Physic SS1
Physic SS1
Definition of Heat
Heat energy is the energy that is transferred from a hot object to a cooler object as a result of their difference in
temperature. It is defined as a measure of the total internal energy of a body.
Definition of Temperature
Temperature can be defined as:
The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
A measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with reference to some standard value.
A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter.
A measure of the ability of a substance, or more generally of any physical system, to transfer heat
energy to another physical system.
Unit of Temperature and Heat: Kelvin and degree Celsius are units of temperature while Joules is the
unit of Heat energy
What is thermometer?
A Thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using a variety of different
principles. A thermometer has two important elements:
The bulb on a mercury thermometer (that is, the temperature sensor) in which some physical change occurs with
temperature and scale on a mercury thermometer (that is, means of converting this physical change into a
numerical value).
Similarly, by placing the thermometer in boiling water (at 1 atm of pressure) and allowing the liquid level to
reach a stable height, the 100-degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer. This is known as the Upper
Fixed Point.
With these two markings placed upon the thermometer, 100 equally spaced divisions can be placed between
them to represent the 1-degree marks. Since there is a linear relationship between the temperature and the height
of the liquid, the divisions between 0 degree and 100 degree can be equally spaced. The difference in
temperature between the two temperature points is called Fundamental interval (or temperature interval) of the
thermometer. With a calibrated thermometer, accurate measurements can be made of the temperature of any
object within the temperature range for which it has been calibrated.
Temperature Scales:
The calibration of this interval depends on the temperature scale chosen. There are three types of scales in
current use:
The Celsius scale,
The Fahrenheit scale and
The Absolute (or thermodynamic or kelvin) scale
Celsius scale:
The thermometer calibration process described above results in what is known as a centigrade thermometer. A
centigrade thermometer Lower and Upper fixed points are 0°C and 100°C. It has 100 divisions or intervals
between the normal freezing point and the normal boiling point of water. Today, the centigrade scale is known
as the Celsius scale, named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius.
Fahrenheit Scale:
A thermometer can be calibrated using the Fahrenheit scale in a similar manner as was described above. The
difference is that the normal freezing point of water is designated as 32 degrees and the normal boiling point of
water is designated as 212 degrees in the Fahrenheit scale. As such, there are 180 divisions or intervals between
these two temperatures when using the Fahrenheit scale. The Fahrenheit scale is named in honour of German
physicist Daniel Fahrenheit.
Temperatures expressed by the Fahrenheit scale can be converted to the Celsius scale equivalent using the
equation below:
Similarly, temperatures expressed by the Celsius scale can be converted to the Fahrenheit scale equivalent using
the equation below:
°
TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
Thermometers use any physical property of a substance which varies in a known way with temperature, and is
easily measurable as a means of gauging temperature. The substance of whose physical property is so used is
known as a thermometric substance. Direct temperature measurements are based on any of the easily
measureable properties of matter that change uniformly with temperature. Today, there are different types of
thermometers and thermometric substances. These include:
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
A liquid-in-glass thermometer is widely used due to its accuracy for the temperature range -200 to 600°C.
Compared to other thermometers, it is simple and no other equipment beyond the human eye is required. The
LIG thermometer is one of the earliest thermometers. It has been used in medicine, metrology and industry.
Thermometers with mercury were found to give a more linear scale than spirits. In response to our
understanding of the danger which mercury exposure poses to human health, alcohol was used in place of
mercury. These liquid thermometers are based on the principal of thermal expansion. When a substance gets
hotter, it expands to a greater volume. It is the basis of the design and operation of thermometers.
Characteristics of a thermometer:
All thermometers have limitations. In general, there are three characteristics concerning a thermometer. These
include; Sensitivity, Linearity and Range.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the ability to give a large response to a small change in temperature. A sensitive thermometer is able
to detect small changes in temperature. It can also give a rapid response to temperature change.
Linearity
A temperature scale is calibrated using two fixed points. Between these two fixed points, 100 equal divisions are marked
to represent temperature change of 100 °C. It is fixed or engraved on the stem supporting the capillary tube to indicate the
range and the value of the temperature. It is the case for the precision thermometers whereas for the low accurate
thermometers such as industrial thermometer, the scale is printed on a separate card and then protected from the
environment. Different materials change their thermometric properties differently at different temperatures. Hence, a good
thermometer should have thermometric property that changes linearly in between the two fixed points such that the
thermometric property at a particular temperature corresponding to the reading on the interpolated scale.
Range
Range refers to the operating temperature which the thermometer can be used. A laboratory thermometer can measure
from -10 °C to 110 °C, beyond which the scale will not be able to register any readings. The expanding liquid column
may even break the thermometer if the expansion is restrained beyond the maximum 110 °C.
The thermometer is filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen above the mercury to reduce its volatilization
The accuracy of measurement depends mainly on the extent of immersion of the thermometer into the medium - not just
the bulb but also the stem. As the temperature of the liquid in a thermometer increases, its volume increases. The liquid is
enclosed in a tall, narrow glass (or plastic) column with a constant cross-sectional area. The increase in volume is thus due
to a change in height of the liquid within the column. The increase in volume, and thus in the height of the liquid column,
is proportional to the increase in temperature.
Clinical Thermometer
This is the form of mercury- in – glass thermometer used in the hospitals for measuring the temperature of the human
body. Since the normal human body temperature varies from 35 0C to 430C, the range of the clinical thermometer is
between these temperatures.
Clinical thermometer
The clinical thermometer consists of a short tube with a narrow bore through which the tube makes it possible
for small temperature changes to cause large changes in the length of the mercury column, thus making the
thermometer very sensitive to temperature changes. Also there is a narrow constriction or kink in the stem just
above the bulb. The bulb itself is made of thin glass. When the thermometer is put under the person’s tongue or
armpit and left for some time the mercury thread expands along the tube, indicating the temperature, when the
temperature is taken from the mouth, the mercury column does not contract into the bulb again. It breaks at the
constriction and remains in the stem the position it was when it was in the mouth, the temperature can thus be
read slowly and carefully, and recorded. Before being used again, the thermometer is shaken to force the
mercury back also sterilised.
Note: it is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure
because the extreme high temperature of boiling water (100 oC) is greater than the temperature of 43oC which a
clinical thermometer can withstand. The thermometer then expands under the influence of this extreme high
temperature and then crack.
Six's thermometer
Six's thermometer is a thermometer which can measure the
maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a period
of time, usually during a day. It is commonly used wherever
a simple way is needed to measure the extremes of
temperature at a location, for instance in meteorology and
horticulture. It is also commonly known as a maximum
minimum thermometer, of which it is the earliest practical
design and the most common type used. It is an example of
a registering thermometer that is a thermometer that keeps
a record of where the temperature has been in the past. It
gives three readings:
It consists of a U-shaped glass tube with two separate temperature scales set along each arm of the U. One of these is for
recording the maximum temperature encountered and the other for the minimum temperature. The arms of the U-shaped
tube terminate in sealed glass bulbs. The bulb at the top of the minimum reading scale arm is full of alcohol, the other
contains a vacuum (or low pressure alcohol vapour).
In the bend of the U is a section of mercury, a metal which is liquid at normal temperatures. This is pushed around the
tube by the thermal expansion and contraction of the alcohol in the first bulb as it responds to the external temperature.
The near vacuum in the other bulb allows free movement of the alcohol and mercury. It is the alcohol which measures the
temperature; the mercury indicates the temperature reading on both scales. This is unlike a normal mercury thermometer,
in which the expansion and contraction of mercury itself indicates temperature.
The thermometer shows a reading at the top of the mercury section on both the maximum and minimum scales; this shows
the current temperature and should be the same on both scales. If the two reading are not the same, then the instrument
scales are not correctly positioned or the instrument is damaged.
Constant -volume gas thermometer
A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in
volume or pressure of a gas. One common apparatus is a constant
volume thermometer. It consists of a bulb connected by a
capillary tube to a manometer. The bulb is filled with a gas such
that the volume of the gas in the bulb remains constant. The
volume is related to temperature by k, known as Charles's Law .
The pressure of the gas in the bulb can be obtained by measuring
the level difference in the two arms of the manometer.
Uses: Gas thermometers are often used to calibrate other
Resistance thermometer thermometers.
Resistance thermometers are also called resistance temperature
detectors or resistive thermal devices (RTDs). These are sensors
used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD
element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of
fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element
is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to
protect it. The RTD element is made from a pure material whose
resistance at various temperatures has been documented. The material
has a predictable change in resistance.
As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs).
They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 °C, due to higher
accuracy and repeatability.
Thermoelectric thermometer
A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different
conductors (usually metal alloys) that produce a voltage
proportional to a temperature difference between either ends
of the pair of conductors. A thermoelectric is a type of metal
thermometer that can measure a tremendously (high) wide
range of different temperatures using the principle of
thermocouple. They are inexpensive and interchangeable. In
contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement,
thermocouples are self-powered and require no external form
of excitation. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may
also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple.
The main limitation of thermocouples is accuracy since system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult
to achieve. Though thermocouples are often not extremely precise, they can work in environments other thermometers
can't. There are specially designed thermocouples that can measure temperatures to nearly absolute zero and others that
can work in the hottest ovens.
How Thermocouples Work
A thermocouple does not measure absolute temperature, but rather the difference in temperature between two points.
When two different metals (e.g copper and constantan) are joined at the ends and one end (hot junction) is heated, while
(the cold junction) is kept constant in melting ice, electric current flows along the metals which creates a voltage between
the two ends. This is thermoelectric effect and the setup is thermocouple
The greater the temperature difference, the greater the current. Different metals react at different rates, and a thermocouple
actually makes use of two metals, joined at the sensor end. At the circuitry end, they are attached to a meter that uses the
difference in voltages between the metals to calculate the temperature differential
Uses
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Other applications include temperature measurement for kilns,
gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
sensor for measurement and control. They can also be used to convert a heat gradient into electricity.
CONCEPT OF EXPANSION
When heated most solids and liquids expand. They also contract when cooled. Expansion means increase in size
of an object. Thermal expansion includes Linear, Area and Volume Expansion.
LINEAR EXPANSION:
Different solids expands by different amounts when heated over the same temperature range, the fractional
thermal expansion of uniform linear object is proportional to the temperature change. Copper for example
expands more than steel when both are heated through the same temperature. This is because they have different
coefficient of linear expansion or linear expansivity. The relation governing the linear expansion of a long rod
can be shown as follows
Length change = original Length x alpha x delta T
=
- = L0
= where Linear Expansion
is the fractional change in length
: is the linear expansivity coefficient. Different substances expand by different amount. s the fractional change in
temperature. The change in temperature determines the fractional change in length. One would expect that 2 oC change in
temperature would lead to twice as much expansion as a 1oC change. L = increase in length and Lo = original length
Example 1: Calculate the change in length for a steel rod of length 20m at 20 oC if the temperature after heating
is 50oC. Take of steel as 13x10-6 K-1.
Solution:
=
= 20m = 20.0078m
= = 0.0078m
Example 2: Explain the statement that the linear expansivity of copper is 0.000017 K-1 or 0.000017oC-1 .
The statement that the linear expansivity of copper is 0.000017 K-1 or 0.000017oC-1 implies that a unit length of
copper expands by 0.000017 units when it is heated through 1 K (or 1 oC) rise in temperature.
AREA EXPANSION:
Over small temperature ranges, the thermal expansion is described by of the coefficient of linear expansion. If
the linear expansion is put in the form
= then =
In most cases the quadratic term above can
be neglected since the typical expansion coefficient
is on the order parts per million per degree C.
the expression then becomes
Note
Example 3:
The linear expansivity of the material of a cube is . If the length of each side of the cube is
10cm, find the area of one face of the cube and the volume of the cube when its temperature is raised by 30K.
Solution:
Initial area of a face of cube
Initial volume of cube
.
.
Kinetic molecular theory explanation that gas expands more than solid and liquid when heated
According to kinetic molecular theory, when an object is heated, the molecules acquire more kinetic energy
which enables them to overcome their intermolecular forces therefore the vibration of the molecules increase
and their displacement about their mean position increase. As a result of this, the average distance between the
molecules of the substance becomes larger leading to an increase in size of the substance. This increase in the
dimension of the heated object depends on the strength of the intermolecular forces. If these forces are strong,
the expansion will be small and vice and vice versa. The intermolecular forces are stronger in solid than in
liquid and weakest in gases, hence when heat is applied, gases expand more than liquids and liquid expands
more than solids. Each particular substance has intermolecular forces peculiar to it. Therefore the addition of
heat causes different expansion in different substances.
Rail Track
To allow for expansion and contraction,
gaps are left between sections of rail on
Oval hole for nut and the railway track. The ends held in line
Nut and bolt Gap with fishplates, which are strips of metal
bolt to slide along
bolted to the ends of the rails by slotted
holes. Without the gaps, the railway will
buckle and train would be derailed
Advantages of thermal expansion of solids:
1. Used for temperature control as in the thermostat found in electric iron and refrigerator
2. To join steel structure in process called reverting
3. To fit a wheel on a rim
4. To fir a cork on a bottle
Expansion of glass:
Expansion of glass cup with hot water
If hot water is poured into a thick glass bottle or tumbler, it is liable to crack. This is due to the uneven
expansion of the glass. The glass is a poor conductor of heat and so also water. When boiling water is poured
into the glass cup, the inner layer/surface quickly expands while the outer layer/surface remains at room
temperature. Resulting unequal expansion between these layers/surfaces generate thermal stress in the cup. This
stress causes the glass to crack. A type of glass called Pyrex is therefore used for making laboratory beakers
and flasks to avoid the above effects because Pyrex has a low thermal expansivity.
If on the other hand the cup is immersed in cold water that is heated from room temperature to boiling, the
heating gradually raises the temperature of water and cup in succession and without the development of
(applicable) thermal stress in the cup. The temperature gradient across the wall of the cup is (negligibly) small
at any point in time hence cracking does not occur.
It may be easily understood that the coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid cannot be a characteristic
property of a liquid as the apparent expansions will be different when containers of different materials are taken.
The apparent expansivity depends on the cubic expansivity of the material of the vessel so the real expansivity
of a liquid is always more than its apparent expansivity. It can be shown that the difference between the real
and the apparent expansivity of a liquid is the cubic expansivity of the vessel. Hence
Example 1: The cubic expansivity of mercury is 1.8 x l0 -4k-1 and the linear expansivity of glass 8.0 x l0 -6K-1
Calculate the apparent expansivity of mercury in a glass container.
Solution
Data given:
Cubic expansivity of mercury ) = 1.8 x l0-4k-1
Cubic expansivity of the glass =3
Formular:
The anomalous expansion is useful in very cold climates for the preservation of aquatic life. It means the bottom of a lake
is the last part to freeze, so fish can usually survive the winter.
Assignment
The increase in volume of 10cm3 of mercury when the temperature rises by 100 oC is 0.182cm3. What is the
cubic expansivity of mercury?
a. 0.000182 K-1 b. 0.000178 K-1 c. 0.00182 K-1 d. 0.0000182 K-1 e. 0.0000187 K-1
A brass rod is 2 m long at a certain temperature. What is its length for a temperature rise of 100K. If the
expansivity of brass is ?
a. 2.00036 m b. 2.1800 m c. 2.0018 m d. 2.0360 m
On a cold morning, the metal blade of a cutlass feels colder to touch than the wooden handle because
a. The blade is at a lower temperature than the handle.
b. The hand is at a lower temperature than both blade and handle
c. The blade is a better conductor of heat than the handle
d. The handle contains some heat which is absent in the blade
e. The handle is better conductor of heat than the blade
The following are effect of heat on matters Except _______
a. Change of state and change in velocity
b. Expansion of a body and change of state
c. Change in electrical resistance and thermionic emission
d. Chemical change and pressure
The S.I unit of temperature is _______
a. Degree Fahrenheit b. Degree Kelvin c. Celsius d. Kelvin
Energy transferred from a hot object to cooler object as a result of their differences in the measure of average
kinetic energy of matter is_______
a. Light energy b. Thermometer c. Temperature d. Heat energy
A measure of the ability of a substance to transfer heat energy to another physical system is known as ____
a. Thermometer b. Thermostat c. Pyrometer d. Temperature
A non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation is called _______
a. Pyrometry b. Pyrometer c. Pyrometric d. Pyromaths
Which of the following has the smallest temperature increment
a. Degree Celsius b. Absolute Zero scale c. Degree Kelvin d. Degree Fahrenheit
A thermocouple works on the principle of _______
a. Variation of emf with temperature
b. Variation of volume with temperature
c. Variation of resistance with temperature
d. Variation of pressure with temperature
A glass bottle of initial volume is heated from . If the linear expansivity of glass is
, the volume of the bottle at is _______
a.
A brass measuring tape is correct at 20oC. The value obtained when the length of a field is measured with the
rule at 50oC appears to be 70.5 m, what is the true length of the field? Linear expansivity of brass
,
a. 70.5001 b. 70.5003 c. 70.4962 d. 70.4961
Find the values of A, B, C ,D E in the following table
S/N Original length, area, or Linear expansivity Rise in Increase in
volume , temperature in length, area, or
K volume
1 0.5 m 10 15 A
2 2.0 m 25 B 3.0 mm
3 0.6 m C 80 1.0 mm
4 D 16.7 100 25 mm2
5 500mm2 18 E 0.36 mm2
What is meant by the statement: the linear expansion of zinc is 2.6 10 5 K 1 ?
Describe an experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a zinc rod
State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of thermal expansion of solids
A metal cube of volume V and linear expansivity is heated through a temperature rise of T. The increase in
volume of the cube is ____
a. 3 VT b. 2 VT c. VT d. VT/3
A density bottle of volume 500 cm is filled with a liquid and heated from 20 oC to 60 oC. if 7.5 cm3 of liquid is
3
Explain why a thick glass cup crack when boiling water is poured into it but the same cup would not crack
when immersed in a bath of cold water which is then heated to boiling point.
When heat is added to a substance, this causes the following Except _______
a. Rise in temperature b. Change in electrical reactance c. Change in electrical resistance d. Change
in pressure
In which of the following is expansion of solids a disadvantage?
a. Fire alarms b. The thermostat c. The balance wheel of a wrist watch d. The fitting of the wheel in
rims
WEEK THREE LESSON NOTE
HEAT TRANSER
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that is concerned with the generation, use, conversion, and
exchange of thermal energy and heat between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various
mechanisms/modes such as: conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction or diffusion is the transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact.
Convection is the transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion
Radiation is the transfer of energy to or from a body by means of the emission or absorption of electromagnetic
radiation
Mass transfer: The transfer of energy from one location to another as a side effect of physically moving an
object containing that energy. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either
cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur
simultaneously in the same system.
Definition of Conduction:
Conduction of heat is defined as the process by which heat is passed along a stationary solid material, the average or mean
position of the heated particles of the material remaining the same.
Iron
Lead
Brass
Copper
ii. Keep the rods in the water box. Paint each rod with a paint brush dipped in very
hot molten wax. This produces an uneven, thick coating of wax, which must then be
thinned by blowing a Bunsen flame up and down the rod.
Equal length of rods of different metals such as copper, iron, aluminium, brass and one rod of a non-metal such
as wood, all of equal cross-sectional are suck lightly into a small tank, so that a good length of the rods protrude
outside the tank. The rods are coated with paraffin wax as explained above. Boiling water is then poured into
the tank. After several minutes, it is noticed that different length of the wax has melted from the metal with the
greatest length of copper and the least length of wood. More length of wax on the copper was melted than that
of brass, iron and wood in that order. Thus copper has the greatest thermal conductivity and wood has least.
Definition of Radiation
Radiation is defined as the process by which heat is transfer from a hotter to a cooler place without heating of
the intervening medium. That is the transfer of energy through space by means of electromagnetic waves in
much the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light. The same laws that govern the transfer of
light govern the radiant transfer of heat. Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal
radiation can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating
solar power generation. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower and
during the day it can heat water to 285 °C (545 °F). A red-hot iron objects transferring heat to the surrounding
environment primarily through thermal radiation. Other examples of radiation heat transfer are; camp fire,
microwave oven and a light bulb
The intensity of heat radiated by a surface increase with:
1. The area of the surface
2. The absolute temperature of the surface
3. The colour and brightness of the surface: black, dull surfaces are generally better radiator/absorber of
radiant heat than silvery and shiny surfaces.
Exercises:
1. List two factors that can affect heat transfer by conduction and radiation
2. Explain convectional current
3. State TWO practical application of convectional currents in cooling devices
4. Give TWO modes of heat transfer other than conduction
5. Use kinetic theory of matter to explain the mechanism by which heat is transmitted through solids and liquids
6. Describe an experiment to show that water is a bad conductor of heat.
7. Draw and label a diagram showing the essential parts of a thermos flask
8. Explain how a flask can retain heat for a very long time
9. Which of the following is a reason why a concrete floor feels colder to the bare feet than a mat on the same
floor during the rainy season?
a. Mat is a better conductor of heat than the feet
b. Mat loses heat to the bare feet at a faster rate than concrete floor.
c. Mat loses heat to the bare feet than concrete while the concrete floor extracts heat from them
d. Concrete floor is better conductor of heat than the concrete floor
10. Cooking pots are usually made of metals because metals
a. Have high coefficient of expansion
b. Have low specific heat capacity
c. Are poor conductor of heat
d. Are good conductor of heat
11. A house whose roof is painted white feels cooler on a hot day than one whose roof is painted black because
a. White is a better conductor of heat than black
b. Black is a better conductor of heat than white.
c. White is a better reflector of heat than black
d. Black is a better reflector of heat than white
12. Which of the following is NOT suitable method for reducing heat from hot metal ball?
a. Placing it in a vacuum b. Painting it black c. Placing it on a rubber support d. Wrapping it with
cotton wool
13. In an electric kettle the heating element is usually located near the bottom of the kettle because
I. Cold water is denser than hot water
II. Heat is transmitted to all parts of water primarily by convection
III. Heat is quickly conducted to all parts of the water
IV. Loss to the surroundings is minimized
A. I and II only B. III and IV only C. I, II and III only D. I, II and IV only
14.The heat of the sun reaches the earth’s surface by the process of
a. Convection b. Conduction c. Radiation d. Precipitation
15Two identical kettles X and Y are filled with water at 100 oC. The outer surface of X is painted black
while that of Y is polished
a. X cools faster because a blackened surface radiates faster than a polished surface
b. X cools faster because it is a better conductor of heat
c. Y cools faster because it is a better reflector of heat
d. Y cools faster because a polished surface is a better radiator of heat than a blackened surface.
16. A thermos flask has a double-walled glass container in which heat losses are minimized by
a. Evacuating the space between the glass walls b. Silvery the surface on either side of the evacuated
space c. Covering the container with cork of low thermal conductivity
17.Which of the following attire is most comfortable on a hot sunny day?
Black a. white b. Red c. Blue
The heat from a fire in a room is transmitted to various parts of the room primarily by
a. Convection b. Conduction c. Diffusion d. radiation
WEEK FOUR LESSON NOTE
DESCRIPTION AND PROPERTIES OF FIELD
Concept of Field:
Fields can be defined as a region or space in which the influence of some physical agency such as gravitation,
magnetism and electricity is detected or felt. If the physical agency is magnet, the field is known as magnetic
field. If it is gravity, the field will be gravitational field. If it is electricity, the field is electric field. Fields
creates a force known as force fields.
Force field is defined as force whose sources do not require contact with the body to which they are applied.
Such force fields are identified as gravitational force, electric force, magnetic force and electromagnetic force.
There are two classes of force fields; scalar and vector force fields. A scalar field is one that has only magnitude
but no direction, e.g. temperature, energy and density. A vector field is a field that has both magnitude and
direction, e.g. gravitational, magnetic and electric fields.
Field lines:
A field line is an imaginary line or locus that is defined by a vector field and a starting location within the field. A vector
field line is the tangent line to the path at which each point is required to be parallel to the vector field at that point. It
defines a direction at all points in space.
Field lines are useful for visualizing vector fields, which are otherwise hard to depict. Note that, like longitude and
latitude lines on a globe, or topographic lines on a topographic map, these lines are not physical lines that are actually
present at certain locations; they are merely visualization tools.
Field lines start at sources and end at sinks of the vector field. (A "source" is wherever the divergence of the vector field is
positive; a "sink" is wherever it is negative.) In physics, drawings of field lines are mainly useful in cases where the
sources and sinks, if any, have a physical meaning, as opposed to e.g. the case of a force field of a radial harmonic.
For example, Gauss's law states that an electric field has sources at positive charges, sinks at negative charges, and neither
elsewhere, so electric field lines start at positive charges and end at negative charges. (They can also potentially form
closed loops, or extend to or from infinity). A gravitational field has no sources, it has sinks at masses, and it has neither
elsewhere, gravitational field lines come from infinity and end at masses. A magnetic field has no sources or sinks
(Gauss's law for magnetism), so its field lines have no start or end: they can only form closed loops, or extend to infinity
in both directions.
Types of fields:
There three types of vector fields, they include: Gravitational field, Electric field and magnetic field
Concept of Gravitational field:
If we throw up massive object, it is our common observation that they move up to their highest points, stationary very
briefly and eventually move downward, falling faster until they hit the ground level or the lowest level on their path. The
up and down movement of objects on the earth’s surface are subject to the influence of the Gravitational field of the earth.
Gravity is a force that exists between the Earth and the objects that are near it. As you stand upon the Earth, you
experience this force. We have become accustomed to calling it the force of gravity and have even represented it by the
symbol Fgrav.
Definition of gravitational field:
The gravitational field at any point P in space is defined as the gravitational force felt by a tiny unit mass
placed at P.
The arrowheads indicate the direction of the force, which points the same way
all along the field line. A shortcoming of the field lines picture is that although
it can give a good general idea of the field, there is no precise indication of the
field’s strength at any point. However, as is evident in the diagram above, there
is a clue: where the lines are closer together, the force is stronger. Obviously,
we could put in a spoke-like field line anywhere, but if we want to give an
indication of field strength, we would have to have additional lines equally
spaced around the mass.
Gravitational Field for Two Masses
The next simplest case is two equal masses. Let us place them symmetrically above and below the x-axis:
For example, consider the electric field arising from a single, isolated point charge.
Field lines emanating from an Field lines emanating from an
isolated positive charge above a isolated negative charge above
plane conductor a plane conductor
Let us use the idea of a test charge to produce the E field for an
isolated positive field charge. We place small, positive test charges in
the vicinity of the field and draw the force vector on each. Note that
the closer the test charge is to the field charge, the greater the force,
but all force vectors are directed radially outward from the field
charge. At any point near the field charge, the force vector points in
the direction of the electric field. Thus we have a field that looks like
a sea urchin, with field lines radiating outward from the field charge
to infinity in all direction, not just in a plane. The number of field
lines drawn is arbitrary, but they should be evenly spaced around the
field charge. What if the field charge were negative?
The opposite is true for an isolated negative field charge. No matter how complex the
field is, the electric force on a test charge is always tangent to the field line at that
point.
Electric lines of force-around two like equal charges placed near each other:
With two equal identical field charges, the field is symmetric but all field lines go to infinity (if the charges are
positive) or come from infinity (if the charges are negative). As with any field the net force on a test charge is
tangent to the field. Here, each field charge repels a positive or negative test charges. The forces are shown as
well as the resultant vectors, which are tangent to the field lines.
Electric lines of force-around two unlike equal charges placed near each other:
For two equal unlike field charges, the positive and
negative charges have the same magnitude as shown
above. The field lines move out from the positive charge
than land on the negative. Those that do not land on the
negative charge go to infinity. As always, net force on a
test charge is the vector sum of the two forces and it is
tangent to the field.
Electric lines of force-around, two like Unequal amount charges placed near each other
With two like unequal field charges, more field lines emanate from the greater charge; none of the field lines
cross and they all go to infinity. The field lines of the greater charge look more like that of an isolated charge,
since it dominates the smaller charge. If you looked at the field from a great distance, it would look like that of
an isolated point charge due to one combined charge.
Electric lines of force-around, two unlike Unequal amount charges placed near each other
For unequal unlike field charges, the positive charge has a greater magnitude than the negative charge. This explains why
the field is as shown above. More field lines come from the positive charge than land on the negative. Those that do not
land on the negative charge go to infinity. Since the positive charge has greater magnitude, it dominates the negative
charge, forcing the “turning points” of the point to be closer to the negative charge. If you were to observe the field from a
distance, it would look like that of an isolated, positive point with a charge equal to the net charge of the system.
Second Law of Electrostatics or Coulomb's law:
The fundamental equation of electrostatics is Coulomb's law, which describes the force between two point
charges.
Coulomb's law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point electric charges Q1 and Q2 is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of each charge and inversely proportional to the surface
QQ KQ1Q2
area of a sphere whose radius is equal to the distance between the charges: FC 1 2 2
4r 0 r2
Where, ε0 is a constant called the vacuum permittivity or permittivity of free space, has a unit of C2N−1m−2 or F
m−1
= point charges have unit of coulomb (C)
r = distance between the charges has unit of metre (m)
1
k has unit of Nm 2 C 2 OR F 1
4 0
Definition of Electric Field strength or Intensity:
We defined electric field strength or intensity as the electric force per unit (positive) charge on any “test charge”
placed in the field:
F
E where
q
F is the electric force experienced by the test charge, a vector
q is the charge of the test charge in the electric field, a scalar
E is the electric field wherein the particle or charge is located. It defines the direction of the net electric force on
a positive charge; its units are N / C.
E and F are only parallel if the test charge is positive.
From the definition of electric field intensity and Coulomb's law, it follows that the magnitude of the electric
Q
field E created by a single point charge Q is: E ( r )
4r 2 0
As is clear from the definition, the direction of the electric field is the same as the direction of the force it would exert on a
positively-charged particle, and opposite the direction of the force on a negatively-charged particle. Since like charges
repel and opposites attract (as quantified below), the electric field tends to point away from positive charges and towards
negative charges.
Electric potential:
The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field
experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work.
Definition of Electric potential:
The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required in bringing a unit test charge from an infinite
distance slowly to that point. It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work
must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity. Therefore, Electric potential, V, is defined as the
electric potential energy per unit charge. At any given distance from a charged surface in a uniform field, the electric
potential is a constant. Thus potential is independent of charge. If Q > q and they are at the same distance from the
surface, Q will have more potential energy than q, but they are at the same potential.
In a uniform field V = E d. Where V is electric potential, E is electric field; d is the distance from a charged surface in a
uniform field. Electric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude but no direction.
A bar magnet consist of two poles North and South poles. The poles of a magnet are the portion
of the magnet where its magnetic attraction appears to be strongest. Like or similar poles of
magnets repel each other but unlike or dissimilar poles attract each other.
Properties of a Magnet
1. Magnets attract objects of iron, cobalt and nickel.
2. The force of attraction of a magnet is greater at its poles than in the middle.
3. Like poles of two magnets repel each other.
4. Opposite poles of two magnets attracts each other.
5. If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread and if it is free to rotate, its South Pole will move toward the North
Pole of the earth and vice versa.
Magnetic field
The region or space around a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can be felt of detected is called
magnetic field.
Magnetic line of force
The magnetic line of force of a magnetic field is the line along which a free N-pole would tend to move in the
field or a line such that the tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the field at that point.
Characteristics of Magnetic line of force
1. Magnetic lines of force start from the North Pole and end at the South Pole.
2. They are continuous through the body of magnet
3. Magnetic lines of force can pass through iron more easily than air.
4. Two magnetic lines of force cannot intersect each other; otherwise the magnetic field would have two
possible directions at the point of intersection.
5. They tend to contract longitudinally.
6. They tend to expand laterally.
Field pattern with iron fillings
If a tiny sheet of glass is placed over a bar magnet, and some iron
sprinkle on the glass and taped gently, it is observed that the
filings are spread evenly over the magnetic field but all aligned in
the direction of the field. Then, based on the scale and
Field pattern with a Compass needle ferromagnetic properties of the filings they damp the field to
either side, creating the apparent spaces between the lines that we
see.
The magnetic field of a bar magnet can be investigated with a
compass needle. The magnetic poles of both bar magnet and compass
needle are symbolized by the following colors:
north pole red
south pole green
If you move the magnetic needle with pressed mouse button, the
magnetic field line through the centre of the compass needle will be
drawn with blue colour.
The blue arrows mark the direction of the magnetic field which is defined as the direction indicated by the north
pole of the compass needle. If you turn the magnet by using the red button, the direction of the field lines will
reverse. The left button makes it possible to clear all field lines.
Exercises
1. Explain what is meant by a field as used in physics
2. Mention THREE types of field you know
3. Distinguish between scalar fields and vector fields. Give TWO examples of each.
4. Draw the lines of force associated with the following situations:
i. Two unlike point charges of equal magnitude
ii. A positive charge in isolation
iii. Two parallel plate carrying unlike charges of equal magnitude
5. What do you understand by the poles of a magnet?
6. Explain the following term: magnetic field, magnetic lines of force
7. Explain why the lines of force of a magnetic do not cross each other
8. How can you plot the lines of force in the magnetic field of a bar magnet? Draw a diagram to show the
arrangement of such lines of force
9. Identify the force field from the following: Density field, temperature, gravitational field, electrostatic field,
electric field
10. Which of the following will experience a force when placed in a magnetic field; Glass, iron, steel pins pieces of
paper, aluminium?
11. An electron of charge 1.6 x 10-19 C is accelerated in vacuum from rest at zero volts towards a plate at 40KV.
Calculate the kinetic energy of the electron.
Explain what is meant by: (i) electric field intensity, (ii) electric lines of force
Two similar but opposite charges –q and +q each of magnitude 5.0 x 10-8C are separated by a distance of 8.0 cm
in vacuum as shown in the diagram below
-q P +q
5cm 3cm
Calculate the Electrical field intensity E at the point.
1
Draw the lines of forces due to this system of charge Take 9 109 Nm 2C 2 .
4 0
-5
12. A charge of 1.0 x 10 coulombs experiences a force of 40 N at a certain point in space. What is the electric field
intensity?
Define the following terms: (i) electric field intensity (ii) electric potential
Two point charges of magnitude + 20 x 10-8C and 5.0 x 10-8C are separated by a distance of 10cm in vacuum
as shown in the diagram below
Calculate:
the electrical field intensity E at the point P, midway between the charges
the force on -4 x 10-8C charge placed at P
1
[ Take 9 109 Nm 2C 2 .]
4 0
WEEK FIVE LESSON NOTE
GRAVITATIOANAL FIELD AND LAW
Types of fields:
There are two types of fields: Uniform and Non uniform/variable fields
Some fields are uniform (parallel, equally spaced fields lines) such as the field on the left formed by a sheet of
negative charge.
Non-uniform/variable fields are stronger where the field lines are closer together, such as the field on the right
produced by a sphere of negative charge.
Assuming SI units, F is measured in Newton (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is
approximately equal to 6.674×10−11 N m2 kg−2.
Example 1
Calculate the force of attraction between two small objects of mass 10kg and 50kg respectively separated at
distance of 10 cm. Take G as 6.67 X 10-11 Nm2 Kg-2.
Gm1m2
Formula : F (1)
r2
m1 10kg, m2 50kg, r 10cm 0.1m, G 6.67 10 11 Nm 2 kg 2
Substituti ng in (1)
6.67 10 50 10 11 Nm 2 kg 2
F 6.67 5 10114 N 33.35 107 N 3.33 106 N
(0.1) 2 m 2
In fact, many students of physics have become accustomed to referring to the actual acceleration of such an object as the
acceleration of gravity. Not to be confused with the force of gravity (Fgrav), the acceleration of gravity (g) is the
acceleration experienced by an object when the only force acting upon it is the force of gravity. The acceleration of
objects due to the earth’s gravitational attraction is called the acceleration due to gravity. It is represented by the symbol g
whose average value is about 9.81ms-2
Relationship between the Gravitational Constant ‘G’ and the acceleration due to gravity at the earth surface ‘g’
The gravitational constant is a universal number that applies equally in all places, at all times, and upon all
objects. It is expressed as: 6.674×10−11 N m2 kg−2. Acceleration due to gravity is the phenomenon in which all
masses are attracted to all other masses.
The earth is supposed to be a sphere of radius, r e , with its mass, me concentrated at the earth’s centre. The distance of any
object on the earth’s surface to the centre of the earth is r e the earth radius. The gravitation force of attraction of the earth
Gme m
on any mass, m, on the earth surface is given by F 2
r e
This force is equivalent to the weight of the object, mg, where ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity
Gme m
F 2
mg (1)
r e
F
The force per unit mass, is given by
m
F Gme
2 g (2)
m re
Gme
g 2
(3)
r e
This means that the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ can be considered as the force per unit mass on the earth’s
surface. From (3) we see that ‘g’ at the surface of the earth is dependent on me (mass of the earth) and re (radius
of the earth). With this we expect ‘g’ to be slightly less on the top of the mountain than at the sea level since r e
the distance from the centre of the earth is slightly greater at the top of the mountain than at the sea level. The
2
g re
mass of the earth me is given by me G
Example 2
If g = 9.8ms-2 , G = 6.7 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2 . Calculate the mass of the earth if the radius of the earth is taken as
approximately 6400km.
2
g re
Formula me (1)
G
g 9.8ms2 , G 6.7 1011 Nm2 kg2 , re 6400km 6.4 106 m
Substituting in (1)
9.8ms2 4.096 1013 m 2 9.8 4.096 101311
me 11 2
1
5.99 1024 kg
6.7 10 Nm kg2
6.7kg
me 6.0 10 kg
24
Thus potential is independent on mass. If M > m and they are at the same height then M will have more potential energy
than m, but both are at the same potential
Escape velocity
Escape velocity is the speed that an object needs to be travelling to break free of a planet or moon's gravity well and leave
it without further propulsion. For example, a spacecraft leaving the surface of Earth needs to be going 7 miles per second,
or nearly 25,000 miles per hour to leave without falling back to the surface or falling into orbit. If the kinetic energy of an
object launched from the Earth were equal in magnitude to the potential energy, then in the absence of friction resistance
it could escape from the Earth.
Definition of Escape Velocity
Escape velocity is defined as the speed at which the kinetic energy plus the gravitational potential energy of an
object is zero. It is the speed needed to "break free" from a gravitational field without further propulsion.
Suppose a rocket of mass m is fired from the Earth’s surface so that it just escapes from gravity. Then work done = kinetic
energy of the rocket.
GM
But work done m
r
1 2
and kinetic energy of rocket Ek mv
2
1 GM
mv2 m
2 r
2GM
ve
r
Where G is the universal gravitational constant (G = 6.67×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2), M the mass of the planet, star or other body,
and r the distance from the centre of gravity.
In this equation atmospheric friction or air drag, is not taken into account. A rocket moving out of a gravity well does not
actually need to attain escape velocity to do so, but could achieve the same result at walking speed with a suitable mode of
propulsion and sufficient fuel. Escape velocity only applies to ballistic trajectories.
For a spherically-symmetric body, escape velocity is calculated by the formula
2
2Gme g re
ve but m e
re G
2
2Ggre
ve 2 gre or 2 gR
re G
2GM
Formula Ve
r
2GM
if r R Ve
R
gR 2 2G gR 2
but M , Ve 2 gR
G R G
Ve 2 gR
Ve2
R (1)
2g
g 9.8m / s 2 , Ve 11km / s 1.1104 m / s
Substituti ng in (1)
1.2544 108 m 2 / s 2
R 0.064 108 m 6.2 106 m 6400km
2 9.8 m / s 2
Assignment
1. What is the gravitational potential due to a molecule of mass at a distance r from it? (G = gravitational
constant).
2. Calculate the escape velocity for a rocket fired from the earth’s surface at a point where the acceleration due to
gravity is 10m/s2 and the radius of the earth is 6.0 x 106 m.
3. Define force field.
4. List TWO types of fields
5. State Newton’s Law of Universal gravitation
6. State the conditions necessary for a satellite to be in motion in a circular orbit
7. Calculate the gravitational potential at a point on the earth’s surface. (Radius of the earth = 6.4 106 m
mass of the earth = 6.4 10 24 kg , G = 6.7 10 11 Nm 2 kg 2 )
8. Explain why ‘g’ is slightly less on the top of the mountain than at the sea level
9. List THREE facts about the acceleration of a free falling object due to gravity.
10. Derive an expression for the relationship between G and g
11. A ball is dropped from a height, at the same time as another ball is projected horizontally from the same
height. Would the balls hit the ground at the same time? Explain your answer.
WEEK SIX LESSON NOTE
ELECTRIC CHARGES, ELECTROSTATICS AND GOLD LEAF ELECROSCOPE
Electric Charge is the fundamental conserved property of a matter such as some subatomic particles, which determines
their electromagnetic interaction and causes it to experience a force when near to other electrically charged matters.
Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between an
electromagnetic field and a moving charge is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is the one of the four
fundamental forces in nature.
Types of electric charges:
Units of Charge:
The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is coulomb denoted by (C), which is equivalent to about 6.242×10 18 e (e is the
charge of a proton), although in electrical engineering it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah). Hence, the charge
of an electron is approximately −1.602×10−19C. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge.
The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an ELECTROMETER, or indirectly measured with
BALLISTIC
Definition of Coulomb
The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross section of an electrical
conductor carrying one ampere within one second.
Definition of Electrostatics
Electrostatics is defined as the branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of stationary or
slow-moving (without acceleration) electric charges. It is a phenomenon in which the net electric charge of an
object is non-zero and motionless.
Electrostatic phenomena include:
1. the attraction of the plastic wrap to your hand after you remove it from a package
2. the apparently spontaneous explosion of grain silos,
3. the damage of electronic components during manufacturing,
4. the operation of photocopiers.
Production of electrostatic charges:
Charging means gaining or losing electron. There are three methods in which an uncharged body can be
charged, namely:
1. Charging by friction,
2. Charging by contact (conduction)
3. Charging by Electrostatic induction.
Charging by Friction:
When you rub one material to another, they are charged by friction. Material losing electron is positively
charged and material gaining electron is negatively charged. Amount of gained and lost electron is equal to each
other. In other words, we can say that charges of the system are conserved. Charging by friction can easily be
produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing amber (ebonite or hard rubber) with fur
or glass with silk.
When you rub glass rod with a silk (rub silk on glass rod), friction brings about a net transfer of surface
electrons from glass to the silk. Glass becomes positively charged while silk gain electron and becomes
negatively charged.
Rubbing amber (ebonite or hard rubber) with fur a negative charge is gained by an ebonite rod due to a net
transfer of electrons from the atoms of fur. The ebonite is negatively charged and fur positively charged.
In this way non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Of
course, charge taken from one material is simply moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the
same magnitude behind. The law of conservation of charge always applies, giving the object from which a
negative charge has been taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice-versa.
The Law of Conservation of Charge:
The law of conservation of charge states that Charge is neither created nor destroyed during this charging process; it is
simply transferred from one object to the other object in the form of electrons.
Charging by Electrostatic Induction
This method is used to charge an object without actually touching the object to any other charged object. An
understanding of charging by induction requires an understanding of the nature of a conductor and an understanding of the
polarization process. In the context of electricity, polarization is the process of separating opposite charges within an
object. The positive charge becomes separated from the negative charge within an object.
Definition of Electrostatic induction
Electrostatic Induction is the process by which an uncharged body acquires charge when it is brought near a charged
body. Electrostatic induction is a redistribution of electrical charge in an object, caused by the influence of nearby
charges. Electrostatic induction should not be confused with electromagnetic induction; both are often referred to as
'induction'.
Charging a Single Sphere by Induction using a negatively charged object:
Suppose a negatively charged rubber balloon is brought near a single sphere as shown in (Diagram ii). The presence of the
negative charge will induce electron movement in the sphere. Since like charges repel, negative electrons within the metal
sphere will be repelled by the negatively charged balloon. There will be a mass migration of electrons from the left side of
the sphere to the right side of the sphere causing charge within the sphere to become polarized (Diagram ii). Once charge
within the sphere has become polarized, the sphere is touched. The touching of the sphere allows electrons to exit the
sphere and move through the hand to "the ground" (Diagram iii). It is at this point that the sphere acquires a charge. With
electrons having left the sphere, the sphere acquires a positive charge (Diagram iv). Once the balloon is moved away from
the sphere, the excess positive charge redistributes itself (by the movement of remaining electrons) such that the positive
charge is uniformly distributed about the sphere's surface.
Charging a Single Sphere by Induction using a positively charged object:
If a positively charged object is used to charge a neutral object by induction, then the neutral object will acquire
a negative charge. If you understand the induction charging process, you can see why this would always be the
case. The charged object that is brought near will always repel like charges and attract opposite charges. Either
way, the object being charged acquires a charge that is opposite the charge of the object used to induce the
charge. To further illustrate this, the diagram above shows how a positively charged balloon will charge a
sphere negatively by induction.
Charging a Two-Sphere System by induction using a Negatively Charged Object
One common demonstration in a physics class involves the induction charging of two metal spheres. The metal
spheres are supported by insulating stands so that any charge acquired by the spheres cannot travel to the
ground. The spheres are placed side by side (see diagram i) so as to form a two-sphere system.
Being made of metal (a conductor), electrons are free to move between the spheres from sphere A to sphere B and vice
versa. If a negatively charged rubber balloon is brought near the spheres, electrons within the two-sphere system will be
induced to move away from the balloon. This is simply the principle that like charges repel. Being charged negatively, the
electrons are repelled by the negatively charged balloon. Subsequently, there is a mass migration of electrons from sphere
A to sphere B. This electron migration causes the two-sphere system to be polarized (see diagram ii. below). Overall, the
two-sphere system is electrically neutral. Yet the movement of electrons out of sphere A and into sphere B separates the
negative charge from the positive charge. Looking at the spheres individually, it would be accurate to say that sphere A
has an overall positive charge and sphere B has an overall negative charge. Once the two-sphere system is polarized,
sphere B is physically separated from sphere A using the insulating stand. Having been pulled further from the balloon,
the negative charge likely redistributes itself uniformly about sphere B (see diagram iii. below). Meanwhile, the excess
positive charge on sphere A remains located near the negatively charged balloon, consistent with the principle that
opposite charges attract. As the balloon is pulled away, there is a uniform distribution of charge about the surface of both
spheres (see diagram iv. below). This distribution occurs as the remaining electrons in sphere A move across the surface
of the sphere until the excess positive charge is uniformly distributed.
Charging a Two-Sphere System by induction using a Positively Charged Object
The above examples show how a negatively charged balloon is used to polarize a two-sphere system and ultimately
charge the spheres by induction. But what would happen to sphere A and sphere B if a positively charged object was used
to first polarize the two-sphere system?
How would the outcome be different and how would the electron movement be altered? The same result will be obtained
A negatively charged metal sphere has an excess of electrons; those electrons find each other repulsive and distance
themselves from each other as far as possible. Once the contact of the sphere to the electroscope is made, a countless
number of excess electrons from the sphere move onto the electroscope and spread about the sphere-electroscope system.
When the process of charging by conduction is complete, the electroscope acquires an excess negative charge due to the
movement of electrons onto it from the metal sphere. The metal sphere is still charged negatively, only it has less excess
negative charge than it had prior to the conduction charging process.
Charging a neutral object by Conduction Using a Positively Charged Object
What happens if a positively charged object is touched to a neutral object? To investigate this question, we consider the
case of a positively charged aluminum plate being used to charge a neutral metal sphere by the process of conduction. A
positively charged aluminum plate has an excess of protons. When looked at from an electron perspective, a positively
charged aluminum plate has a shortage of electrons. It is not satisfied until it has found a negatively charged electron with
which to co-habitat. However, since a proton is tightly bound in the nucleus of an atom, it is incapable of leaving an atom
in search of that longed-for electron. It can however attract a mobile electron towards itself. And if a conducting pathway
is made between a collection of electrons and an excess proton, one can be certain that there is likely an electron that
would be willing to take the pathway. So when the positively charged aluminum plate is touched to the neutral metal
sphere, countless electrons on the metal sphere migrate towards the aluminum plate. There is a mass migration of
electrons until the positive charge on the aluminum plate-metal sphere system becomes redistributed. Having lost
electrons to the positively charged aluminum plate, there is a shortage of electrons on the sphere and an overall positive
charge. The aluminum plate is still charged positively; only it now has less excess positive charge than it had before the
charging process began.
Properties of Charging by Conduction or contact:
1. When charged object touches to a neutral object, they both have same charge.
2. When two charged matter touch each other, total charge of the system is conserved and they share the total
charge according to their capacities. If they have same amount of different charges, when we touch one another
they become neutral. If the amount of charges is different then, after flow of charge they are both negatively or
positively charged. Having opposite charges after contact is impossible.
3. If the touching objects are spheres, they share the total charge according to their radii, because their
capacities are directly proportional to their radius. When the spheres are identical then they share total charge
equally.
Grounding - the Removal of a Charge
We have discussed the three common methods of charging - charging by friction, charging by induction, and charging by
conduction. A discussion of charging would not be complete without a discussion of uncharging. Objects with an excess
of charge - either positive or negative - can have this charge removed by a process known as grounding. A ground is
simply a large object that serves as an almost infinite source of electrons or sinks for electrons. A ground contains such
vast space from which the ideal object either receive electrons or supply electrons to whatever objects needs to get rid of
them or receive them. A ground is simply an object that serves as a seemingly infinite reservoir of electrons; the ground
is capable of transferring electrons to or receiving electrons from a charged object in order to neutralize that object.
Definition of Grounding
Grounding is the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of the transfer of electrons between it and
another object of substantial size. When a charged object is grounded, the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of
electrons between the charged object and a ground.
Distribution of charges:
1. The distribution of charges on a conductor is generally concentrated at places where
the surface is sharply curved. Thus the surface charged density or charge per unit area
is very high at sharp points with very small areas. This is the case with the pear-shaped
conductor as shown in fig. 3.
2. It is also found that charge reside only on the surface of the
conductor not inside, this occurs due to repulsion of similar charges.
Fig 3
For uniformly curved surface such as a sphere, the charge is
Storage of charges - Electrophorus distributed uniformly on the surface.
+ The electrophorus is a device for transferring and storing charges. It
Fig 4 produces electrostatic charge via the process of electrostatic
induction. The electrophorus consists of a dielectric plate and a
metal disc with an insulating handle. The dielectric plate is first
charged by rubbing it with fur or cloth. The metal disc is then
placed onto the dielectric plate (ebonite). The dielectric does not
Fig 5.1 transfer a significant fraction of its surface charge to the metal
because the microscopic contact is poor. Instead the electrostatic
field of the charged dielectric causes the charges in the metal disc to
separate. It develops two regions of charge. The positive charges in
the plate are attracted to the side facing down toward the dielectric,
charging it positively, while the negative charges are repelled to the
Fig. 5.2
5.222
Then, the side facing up is momentarily grounded (which can be done by touching it with a finger), draining off
the negative charge. Finally, the metal disc, now carrying only one sign of charge (positive in our example), is
lifted. These charges are then stored in the disc when the handle is lifted from the ebonite. The amount of the
charge stored can be built up by repeating the above process.
Example 1: When a positively charged conductor is placed near a candle flame, it spread out as shown in the
diagram above, explain this observation.
The candle ionizes the air around the conductor that is striping electrons from the air. The positively charged
conductor attracts the negative charges but repel positive charges which make the flame to spread
GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
What is an Electroscope?
An electroscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of static electricity. It consists of two thin metal leaves
suspended from a metal hook. When the hook is brought near a source of static electricity, some of the electrons in the
hook are pushed to the leaves (if the source is negative) or pulled up to the hook from the leaves (if the source is
positive), either way, the leaves are now charged the same way as each other and so they repel each other. The amount
they open up (divergence of the leaf) is proportional to the charge of the source (if the sources are always held at the
same distance from the hook).
Fig. 6
5.222of Electroscope:
Type
There are various types of electroscope which include:
A pivoted needle called the versorium the first electroscope invented by British physician William Gilbert around
1600.
Straw blade electroscope
The pith-ball electroscope
Gold-leaf electroscope.
Uses of an Electroscope:
An electroscope is used to detect the presence and magnitude of electric charge on a body.
It is used to illustrate electrostatic principles of charging and charge interactions. The electroscope is most
commonly used for detection and testing of small electric charge.
It is used for testing the conducting and insulating properties of materials.
Gold leaf electroscope:
The gold-leaf electroscope was developed in 1787 by British clergyman
and physicist Abraham Bennet, as a more sensitive instrument than pith
ball or straw blade electroscopes then in use. It is a very thin piece of gold
foil (called gold leaf) fixed at the top to a piece of copper/ brass. It
consists of a vertical metal rod, usually copper/ brass, from the end of
which hang two parallel strips of thin flexible gold leaf. A large round
disk or ball terminal is attached to the top of the rod, where the charge to
be tested is applied. To protect the gold leaves from drafts of air they are
enclosed in a glass bottle, usually open at the bottom and mounted over a
conductive base, That is, the piece of copper/ brass goes through
insulation in the top of the glass case, so that any charge on the gold leaf
cannot escape.
Fig. 7.1
5.222
Charging of an Electroscope:
Charges can be transferred to the electroscope by wiping the
charged object across the cap. The charge flows over the
conducting copper/brass and gold, and the gold leaf rises as it is
repelled by having the same charge as the copper/ brass.
Usefulness of Lightning:
Lightning causes ionisation in the air through which it travels; leading to the formation of nitric oxide and ultimately,
nitric acid is of great benefit to plant life.
Lightning conductor:
Lightning, in discharging to the earth, tends to strike the highest part of a building, such as the chimney, and the
charge passes to the earth through the path of least resistance. A considerable heat is produced by the passage of
the current and this can sometimes set a building on fire, hence the need of a lightning conductor on a building.
Fig. 8
A 7.85.22
lightning rod (US) or lightning conductor (UK) is a metal rod or conductor mounted on top of a building and
electrically connected to the ground through a wire, to protect the building from being damaged by lightning. It
2
consist of a metallic rod, taller than the building, is being installed in the walls of the building during its
construction. One end of the rod is kept out in the air and the other is buried deep in the ground. If lightning
strikes the building it will preferentially strike the rod, and be conducted harmlessly to ground through the wire,
instead of passing through the building, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution
Lightning rod working Principle:
How lightning rods serve to protect buildings from the
devastating effects of a lightning strike -
When a strongly charged cloud passes above the conductor,
a large opposite charge is attracted to the points of the
conductor. The two large charges exert very large forces on
the electrons and positive nuclei of the air molecules
between the cloud and the lightning conductor. The forces
are so large that the electrons are torn off the molecules,
leaving them positively charged. Ions or charged particles
are thus formed.
Fig. 9
If the cloud is negatively charged, positive ions7.85.22
are attracted to the cloud. The negative charge flows to the
cloud, so that it loses its charge without any lightning
2 taking place. The air above the conductor now contains
many positive charges. This charge makes it less likely that lightning will strike the building. If the lightning
does strike, the charge is attracted towards the spikes and is carried safe away to the earth through the
conducting strip.
Exercises:
1. A rubber balloon possesses a positive charge. If brought near and touched to the door of a wooden cabinet, it
sticks to the door. This does not occur with an uncharged balloon. These two observations can lead one to
conclude that the wall is _____
A. electrically neutral B. negatively charged C. a conductor D. lacking electrons
2. Which of the diagrams below best represents the charge distribution on a metal sphere when a positively
charged plastic tube is placed nearby?
3. Charged rubber rods are placed near a neutral conducting sphere, causing a redistribution of charge on the
spheres. Which of the diagrams below depict the proper distribution of charge on the spheres? List all that
apply.
4. In the above situation, the conducting sphere is ____. List all that apply.
A. charged B. uncharged C. polarized D. Non-polarized
5. A neutral metal sphere is touched by a negatively charged metal rod. As a result, the sphere will be ____ and
the metal rod will be ____. Select the two answers in their respective order.
positively charged
negatively charged
neutral
much more massive
6. A neutral metal sphere is touched by a negatively charged metal rod. During the process, electrons are
transferred from the _____ to the _____ and the sphere acquires a _____ charge.
a. neutral sphere, charged rod, negative b. neutral sphere, charged rod, positive c. charged rod, neutral
sphere, negative d. charged rod, neutral sphere, positive e. ... Nonsense! None of these describe what occurs.
7. A metal sphere is electrically neutral. It is touched by a positively charged metal rod. As a result, the metal
sphere becomes charged positively. Which of the following occur during the process? List all that apply.
The metal sphere gains some protons.
Electrons are transferred from the sphere to the rod.
The metal sphere loses electrons.
The overall charge of the system is conserved.
Protons are transferred from the rod to the sphere.
8. a. Explain electrostatic induction
b. How would you charge a rod through this method?
c. Mention TWO other methods of producing electrostatic charges order than electrostatic induction
9. A short chain is usually attached to the back of a petrol tanker trailing behind it to ensure that
A. petrol tanker is balanced on the road
B. heat generated by friction in the engine can be conducted to the floor
C. charges generated by friction in the tanker is conducted on the floor
D. chain produces sound for the resonance of the tanker
10. Explain why the following occur
a. an ebonite rubbed with fur attracts small pieces of paper
b. nylon undergarments crackle in dry weather
c. the upper end of a lightning conductor is pointed
d. when a polythene rod which has been rubbed with dry cloth is held above small pieces of paper on a table,
the pieces of paper jump up and down repeatedly between the table and rod.
12. Draw a labelled diagram of a gold-leaf electroscope
Electrical circuit
Standard resistors are those that have fixed resistance values. They are usually in form of
length of resistant wire or pieces of carbon
Variable resistors
Switch or key: The switch or key is the component of the circuit by which the circuit
is completed or broken and the current is made to flow or stop flow.
Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of flow charge through a given point in an electric circuit. It is measured in
Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In most direct current (DC) electric circuits, it can be assumed that
the resistance to current flow is a constant so that the current in the circuit is related to voltage and resistance by
Ohm's law. The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A = 1C/s
Potential Difference:
Consider the task of moving a positive test charge within a uniform electric field from
location A to location B as shown in the diagram at the left. In moving the charge against the
electric field from location A to location B, work will have to be done on the charge by an
. Fig 2 external force.
The work done on the charge changes its potential energy to a higher value; and the amount of work that is done
is equal to the change in the potential energy. As a result of this change in potential energy, there is also a
difference in electric potential between locations A and B. This difference in electric potential is represented by
the symbol ∆V and is formally referred to as the electric potential difference
Definition of Electric potential difference:
By definition, the electric potential difference is the difference in electric potential (V) between the final and the
initial location when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy. In equation form, the electric
potential difference is
work PE
V VB VA
ch arg e Ch arg e
Electric potential difference is also defined as the energy required in moving a unit charge between two specified points.
That is, the potential difference between any two points in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a
positive charged of 1 coulomb from one point in an electric field to another.
The (S.I ) unit of electric potential difference is the volt, abbreviated V and named in honour of Alessandro
Volta. The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric
potential difference that the term voltage sees greater in everyday usage. One Volt is equivalent to one Joule per
Coulomb.
The battery serves as the source of potential difference that makes it possible for current to flow. The battery is
said to have electromotive force (e.m.f) which is able to maintain a current of electricity through a circuit.
DEFINITION OF EMF
We can define the electromotive force as the total work done in moving a unit positive charge completely
through the circuit in which a cell is connected.
Or it defined as the total energy per coulomb obtained from a cell or battery.
Or it is also defined as the potential difference (p.d) between the terminals of a cell when it is not delivering any
current in an external circuit (or when it is in an open circuit).
EMF Where W is measured in joules, Q in coulombs, the e.m.f (E) is in volt. Hence V
OR W
Sources of E M.F
Sources of E M F include:
Chemical cells from batteries; Primary and Secondary cells Examples; simple cell, Daniel cell,
Leclanché cell (wet and dry), Lead Accumulator , Alkaline-cadmium and (Nife) Nickel-iron
accumulator
Solar cells example Photoelectric cells.
Junction cells Example Thermocouple
Generator cells Example Dynamo
Electric Resistance:
Current also depends on the resistance that the conductor offers to the flow of charge, which is called the
electric resistance. The resistance varies in different materials. For example, gold, silver, and copper have low
resistance, which means that current can flow easily through these materials. Glass, plastics, and wood have
very high resistance, which means that current cannot pass through these materials easily.
Definition of Electric Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the opposition to the flow of eclectic
current. It is also defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric current which flows through it. The
unit is ohms . R = V/I where V = volts, I = amps, and R = resistance in ohms.
Ohm's Law
Ohm's law states that the current passing through a metallic conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the two points provided temperature and other physical conditions of the conductor is kept
constant.
IV (1.0)
Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes
this relationship:
V
I (1.1)
R
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the
conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states
that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
The Graph of Voltage V(v) against Current I (A) is plotted and a straight line graph passing through the origin
is obtained. The straight line graph shows that V varies directly with I, thus verifying Ohm’s law. The slope of
the graph gives the resistance of the conductor.
V
Slope R()
I
This experiment is used to demonstrate Ohm’s Law and to obtain the resistance of a conductor.
This means that it is the same at any particular point on the circuit. The voltage in a series circuit does not
remain constant. The voltage drops across each resistor. The total voltage drop across all resistors will add up
to the voltage off the power source.
The total resistance is equal to the sum of the resistance on each component.
eq 2: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 +...+ Rn
(In this case, RT = R1 + R2)
Example 1.
If have a series circuit like this. What are the total voltage,
resistance and current?
First, we have to find out the total voltage using equation 1 above, and then resistance using equation 2, and
finally you can find out the current using equation 3.
Total voltage is 9 + 1 + 16 + 4 = 30 V
Total resistance is 30 + 10 + 40 + 20 = 100 ohm
Using ohm's law, I = V / R, then we can find out the total
current.
I = 30 / 100 = 0.3 A
Parallel Circuits:
In parallel circuits current is spread along the various branches. The current in one branch will not be the same
as in other branches (unless of course all the resistances are the same). The sum of the current in each individual
branch will add up to give the total current of the circuit. The voltage in parallel circuits is actually the same for
each branch, and equal to the voltage of the power source. In series circuits, current is constant, but the voltage
is different, and adds to the total voltage. In parallel circuits, the voltage is constant, but the current varies, and
adds up to the total current in the circuit.
The total voltage is equal in every component.
eq. 4: V0 = V1= V2= V3 =...= Vn
(In this case, VT = V1= V2)
(Parallel Circuit) The total current is equal to the sum of current in each component.
eq. 6: I0= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 +...+ In
(In this case, IT = I1 + I2)
Example 2.
If you have a parallel circuit like this, what are the total resistance and voltage?
Calculate voltage and current on A, B, and C
In order to find out the total voltage, we have to find out the total resistance. Using equation 5, we can find out
the total resistance.
1/R = 1/15 + 1/15 + 1/30 = 5/30, R = 6 ohm
Then using ohm's law, V = I R, we can find out the total voltage.
V = 5 x 6 = 30 V
Using equation 4, we now know the voltage on A, B, and C, which is 30 V each. Using ohm's law again, we can find out
the current on A, B, and C.
IA = 30/15 = 2 A,
IB = 30/15 = 2 A,
IC = 30/30 = 1 A .
When you add up all the current (using equation 6), we get 5 A which is the total current.
Example 3
What is voltage on A, B, and D?
What is current on A, B, C, and D?
What is resistance on C?
What is total current and resistance?
First of all, we have to look at the diagram very carefully (The order of the questions also help us from where we have to
start). We know that the voltage on D is equal to C, which is 80 V. We also know A and B have the same voltage.
Using the voltage law, we can find out the voltage on A and B as
230v VAB VCD 0
230v VAB 80v 0
230v 80v VAB
VAB 150Veach
Now we get all the voltages on each component. Using ohm's law, we can find out the current on A, B, C, and D.
VAB 150 V 150 V 80
IA 5 A, I B AB 5 A, I D CD 2 A, I C 10 2 8 A . The sum of the current on A and
RA 30 RB 30 RA 40
B is equal to that of C and D . A+B = C+D.
2V I 10
9Ω
2V
I 0.2 A
10
V Ir 1 0.2 A 0.20V 9Ω
Arrangement of Cell in Series and Parallel
Series Cell connection
Cells can be connected in series, which means end to end. When two or more cells are connected together the
combination is called a battery; if n identical cells each of e.m.f E and internal resistance r are connected in
series as shown below, the effective e.m.f = nE , the effective resistance = nr.
- + - + - +
V =nE
Example 5; If four cells each of e.m.f 2v and internal resistance 2Ω are connected in series, Calculate the
effective resistance and e.m.f
Solutions
E eff
nE 4 2 8v Reff nr 4 2 8
Parallel Cell connection
Cells can be connected in Parallel, which means side by side. If n identical cells each of e.m.f E and internal
r
resistance r are connected in parallel as shown below, the effective e.m.f = E, the effective resistance =
n
V=E
- + - +
- +
Example 6. If four cells each of e.m.f 2v and internal resistance 2Ω are connected in parallel, calculate the
effective resistance and e.m.f
Solutions
Eeff E
2v
r
Reff
n
2
0.5
4
Production of continuous electric current:
Electric current or continuous flow of charge can be generated from
Chemical energy
Heat energy
Mechanical energy
Solar energy
Production of continuous flow of charge from chemical Energy:
Electricity is produced from chemical energy through the use of electric cells. A cell is a device for converting chemical
energy into electrical energy.
Primary cells
Secondary cells are rechargeable or storage batteries in which the electrochemical reaction is reversible hence
they can supply current for a long period of time. Common examples of primary cells are the Rechargeable
batteries, Lead-acid accumulator, and Alkaline- cadmium. The most common use for secondary (storage)
batteries is for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) in automobiles and engine-generator sets. Other applications
include uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) for emergency and backup power, electric vehicles (traction),
telecommunications, and portable tools.
Production of continuous flow of charge from heat Energy (The thermoelectric effect):
We can show that heat energy can be converted into electric currents by joining two different metallic wires (e.g.
copper and iron) at one end and connecting the free ends to the terminals of a sensitive current detecting device,
e.g. a milligalvanometer. When the junction of the metals is along the wires as indicated by the
milligalvanometer, the junction placed in hot water is known as hot junction, while the ends connected to the
instrument constitute the cold junction.
The greater the difference in temperature between the hot and cold
junctions, the greater the current flow The two metals in this way
constitute a device known as a thermocouple and the electricity
(known as thermoelectricity) is produced by process known as the
thermoelectric effect. The current produced by the thermoelectric
effect is small and can only be detected by very sensitive
galvanometer.
When sunlight falls on a photosensitive surface (e.g. the surface of
potassium, an alkaline metal), electrons are produced whose
movement constitute a current. A photoelectric cell or photocell
consists of a photosensitive surface as a cathode and wire ring as
the anode. If visible light falls on this surface, electrons are emitted
by the photoelectric effect and the flow of these electrons can be
detected as current by micrometer
2V