
Number of sections =5. Hence there are 6 studs, i.e., n=6
V 230
R1 = = = 4.6
I1 50
R6 =Ra =0.2 Ω
1n
R 
1/ 6
 4.6 
 = 1  =  = 1.686
 Ra   0.2 
R 4.6
R2 = 1 = = 2.728
 1.686
R 2.728
R3 = 2 = = 1.618
 1.686
R 1.618
R4 = 3 = = 0.96
 1.686
R 0.96
R5 = 4 = = 0.569
 1.686
Hence, the starter resistances are
r1 = R1 − R2 = 4.6 – 2.728 = 1.872 Ω
r2 = R2 − R3 = 2.728 - 1.618 = 1.115 Ω
r3 = R3 − R4 = 1.618 - 0.96 = 0.658 Ω
r4 = R4 − R5 = 0.96 - 0.569= 0.391 Ω
r5 = R5 − Ra = 0.569 - 0.2 = 0.369 Ω
2.11 Speed control of DC motors
The voltage equation of a DC motor is given by
V = Eb + I a Ra
 Eb = V − I a Ra
ZN P
But Eb = 
60 A
ZN P
  = V − I a Ra --- (2.27)
60 A
In a DC motor P, Z, A are constants and hence put Kb = PZ/60A in the above eqn.
(2.27)
 KbN = V − I a Ra
V − I a Ra
N= --- (2.28)
Kb 
From the above equation the speed can be varied by changing
(i) Armature circuit resistance, Ra
(ii) Applied voltage or terminal voltage of the armature
(iii) Field flux or field current
The first two cases involve change that affects armature circuit and the third one
involves change in magnetic field. Therefore, speed control of DC motor is classified as
(i) Armature control methods

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 23

 (ii) Field control methods
2.11.1 Speed control of a DC shunt motor
(i) Field control methods of a DC shunt motor
(a) Field rheostat control method
In this method of speed control an external variable resistance R is connected
series with the shunt field winding as shown in figure (2.15). By changing the external
resistance R the shunt field current Ish is varied, hence the flux in the field winding is
varied and hence the speed of the motor is varied. When R is zero, only shunt field
winding resistance is present in the field winding. Corresponding to this, flux is rated
flux and the speed of the motor is rated speed. By connecting external resistance to
vary the speed, shunt field winding resistance will be increased and hence current and
flux will be reduced. When current and flux will reduce the speed will be increased to
above the rated value. By this method of speed control always above rated speeds are
possible. This is also known as field weakening method.

Figure (2.15): Field control method

(b) Field voltage control method

This method requires a variable voltage supply for the field circuit which is
separated from the main power supply to which the armature is connected. Such a
variable supply can be obtained by an electronic rectifier.
(ii) Armature control of DC shunt motor
(a) Armature resistance control method
In this method of speed control, an external variable resistance R is connected
in series with the armature as shown in figure (2.16). By varying external resistance R,
IaR drop is increased. Net voltage applied to motor is reduced. Therefore, the speed of
the motor is reduced. So, by this method of speed control, always below the rated
speeds are possible.

Figure (2.16): Armature resistance control method

(b) Armature voltage control method
In this method of speed control, a variable DC supply is connected across the
motor as shown in figure (2.17). By varying applied voltage V speed of the motor is
varied. Maximum voltage impressed across the motor is only the rated voltage. Rated

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voltage is never exceeded on account of insulation problem. Voltage can be varied
below rated voltage, hence in this method of speed control, below rated speeds are only
possible.

Figure (2.17): Voltage control method

2.11.2 Speed Control of a DC Series Motor
(i) Field control methods of a DC series motor
In DC series motor the flux can be varied by using the following methods:
(a) Field diverter method
In this method a variable resistance called field diverter is connected across series
field winding as shown in figure (2.18). It diverts the main current and reduces the
flux, thus increases the speed. It gives the speed above the rated speed only.

Figure (2.18): Field diverter

(b) Armature diverter method
In this method, a variable resistance called armature diverter is connected
across the armature as shown in figure (2.19). For a given constant load torque, if Ia
is reduced due to armature diverter, flux must increase (since Ta  I a ). The result is
that the motor draws more current from the supply and hence flux is increased. Since
1
N , the motor speed decreases. In this method we can obtain always below the

rated speeds only.

Figure (2.19): Armature diverter

(c)Tapped field control method
This is another method of increasing the speed by reducing the flux and it is
done by lowering number of turns of field winding through which current flows. In this
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 25
method, a number of tapping from field winding are brought outside as shown in figure
(2.20). This method is commonly used in electric traction system.

Figure (2.20): Tapped field control

(ii) Armature control methods of a DC series motor
(a) Armature resistance control method
In this method of speed control, an external variable resistance R is connected
in series with the armature as shown in figure (2.21). This reduces the voltage across
 E 
armature  Eb = V − I a ( Ra + R) and
hence speed falls  N  b  . In this method always
 
below the rated speed can be obtained. It is uneconomical because large power loss
takes place in variable resistance.

Figure (2.21): Armature resistance control

(b) Shunted armature control method
The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series
with the armature as shown in figure (2.22) is involved in this method of speed control.
The voltage applied to the armature is varied by varying series rheostat R1. The exciting
current can be varied by varying the armature shunting resistance R2. This method of
speed control is not economical due to considerable power losses in speed controlling
resistances. Here speed control is obtained over wide range but below normal speed.

Figure (2.22): Armature resistance control

(c) Armature terminal voltage control method

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 26

 The speed control of DC series motor can be accomplished by supplying the
power to the motor from a separate variable voltage supply. This method involves high
cost so it rarely used.

2.11.3 Ward Leonard method of speed control

Ward Leonard speed control system is introduced by Henry Ward Leonard in
1891. Ward Leonard method of speed control is used for controlling the basic armature
control method. This control system is consisting of a DC motor M1 powered by a DC
generator G. In this method the speed of the DC motor (M1) is controlled by applying
variable voltage across its armature. This variable voltage is obtained using a motor-
generator set which consists of a motor M2 with the generator G. It is a very widely
used method of speed control of DC motor.
Basic connection diagram of the Ward Leonard speed control system is as
shown in figure (2.23). The speed of motor M1 is to be controlled which is powered by
the generator G. The shunt field of the motor M1 is connected across the DC supply
lines. Now, generator G is driven by the motor M2. The speed of the motor M2 is
constant.
When the output voltage of the generator is fed to the motor M1 then the motor
starts to rotate. When the output voltage of the generator varies then the speed of the
motor also varies. Now controlling the output voltage of the generator, the speed of
motor can also be controlled. For this purpose of controlling the output voltage, a field
regulator is connected across the generator with the dc supply lines to control the field
excitation. The direction of rotation of the motor M 1 can be reversed by excitation
current of the generator and it can be done with the help of the reversing switch R.S.
But the motor-generator set must run in the same direction.

Figure (2.23): Ward-Leonard method of speed control

Advantages of Ward Leonard system
(i) A wide range of speed from standstill to high speeds in either direction
(ii) The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
(iii) Speed regulation of DC motor is very good.
(iv) It has inherent regenerative braking property.
Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System
(i) The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator set) are
required.
(ii) Larger size and weight, requires more floor area.
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 27
 (iii) Frequent maintenance.
(iv) The drive produces more noise.
Application of Ward Leonard System
This Ward Leonard method of speed control system is used where a very wide
and sensitive speed control in both the direction of rotation is required. This speed
control system is mainly used in colliery winders, cranes, electric excavators, mine
hoists, elevators, steel rolling mills, paper machines, diesel-locomotives etc.
Solved Problem-20: A 200 V, DC series motor runs at 750 rpm when taking a current
of 30 A. The resistance of the armature is 0.5 Ω and field is 0.3 Ω. If the current
remains constant, calculate the resistance necessary to reduce the speed to 250 rpm.
Solution: Given that
V=200V, N1=750rpm, IL1=Ia1=30A
Ra=0.5  , Rse=0.3  , N2=250rpm, IL2=Ia2=30A
Eb1=V-Ia1(Ra+Rse)=200-30(0.5+0.3)=176V
Eb2=V-Ia2(Ra+Rse+R)=200-30(0.5+0.3+R) =176–30R
Eb
For a DC motor N 

For a series motor,   I a
E
N b
Ia
N E I
 2 = b 2  a1
N1 Eb1 I a 2
250 176 − 30 R 30
 = 
750 176 30
 176–30R=58.667
176 − 58.667
 R= =3.91 
30
 External resistance required, R =3.91 
Solved Problem-21: A 230 V, DC shunt motor takes an armature current of 20 A on a
particular load. The armature circuit resistance is 0.5 Ω.Find the resistance required in
series with the armature to reduce the speed by 50% if the (i) load torque is constant,
and (ii) the load torque is proportional to the square of the speed.
Solution: Given that
V=230V, Ia1=20A, Ra=0.5 
N1=N, N2=0.5N
Eb1=V–Ia1Ra=230-20  0.5=220V
(i) As per the given date, T is constant
i.e. Ia2 = Ia1 = 20A
Eb2 = V- Ia2 (Ra+Rext)= 230-20(0.5+Rext)
 Eb2 = 220-20 Rext
For DC shunt motor
N 2 Eb 2
=
N1 Eb1
220 − 20 Rext
 0.5 =
220
 Rext=5.5 
(ii) As per the given data, T  N 2
 Ia  N 2

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 28

 Ia2 N 22 . 2
 = 2 =0 5
I a1 N1
 Ia2 = 0.52  20 =5A
Eb2 =V- Ia2 (Ra+Rext) =230-5(0.5+Rext) =227.5-5Rext
N 2 Eb 2
 =
N1 Eb1
227.5 − 5 Rext
 0.5=
220
 Rext=25.5 
Solved Problem-22: A 200 V, DC shunt motor takes 22 A at rated voltage and runs at
1000 rpm. Its field and armature resistances are 100 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively.
Compute the value of additional resistance to be included in the armature circuit to
reduce the speed to 800 rpm, when (a) the load torque is proportional to speed, and (b)
the load torque varies as the square of the speed
Solution: Given that
V = 200V, IL=22A, N1 = 1000 rpm
Rsh=100  , Ra = 0.1  , N2 = 800 rpm
V 200
Ish= = =2A
Rsh 100
Ia1=IL–Ish=22-2=20A
Eb1=V-Ia1Ra=200-20  0.1=198V
(i) As per the given data, T  N  I a
For shunt motor Φ is constant.
 N  Ia
N I
 2 = a2
N 2 I a1
N 800
 I a 2 = 2  Ia1=  20=16A
N1 1000
Eb
But N   Eb [Since Φ is constant]

N E
 2 = b2
N1 Eb1
N 800
 E b2 = 2  Eb1 =  198=158.4V
N1 1000
V-Ia2 R a' =158.4
V − 158.4 200 − 158.4
 R 'a = = = 2.6
Ia2 16
Additional resistance, R=R a − Ra = 2.6-0.1=2.5
'

(ii) As per the given data, T  N  I a

2

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 29

 Ia2 N 22
 =
I a1 N12
N 22 8002
 Ia2 =  Ia1=  20=12.8A
N12 10002
For shunt motor
N2 800
Eb 2 =  Eb1 = 198 = 158.4V
N1 1000
V-Ia2 R a' =158.4
V − 158.4 200 − 158.4
 R 'a = = = 3.25
Ia2 12.8
Additional resistance, R=R 'a − Ra = 3.25-0.1=3.15
Solved Problem-23: A 240 V, 50 A, 800 rpm DC shunt motor has armature resistance
of 0.2 Ω. If the load torque is reduced to 60% of its full load value and a resistance of 2
Ω is inserted in series with armature circuit, find the motor speed. Armature reaction
weakens the field flux by 4% at full load and by 2% at 60% of full load.
Solution: Given that
V= 240 V, Ia1= 50 A, N1= 800 rpm, Ra1= 0.2Ω
T1=T, T2= 0.6T, 1 = 0.96 , 2 = 0.98 , Rext= 2Ω
Ra 2 = Ra1 + Rext = 2+0.2= 2.2Ω
Eb1 = V − I a1Ra1 = 240 − 50  0.2 =230V
T  I
T  I a  2 = 2  a 2
T1 1 I a1
0.6T 0.98 I a 2
 = 
T 0.96 50
0.6
 Ia2 = = 29.4 A
0.0204
Eb 2 = V- I a 2 Ra 2 =240-29.4  2.2=175.35V
E
For a DC motor, N  b

N 2 Eb 2 1
i.e., = 
N1 Eb1  2
Eb 2 1 175.35 0.96
 N2 = N1   =800   . =597.5rpm
Eb1  2 230 0 98
Solved Problem-23: A 220 V DC shunt motor with an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω is
excited to give constant main field. At full load the motor runs at 500 rpm and takes an
armature current of 30 A. If a resistance of 1 Ω is placed in the armature circuit, find
the speed at (a)full load torque, and (b) double full load torque.
Solution: Given that
V = 220V , Ra = 0.5, I a1 = 30 A
N1 = 500rpm, Rext = 1
(a) Full load torque
For shunt motor T   I a  I a

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 30

T2 I a 2
=
T1 I a1
I
 1= a 2
I a1
 I a 2 = I a1 =30A
Eb1 =V- I a1 Ra =220-30  0.5 =205V
Eb 2 =V- I a 2 ( Ra + Rext )=220–30( 0.5 +1)=175V
For shunt motor
N 2 Eb 2
=
N1 Eb1
E 175
 N2 = b 2  N1 =  500=427rpm
Eb1 205
(b) Double full load torque
i.e T2 = 2T1
T2 I a 2 2T I
=  1 = a 2  I a 2 =2 I a1 =60A
T1 I a1 T1 I a1
Eb 2 = V- I a 2 ( Ra + Rext )=220–6(1+ 0.5 )=130V
E 130
N2 = b 2  N1 =  500=317rpm.
Eb1 205
2.12 DC Motor Characteristics
The performance of a DC motor can be judged from its characteristic curves
known as motor characteristics. Following are the three important characteristics of a
DC motor:
(i) Torque versus armature current (torque-load) characteristic (Ta/Ia): It is the curve
drawn between armature torque Ta and armature current Ia of a DC motor
(ii) Speed versus armature current (speed-load) characteristics (N/Ia): It is the curve
drawn between speed N and armature current Ia of a DC motor. It is a very important
characteristic, as it is often the deciding factor in the selection of the motor for a
particular application.
The above two characteristics are called as electrical characteristics.
(iii) Speed versus torque characteristics (N/Ta): It is the curve drawn between speed N
and armature torque Ta of a DC motor. It is also known as mechanical characteristics.
2.12.1 Torque- load (Ta/Ia) characteristics
The torque equation of a DC motor is given by
P
Ta = 0.519ZI a  
 A
P
For any given DC motor 0.519Z   constant, so
 A
Ta = K I a --- (2.29)
Case (i) DC series motor
In a DC series motor, armature and field windings are connected in series.
Therefore, field and armature currents are the same. The armature current produces
field flux and hence   I a . Therefore Ta=KIa2, it is an equation of parabola. Therefore,
torque versus Ia relation is parabolic curve as shown in figure (2.24). This relation
holds good till magnetic saturation. Beyond this, flux remains constant, hence Ta=KIa.
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 31
So, characteristic becomes linear.

Figure (2.24): Torque-load characteristics

Case (ii) DC shunt motor
In DC shunt motor, field winding is connected across constant supply voltage V.
Therefore, field current remains constant and hence flux is constant. Therefore torque,
Ta = KIa, which is a straight line passing through origin. Therefore, torque versus Ia
relation is a straight line as shown in figure (2.24)
2.12.2 Speed- load (N/Ia) characteristics
The speed equation of a DC motor is given by
Eb
N --- (2.30)

Case (i) DC series motor
The back e.m.f. equation of a DC series motor is
Eb = V − I a ( Ra + Rse )
V − I a ( Ra + Rse )
N 

At the low values of supply voltage, Ia is very small, so Ia(Ra+Rse) drop can be neglected
when compared to V.
V 1
N   , Since supply voltage V is constant.
 

Figure (2.25): Speed-load characteristics

But in a DC series motor,   I a , since armature current is responsible for production

of flux.

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 32

 1
N   Represent hyperbola equation --- (2.31)
Ia
If Ia=0 (no load on the motor) then N=infinity i.e. the motor attains dangerously
high speed, which may damage the motor. Therefore, series motor should never be
started without any load on it. The speed-load characteristic of series motor is as
shown in figure (2.25).
Case (ii) DC shunt motor
The speed of a DC motor is
Eb
N

As the supply voltage is constant, so current flowing through the shunt field winding
V
I sh = is constant. So, the flux in a DC shunt motor is constant.
Rsh
 N  Eb  (V − I a Ra ) --- (2.32)
As Ia increases, IaRa drop increases, Eb decreases and hence speed N decreases i.e. as
the load increases speed falls linearly. If Ia=0 (no load on the motor) then N=V=N0=
constant. The speed load characteristic of shunt motor is shown in figure (2.25).
2.12.3 Speed-torque (N/Ta) characteristics
Case (i): DC series motor
In case of DC series motor,   I a
 Ta  I a 2 --- (2.33)
From speed-load characteristics, we have
1
N --- (2.34)
Ia
From eqns. (2.33) & (2.34), we have
1
N 
Ta
 NTa2 =K, represent rectangulr hyperbola equation --- (2.35)

From the above eqn. (2.35), the speed-torque characteristics can be drawn as shown in
figure (2.26).
Case (ii): DC shunt motor
The torque equation of a DC motor is
Ta  I a

Figure (2.26): Speed-torque characteristics

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 33
In case of DC shunt motor flux, Ф is constant, so
Ta  I a --- (2.36)
N  Eb  (V − I a Ra ) ---(2.37)
As armature current increases, torque increases; back e.m.f decreases and hence
speed deceases. So, for shunt motor torque decreases linearly with increase in speed
as shown in figure (2.26)
2.13 Testing of DC Machines
DC machines are tested for finding out losses, efficiency and temperature rise.
These machines are tested either directly (for small machines) or indirectly (for large
machines) to know the losses and efficiency. The following methods are used for testing
of DC machines:
(i) Brake test or direct loading method
(ii) Swinburne’s test or no-load test or indirect loading method
(iii) Hopkinson’s test or Regenerative test or Back to Back test
(iv) Retardation test or Running down test
2.13.1 Brake test or direct loading method
This test is suitable for small DC motors and in this test, brake is applied to a
water-cooled pulley mounted on the motor shaft. The experimental setup for
conducting this test on a DC motor is shown in figure (2.27). In figure (2.27), a belt
around the pulley has its ends attached to the spring balances S1 and S2. By
adjusting the tension of the belt through hand wheels H1 and H2, the load is adjusted
to give the various values of current. The motor is run at rated speed and finally the
load on the motor adjusted to carry its full load current. At this time the readings of
the spring balances S1 and S2 are noted down.
If the spring balances are calibrated in kg, the net force applied on the pulley or brake
drum = (S1 - S2).
If r is radius of the pulley in meters, then the shaft torque, Tsh developed by the motor
is,
Tsh = 9.81 (S1 − S2 )  r N-m --- (2.35)
If the speed of the pulley is N rpm then,
2 NTsh
Output power = Watts --- (2.36)
60
If V is the supply voltage and I is the full load current taken by the motor, then the

Figure (2.27): Brake test or direct loading method

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 34
 Input power = VI Watts --- (2.37)
Hence, the efficiency of the motor is given by
output power 2 N  Tsh 
motor = 100 =  100 --- (2.38)
input power 60  VI 
Disadvantages:
(i) Used only for determining the efficiency of small machines.
(ii) Output of the motor cannot be measured directly.
(iii) This method requires the application of load on the machine directly, but for
large rating machines, the loads of the required sizes may not be available.
(iv) The power output is converted into heat and wasted. As the heat developed in
the pulley, due to the friction between the pulley and the belt, pulley has to be
cooled by water.
Note: For performing brake test on DC series motor, it must be ensured that the belt is
sufficiently tight before the motor is switched on to the supply, as DC series motor will
not be started at no load condition.
Solved Problem-25: In the brake test on a DC shunt motor, the loads on brake drum
are 25 kg and 10 kg. The diameter of the pulley is 1m. Motor is running at 1500 rpm
and its input being 40 A at 400 V. Determine the torque, output of the motor and
efficiency of the motor.
Solution: Given that
Diameter of the pulley = 1m
1
 Radius of the pulley, r == 0.5m
2
Loads on the brake drum: S1 = 25kg and S 2 = 10kg
Speed of the motor, N =1500 rpm
Input voltage, V = 400 V
Input current, I = 40 A
Net force, F = ( S1 − S 2 ) = 25-10 = 15 kg
(i)Shaft torque developed by the motor, Tsh = 9.81 ( S1 − S2 )  r N − m
= 9.81 15  0.5 = 73.575N − m
2 NTsh 2 1500  73.575
(ii)Output of the motor = = = 11551.275W
60 60
Input power = VI = 400  40 = 16000 W
(iii) Efficiency of the motor is given by
output power 11551.275
motor = 100 =  100 = 72.19%
input power 16000
Solved Problem-26: A full load brake test on a small DC shunt motor gave the
following data: applied voltage=250V, line current=15A, motor speed=1500rpm,
diameter of pulley=19.5cm, thickness of belt=0.5cm, spring balance readings= 25kg
and 9kg. Determine the shaft torque, shaft power and efficiency of the motor.
Solution: Given that
Applied voltage, V=250V
Line current, I=15A
Diameter of the pulley = 19.5m
19.5
 Radius of the pulley, r1 = = 9.75cm
2
Thickness of belt=0.5cm

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 35

 0.5
 Half thickness of the belt, t1 = = 0.25cm
2
Effective radius, r=r1+t1=9.75+0.25=10cm=0.1m
Spring balance readings: S1 = 25kg and S2 = 9kg
Speed of the motor, N =1500 rpm
Net force, F = ( S1 − S 2 ) = 25-9 = 16 kg
(i) Shaft torque developed by the motor, Tsh = 9.81 ( S1 − S2 )  r N − m
= 9.8116  0.1 = 15.696N − m
2 NTsh 2 1500 15.696
(ii) Shaft power (or) Output power = = = 2465.5W
60 60
Input power = VI = 250 15 = 3750 W
(iii)Efficiency of the motor is given by
output power 2465.5
motor = 100 = 100 = 65.75%
input power 3750
2.13.2 Swinburne’s test or No-load test or indirect loading test
It is an indirect method of testing of a DC machine. In this method the losses
are separately found and from their knowledge, the efficiency at any desired load can
be predetermined. The machine is run as a motor on no-load at its rated voltage and
speed is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of shunt regulator as shown in
figure (2.28).
(i) Determination of constant losses
Let V= supply voltage
I0 = no-load current
Ish=shunt field current
 No-load armature current I a 0 = I 0 − I sh
No load input power = VI 0
Power input to armature = VI a 0
Power input to shunt field = VI sh
No load input power of the machine is completely used to overcome the
total losses of the machine.
 No load input power = constant losses (WC) + armature copper losses
 VI 0 =WC+ I ao 2 Ra
 WC = VI 0 - ( I 0 - I sh )2 Ra --- (2.39)

Figure (2.28): Circuit diagram of Swinburne’s test

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 36
(ii) Efficiency of the machine when running as motor
Let I L = load current at which efficiency is required
I a = armature current of the motor at the desired load
= I L - I sh
Input to the motor= VI L
Armature copper losses= I a 2 Ra =( I L - I sh )2 Ra
Total losses=WC+( I L - I sh )2 Ra
Efficiency of a DC motor
input − losses VI L − WC − (I L -I sh ) 2 Ra
motor = = --- (2.40)
input VI L
(iii) Efficiency of the machine when running as generator
Let I L = load current at which efficiency is required
I a = armature current of the generator at the desires load
= I L + I sh
Output of the generator = VI L
Armature copper losses = I a 2 Ra = (I L + I sh )2 Ra
Total losses = WC + (I L + I sh )2 Ra
Efficiency of a DC generator
output VI L
 gen. = = --- (2.41)
output + losses VI L + WC +(I L + I sh )2 Ra
Advantages:
(i) Economical, because no load input power is sufficient to perform the test.
(ii) Efficiency can be predetermined at any load without actually applying the load
on the machine, because constant losses are known.
Disadvantages:
(i) Change in iron loss from no load to full load is not taken into account (because
of armature reaction, flux is distorted which increases iron losses).
(ii) Stray load loss cannot be determined by this test and hence efficiency is over
estimated.
(iii) Temperature rise of the machine cannot be determined.
(iv) The test does not indicate whether commutation would be satisfactory when the
machine is loaded.
Solved Problem-27: A 440 V, DC shunt motor takes no load current of 2.5 A. The
resistance of shunt field and armature are 550 Ω and1.2 Ω respectively. The full load
line current is 32 A. Determine the full load efficiency of the motor.
Solution: Given that
V = 440 , I o = 2.5 A, Ra = 1.2  , Rsh = 550 
V 440
I sh = = = 0.8 A
Rsh 550
No –load armature current, I a 0 = I 0 − I sh = 2.5-0.8=1.7A
No load i/p power= VI 0 =440  2.5=1100W
No–load armature copper losses = I a 0 2 Ra = 1.72 1.2 = 3.5W
According to Swinburne’s test no load input power is completely used to overcome the
losses.

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 37

 No-load input power = WC + no-load armature copper loss
1100=WC +3.5
 WC = 1100 − 3.5 = 1096.5W
Efficiency of the motor when the full load input current is 32A:
I L = 32 A, I sh = 0.8 A, V = 440
I a = I L - I sh = 32-0.8 = 31.2 A
Armature copper losses = I a 2 Ra = 31.22 1.2 = 1168W
Total losses = WC + I a 2 Ra = 1096.5 + 1168 = 2264.5 W
Input to the motor= VI L =440  32=14080 W
input − losses  14080 − 2264.5 
Efficiency, motor = 100 =   100 = 83.9%
input  14080 
Solved Problem-28: Swinburne’s test gave the following results on DC machine:
supply voltage 500 V, no-load current 5 A, armature resistance 0.5 Ω and field
resistance 250 Ω. Determine the efficiency of the machine
(a) as a generator delivering 100A at 500V, and
(b) as a motor having a line current of 100A at 500V.
Neglect temperature rise during operation.
Solution: Given that
V = 500 , I o = 5 A, Ra = 0.5 , Rsh = 250
V 500
I sh = = = 2A
Rsh 250
No –load armature current, I a 0 = I 0 − I sh = 5-2=3A
No load i/p power= VI o =500  5=2500W
No–load armature copper losses = I a 0 2 Ra = 32  0.5 = 4.5 W
According to Swinburne’s test no load input power is completely used to overcome the
losses.
 No-load input power = WC + no-load armature copper loss
2500=WC + 4.5
 WC = 2500 - 4.5 = 2495.5 W
(a) Efficiency of the motor when input current is 100A
I L = 100 A, I sh = 2 A
I a = I L - I sh = 100 -2 = 98A
V = 500
Armature copper losses = I a 2 Ra = 982  0.5 = 4802W
Total losses = WC + I a 2 Ra = 2495.5 +4802= 7297.5 W
Input to the motor= VI L =500  100=50000W
input − losses  50000 − 7297.5 
Efficiency, motor = 100 =   100 = 85 4%
.

input  50000 
(b) Efficiency of the generator when output current is 100A
I L = 100 A, I sh = 2 A
I a = I L + I sh = 100+2 = 102A
V = 500

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 38

 Armature copper losses= I a 2 Ra =1022  0.5 =5202W
Total losses = WC + I a 2 Ra = 2495.5 + 520= 7697.5 W
Output of the generator= VI L =500  100 =50000W
output 50000
Efficiency,  gen. = 100 = 100 = 86. 66%
output + losses 50000 + 7697 5
.

2.13.3 Hopkinson’s or regenerative or back-to-back test

It is a full load test and it requires two identical machines which are connected
electrically and mechanically with each other. One of these two machines is operated
as a generator to supply the mechanical power to the motor and the other is operated
as a motor to drive the generator. For this process of back to back driving the motor
and the generator, Hopkinson’s test is also called back-to-back test or regenerative
test.
Whenever these machines run on full load, then the input supply can be
equivalent to the whole losses of the machines. If there is no loss within any machine,
there is no need for external power supply. However, if the output voltage of the
generator is dropped then we need an additional voltage source to provide proper input
voltage to the motor. Therefore, the power which is drawn from the external supply can
be used to overcome the losses of both the machines.

Figure (2.29): Circuit diagram of Hopkinson’s test

The circuit diagram of the Hopkinson’s test is shown in figure (2.29). To perform the
test the following procedure is adopted:
(i) The circuit can be built with a motor, M as well as a generator, G together with a
switch. Machine M is started from the supply mains with the help of a starter
and its shunt filed resistance is adjusted so that it runs at rated speed. Machine
M drives machine G, as the generator is mechanically coupled to the motor, and
its voltage is read on voltmeter V2. The switch ‘S’ is initially kept open.
(ii) The generator voltage is now made equal to the supply voltage by adjusting the
shunt field resistance connected across the generator. The equality of these two
voltages of generator and supply is indicated by the voltmeter as it gives a zero
reading. Then the switch ‘S’ is closed to parallel the machines. Under this
condition, the generator is said to be float. This means that the generator is
neither taking any current nor giving any current to the supply.
(iii) Now, the machine works at rated speed and with the help of a field rheostat, any
required load can be thrown on the machines by adjusting the excitation of the

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 39

 machines with the help of field rheostats and the corresponding values of
different ammeters are noted down.
Calculation of Efficiency:
Let V= Supply voltage
IL=Supply current
Ig=Current supplied by the generator
Ishg =Shunt field current of the generator
Ishm = Shunt field current of the motor
Im=Current taken by the motor = IL + Ig
η=Efficiency of both generator and motor
Ram=Armature resistance of motor
Rag=Armature resistance of generator
Input of the motor = V(IL + Ig ) --- (2.42)
Output of the generator = VIg --- (2.43)
We shall find the efficiencies of the machines considering two cases viz. (i) assuming
that both machines have the same efficiency (ii) assuming iron, friction and windage
losses are the same in both machines.
(i) Assuming that both machines have the same efficiency, η
Output of the motor =   Input of the motor =  V ( I L + I g )
As the output of motor will be given as input to the generator, therefore
Input to the generator =   V ( I L + I g ) --- (2.44)
Output of the generator =   Input to the generator = 2  V ( I L + I g ) --- (2.45)
But the output of the generator = VI g --- (2.46)
From eqns. (2.45) and (2.46), we get
 2  V ( I L + I g ) = VI g
Ig Im − I L
 = = --- (2.47)
IL + Ig Im
The above assumption may be true in case of only large machines due to small
difference in their armature and field or excitation currents. But, in case of small
machines the difference between armature and field currents is large. Hence, the
efficiencies cannot be assumed to be same.
(ii) Assuming that iron, friction and windage losses are same in both machines
It is not quite correct to assume equal efficiencies for two machines because
their armature currents as well as excitations are different. Therefore, to obtain
accurate efficiencies of both machines armature and shunt field losses are determined
separately and stray losses are assumed to be equal in both machines.
Armature copper losses in the motor = (I m − I shm ) Ram
2

Armature copper losses in the generator = I g + I shg 2 Rag ( )

Shunt field copper losses in the motor = VI shm
Shunt field copper losses in the generator = VI shg

( )
Total copper losses = (I m − I shm ) Ram + I g + I shg 2 Rag + VI shm + VI shg
2
--- (2.48)
But total motor and generator losses are equal to the power supplied by the mains.
Power taken from supply = VIL
If we subtract the armature and shunt Cu losses from this, we get the stray losses of
both machines. Therefore, the stray power losses of both machines,

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 40

Ps = VI L − ( I m − I shm ) Ram + ( I g + I shg ) Rag + VI shm + VI shg 
2 2
--- (2.49)
 
P
Stray power losses of each machine = s
2
Efficiency of a DC motor:
Motor input = VI m
Total losses in motor = Armature losses + Field losses + Stray power losses
P
= ( I m − I shm ) 2 Ram + VI shm + s
2
Motor output = Motor input - Total losses
 P
= VI m − ( I m − I shm ) 2 Ram + VI shm + s 
 2 
 P
VI m − ( I m − I shm ) 2 Ram + VI shm + s 
 Efficiency of the motor, motor =  2
--- (2.50)
VI m
Efficiency of a DC generator:
Generator output = VI g
Total losses in generator = Armature losses + Field losses + Stray power losses
P
= ( I g + I shg ) 2 Rag + VI shg + s
2
Generator input = Generator output + Total losses
 P
Generator input = VI g + ( I g + I shg ) 2 Rag + VI shg + s 
 2
VI g
 Efficiency of the generator,  gen. = --- (2.51)
 P
VI g + ( I g + I shg ) 2 Rag + VI shg + s 
 2
Advantages:
• This method is very economical, since the power requires for performing the test
is small compared to full load powers of the two machines.
• This test can be done under full-load conditions so that a rise in temperature
and commutation can be examined.
• Stray losses are considered, as both the machines are operated under rated load
conditions.
• Large machines can be tested at rated load without consuming much power
from the supply.
• Efficiency at different loads can be determined.

Disadvantages:
• Difficulty in availability of two identical machines.
• Both machines cannot be loaded equally all the time.
• The iron losses in the two machines cannot be separated which are different
because of different excitation.
Solved Problem-29: While performing Hopkinson's test on two identical 230V
machines the following results are obtained:
For a motor: Armature current is 40 A; Field current is 0.8 A
For a generator: Armature current is 30 A; Field current is 0.7 A
Calculate the efficiencies of machines if the armature resistance of each machine is
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 41
0.25 Ω.
Solution: Given that,
V = 230 V, Iam=40A, Ishm=0.8A
Iag=30A, Ishg=0.7A, Ram=Rag= 0.25 Ω
Ig=Iag-Ishg=30-0.7=29.3A
Im=Iam+Ishm=40+0.8=40.8A
IL=Im-Ig=40.8-29.3=11.5A
The following figure shows, flow of currents for the given values. Based on this the
efficiencies of two machines can be calculated.

For motor:
Armature copper losses in the motor = (I m − I shm ) Ram
2

= (40.8 − 0.8)2  0.25 = 400W

Shunt field copper losses in the motor = VI shm = 230×0.8=184 W
Total copper losses in the motor = 400 + 184 = 584 W
For generator:
Armature copper losses in the generator = I g + I shg 2 Rag ( )
= (29.3 + 0.7 )2  0.25 = 225W
Shunt field copper losses in the generator = VI shg =230×0.7= 161 W
Total copper losses in the generator = 225 + 161 = 386 W
For motor-generator set:
Total cu. losses for set = Total cu. losses in motor + Total cu. losses in generator
= 584 +386 = 970W
Power taken from supply = VI L = 230  11.5 = 2645W
 Stray losses for the set = Power taken from supply - Total cu. losses
= 2645 - 970 =1675 W
1675
Hence, the stray losses for each machine = = 837.5W
2
Efficiency of the motor:
Motor input = VI m = 230×40.8= 9384 W
Total losses in motor = Armature cu. losses + Field cu. losses + Stray power losses
= 400 + 184 + 837.5 = 1421.5 W
Motor output = Motor input - Total losses = 9384 - 1421.5 = 7962.5

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 42

 7962.5
 Efficiency of the motor, motor =  100 = 84.85%
9384
Efficiency of the generator:
Generator output = VI g =230×29.3= 6739 W
Total losses in generator = Armature cu. losses + Field cu. losses + Stray power losses
= 225 + 161 +837.5 = 1223.5 W
Generator input = Generator output + Total losses = 6739 + 1223.5 = 7962.5
6739
 Efficiency of the generator,  gen. =  100 = 84.63%
7962.5
Note: The generator input is nothing but the output of the motor
Solved Problem-30: In the Hopkinson’s test on two DC machines, machine-1has a
field current of 1.6 A and machine-2 has a field current of 1.8 A. Which machine acts
as a generator?
Solution:
In Hopkinson’s test, since two identical DC shunt machines are coupled, the
speed is common and is decided by the field current of the motor. The field windings of
both the machines are in parallel with a separate DC source. Since the machines are
identical and are running at the same speed, their e.m.fs are in proportion to their field
 ZN  P  
currents  E =      I f  .
 60  A  
E2 I f 2 1.8
= = = 1.125
E1 I f 1 1.6
 E2 = 1.125E1
Since E2 is larger than E1, machine-2 supplies power to machine-1. It means,
machine-2 is working as a generator, and machine-1 is working as a motor

2.13.4 Retardation or Running Down Test

This method is applicable to shunt motors and generators and is used for
finding stray losses. Then, knowing the armature and shunt field copper losses at a
given load current, efficiency can be calculated. The circuit diagram for retardation
test is shown in figure (2.30).
Procedure of Retardation Test on DC Machines:
• Start the DC machine normally, run the machine slightly above the rated speed
by adjusting resistance.
• After achieving the rated speed just cut off the power supply to the armature,
but keeping field normally excited.
• The armature consequently slows down and the amount of kinetic energy
present in the armature is used to supply the rotational or stray losses which
include iron, friction and winding loss.
1
Kinetic energy of the armature, KE = J 2 --- (2.52)
2
where, J is moment of inertia of the armature and
ω is the angular speed
d 1 2 d
Stray or rotational losses, Ps = rate of change of KE=  J  = J
dt  2  dt
2 N
But we have  = , where 'N' is the speed in rpm.
60

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 43

 2 N d  2 N   2 
2
dN dN
Ws = J  =  JN = 0.011JN
60 dt  60   60  dt dt
dN
i.e. Ws = 0.011JN --- (2.53)
dt
Thus, to determine stray losses, the values of moment of inertia of the armature (J)
dN
and rate of change of speed must be known.
dt

Figure (2.30): Circuit diagram of retardation’s test

dN
Determination of :
dt

Figure (2.31): Speed-time curve

The voltmeter 'V1' is connected across the armature will indicate the back e.m.f.
of the motor. We know that, back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, so the voltmeter is
calibrated to read the speed directly. When the supply is removed, the speed of the
motor decreases. The time required for definite decrease in speed is noted with the
help of stopwatch. A curve showing variation between the time and speed which is
obtained from voltmeter, suitably calibrated is shown in the figure (2.31). At any point
dN OP
'R' corresponding to normal speed, a tangent 'PQ' is drawn. Thus, = .
dt OQ
Determination of moment of inertia (J):
Method-1: Using fly wheel
In this method, first retardation test is performed with armature alone and

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 44

 dN
is determined. Next, a flywheel of the known moment of inertia J1 is keyed on to
dt1
dN
the shaft of the machine. For the same change in speed, is noted. Since the
dt2
addition of fly-wheel will not materially affect the rotational losses in the two cases, so
the rotational losses are same.
dN
Before, adding flywheel, Ws1 = 0.011JN
dt1
dN
After adding flywheel, Ws 2 = 0.011( J + J1 ) N
dt2
Since, the losses are almost small, i.e. Ws1 = Ws 2
dN dN
 0.011JN = 0.011( J1 + J ) N
dt1 dt2
 dN 
J1 + J  dt1  dt2
 = =
 dN  dt1
J  
 dt2 
J dt − dt1
 1= 2 --- (2.54)
J dt1
For small changes in time, we get

 t 
J = J1   1  --- (2.55)
 t2 − t1 
Since the values of J1, t1 and t2 are known, the moment of inertia J of the armature
can be determined.

Method-2: Without using flywheel

In this method, J is eliminated from the expression by an experiment. First,
dN
retardation test is performed with armature alone and is determined. Then
dt1
dN
Stray losses before adding retardation load, Ws = 0.011JN --- (2.56)
dt1
After that, an additional load known as retardation torque is applied electrically,
by using the double pole single throw switch 'S' just after disconnecting the armature
from the supply mains. Thus, a non-inductive resistance 'R' is connected across the
armature and kinetic energy of the armature will supply the power to the load
resistance 'R' in addition to meet the stray losses. For the same change in speed,
dN
is noted. Then,
dt2
dN
Stray losses after adding retardation load, Ws + Ws' = 0.011JN --- (2.57)
dt2
From eqns. (2.56) and (2.57), we get

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 45

  dN 
Ws + Ws'  dt2  dt1
= =
 dN  dt
Ws  dt1  2

Ws' dt1 − dt2
 = --- (2.58)
Ws dt2
For small changes in time, we get
 t 
Ws = Ws'   2  --- (2.59)
 t1 − t2 

Solved Problem-31: In a retardation test on a separately-excited motor, the induced

e.m.f. in the armature falls from 230 V to 200 V in 30 seconds on disconnecting the
armature from the supply. The same fall takes place in 20 seconds if, immediately after
disconnection, armature is connected to a resistance which takes 10 A (average) during
this fall. Find stray losses of the motor.
Solution: Given that,
Average current = 10 A
t1 = 30 sec and t2 = 20sec
230 + 200
Average voltage across the load = = 215V
2
 Power absorbed, Ws' = 215 10 = 2150W
 t2   20 
Using the relation stray losses, Ws = Ws'    = 2150    = 4300W
−
 1 2
t t  30 − 20 
Solved Problem-32: A retardation test is made on a separately excited DC machine as
motor. The induced voltage falls from 220 V to 190 V in 30 seconds on opening the
armature circuit and 5 seconds on suddenly changing the armature connection from
supply to a load resistance taking 12 A. Find the efficiency of the machine when
running as a motor and taking a current of 22 A on a supply of 250 V. The resistance
of its armature is 0.5 Ω and that of its field winding is 250 Ω.
Solution: Given that,
Average current = 12 A
t1 = 30 sec and t2 = 5 sec
Input current = 22 A
220 + 190
Average voltage across the load = = 205V
2
 Power absorbed, Ws' = 205 12 = 2460W
 t2   5 
Using the relation, stray losses, Ws = Ws'    = 2460    = 492W
 t1 − t2   30 − 5 
250
Shunt field current, I sh = = 1A
250
Armature current, I a = I − I sh = 22 − 1 = 21A
Armature copper losses = 212  0.5 = 220.5W
Shunt field copper losses = 250×1 = 250 W
Therefore, total losses = 492 + 220.5 + 250 = 962.5 W
Input power = 250 × 22 = 5500 W
Output power = 5500 -962.5 = 4537.5 W
Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 46
 4537.5
 Efficiency,  =  100 = 82.5%
5500

2.14 Applications of DC Motors

The applications of different types motors are listed below.
S.No Type of Motor Characteristics Applications
1. Separately excited Possible to obtain very Paper machines, Steel
motor accurate speeds. rolling machines.
2. Shunt motor Torque produced is Lathes, Machine tools,
proportional to armature Printing presses, Centrifugal
current. pumps, Fans and blowers
Constant speed motors. etc.
5. Series motor Produces very high starting Electric locomotives, Cranes
torque. and hoists, Conveyors,
Variable speed motors. Trolley cars etc.
4. Compound motor. Produces high starting Elevators Shears,
(a)Cumulative torque. Variable speed Conveyors,
compound motor motors. Rolling mills, Heavy planes
etc.
(b)Differential Torque and speed almost Employed for experimental
compound motor constant. and research work.

Review Questions
1. State the Fleming’s left-hand rule.
2. Explain the principle of operation of a DC motor.
3. What is the significance of back e.m.f. produced in a DC motor and derive an
expression for it?
4. Outline the voltage equation of a DC motor.
5. Derive the condition for maximum power in a DC motor.
6. Explain different types of DC motors with neat sketches.
7. Derive the expression of torque equation of a DC motor.
8. Define shaft torque and useful torque.
9. Why series motor is having high starting torque?
10. State the difference between armature torque and shaft torque.
11. Derive the speed equation of a DC motor.
12. What is the necessity of a starter in a DC motor?
13. Briefly explain 3-point starter with neat sketch.
14. Briefly explain 4-point starter with neat sketch.
15. Explain the different speed control methods of a DC shunt motor.
16. Explain the different speed control methods of a DC series motor.
17. Explain and draw the speed-torque characteristics of a DC series motor.
18. Explain and draw the speed-torque characteristics of a DC shunt motor.
19. Draw and explain the electrical characteristics of a DC series motor.
20. List the applications of different types of DC motors.
21. Explain the flux control method of speed control of a DC series motor.
22. Explain the armature control method of speed control of a DC series motor.
23. How can you reverse the direction of rotation of a DC motor?
24. List the factors on which the speed of a DC motor depends.
25. List the different speed control methods for a DC shunt motor.
26. Explain the Swinburne's test to determine the no-load losses of a DC machine.

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 47

27. What are the limitations of Swinburne's test?
28. Describe the Hopkinson's test for obtaining the efficiency of two similar shunt
machines.
29. List the merits and demerits of Hopkinson's test
30. Describe a suitable method for determining the efficiency of a DC series motor.
31. Write short note on the Brake test on a DC shunt motor.
32. How stray losses are to be calculated by using retardation test of a DC machine?
33. Explain brake test on a DC motor with neat sketch.
34. Can Swinburne's test be conducted on DC series motor? If not, why?
35. What is the main difference between brake test and Swinburne's test?
36. List the advantages and disadvantages of Swinburne's test?

Exercise Problems
1. A DC shun motor working on 200V draws a current of 50A. Its armature and
shunt filed resistances are 0.02Ω and 100 Ω respectively. Calculate the back e.m.f.
[Ans: 200V]
2. A 250V DC shunt motor has an armature and shunt filed resistances are 0.5Ω and
100 Ω respectively. Calculate the mechanical power developed in the armature
when it takes a line current of 52.5A. [Ans: 12.375kW]
3. A 4 pole 500V shunt motor has 720 wave wound armature conductors. The full
load armature current is 60A and the flux per pole is 0.03Wb. The armature
resistance is 0.2 Ω and contact drop is 1V per brush. Calculate the full load speed
of the motor [Ans: 675 rpm]
4. A long shunt compound DC motor working on 200V draws a current of 50A. Its
armature, series filed and shunt filed resistances are 0.02 Ω, 0.03 Ω and 100 Ω
respectively. Calculate the back e.m.f. [Ans: 197.6V]
5. A short shunt compound DC motor is connected to 250V supply and takes a line
current of 100A. Its armature, series filed and shunt filed resistances are 0.01 Ω,
0.1 Ω and 120 Ω respectively. Calculate the voltage across armature terminals and
back e.m.f. [Ans: Va=240V, Eb=239V]
6. A DC series motor takes 50A from supply of 250V and runs at 1000 rpm. If the
armature and field resistances are 0.3 Ω and 0.15 Ω respectively, then find the
torque developed in the armature [Ans: 108.6 N-m]
7. A 500V series motor runs at 500rpm taking a current of 50A from the supply. The
total resistance in the armature circuit is 0.6 Ω. Assuming the flux is proportional
to the field current, calculate the speed and percentage change in torque if the load
is reduced so that the motor is taking 40A. [Ans: 36%, 633 N-m]
8. A 250V DC series motor running at 1000rpm draws a current of 100A from the
supply. Assuming that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated, calculate at what speed
the motor will run when developing half of the torque if the total resistance in the
armature circuit is 2 Ω [Ans: 1450 rpm]
9. A 220V Dc shunt motor takes 5A at no-load whwn running at 700rpm. The field
resistance is 200 Ω. The resistance of the armature at stand still gave a drop of 5V
across armature terminals when 10A wave passed through it. Calculate (i)speed,
(ii) torque, and (iii) efficiency [Ans: (i)690 rpm (ii)2150N-m (iii)99.375%]
10. Determine the value of torque developed in N-m by the armature of a 6 pole wave
wound motor having 492 conductors, 30 mWb flux per pole when the total
armature current is 40A [Ans: 281.6 N-m]
11. A 120V DC shunt motor having an armature circuit resistance of 0.2 Ω and field
current resistance of 60 Ω, draws line current of 40A at full load. The brush voltage
drop is 3V and rated full-load speed is 1800 rpm. Calculate the speed at (a) half
load, and (b) 125 percent of full load [Ans: (a)1862.8 rpm (b)1769 rpm]

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 48

12. Determine developed torque and shaft torque of 220V, 4-pole series motor with 800
conductors’ wave-connected supplying a load of 8.2 kW by taking 45 A from the
mains. The flux per pole is 25 mWb and its armature circuit resistance is 0.6 Ω.
[Ans: 286.2 N-m, 275.2 N-m]
13. An unsaturated 200V DC shunt motor has a no-load speed of 800 rpm. At full-
load, takes an armature current of 100A, running at 750 rpm. Armature and shunt
field resistances are 0.1Ω and 50 Ω respectively. If the load torque, remains un
altered find the resistance of the field regulator to be included in the in the field
winding [Ans:4.51 Ω]
14. A DC motor takes an armature current of 110 A at 480 V. The armature circuit
resistance is 0.2 Ω. The machine has 6-poles and the armature is lap-connected
with 864 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. Calculate the (i) speed, and (ii)
gross torque developed by the armature. [Ans: (i)636 rpm (ii)756.3N-m]
15. A 500V, 37.3 kW, 1000 rpm DC shunt motor has on full-load an efficiency of 90 %.
The armature circuit resistance is 0.24 Ω and there is total voltage drop of 2 V at
the brushes. The field current is 1.8 A. Determine (i) full-load line current (ii) full
load shaft torque in N-m and (iii) total resistance in motor starter to limit the
starting current to 1.5 times the full-load current. [Ans: (i)82.9A (ii)356N-m
(iii)3.825 Ω]
16. A 25 kW, 250V, DC shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0.06 Ω
and 100 Ω respectively. Determine the total armature power developed when
working (i) as a generator delivering 25 kW output, and (ii) as a motor taking 25
kW input. [Ans: (i)26.25kW (ii)23.8kW]
17. A 250 V, DC shunt motor has rated current of 120A and an armature resistance of
0.08 Ω. It is to accelerate a load whose torque is constant and of rated value. The
peak current is not to exceed twice the rated value. Calculate the value of starting
resistance and other resistances. [Ans: 0.52 Ω, 0.26 Ω, 0.13 Ω, 0.08 Ω]
18. Design the resistance sections of a seven-stud starter for 36.775kW, 400V DC
shunt motor. Full load efficiency is 92%, total copper losses are 5% of the input.
Shunt field resistance is 200Ω. The lower limit of the current through the armature
is to be full-load value.
[Ans: 0.973 Ω, 0.593 Ω, 0.36 Ω, 0.218 Ω, 0.133 Ω, 0.081 Ω]
19. A 20 HP, 250 V DC shunt motor drives a load that requires a constant torque
regardless the speed of operation. The armature resistance is 0.1 Ω. When this
motor is running at full load, the armature current is 65 A at a speed of 1100 rpm.
If the flux is reduced to 75% of its original value, find the armature current and the
speed of the motor at this new condition? [Ans: 86.6A, 1454 rpm]
20. The speed of 500 V shunt motor is to be raised from 700 rpm to 1000 rpm by field
weakening the total torque remaining unchanged, the armature and the shunt field
resistance are 0.8 Ω and 750 Ω respectively and the supply current at lower speed
is 12 A. Calculate the additional shunt field resistance required. [Ans: Rext=325Ω]
21. A 500 V, 10 HP, shunt motor has full load efficiency of 85%. For the same torque it
is desired to reduce its speed by 30% by insertion of resistance in the armature
circuit assuming that all the losses except copper losses vary directly with speed.
Calculate the value of the inserted resistance and the efficiency of the motor when
running at the reduced speed, the resistance of the field and armature are 400 Ω
and 0.25 Ω. [Ans: Rext=9.127Ω, 59.5%]
22. A 250 V, DC shunt motor has shunt field resistance of 250 Ω and an armature
resistance of 0.25 Ω. For a given load torque and no additional resistance included
in the shunt field circuit, the motor runs at 1500 rpm drawing an armature
current of 20 A. If a resistance of 250 Ω is inserted in series with the field, the load
torque remaining the same, find out the new speed and armature current. Assume
the magnetisation curve to be linear. [Ans: 40 A, 2930 rpm]

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 49

 23. A 250 V, DC shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and a field
resistance of 250 Ω. When driving a load of constant torque at 600 rpm, the
armature current is 20 A. If it is desired to raise the speed from 600 to 800 rpm,
what resistance should be inserted in the shunt field circuit? Assume that the
magnetic circuit is unsaturated. [Ans: Rext=87.5Ω]
24. A 220 V, 15 kW, 850 rpm shunt motor draws 72.2 A when operating at rated
condition. The resistances of the armature and shunt field are 0.25 Ω and 100 Ω
respectively. Determine the percentage reduction in field flux in order to obtain a
speed of 1650 rpm when armature current drawn is 40 A. [Ans: 46.6%]
25. A retardation test on a DC motor gave the following results: with field unexcited,
the speed fell from 1530 rpm to 1470 rpm in 43 seconds with field normally
excited, the same drop in speed occurred in 26 seconds; with an average load of
1.2 KW supplied by armature, the speed drop occurred in 20 seconds. Determine
the moment of inertia of the rotating parts at 1500 rpm and core losses for normal
excitation at this speed. [Ans: 105.374kg-m2, 1581.4 W]
26. Hopkinson's test on two shunt machines gave the following results for full load:
Line voltage 250V, line current excluding field currents 50A; Motor armature
current 380A; Field currents 5A and 4.2A. Calculate the efficiency of each
machine. The armature resistance of each machine 0.02Ω[Ans: 92.03%, 91.9%]
27. Hopkinson's test was used to test two shunt motors. The supply current was 15
A at 200 V. The generator output current is 85 A. The field currents for motor and
generator were 2.5A and 3A respectively. The armature resistance of each machine
was 0.05 ohm. Find the efficiency of each of the machines under the above loading
conditions. [Ans: 92.5%, 91.8%]
28. A 440 V DC shunt motor takes a current of 3A at no load. The armature
resistance including brushes is 0.3 Ω and the field current is 1A. Calculate the
output and efficiency when the input current is 20A? [Ans: 7373W, 83.78%]
29. In a brake test, the DC motor took 42 A from 220 V supply mains. The brake
pulley radius 30 cm had an effective load of 35 kg and the speed was 12 rps. Find
the BHP and the efficiency at the above load. [Ans: 10.56, 84.05%]
30. In a brake test on a dc shunt motor, the load on one side of the brake band was
35 kg and the other side 5 kg. The motor was running at 1300 rpm, its input being
70 A at 420 V DC. The pulley diameter is 1m. Determine the torque, output of the
motor and efficiency of the motor [Ans:147.15, 20032W, 68.14%]

Dr. Ramana Pilla, Professor, Department of EEE, GMRIT-Rajam Page 50