How Infants and Young Children Should Be Assessed

Using Assessment Results

Earlier in the chapter, we discussed the kinds of assessments that are needed for a
new century. Components of a comprehensive system of evaluation were described.
Now we can summarize how and when the system of assessment should be used.
The discussion will relate to preschool and primary-grade children rather than
infants and toddlers. In keeping with the premise that assessment should benefit
the child and improve learning, three primary purposes for comprehensive assess-
ment throughout the year can be reviewed: planning for instruction, reporting
progress, and evaluating the instructional program continuously from the begin-
ning until the end of the school term.

Using Assessment Results to Plan for Instruction

If assessments should benefit the child, then assessments in preschool and primary-grade
settings should be linked to learning experiences and instruction. If they are to be
fair for all children and authentic, they include all types of strategies that provide a
comprehensive picture of each child’s progress and needs. The teacher selects the
assessment methods that are relevant to the information needed and uses the results
in planning for curriculum and instruction. This assumes that the teacher is
concerned with individual rates of development and learning and is prepared to
address individual differences. The learning activities that are available in the
classroom and through teacher instruction reflect not only curriculum goals established
by the school, but also how each child can best achieve these goals.

Using Assessment Results to Report Progress

The limitations of report cards were discussed earlier in relationship to the broader
information provided by performance assessments. Just as we need multiple assess-
ment strategies to assess young children, these assessment strategies should be used
to report how the child has developed and what has been learned. If the assessment
system is comprehensive, the method to report the child’s progress should also be
comprehensive and provide many examples of how the child demonstrated growth
and achievement. Parents receive limited information from reports that rate a child
average, above average, or below average in preschool settings. Likewise, a report that
indicates that the child’s progress is satisfactory or unsatisfactory tells little about the
child’s learning experiences and accomplishments. Rather than a snapshot of
progress, a comprehensive picture of the child should be conveyed in the progress
report, regardless of whether the child is in preschool or in the primary grades.

Using Assessment Results to Evaluate

the Instructional Program
The assessment process includes evaluation of the effectiveness of the teacher’s
instruction and the activities and materials used with children. The teacher uses
assessment information to determine whether instructional strategies were

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successful for children to learn new concepts and skills or whether new
approaches are needed. The teacher might ask the following questions about the
success of instruction: Were the children interested and engaged in the materials
or activities? Did the children demonstrate a deeper understanding of concepts
as a result of an instructional activity? Was the activity the right length of time?
Too short? Too long? What changes might be made to improve the effectiveness
of the activity?
With this type of evaluative reflection, the teacher demonstrates that assessment
should focus not on student achievement but rather on how well students are
progressing and the role that the quality of instruction has on this progress. If some
students need additional opportunities to learn information and skills, the teacher
considers how more varied activities might accomplish the goal. Should the con-
cepts be incorporated into different types of activities, or should they become a part
of a continuum that includes a new direction or focus? Young children need many
opportunities to learn new skills, and encountering concepts in new contexts pro-
vides meaningful routes to understanding and the ability to use what is being
learned.

Environmental Assessment
When assessment of the instructional program is discussed, child progress is part of
the purpose; nevertheless, the teacher is also being evaluated. Assessment of the envi-
ronment also informs how well the instructional program serves young children.
Both the indoor and outdoor environments can be evaluated. The Environmental
Rating Scales (ECERS) are used to assess elements of the indoor environment as well
as how teachers function in the environment. The Early Childhood Rating Scale,
Revised Edition (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2005) and Infant/Toddler Environment
Rating Scale, Revised Edition (Harms, Cryer, & Clifford, 2006) are representative of
appropriate environmental assessments. Teachers College Press has print copies of
the scales, while Branagh Information Group holds the electronic rights to the scales
(ERS Data System, 2009).
The Playground Checklist (Frost, 2007) provides for the evaluation of the
outdoor environment. The checklist contains sections that address what the playground
contains, the condition of the playground, how the playground and playground
leader function, and how the playground and/or playground leader should function.
The Playground Checklist can be located in Play and Child Development (Frost,
Wortham, & Reifel, 2008).

A s s e s s m e n t o f Yo u n g C h i l d r e n :
The Process
We proposed earlier that assessment occurs throughout the school year. In this
section, we will describe how a process of assessment proceeds from the beginning
of the school year until the final evaluation at the end of the year. Ongoing assess-
ment is complemented by periodic assessment for reporting periods.

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Preassessment
At the Beginning of the Year
Each year, when a teacher receives a new group of students, the first task is to learn
about individual differences and determine each child’s current developmental level.
Young children have uneven rates of development. Each domain in development—
physical, social, cognitive, and language—develops differently within and between
children. Development occurs in spurts and may lag for a period of time. The teacher
might use observation, checklists, and discussions with the child and parents to
determine each child’s current status. This initial evaluation provides the teacher with a
starting place for planning learning experiences and activities. This step in the
assessment process is also called preassessment because the teacher is conducting
assessment prior to planning curriculum based on individual needs.

Throughout the Year

The teacher uses preassessment whenever a new cycle of learning is initiated. For
example, if a teacher is planning for a new unit of study with students, a preassess-
ment might be conducted to find out what children already know about the topic.
If the teacher has taught all of the shapes and now wants to use them all together, a
group preassessment might be conducted to determine if the children are still famil-
iar with the individual shapes.

Ongoing Assessment
Ongoing assessment is conducted almost continuously throughout the year. In the
course of group lessons, activities in learning centers, and observation of play, the
teacher notes the child’s progress or difficulties that might be impeding progress.
Notation of this information is made in anecdotal records or some other type of
record-keeping system so that the information can be used for planning.
The process of ongoing evaluation can also use formative assessment and
summative assessment. Formative assessments are the strategies the teacher uses to
monitor a child’s progress in mastery of information or skills during a series of
learning activities. Summative assessment is used at the end of a cycle of instruc-
tional experiences to confirm mastery of information or skills.
Formative assessment is used during instructional periods to monitor how chil-
dren are progressing and serves as a planning tool based on individual children’s
needs. Summative assessment assures the teacher that the children understand the
concept being taught and can move on to the next stage of instruction. These two
types of assessments will be explained further in chapter 7.

Assessment at the End of Reporting Periods

Generally, at the end of a period of several weeks, teachers are asked to evaluate a
child’s progress and accomplishments. At this time, the teacher might record the
child’s progress for the period of time, as well as plans for the child in the next

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reporting period. Because some type of report, either oral or written, is made to par-
ents at the end of the reporting period, the teacher might include documentation of
the child’s work and/or a written summary of progress. In addition to observing the
child, the teacher might use specific tasks to document acquisition of a concept or
skill. The teacher might interview the child to determine how the child perceives
and uses information introduced in classroom activities. In addition, the child
might have the opportunity to self-evaluate, and parents can describe their observa-
tions of the child’s progress.

Assessment at the End of the School Year

The most complete assessment and reporting of progress is conducted at the end of
the school year. At this time, the teacher needs to summarize the child’s progress for
all the reporting periods. In some settings, this summarization occurs at a midpoint
in the year, as well as at the end of the year. A variety of strategies might be used to
determine progress, including teacher-designed assessments in different content areas,
standardized achievement tests, student self-evaluation, and a written narrative of
the student’s accomplishments. As will be discussed in later chapters, a variety of
possibilities exists to document what the student has accomplished during the year.
In many school districts, this summative information is passed on to the next
teacher to help in the initial assessment at the beginning of the next school year.

Addressing and Assessing for Standards

Chapter 1 included information on the impact of NCLB on early childhood educa-
tion and the controversy between early childhood specialists and standardized test-
ing requirements for Head Start programs. This chapter has focused on how infants
and young children should be assessed and for what purposes. In this section of the
chapter we will examine the impact of organizational, state, and national standards
of the assessment of children in the early childhood years, particularly in the
preschool years.

Evolution of Early Education Standards

Until the last 10 years, the focus on learning and assessment with young children
has been on appropriate kinds of assessment. The movement to establish standards
was part of a national effort to improve American public schools in the latter
decades of the 20th century. The first standards were developed by content-area
organizations such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM),
the National Center for History in the Schools (NCHS), and the National Council
of Teachers of English (NCTE) (see chapter 1). By the mid-1990s, standards had
been published for all of the fields of education taught in elementary and secondary
schools (Gronlund, 2006; Seefeldt, 2005). The purpose of the standards is to pro-
vide clarity for curriculum content, to raise expectations for student learning, and to
ensure accountability, as required by NCLB.
When states entered the work of establishing standards, kindergarten and other
school-based pre-primary programs were included. Because each state developed its
own standards, each is different. In addition, the quality of the standards varies

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from state to state (Scott-Little, Kagan, & Frelow, 2006). The state standards became
the structure for accountability required by NCLB.
In the early years of standards development, educators of preschool children
were not included in the standards movement. Standards were considered difficult
to establish because of the wide age range and diversity of preschool programs. In
addition, early childhood programs were sponsored by different types of organiza-
tions and functioned differently from public schools. The philosophy of learning
can be different between early childhood teachers and elementary school teachers
(Seefeldt, 2005).
Most states have developed standards for preschool children. A few states
have developed standards for infant and toddler programs. The standards have
become the curriculum framework for preschool programs, particularly publicly
funded programs. There are important benefits to having and addressing early
learning standards. First, they encourage educators to understand the learning
potential in the infant, toddler, and preschool child and help develop quality
early childhood programs. Second, they establish definite expectations for
preschool children of different ages and provide guidelines for communication
of children’s accomplishments. Third, they provide for the requirements for ac-
countability for the children’s development and achievement as well as program
quality (Gronlund, 2006).

Challenges When Assessing Young Children to Meet Standards

How do early educators address the assessment of young children to meet expec-
tations and accountability in state standards? Are the principles for appropriate
assessment described in this chapter compatible with the assessments needed for
early learning standards? They can be, but teachers face challenges in answering
the call for greater accountability and the emphasis on achievement of skills
(Oliver & Klugman, 2006). Standards require teachers to be more intentional in
how they assess young children. In their planning for teaching and assessment,
they need to make the link between the learning experiences and the standards

Assessing for Standards in Indiana

A university professor in Indiana was prepared to teach a graduate class in authentic

assessment. She had planned to talk with the students about how authentic
assessment could be incorporated into assessments for meeting state standards. The
students responded eagerly to the exchange of ideas for assessment; however, they
informed the professor that they had been given worksheet-formatted tests on which the
students could fill in a circle next to the correct answer. These were the primary tools to
assess reading and math standards in kindergarten.
Source: Cress, S. W. (2004, October). Assessing standards in the “real” kindergarten
classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32, 95–99.

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very clear. Standards will need to be integrated into the existing curriculum and
assessments that are proven to be of high quality for young children. Otherwise,
they might find themselves narrowing the curriculum, depending on direct teaching,
and using inappropriate testing methods (Cress, 2004; Gronlund, 2006; Oliver &
Klugman, 2006).

G u i d e l i n e s f o r W o r k i n g W i t h Yo u n g C h i l d r e n
in an Assessment Setting
When teachers and other professionals conduct assessments with infants and
young children, they need to be sensitive to the special requirements of working
with very young children. They also need to be constantly aware of professional
ethics that are necessary when conducting assessments with all children.
Confidentiality of information acquired through assessment should be used when
working with assessment results. Parents should be included in understanding
assessment results and should understand the reasons for the assessment
(Darragh, 2009). Young children have very short attention spans and are easily
distracted. Administrators of assessment instruments and other strategies will ben-
efit from the following guidelines:
1. Contact the home for parental permission to conduct the assessment.
2. Have all materials ready before the assessment session and review procedures
for administering the assessment before the child arrives.
3. If possible, be sure that the child is familiar with the environment when con-
ducting an assessment. For very young children, the session might need to be
conducted in their homes. For assessments administered to children entering a
group setting, results will be more accurate if the child has been given time to
adjust to the school setting. The test administrator should also be familiar to the
child.
4. Before beginning the assessment session, develop rapport with the child.
Engage the child in a conversation or introduce a toy before the session begins.
Once the child seems comfortable, the first assessment tasks can begin.
5. Be alert to signs of fatigue or behaviors that indicate that the child is no longer
responding to assessment tasks. Take a brief break or remind the child how to
respond to tasks before resuming the session.
6. Use assessment time efficiently. The child should not be hurried, but assess-
ment tasks should be administered with little lag in time while the child is alert
and attentive.
7. Consider adaptations that might be needed for children with disabilities. Be
knowledgeable about how tasks might be adapted within requirements for how
standardized tests should be administered. If alternative procedures can be
used, permit the child to respond differently to a test item. Caution must be
used, however, not to change the intent of the item or the type of response that
is appropriate as well as correct.

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Assessing Aggie’s Knowledge of Concepts

A ggie is 6 years old and entering first grade in an inclusion class. All the children are
administered a test of basic concepts that requires the child to mark the correct
answer for three pictures given to identify the concept asked for by the teacher. Because
Aggie’s physical limitations have affected her fine-motor development, she is unable to
hold a pencil or crayon or to make a mark on the test. Instead, her teacher conducts the
test orally and asks Aggie to indicate which of the three pictures is the correct answer.
Aggie can point with some difficulty, so the teacher exposes only one row of pictures at a
time and asks Aggie to point to the picture that matches the concept she has described.

Summary
We need to be able to evaluate the growth and development of young children for
various purposes. Specialists who work with children from various perspectives have
devised formal and informal assessments that can be used with newborns, as well
as later in the early childhood years. Members of the medical profession, psycholo-
gists, educators, and parents all want to know whether the young child is developing
at a normal rate. If development deviates from acceptable progress in some way,
tests and other evaluation strategies are available to study the child and to help
devise early intervention measures that can minimize or eliminate the developmental
problem.
As we work with young children in a new century, we need to consider how the
available assessment methods are best used. In view of the many concerns and
issues about testing young children, assessment should focus on meeting the child’s
developmental and learning needs. We should take advantage of the many assess-
ment strategies available but, at the same time, be sure that we understand the pur-
poses, strengths, and limitations of each type when including them in a system for
comprehensive evaluation and reporting. All assessments should have a meaningful
purpose and method and be related to the child’s development and learning. The
assessments used to report progress should also be meaningful to parents and other
adults who need to understand the child’s profile of progress and learning needs.
The assessment process should include the child and the child’s parents if the
process is to be the most comprehensive and informative.
In the next eight chapters, each component of a comprehensive evaluation sys-
tem will be discussed, beginning with standardized tests. Informal methods will
then be discussed, with portfolio assessment serving as a model for the desired com-
prehensive assessment plan that will best benefit the young child.

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