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Physic SS1

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Physic SS1

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SS1 PHYSICS LESSON NOTE (2018/2019 SESSION)

SS1 PHYSICS SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK


1 REVISION/. HEAT ENERGY /TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETER
*Revision of first term examination, *Concept/definition of heat and temperature * Difference between heat and
temperature * Effect of heat on matter *Use of kinetic molecular theory to explain effect of heat on matter,
*Definition of thermometer *Construction and graduation of a simple thermometer * Temperature Scales *
Types of thermometer * kinetic molecular theory explanation of Temperature.
2. THERMAL EXPANSIVITY AND ITS APPLICATION
*Concept of Thermal Expansion, *Linear expansivity, *Area expansivity, *Volume expansivity, *Kinetic
molecular theory explanation that gas expands more than solid and liquid when heated *Consequence and
Applications of Expansion * Experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a metal rod, *Advantages and
disadvantages of thermal expansion of solids* Thermal Expansion of liquids * Real and apparent expansivity
*Anomalous expansion of water, *simply problems involving Linear, Area and Volume expansivity
3. HEAT TRANSFER
* Transferred heat by conduction and their applications, * Transferred heat by convection and their applications
* Transferred heat by radiation and their applications, *Explaining conduction, convection and radiation in
terms of the molecular theory
4. DESCRIPTION AND PROPERTY OF FIELD
*Concept and definitions of fields, *Types of fields-gravitational and magnetic field and electric field
*Concept and definition of Gravitational field, *Gravitational Field for Two Masses, *Field from a Single Point
Mass, *Concept of Electric field, *Electric lines of force-around isolated +ve charge, isolated –ve charge, two
like charges placed near each other, two unlike charges placed near each other, * Properties of lines of force,
*Coulomb's law,*Electric field intensity,*Electric potential, *Magnetic field, *Field pattern -use of iron fillings
to show fields and field lines
5. GRAVITATIOANAL FIELD AND LAW
*Concept of Gravitational field. *Newton’s Law of Gravitation, *Acceleration due to gravity, *Shape and
dimension of the earth *Gravitational potential, *Potential energy in gravitational field, *Properties of a force
field- force of gravity, , *Escape velocity,
6. ELCTRIC CHARGES/ELECTROSTATICS/ GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
* Electric charges, *Types of charges-charged bodies either similarly or oppositely,
*Electrostatics or Static electricity, *Production of Electrostatic charges (charged bodies) by friction, induction
and contact, *Distribution and storage of charges, * Gold leaf electroscope and its uses, *lighting and lighting
conductor
7. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
*Potential difference, electromotive force, resistance and their unit, * Resistors in series and parallel, cells in
series and parallel, * Ohm's Law and its verification, *Electric cells - primary and secondary, defects of simple
cell cells, * Electrical energy and power. Buying electric current, *Simple calculation on resistors and electrical
energy
WEEK ONE LESSON NOTE
HEAT ENERGY /TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETER

Concept Heat and Temperature


Knowing the difference between heat and temperature is important to lead to a clearer understanding of energy. We must
understand that Heat is not temperature. Often the concepts of heat and temperature are thought to be the same, but they
are not. Perhaps the reason the two are usually and incorrectly thought to be the same is because as human beings on Earth
our everyday experience leads us to notice that when you add heat to something, say like putting a pot of water on the
stove, the temperature of that something goes up. We say that heat moves from heating stove to the cold water. Thus heat
flows from hot to cold object when they are in contact with each other. More heat, more temperature.

Definition of Heat
Heat energy is the energy that is transferred from a hot object to a cooler object as a result of their difference in
temperature. It is defined as a measure of the total internal energy of a body.

Definition of Temperature
Temperature can be defined as:
 The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
 A measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with reference to some standard value.
 A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter.
 A measure of the ability of a substance, or more generally of any physical system, to transfer heat
energy to another physical system.
 Unit of Temperature and Heat: Kelvin and degree Celsius are units of temperature while Joules is the
unit of Heat energy

Difference between Heat and temperature


Heat Temperature
It is a form of energy It is a measure of the degree of the hotness or coldness
of a body
It is the total internal energy possessed by a body It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of the body.
It measures the direction of transfer of temperature It directly relates to the kinetic energy of the
molecules
It causes a change in the temperature of a body It does not change the heat energy of a body
It’s unit is Joules (J) It’s unit is Kelvin or Celsius (K) (oC)

Effects of heat on matter


Effects of heat on (substance) matter include:
1. It causes a rise in temperature
2. It causes a change in state
3. It causes expansion of a body or change in size
4. It causes the change in the physical property of a body or change in colour
5. It causes the emission of electron from the surface of a metal or thermionic emission
6. It causes chemical changes in a body
7. It causes change in the pressure of a gas at constant volume

Use of kinetic molecular theory to explain effect of heat on matter


1. Rise in Temperature
The substance can experience a rise in temperature when heat is added. When heat is added to a substance, the molecules
absorb the heat energy which is converted to the kinetic energy of the molecules hence increases the speed of the
molecules. That is, when the average kinetic energy of the molecules goes up due to added heat, the average speed of the
molecules increases. This increase in average kinetic energy is registered as a number called temperature that changes
proportionally with change in average speed molecules. Note that this increase in the average kinetic energy of the
molecules means that the molecules will now, on average, be travelling faster than before the heat arrived
2. Change of State
The substance can change state if heat is added. For example, if the substance is ice, it can melt into water. Perhaps
surprisingly, this change does not cause a rise in temperature. At the exact moment before melting, the average kinetic
energy of the ice molecules is the same as the average kinetic energy of the water molecules at the exact moment after
melting. That is, the melting ice and the just melted water are at the same temperature. Although heat (energy) is absorbed
by this change of state, the absorbed energy is not used to change the average kinetic energy of the molecules, and thus
proportionally change the temperature. The energy is used to change the bonding between the molecules. Changing the
manner in which the molecules bond to one another can require absorption of energy (heat) as in the case of melting, or
require a release of energy (heat) as in the case of freezing.
So, when heat comes into a substance, energy comes into a substance. That energy can be used to increase the kinetic
energy of the molecules, which means an increase in their temperature which means an increase in their speed. Or at
certain temperatures the added heat could be used to break the bonds between the molecules causing a change in state that
is not accompanied by a change in temperature. Other effects of heat on substance include:
3. Expansion of a body
Addition of heat will usually cause the expansion. During expansion, the dimension or size of the body
increases.
4. Change in the physical properties of a body
Addition of heat to a body may cause change in the electrical resistance, magnetic properties, conductivity,
elasticity, density and colour of a body.
5. Thermionic Emission
Addition of heat to a metal may result in emission of electrons from the surface of the metal. The process is
known as thermionic emission
6. Chemical change
When heat is added on a body, it may bring about changes in the chemical properties of the body
7. Change in pressure
Added heat to a gas may bring about increase in the pressure and volume of the gas.

What is thermometer?
A Thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using a variety of different
principles. A thermometer has two important elements:
The bulb on a mercury thermometer (that is, the temperature sensor) in which some physical change occurs with
temperature and scale on a mercury thermometer (that is, means of converting this physical change into a
numerical value).

Construction and graduation of a simple thermometer


A thermometer is calibrated by using two objects of known temperatures. The typical process involves using the
freezing point and the boiling point of water. Water is known to freeze at 0°C and to boil at 100°C at an
atmospheric pressure of 1 atm. By placing a thermometer in mixture of ice water and allowing the thermometer
liquid to reach a stable height, the 0-degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer. This is known as the
Lower Fixed Point.

Definition of Lower Fixed Point


The Lower Fixed point is defined as the temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure
760mm of mercury.

Similarly, by placing the thermometer in boiling water (at 1 atm of pressure) and allowing the liquid level to
reach a stable height, the 100-degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer. This is known as the Upper
Fixed Point.

Definition of Upper Fixed Point


The Upper Fixed point is defined as the temperature of a steam from pure water boiling at standard atmospheric
pressure 760mm of mercury.

With these two markings placed upon the thermometer, 100 equally spaced divisions can be placed between
them to represent the 1-degree marks. Since there is a linear relationship between the temperature and the height
of the liquid, the divisions between 0 degree and 100 degree can be equally spaced. The difference in
temperature between the two temperature points is called Fundamental interval (or temperature interval) of the
thermometer. With a calibrated thermometer, accurate measurements can be made of the temperature of any
object within the temperature range for which it has been calibrated.

Temperature Scales:
The calibration of this interval depends on the temperature scale chosen. There are three types of scales in
current use:
 The Celsius scale,
 The Fahrenheit scale and
 The Absolute (or thermodynamic or kelvin) scale

 Celsius scale:
The thermometer calibration process described above results in what is known as a centigrade thermometer. A
centigrade thermometer Lower and Upper fixed points are 0°C and 100°C. It has 100 divisions or intervals
between the normal freezing point and the normal boiling point of water. Today, the centigrade scale is known
as the Celsius scale, named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius.
 Fahrenheit Scale:
A thermometer can be calibrated using the Fahrenheit scale in a similar manner as was described above. The
difference is that the normal freezing point of water is designated as 32 degrees and the normal boiling point of
water is designated as 212 degrees in the Fahrenheit scale. As such, there are 180 divisions or intervals between
these two temperatures when using the Fahrenheit scale. The Fahrenheit scale is named in honour of German
physicist Daniel Fahrenheit.
Temperatures expressed by the Fahrenheit scale can be converted to the Celsius scale equivalent using the
equation below:

Similarly, temperatures expressed by the Celsius scale can be converted to the Fahrenheit scale equivalent using
the equation below:
°

 The Kelvin Temperature Scale:


While the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are the most widely used temperature scales, there are several other
scales that have been used throughout history. For example, there is the Rankine scale, the Newton scale and the
Romer scale, all of which are rarely used. Finally, there is the Kelvin temperature scale, which is the standard
metric system of temperature measurement and perhaps the most widely used temperature scale used among
scientists. The Kelvin temperature scale is similar to the Celsius temperature scale in the sense that there are
100 equal degree increments between the normal freezing point and the normal boiling point of water.
However, the zero-degree mark on the Kelvin temperature scale is 273.15 units cooler than it is on the Celsius
scale. So a temperature of 0 Kelvin is equivalent to a temperature of -273.15 °C. Observe that the degree
symbol is not used with this system. So a temperature of 300 units above 0 Kelvin is referred to as 300 Kelvin
and not 300 degree Kelvin; such a temperature is abbreviated as 300 K. Conversions between Celsius
temperatures and Kelvin temperatures (and vice versa) can be performed using one of the two equations below.

TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
Thermometers use any physical property of a substance which varies in a known way with temperature, and is
easily measurable as a means of gauging temperature. The substance of whose physical property is so used is
known as a thermometric substance. Direct temperature measurements are based on any of the easily
measureable properties of matter that change uniformly with temperature. Today, there are different types of
thermometers and thermometric substances. These include:

Types of Thermometers Thermometric substance Properties of Thermometric


substance
Liquid-in-glass thermometer Mercury, Spirit and Alcohol. Change in volume of a fixed mass of
liquid with temperature
Constant – volume gas thermometer Gas change in pressure of a fixed volume
of gas with temperature
Resistance thermometer Resistance wire change in the electrical resistance of
a fine piece of wire with temperature
Thermoelectric/Bimetallic thermometer Two dissimilar metals (e.g. copper Change of electric current (or
and constantan) electrical potential difference)
between two metal junction at
different temperature.
Choice of a thermometric Liquid:
For Liquid – in – glass thermometer, some of the desirable properties of the liquid are that it should;
1. Expand or contract uniformly with temperature
2. High coefficient of expansion
3. Be good conductor of heat
4. Have high boiling point and low melting point
5. Be easily seen in glass (be opaque)
6. Have low specific heat capacity

Comparison between water and Mercury as a thermometric substance


Water is not suitable for use as a thermometric liquid Mercury is suitable for use as a thermometric liquid
because because
(i) it wets glass (i) it does not wets glass
(ii) it expands abnormally (ii) It expands regularly
(iii) it needs to be coloured (it is colourless) (iii) has silvery colour that makes it easily seen
(iv) it has fairly high boiling point (iv) it has very high boiling point
(v) it vaporizes easily (v) It is not easily vaporize
(iv) it is a poor conductor/low conductivity (iv) it has high conductivity
However mercury has a relatively high freezing point (-39oC), hence cannot be used for low temperature.
Alcohol’s expansion is not quite as regular as mercury‘s but its freezing point is low (-119oC) hence it can be
used to measure low temperature but cannot be used to measure high temperature because its boiling point is
(78oC)

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
A liquid-in-glass thermometer is widely used due to its accuracy for the temperature range -200 to 600°C.
Compared to other thermometers, it is simple and no other equipment beyond the human eye is required. The
LIG thermometer is one of the earliest thermometers. It has been used in medicine, metrology and industry.
Thermometers with mercury were found to give a more linear scale than spirits. In response to our
understanding of the danger which mercury exposure poses to human health, alcohol was used in place of
mercury. These liquid thermometers are based on the principal of thermal expansion. When a substance gets
hotter, it expands to a greater volume. It is the basis of the design and operation of thermometers.

Characteristics of a thermometer:
All thermometers have limitations. In general, there are three characteristics concerning a thermometer. These
include; Sensitivity, Linearity and Range.

Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the ability to give a large response to a small change in temperature. A sensitive thermometer is able
to detect small changes in temperature. It can also give a rapid response to temperature change.

To make a liquid-in-glass thermometer sensitive,


 a bulb is used , a reservoir in which the working liquid can expand or
contract in volume. Large bulb will cause a big change in volume of the
mercury, which will appear as a change in the length of mercury up the
capillary tube.
 a stem a glass tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and
enlarged at the bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with a working
liquid. Making the capillary tube small also increase the sensitivity of
the thermometer because volume change results in a big change in the
an inert gas is used for mercury length
intended
oftoliquid
high temperature.
up the tube.
a working liquid usually mercury or alcohol. Lastly, a liquid-in-glass thermometer may increase its sensitivity by
choosing a liquid that expand more. Alcohol expands more than mercury, and would make a thermometer more sensitive
than a mercury-in-glass thermometer.
a reference point, a calibration point, the most common being the ice point

Linearity
A temperature scale is calibrated using two fixed points. Between these two fixed points, 100 equal divisions are marked
to represent temperature change of 100 °C. It is fixed or engraved on the stem supporting the capillary tube to indicate the
range and the value of the temperature. It is the case for the precision thermometers whereas for the low accurate
thermometers such as industrial thermometer, the scale is printed on a separate card and then protected from the
environment. Different materials change their thermometric properties differently at different temperatures. Hence, a good
thermometer should have thermometric property that changes linearly in between the two fixed points such that the
thermometric property at a particular temperature corresponding to the reading on the interpolated scale.

Range
Range refers to the operating temperature which the thermometer can be used. A laboratory thermometer can measure
from -10 °C to 110 °C, beyond which the scale will not be able to register any readings. The expanding liquid column
may even break the thermometer if the expansion is restrained beyond the maximum 110 °C.

The thermometer is filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen above the mercury to reduce its volatilization
The accuracy of measurement depends mainly on the extent of immersion of the thermometer into the medium - not just
the bulb but also the stem. As the temperature of the liquid in a thermometer increases, its volume increases. The liquid is
enclosed in a tall, narrow glass (or plastic) column with a constant cross-sectional area. The increase in volume is thus due
to a change in height of the liquid within the column. The increase in volume, and thus in the height of the liquid column,
is proportional to the increase in temperature.

Clinical Thermometer
This is the form of mercury- in – glass thermometer used in the hospitals for measuring the temperature of the human
body. Since the normal human body temperature varies from 35 0C to 430C, the range of the clinical thermometer is
between these temperatures.

Clinical thermometer

The clinical thermometer consists of a short tube with a narrow bore through which the tube makes it possible
for small temperature changes to cause large changes in the length of the mercury column, thus making the
thermometer very sensitive to temperature changes. Also there is a narrow constriction or kink in the stem just
above the bulb. The bulb itself is made of thin glass. When the thermometer is put under the person’s tongue or
armpit and left for some time the mercury thread expands along the tube, indicating the temperature, when the
temperature is taken from the mouth, the mercury column does not contract into the bulb again. It breaks at the
constriction and remains in the stem the position it was when it was in the mouth, the temperature can thus be
read slowly and carefully, and recorded. Before being used again, the thermometer is shaken to force the
mercury back also sterilised.
Note: it is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure
because the extreme high temperature of boiling water (100 oC) is greater than the temperature of 43oC which a
clinical thermometer can withstand. The thermometer then expands under the influence of this extreme high
temperature and then crack.

Six's thermometer
Six's thermometer is a thermometer which can measure the
maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a period
of time, usually during a day. It is commonly used wherever
a simple way is needed to measure the extremes of
temperature at a location, for instance in meteorology and
horticulture. It is also commonly known as a maximum
minimum thermometer, of which it is the earliest practical
design and the most common type used. It is an example of
a registering thermometer that is a thermometer that keeps
a record of where the temperature has been in the past. It
gives three readings:

the current temperature,


the highest temperature reached since it was last reset,
and the lowest temperature reached since it was last reset.

It consists of a U-shaped glass tube with two separate temperature scales set along each arm of the U. One of these is for
recording the maximum temperature encountered and the other for the minimum temperature. The arms of the U-shaped
tube terminate in sealed glass bulbs. The bulb at the top of the minimum reading scale arm is full of alcohol, the other
contains a vacuum (or low pressure alcohol vapour).
In the bend of the U is a section of mercury, a metal which is liquid at normal temperatures. This is pushed around the
tube by the thermal expansion and contraction of the alcohol in the first bulb as it responds to the external temperature.
The near vacuum in the other bulb allows free movement of the alcohol and mercury. It is the alcohol which measures the
temperature; the mercury indicates the temperature reading on both scales. This is unlike a normal mercury thermometer,
in which the expansion and contraction of mercury itself indicates temperature.
The thermometer shows a reading at the top of the mercury section on both the maximum and minimum scales; this shows
the current temperature and should be the same on both scales. If the two reading are not the same, then the instrument
scales are not correctly positioned or the instrument is damaged.
Constant -volume gas thermometer
A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in
volume or pressure of a gas. One common apparatus is a constant
volume thermometer. It consists of a bulb connected by a
capillary tube to a manometer. The bulb is filled with a gas such
that the volume of the gas in the bulb remains constant. The
volume is related to temperature by k, known as Charles's Law .
The pressure of the gas in the bulb can be obtained by measuring
the level difference in the two arms of the manometer.
Uses: Gas thermometers are often used to calibrate other
Resistance thermometer thermometers.
Resistance thermometers are also called resistance temperature
detectors or resistive thermal devices (RTDs). These are sensors
used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD
element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of
fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element
is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to
protect it. The RTD element is made from a pure material whose
resistance at various temperatures has been documented. The material
has a predictable change in resistance.
As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs).
They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 °C, due to higher
accuracy and repeatability.
Thermoelectric thermometer
A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different
conductors (usually metal alloys) that produce a voltage
proportional to a temperature difference between either ends
of the pair of conductors. A thermoelectric is a type of metal
thermometer that can measure a tremendously (high) wide
range of different temperatures using the principle of
thermocouple. They are inexpensive and interchangeable. In
contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement,
thermocouples are self-powered and require no external form
of excitation. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may
also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple.
The main limitation of thermocouples is accuracy since system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult
to achieve. Though thermocouples are often not extremely precise, they can work in environments other thermometers
can't. There are specially designed thermocouples that can measure temperatures to nearly absolute zero and others that
can work in the hottest ovens.
How Thermocouples Work
A thermocouple does not measure absolute temperature, but rather the difference in temperature between two points.
When two different metals (e.g copper and constantan) are joined at the ends and one end (hot junction) is heated, while
(the cold junction) is kept constant in melting ice, electric current flows along the metals which creates a voltage between
the two ends. This is thermoelectric effect and the setup is thermocouple
The greater the temperature difference, the greater the current. Different metals react at different rates, and a thermocouple
actually makes use of two metals, joined at the sensor end. At the circuitry end, they are attached to a meter that uses the
difference in voltages between the metals to calculate the temperature differential

Uses
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Other applications include temperature measurement for kilns,
gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
sensor for measurement and control. They can also be used to convert a heat gradient into electricity.

Molecular Explanation of Temperature


Kinetic theory of matter, explains that all matter is composed of tiny particles called molecules. These
molecules are always in motion with varying velocities. When a substance is heated, the velocity of the
molecules and hence their kinetic energy of the molecules appears as an increase in the temperature of the body.
The temperature of a body is thus proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules. The average
kinetic energy of molecules of a body becomes zero at absolute zero temperature (-273K). At this temperature
the pressure of the a gas is also zero.
ASSIGNMENT
 Define Heat and temperature
 Differentiate between Heat and temperature
 List FIVE effects of heat on a substance
 Use kinetic theory to explain TWO effects of heat on a substance
 A thermometer with an arbitrary scale, S, of equal divisions registers -30 S at ice point and +90 S at the
o o

steam point. Calculate the Celsius temperature corresponding to 60 oS.


 Give THREE reasons why water will NOT be a good choice of thermometric liquid
 Describe how a simple thermometer can be constructed with the aid of a diagram.
 Explain the working principle of thermoelectric thermometer.
 Which of the following cannot be used to measure the temperature?
a) Variation of pressure with temperature
b) Expansivity of a liquid
c) Change in colour with temperature
d) Change in resistance of a conductor
 On what principle does the following thermometer operates
a) Liquid –in-glass thermometer
b) Constant-Volume gas thermometer
c) Resistance thermometer
d) Thermoelectric thermometer
 Define upper and lower fixed points
 The resistance in the element of a platinum resistance thermometer is 9.60Ω at 0 oC, 12.10Ω at 100oC
and 10.20Ω at room temperature. Calculate the room temperature on the scale of the resistance
thermometer.
 List THREE characteristics of a thermometer and explain three ways a thermometer can be made
sensitive
 A thermometer has its stem marked in millimetre instead of degree Celsius. The lower fixed point is 30
mm and the upper fixed point is 180 mm. Calculate the temperature in degree Celsius and Kevin when
the thermometer reads 45 mm.
 Define thermometer
 List FOUR types of thermometer and their thermometric substances
 Explain briefly the working principle of clinical and six’s thermometers
 Explain why it is NOT advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water at normal
atmospheric pressure.
 List TWO properties of mercury which makes it suitable thermometric liquid
 State THREE physical properties of substances which may be used to measure temperature
 Perform the appropriate temperature conversions in order to fill in the blanks in the table below.
Celsius (°) Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K)
a. 0
b. 212
c. 0
d. 78
e. 12
f 210
WEEK TWO LESSON NOTE
THERMAL EXPANSION- Linear, Area and Volume Expansion

CONCEPT OF EXPANSION
When heated most solids and liquids expand. They also contract when cooled. Expansion means increase in size
of an object. Thermal expansion includes Linear, Area and Volume Expansion.

LINEAR EXPANSION:
Different solids expands by different amounts when heated over the same temperature range, the fractional
thermal expansion of uniform linear object is proportional to the temperature change. Copper for example
expands more than steel when both are heated through the same temperature. This is because they have different
coefficient of linear expansion or linear expansivity. The relation governing the linear expansion of a long rod
can be shown as follows
Length change = original Length x alpha x delta T
=
- = L0
= where Linear Expansion
is the fractional change in length
: is the linear expansivity coefficient. Different substances expand by different amount. s the fractional change in
temperature. The change in temperature determines the fractional change in length. One would expect that 2 oC change in
temperature would lead to twice as much expansion as a 1oC change. L = increase in length and Lo = original length

Definition of Linear expansivity:


Linear Expansivity of a substance is defined as the increase in length per unit length per degree rise in
temperature. In symbols, this is equivalent to:
where ,
,
,
= temperature rise which is given by ,
= = expansion or increase in length.
The unit of is per 0C or per K (K-1)

Example 1: Calculate the change in length for a steel rod of length 20m at 20 oC if the temperature after heating
is 50oC. Take of steel as 13x10-6 K-1.

Solution:
=
= 20m = 20.0078m
= = 0.0078m

Example 2: Explain the statement that the linear expansivity of copper is 0.000017 K-1 or 0.000017oC-1 .

The statement that the linear expansivity of copper is 0.000017 K-1 or 0.000017oC-1 implies that a unit length of
copper expands by 0.000017 units when it is heated through 1 K (or 1 oC) rise in temperature.

AREA EXPANSION:
Over small temperature ranges, the thermal expansion is described by of the coefficient of linear expansion. If
the linear expansion is put in the form
= then =
In most cases the quadratic term above can
be neglected since the typical expansion coefficient
is on the order parts per million per degree C.
the expression then becomes

Definition of Area or Superficial expansivity (


Area or Superficial expansivity is increase in area per unit area per degree Kelvin increase in temperature or
fractional increase in area per Kelvin rise in temperature.
Area Expansivity
Where , , ,
N/B
VOLUME or CUBIC EXPANSION:
Over small temperature ranges, the thermal expansion is described by the coefficient of linear expansion. If the
linear expansion is put in the form
= Then the expansion volume has the form
= ( )3=
In most cases the quadratic term above can be neglected
since the typical expansion coefficient is on the order parts
per million per degree C. the expression then becomes
=

Definition of Volume or Cubic expansivity (


It is defined as increase in volume per unit volume per degree Kelvin increase in temperature or fractional
increase in volume per Kelvin rise in temperature.
Volume Expansivity
Where , , ,

Note

Example 3:
The linear expansivity of the material of a cube is . If the length of each side of the cube is
10cm, find the area of one face of the cube and the volume of the cube when its temperature is raised by 30K.

Solution:
Initial area of a face of cube
Initial volume of cube
.
.

Kinetic molecular theory explanation that gas expands more than solid and liquid when heated
According to kinetic molecular theory, when an object is heated, the molecules acquire more kinetic energy
which enables them to overcome their intermolecular forces therefore the vibration of the molecules increase
and their displacement about their mean position increase. As a result of this, the average distance between the
molecules of the substance becomes larger leading to an increase in size of the substance. This increase in the
dimension of the heated object depends on the strength of the intermolecular forces. If these forces are strong,
the expansion will be small and vice and vice versa. The intermolecular forces are stronger in solid than in
liquid and weakest in gases, hence when heat is applied, gases expand more than liquids and liquid expands
more than solids. Each particular substance has intermolecular forces peculiar to it. Therefore the addition of
heat causes different expansion in different substances.

Experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a metal rod


Procedure:
The original length Lo of the metal rod is measured at room temperature. The room temperature  1 is measured
by a thermometer while the original length is measured by a meter rule. The metal rod is then placed in a steam
chamber. One end of the rod touches the pillar while the other end has the micrometre screw gauge tightened on
it until contact is made. This is known when bulb in circuit shows light. The reading on the micrometre screw
gauge is now recorded as x1. The screw is now turned back to allow for expansion. Steam is then allowed into
the chamber through the inlet. This steam heats the metal rod causing expansion of the rod when the
temperature is close to 100oC . The new temperature is noted as the screw is adjusted forward to make contact
again with the metal rod. The new micrometre reading x2 is the noted and recorded
Result:
Original length of the = Lo initial temperature of the rod  1
Final temperature of the rod =  2 initial screw gauge reading = x1
Final screw gauge reading = x2
Calculations:
Increase in length = x2 – x1, increase in temperature =  2  1
Linear expansivity
increase in length x2  x1
 
original length  increase in temperatur e Lo ( 2  1 )

Consequences and Applications of Expansion


Expansion in solid has many consequences and applications. They include
 Expansion in buildings and bridges
 Thermostat, the balance wheel of clocks/watches, the bimetallic strip thermometer and Electric fire
alarm
 The over-head cables causing sagging of telegraph wires
 Railway lines ; buckling in railway lines

 Expansion in buildings and bridges:


Expansion in buildings
In hot weather, you can hear creaking noises if you are under a roof of a building made of galvanised iron
sheets. This is due to the iron expanding as it gets hot. As the temperature comes down in the evening, creaking
noise is repeated as the sheets contract.
Expansion in bridges
Metal structure such as a bridge expands when heated. Such expansion
has to be allowed for during the design of a bridge so that the structure
does not fracture under the action of the large force resulting from
expansion. In order to allow for expansion one end of the bridge is fixed
and another rest on rollers in an expansion joint or gap. Bridge expansion
joints also allow enough vertical movement to allow bearing replacement
without the need to dismantle the bridge expansion joint.

Expansion Joint on Bridge


An expansion joint or movement joint is an assembly designed to
safely absorb the heat-induced expansion and contraction of various
construction materials, to absorb vibration, to hold certain parts
together, or to allow movement due to ground settlement or
Expansion Joint on Concrete earthquakes. They are commonly found between sections of sidewalks,
bridges, railway tracks, piping systems, ships, and other structures. See
aside examples of expansion joints; expansion joint on concrete.

 The Bimetallic Strips:


The bimetallic strip consists of two strips of different metals
which expand at different rates as they are heated, usually steel
and copper, or in some cases brass instead of copper. The strips
are joined together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or
welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one
way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below its
initial temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of
thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip
is heated and on the inner side when cooled. The sideways
displacement of the strip is much larger than the small lengthways
expansion in either of the two metals. This effect is used in a
range of mechanical and electrical devices. In some applications
the bimetal strip is used in the flat form. In others, it is wrapped
into a coil for compactness. The greater length of the coiled
version gives improved sensitivity
APPLICATIONS OF BIMETALLIC STRIP
A. Thermostat
Thermostat is a device for maintaining a steady temperature. In the regulation of heating and cooling, thermostats that
operate over a wide range of temperatures are used. In these, one end of the bimetal strip is mechanically fixed and
attached to an electrical power source, while the other (moving) end carries an electrical contact. In adjustable thermostats
another contact is positioned with a regulating knob or lever. The position so set controls the regulated temperature, called
the set point. Thermostat is used in electric laundry irons, in refrigerators, hot water storage tanks, and electric fire alarm
and gas ovens.

The bimetallic strip of an electric thermostat is used to


control the temperature of an electric laundry iron. When the
current is switch on, the temperature of the electric iron
increases. When the electric iron reaches the desired
temperature, the bimetallic strip which is now curved,
separates from the contact point C, thereby switching off the
current. As the iron cools, the strip strengthens up again and
re-makes contact, thus switching on the electric current once
more. This make- and- break device regulates the temperature
of the electric iron.
Some thermostats use a mercury switch connected to both electrical leads. The angle of the entire mechanism is adjustable
to control the set point of the thermostat. Depending upon the application, a higher temperature may open a contact (as in
a heater control) or it may close a contact (as in a refrigerator or air conditioner).
The electrical contacts may control the power directly (as in a household iron) or indirectly, switching electrical
power through a relay or the supply of natural gas or fuel oil through an electrically operated valve. In some
natural gas heaters the power may be provided with a thermocouple that is heated by a pilot light (a small,
continuously burning, flame). In devices without pilot lights for ignition (as in most modern gas clothes dryers
and some natural gas heaters and decorative fireplaces) the power for the contacts is provided by reduced
household electrical power that operates a relay controlling an electronic ignitor, either a resistance heater or an
electrically powered spark generating device.

B. Bimetallic strip thermometer:


A bimetallic strip thermometer is used to convert a
temperature change into mechanical displacement. The
thermometer consists of a spiral form of bimetallic strip
made of invar (which hardly expands), and brass. The brass
is on the outside of the strip and the invar inside. One end of
the spiral strip is fixed and the other attached to the spindle
of the pointer. Uneven expansion of metals of the strip due
to rise in temperature causes it to curve in the clockwise
direction. This curving movement makes the pointer to
move over a scale and record the increase in temperature.

C. The balance wheel of clocks/watches:


The balance wheel of clocks and watches is made up of
bimetallic strip usually of brass in steel. The strips bends
inward on expansion and compensates both for the onward
expansion of the spokes of the wheel and then reduced
elasticity of the hairspring which occur when the temperature
of the clock rises in hot weather. Without this bimetallic
device an increase of temperature increases the diameter of
the balance wheel and weakens the elasticity of the
hairspring, thus causing the watch to lose time

D. Electric fire alarm:


An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence of fire by monitoring
environmental changes associated with combustion. It is made up of bimetallic strip usually of brass in steel. In
general, a fire alarm system is classified as either automatically actuated, manually actuated, or both. Automatic
fire alarm systems are intended to notify the building occupants to evacuate in the event of a fire or other
emergency, report the event to an off-premises location in order to summon emergency services, and to prepare
the structure and associated systems to control the spread of fire and smoke through the expansion of the strip.
 Expansion in Railway Tracks:

Rail Track
To allow for expansion and contraction,
gaps are left between sections of rail on
Oval hole for nut and the railway track. The ends held in line
Nut and bolt Gap with fishplates, which are strips of metal
bolt to slide along
bolted to the ends of the rails by slotted
holes. Without the gaps, the railway will
buckle and train would be derailed
Advantages of thermal expansion of solids:
1. Used for temperature control as in the thermostat found in electric iron and refrigerator
2. To join steel structure in process called reverting
3. To fit a wheel on a rim
4. To fir a cork on a bottle

Disadvantages of thermal expansion of solids:


1. The balance wheel of a wrist watch
2. The buckling of a railway track due to expansion in the hot afternoon and contraction on cold weather
3. Sagging of metal cable
4. The creaking sound made by corrugated iron sheet due to expansion

Expansion of glass:
Expansion of glass cup with hot water
If hot water is poured into a thick glass bottle or tumbler, it is liable to crack. This is due to the uneven
expansion of the glass. The glass is a poor conductor of heat and so also water. When boiling water is poured
into the glass cup, the inner layer/surface quickly expands while the outer layer/surface remains at room
temperature. Resulting unequal expansion between these layers/surfaces generate thermal stress in the cup. This
stress causes the glass to crack. A type of glass called Pyrex is therefore used for making laboratory beakers
and flasks to avoid the above effects because Pyrex has a low thermal expansivity.
If on the other hand the cup is immersed in cold water that is heated from room temperature to boiling, the
heating gradually raises the temperature of water and cup in succession and without the development of
(applicable) thermal stress in the cup. The temperature gradient across the wall of the cup is (negligibly) small
at any point in time hence cracking does not occur.

Removal of a glass cork or stopper


We can remove a tight glass stopper of a glass bottle without cracking either the bottle or the stopper by either
standing the bottle in a hot water making sure that the stopper is not in the water or warming the neck of the
bottle with a flame. As the bottle expand the stopper becomes lose.

Thermal Expansion of Liquid:


We shall consider only the volume expansion of liquid in this lesson. The concept of thermal expansion of
length or surface of a liquid is not meaningful as a liquid has no definite shape like that of a solid due to the
following facts:
 The expansion in liquid is usually much more than in a solid for a same rise in temperature; on an average 10
times more.
 The rate of expansion of a same liquid sometimes differs greatly in different temperature ranges. Example:
The amount of volume expansion of water in the range of 10oC-11oC is quite different from that in the range
of 93oC- 94oC

Apparent and Real Expansion of Liquids:


A liquid is heated while keeping it in a container. There occurs an expansion of the solid container along with
the liquid. But the amount of expansion of the container is small compared to that of the liquid. Thus the
expansion of a container is not usually noticeable.
When the expansion of liquid is considered ignoring the expansion of the container, it is called apparent expansion
When the expansion of liquid is considered alongside with the expansion of the container, it is the real expansion
of liquid. It is calculated by adding the expansion of the part of the container containing liquid (before
expansion) with the apparent expansion of liquid. That is; Real expansion = Apparent expansion + expansion of
the container
Definitions of Coefficients of Apparent and Real expansions of Liquid:
We have two different coefficients of expansion for a liquid corresponding to apparent and real expansions.

Coefficient of apparent expansion for liquid:


The amount of apparent expansion of unit volume of a liquid for a unit change of temperature is called
coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid.
If the initial volume of the liquid is V0 and the final apparent volume which is observed to be due to an
increase in temperature ∆T = T - T0 , the apparent expansion of volume of the liquid is
The coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid can be written as
…………………..(1)
Thus we can write .

It may be easily understood that the coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid cannot be a characteristic
property of a liquid as the apparent expansions will be different when containers of different materials are taken.

Definition of Apparent cubic expansivity/ Coefficient of apparent expansion ( ) of a liquid:


It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature.

Coefficient of real expansion for liquid:


The amount of real expansion of unit volume of a liquid for a unit change of temperature is called coefficient of
real expansion of liquid. If the initial volume of the liquid is V0 and the final real volume which is calculated to
be
due to an increase in temperature ∆T = T - T0 , the real expansion of the volume of liquid is
The coefficient of real expansion of liquid is
……………………..(2)
Thus we can write, .
The coefficient of real expansion is a property of a liquid as the real expansion of volume of a liquid is not
dependent on the expansion of the container.

Definition of Real cubic expansivity / Coefficient of Real expansion ( ) of a liquid:


It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature when the liquid is heated
in an expansible vessel.

The apparent expansivity depends on the cubic expansivity of the material of the vessel so the real expansivity
of a liquid is always more than its apparent expansivity. It can be shown that the difference between the real
and the apparent expansivity of a liquid is the cubic expansivity of the vessel. Hence

Example 1: The cubic expansivity of mercury is 1.8 x l0 -4k-1 and the linear expansivity of glass 8.0 x l0 -6K-1
Calculate the apparent expansivity of mercury in a glass container.

Solution
Data given:
Cubic expansivity of mercury ) = 1.8 x l0-4k-1
Cubic expansivity of the glass =3
Formular:

The Anomalous Expansion of Water:


Most liquids contract when they solidify and expand when
they are heated. The atoms in the liquid form bonds and move
closer together. The molecules move faster, jostle each other
more and are further apart on average. Water is strange in this
respect. If water at 0 degrees Celsius is heated, it contracts
and becomes less dense. It keeps contracting when heated
until 4 degrees Celsius, and then it starts expanding. That is,
its volume decreases (i.e. it contracts) as its temperature is
Maximum raised from 0oC to 4oC. Beyond 4oC, the behaviour of water is
Density
Density normal in that its volume increases (i.e. expands) with
increases temperature.
Most molecules, when they change their state from liquid to solid, contract and become more densely packed. When water
changes its state gradually from liquid to solid, it contracts and becomes more buoyant. That is the reason why the ice
floats in liquid instead of sinking. If water cools it shrinks until it reaches a temperature of four degrees centigrade. At
four degrees Celsius, water expands and becomes denser until it reaches zero degrees Celsius. Pure water at 0 degrees
Celsius has a density of 1000 Kg/m3 but pure ice at 0 degrees Celsius has a density of 920 Kg/m3.
The anomalous behaviour of water between 0 oC to 4oC is one of the reasons of water not being suitable as a thermometric
liquid. Also the expansion of water is not regular even above 4oC.

The anomalous expansion is useful in very cold climates for the preservation of aquatic life. It means the bottom of a lake
is the last part to freeze, so fish can usually survive the winter.

How Do Fish Survive in Icy Waters?


In cold winter months, lakes and rivers freeze over forming ice. Yet, fish and other aquatic animals manage to survive.
Do they also become blocks of ice? How do aquatic animals survive in frozen lakes and ponds? Animals like seals,
penguins, walruses and a wide variety of sea birds are all fish eaters. They live in the Arctic and Antarctic Circle, amidst
the icecaps. The land is completely frozen. Yet these animals manage to live in this region. How do they do it?
The icy waters of the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans support a great amount of marine life. For millions of years life has
remained unchanged, making it possible for these animals to adapt themselves to these particular patterns of existence.
But they do get some help from nature. All liquids have a boiling point and a freezing point.
When water boils at a certain temperature it turns into steam. When it is cooled to a certain temperature it freezes and
becomes ice. Water boils at 100 degree Celsius (100 °C) and freezes at 0 °C. When the outside temperature falls below the
freezing point of water, lakes and rivers get frozen. However, only the top layer of the lake or river freezes. Underneath
the frozen upper layer, the water remains in its liquid form and does not freeze. Also, oxygen is trapped beneath the layer
of ice. As a result, fish and other aquatic animals find it possible to live comfortably in the frozen lakes and ponds.
But why doesn't the entire body of water freeze, like a giant, lake-sized ice-cube? Generally, all liquids expand on heating,
but water is an exception to this rule. If water is heated, its volume gradually decreases. (This decrease in volume
continues till the temperature rises to 4°C.) At temperatures over 4°C water starts expanding. It then keeps expanding with
the further rise in temperature, till finally at 100 °C it turns into steam.
In other words, at 4 °C, water has the least volume (occupies the least amount of space) and maximum density (is at its
heaviest). This irregular expansion of water is called anomalous expansion. This anomalous expansion plays an important
role by only freezing the upper layer in lakes and rivers.
During winter months in colder countries the outside or atmospheric temperature is very low - it drops to below freezing -
and the upper layers of water in the lakes and ponds start cooling. When the temperature of the surface layers falls to 4 °C,
the water body acquires maximum density and sinks down. The water that sinks down displaces water below, and the
lower layers of water simultaneously rise up. This also gets cooled to 4 °C and again sinks down. When the temperature of
the water body finally goes below 4 °C, the density or heaviness of water decreases and as a result water does not sink
down. The surface water finally freezes at 0 °C while the lower part still remains at 4 °C. The light frozen layer of ice
floats on top.
Ice does not allow heat to pass through it easily, so the freezing of the waters below is a very slow process. At depths
below 30 metres, temperatures are cold and stable, but food is scarce. As a result animals have adapted to this situation by
growing more slowly. There are other dangers that fish face in freezing waters - like death. The body fluid of an ordinary
fish can solidify if the temperature of the surrounding water drops below -5 °C. So Arctic and Antarctic fish have adjusted
to their surroundings in an interesting manner.

Assignment
 The increase in volume of 10cm3 of mercury when the temperature rises by 100 oC is 0.182cm3. What is the
cubic expansivity of mercury?
a. 0.000182 K-1 b. 0.000178 K-1 c. 0.00182 K-1 d. 0.0000182 K-1 e. 0.0000187 K-1
 A brass rod is 2 m long at a certain temperature. What is its length for a temperature rise of 100K. If the
expansivity of brass is ?
a. 2.00036 m b. 2.1800 m c. 2.0018 m d. 2.0360 m
 On a cold morning, the metal blade of a cutlass feels colder to touch than the wooden handle because
a. The blade is at a lower temperature than the handle.
b. The hand is at a lower temperature than both blade and handle
c. The blade is a better conductor of heat than the handle
d. The handle contains some heat which is absent in the blade
e. The handle is better conductor of heat than the blade
 The following are effect of heat on matters Except _______
a. Change of state and change in velocity
b. Expansion of a body and change of state
c. Change in electrical resistance and thermionic emission
d. Chemical change and pressure
 The S.I unit of temperature is _______
a. Degree Fahrenheit b. Degree Kelvin c. Celsius d. Kelvin
 Energy transferred from a hot object to cooler object as a result of their differences in the measure of average
kinetic energy of matter is_______
a. Light energy b. Thermometer c. Temperature d. Heat energy
 A measure of the ability of a substance to transfer heat energy to another physical system is known as ____
a. Thermometer b. Thermostat c. Pyrometer d. Temperature
 A non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation is called _______
a. Pyrometry b. Pyrometer c. Pyrometric d. Pyromaths
 Which of the following has the smallest temperature increment
a. Degree Celsius b. Absolute Zero scale c. Degree Kelvin d. Degree Fahrenheit
 A thermocouple works on the principle of _______
a. Variation of emf with temperature
b. Variation of volume with temperature
c. Variation of resistance with temperature
d. Variation of pressure with temperature
 A glass bottle of initial volume is heated from . If the linear expansivity of glass is
, the volume of the bottle at is _______
a.
 A brass measuring tape is correct at 20oC. The value obtained when the length of a field is measured with the
rule at 50oC appears to be 70.5 m, what is the true length of the field? Linear expansivity of brass
,
a. 70.5001 b. 70.5003 c. 70.4962 d. 70.4961
 Find the values of A, B, C ,D E in the following table
S/N Original length, area, or Linear expansivity Rise in Increase in
volume , temperature in length, area, or
K volume
1 0.5 m 10 15 A
2 2.0 m 25 B 3.0 mm
3 0.6 m C 80 1.0 mm
4 D 16.7 100 25 mm2
5 500mm2 18 E 0.36 mm2
 What is meant by the statement: the linear expansion of zinc is 2.6  10 5 K 1 ?
 Describe an experiment to determine the linear expansivity of a zinc rod
 State TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of thermal expansion of solids
 A metal cube of volume V and linear expansivity  is heated through a temperature rise of T. The increase in
volume of the cube is ____
a. 3  VT b. 2  VT c.  VT d.  VT/3
 A density bottle of volume 500 cm is filled with a liquid and heated from 20 oC to 60 oC. if 7.5 cm3 of liquid is
3

expelled, the apparent cubic expansivity of the liquid is _____


5 1
a. 7.5 10 K
4 1
b. 3.75  10 K
5 1
c. 3.75  10 K
4 1
d. 7.5  10 K
 Which of the following diagram correctly illustrates the shape of a bimetallic strip made of brass and iron after
heating?

 Explain why a thick glass cup crack when boiling water is poured into it but the same cup would not crack
when immersed in a bath of cold water which is then heated to boiling point.
 When heat is added to a substance, this causes the following Except _______
a. Rise in temperature b. Change in electrical reactance c. Change in electrical resistance d. Change
in pressure
 In which of the following is expansion of solids a disadvantage?
a. Fire alarms b. The thermostat c. The balance wheel of a wrist watch d. The fitting of the wheel in
rims
WEEK THREE LESSON NOTE
HEAT TRANSER
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that is concerned with the generation, use, conversion, and
exchange of thermal energy and heat between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various
mechanisms/modes such as: conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction or diffusion is the transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact.
Convection is the transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion
Radiation is the transfer of energy to or from a body by means of the emission or absorption of electromagnetic
radiation
Mass transfer: The transfer of energy from one location to another as a side effect of physically moving an
object containing that energy. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either
cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur
simultaneously in the same system.

Concept of Thermal Conduction


If a metal spoon is used to fry some yams in hot oil, one notices that the handle of the spoon soon becomes very
hot. Again if one uses an aluminium cup to transfer hot water from a cooking pot to a bucket, the handle of the
cup soon becomes so hot that it is impossible to hold it. The heat of hot oil or boiling water has been transferred
to the hand through the metal spoon or cup. This heat has travelled through the metal by the process of
conduction.
Heat of conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles
through the boundary between two systems. In solids, the molecules are tightly packed together, held together
by strong forces of attraction called cohesive force, are arranged in regular pattern and are not free to move
about, but merely vibrate about their mean positions.
Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal
contact. Fluids especially gases are less conductive. Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat of
conduction between solid bodies in contact, other types of conductions include:
Steady state conduction: is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the
conduction is constant, so that after an equilibration time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the
conducting object does not change any further. In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section
is equal to amount of heat coming out.
Transient conduction: occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of time. Analysis of
transient systems is more complex and often calls for the application of approximation theories or numerical
analysis by computer.

Definition of Conduction:
Conduction of heat is defined as the process by which heat is passed along a stationary solid material, the average or mean
position of the heated particles of the material remaining the same.

Kinetic molecular theory explanation of conduction:


Kinetic molecular theory of matter explains that heat transfer by conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating
atoms and molecules interact with neighbouring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these
neighbouring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms of solid vibrate about their
mean position continuously when heated; the molecules nearest to the source of heat receive the heat first and vibrate with
an increase in velocity and kinetic energy. These molecules transfer the heat to the neighbouring molecules. This heat is
the passed on gradually until the molecules at the other end of the solid receive it.
OR
When one end of a material is heated, the molecules there gain energy and vibrate with increasing speed. They therefore
bump against neighbouring molecules more than before and so transfer greater energy to them. This goes on all the way
along the solid. All the molecules of the solid eventually vibrate more rapidly about their fixed or mean position.
Therefore in this way thermal energy is transferred along the solid although the average or mean position of the molecules
remain unchanged.
Most metals allow heat to pass through them and are said to be good conductors of heat. Non-metal such as
wood, cotton and cork do not allow heat to pass through them and are said to be poor conductors or insulators.
Good Poor conductors/ Practical application of good Practical application of
conductors are insulators are Non- conductors Poor conductors
metal such as metals such as:
Silver Wood Cooking Utensils- Pots, Handle of cooking
frying pans utensil

iron Styrofoam Tile/cemented floor Rug/carpet floor do not


conducts heat rapidly away conduct heat rapidly
from the one’s foot hence away from the one’s
cools. foot
steel paper Galvanised iron roof Thatched roof do not
conducts heat from the sun conduct heat from the
into the room hence heats up sun into the room
the room hence cools
Copper Air Silk/ nylon do not keep the Woollen/fur clothing
body warm by holding air keeps the body warm
between the cloth and the by holding air between
body but conductors heat. the cloth and the body
Though all metal are classed as good conductors, they differ in their ability to conductor heat. We can compare the ability
of metals to conduct heat, or their thermal conductivity
Experiment to compare the thermal conductivity of material:
The apparatus has a number of equal lengths of rods, each made of a different metal.
The rods must be coated with wax. This can be done by one of the following
methods:
Water Tank
i. Take the rods out of the water box and lay them in a chilled tin tray containing
molten paraffin-wax. Remove quickly, hold vertically to allow the excess wax to
drain off, and push them back into the water box.
wood

Iron
Lead

Brass
Copper

ii. Keep the rods in the water box. Paint each rod with a paint brush dipped in very
hot molten wax. This produces an uneven, thick coating of wax, which must then be
thinned by blowing a Bunsen flame up and down the rod.
Equal length of rods of different metals such as copper, iron, aluminium, brass and one rod of a non-metal such
as wood, all of equal cross-sectional are suck lightly into a small tank, so that a good length of the rods protrude
outside the tank. The rods are coated with paraffin wax as explained above. Boiling water is then poured into
the tank. After several minutes, it is noticed that different length of the wax has melted from the metal with the
greatest length of copper and the least length of wood. More length of wax on the copper was melted than that
of brass, iron and wood in that order. Thus copper has the greatest thermal conductivity and wood has least.

Thermal Conductivity in liquids


In general, liquids are poor conductors of heat, but metal in liquid form, such as mercury is a very good
conductor. However, heat is transferred through liquids mainly by the process of convection.

Experiment to show that water is a bad conductor of heat


A piece of ice is wrapped with wire gauze and dropped into a tilted test
tube containing water. The heat is applied near the top of the test tube
using a Bunsen burner. It is observed that although the water at the top is
boiling for sometimes, the ice at the bottom remains apparently unmelted.
This is because only small amount of heat is conducted from the top to
the bottom of the water showing that water is a poor conductor of heat.
Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.
Concept of Thermal Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection
Convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat of conduction within
the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming.
Convection is the up and down movement of gases and liquids caused by
heat transfer. As a gas or liquid is heated, it warms, expands, and rises
because it is less dense and falls. As the gas or liquid warms and rises, or
cools and falls, it creates convection current.
Convection is the primary method by which heat moves through gases and liquids. Examples of convections
are: Warmer water at the surface of a lake or swimming pool, Wind currents, Hot air balloon, Lower floors of a
building being cooler than the top floor.
Definition of Convection
Convection is defined as the process by which heat energy is transferred from the hotter region of a liquid or gas to the
colder region of the fluid by the actual movement of the heated fluid.
Heat of convention can be of two types namely: Natural convection and forced convection.
Free, or natural, convection: occurs when bulk fluid motion (gas or liquid) are
caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of
temperature in the fluid. For instance when water is being heated on a stove, water
in contact with hot base of the container rises because it is less dense than cold
water. The cold, dense water moves down and convectional current is set up.
Convectional currents are fluids that move due to temperature difference in the
fluids
Forced convection: is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid are
induced by external means such as fans, stirrers, and pumps creating an artificially induced convection current.
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy
forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own
transfer.
Kinetic molecular theory explanation of convention:
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of
fluid molecules, a process that is essentially transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk motion of fluid enhances
heat transfer between the molecule of the liquid, as the liquid warms and rises, or cools and falls, it creates
convection current. The molecules of liquid are not arranged in any regular pattern. The molecules are able to
slide past one another because the cohesive force between molecules of liquids is not as strong as in solids.
Therefore the molecules move with different speeds, some of the faster molecules escape from the surface of
the liquid, giving rise to evaporation
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CONVECTION CURRENTS IN COOLING DEVICES
Ventilation of a Room Good ventilation in houses relies on the continuous circulation of
convection air currents. Air heated by respiration and fires, rises
towards the ceiling and escapes through the ventilators placed near the
ceiling. This is replaced by fresh air from outdoor which enters the
rooms through the windows and other openings. In this way the room
is ventilated.

2. The Domestic hot water system also works on the principle of


convection current The dense cool water from the
main water supply C descends in
the heating coil chamber A, when
the water is heated it becomes less
dense hence rises up in the
Circulation of air in a room chamber B where it comes out
from the tap, some of the hot water
3. Cooling of motor car
moves up the while the cool water
engine:
comes down hence creating a
convectional current
The motor car engine requires to be cooled to prevent overheating.
Continuous convection currents are utilized in the cooling process of the
car engine. Water circulates round the engine by convection currents.
The heat generated by the engine is conducted by metal to the water in
the jacket. The water itself is cooled by the draught of air created round
4. Room air condition: Air molecules near thebyceiling
the radiator get cooled
the motion of thebecomes denser
car and the and sink.
movement of Warmer
the fan. air
molecules below being lighter rise to the top, get cooled, become denser and sink again; thus convectional
current is set up.
Land and sea breeze
An example of a convection current in nature is the land and sea breeze observed near coastal area.
Sea breezes A sea-breeze (or onshore breeze) is a wind from the sea
that develops over land near coasts. It is formed by
increasing temperature differences between the land and
water; these create a pressure minimum over the land due
to its relative warmth, and forces higher pressure, cooler
air from the sea to move inland. Generally, air temperature
gets cooler relative to nearby locations as one move closer
SEABREEZE to a large body of water
During the day, the sun shines on both land and sea. The land gets heated up faster than the sea because the sea
has a greater heat capacity than land and therefore the surface of the sea warms up slower than the land's
surface. As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it. The warm air is less
dense and so it rises. This rising air over the land lowers the sea level pressure by about 0.2%. The cooler air
above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows towards the land into the lower pressure; creating a
cooler breeze near the coast thus convection current is created. The strength of the sea breeze is directly
proportional to the temperature difference between the land and the sea. The cool breeze that blow inland from
the sea is known as Sea breeze.
Land breezes
At night, the land is not being heated by the sun and cools
off quicker than the ocean because the sea has a greater heat
capacity than land and therefore the surface is more able to
absorb and retain heat than the land, which forces the dying
of the daytime sea breeze. If the land cools below that of
LAND BREEZE
the adjacent sea surface temperature, the pressure over the
water will be lower than that of the land. This sets up a land
breeze, which is a cool breeze now moving from the land to
the sea.
If there is sufficient moisture and instability available, the land breeze can cause showers or even
thunderstorms, over the water. Overnight thunderstorm development offshore due to the land breeze can be a
good predictor for the activity on land the following day, as long as there are no expected changes to the
weather pattern over the following 12–24 hours. This is mainly because the strength of the land breeze is
weaker than the sea breeze. The land breeze will die once the land warms up again the next morning.
Thermal Radiation
The final major form of heat transfer is by radiation, which occurs in any transparent medium (solid or fluid) but may also
even occur across vacuum (as when the Sun heats the Earth). When electromagnetic waves travel through space, it is
called radiation. When electromagnetic waves come in contact with an object, the waves transfer the heat to that
object. Thermal radiation therefore is energy emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves due to the pool of
thermal energy that all matter possesses that has a temperature above absolute zero.
Thermal radiation propagates without the presence of matter through the vacuum of space. The sun warms the
earth through the radiation of electromagnetic. It is a direct result of the random movements of atoms and
molecules in matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles (protons and
electrons), their movement results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from
the surface.

Definition of Radiation
Radiation is defined as the process by which heat is transfer from a hotter to a cooler place without heating of
the intervening medium. That is the transfer of energy through space by means of electromagnetic waves in
much the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light. The same laws that govern the transfer of
light govern the radiant transfer of heat. Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal
radiation can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating
solar power generation. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower and
during the day it can heat water to 285 °C (545 °F). A red-hot iron objects transferring heat to the surrounding
environment primarily through thermal radiation. Other examples of radiation heat transfer are; camp fire,
microwave oven and a light bulb
The intensity of heat radiated by a surface increase with:
1. The area of the surface
2. The absolute temperature of the surface
3. The colour and brightness of the surface: black, dull surfaces are generally better radiator/absorber of
radiant heat than silvery and shiny surfaces.

PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES OF RADIATION


The Thermos flask
A vacuum-flask (popularly known as a Thermos flask,
Cork Stopper which is a trade name) is a double-walled vessel with
the space between the two walls exhausted of air as
completely as possible. It was originally devised by Sir
James Dewar for preserving liquefied gases at very
Silvered inner surface
low temperatures from evaporation. The nature of heat
transference means that the substance contained in a
Liquid contents vacuum-flask remains at its temperature for very much
Vacuum longer than if it were in an ordinary single walled
Double- walled vessel. That is it is used to keep the temperature of its
glass vessel contents constant. If we put hot water in the flask it
Cork Support will remain hot, if we put ice cold water it will remain
The essential features of a vacuum flask consist of ice cold.
a double- walled glass vessel with the inside coated with silver,
a vacuum between the walls,
the stopper is made of an insulating material, such as cork or plastic. The bottom of the glass vessel is supported
with insulating cork.
The functions of various features are as follows:
The vacuum prevents heat losses by conduction and convection, since a material medium is require for these
two processes
The silvered wall prevents heat loss by radiation. Silver is a poor radiator, and any heat from one wall tends to
be reflected back by the other
The insulating cork or plastic stopper reduces heat loss by convection from the contents upwards to the outside.
The stopper is a poor conductor of heat so it prevents heat loss by conduction.
Because of all these features, heat lost or gained by the flask from the surrounding is very small. Hence the flask
keeps cold liquids cold and hot liquids hot, for a long time.
Other practical consequences of radiation include:
An electric pressing iron has a silvered surface at the base. The bright surface reduces the heat loss from the
iron by radiation
Factory roof are brightly painted with aluminium to keep the interior cool, since the bright surface will not
absorb much heat from the sun.
A brightly painted car is preferred to a black- painted car in Nigeria and other hot tropical countries. The black-
painted car can absorb and retain heat from the sun and inside the car will be very hot.
On the bases of the above it is easy to see why it is not advisable to wear a dark coloured jacket or shirt in a hot
afternoon. The dark cloth will absorb the radiant heat of the sun and cause the wearer to feel hot and
uncomfortable. It is preferable to wear a white cloth which will not absorb the heat but will rather reflect it
away from the body
The outer surface of a teapot is brightly polished. Such a surface radiates less heat than an unpolished one and
will therefore retain heat inside the teapot for a longer period.

Exercises:
1. List two factors that can affect heat transfer by conduction and radiation
2. Explain convectional current
3. State TWO practical application of convectional currents in cooling devices
4. Give TWO modes of heat transfer other than conduction
5. Use kinetic theory of matter to explain the mechanism by which heat is transmitted through solids and liquids
6. Describe an experiment to show that water is a bad conductor of heat.
7. Draw and label a diagram showing the essential parts of a thermos flask
8. Explain how a flask can retain heat for a very long time
9. Which of the following is a reason why a concrete floor feels colder to the bare feet than a mat on the same
floor during the rainy season?
a. Mat is a better conductor of heat than the feet
b. Mat loses heat to the bare feet at a faster rate than concrete floor.
c. Mat loses heat to the bare feet than concrete while the concrete floor extracts heat from them
d. Concrete floor is better conductor of heat than the concrete floor
10. Cooking pots are usually made of metals because metals
a. Have high coefficient of expansion
b. Have low specific heat capacity
c. Are poor conductor of heat
d. Are good conductor of heat
11. A house whose roof is painted white feels cooler on a hot day than one whose roof is painted black because
a. White is a better conductor of heat than black
b. Black is a better conductor of heat than white.
c. White is a better reflector of heat than black
d. Black is a better reflector of heat than white
12. Which of the following is NOT suitable method for reducing heat from hot metal ball?
a. Placing it in a vacuum b. Painting it black c. Placing it on a rubber support d. Wrapping it with
cotton wool
13. In an electric kettle the heating element is usually located near the bottom of the kettle because
I. Cold water is denser than hot water
II. Heat is transmitted to all parts of water primarily by convection
III. Heat is quickly conducted to all parts of the water
IV. Loss to the surroundings is minimized
A. I and II only B. III and IV only C. I, II and III only D. I, II and IV only
14.The heat of the sun reaches the earth’s surface by the process of
a. Convection b. Conduction c. Radiation d. Precipitation
15Two identical kettles X and Y are filled with water at 100 oC. The outer surface of X is painted black
while that of Y is polished
a. X cools faster because a blackened surface radiates faster than a polished surface
b. X cools faster because it is a better conductor of heat
c. Y cools faster because it is a better reflector of heat
d. Y cools faster because a polished surface is a better radiator of heat than a blackened surface.
16. A thermos flask has a double-walled glass container in which heat losses are minimized by
a. Evacuating the space between the glass walls b. Silvery the surface on either side of the evacuated
space c. Covering the container with cork of low thermal conductivity
17.Which of the following attire is most comfortable on a hot sunny day?
Black a. white b. Red c. Blue
The heat from a fire in a room is transmitted to various parts of the room primarily by
a. Convection b. Conduction c. Diffusion d. radiation
WEEK FOUR LESSON NOTE
DESCRIPTION AND PROPERTIES OF FIELD

Concept of Field:
Fields can be defined as a region or space in which the influence of some physical agency such as gravitation,
magnetism and electricity is detected or felt. If the physical agency is magnet, the field is known as magnetic
field. If it is gravity, the field will be gravitational field. If it is electricity, the field is electric field. Fields
creates a force known as force fields.
Force field is defined as force whose sources do not require contact with the body to which they are applied.
Such force fields are identified as gravitational force, electric force, magnetic force and electromagnetic force.
There are two classes of force fields; scalar and vector force fields. A scalar field is one that has only magnitude
but no direction, e.g. temperature, energy and density. A vector field is a field that has both magnitude and
direction, e.g. gravitational, magnetic and electric fields.
Field lines:
A field line is an imaginary line or locus that is defined by a vector field and a starting location within the field. A vector
field line is the tangent line to the path at which each point is required to be parallel to the vector field at that point. It
defines a direction at all points in space.

Field lines are useful for visualizing vector fields, which are otherwise hard to depict. Note that, like longitude and
latitude lines on a globe, or topographic lines on a topographic map, these lines are not physical lines that are actually
present at certain locations; they are merely visualization tools.
Field lines start at sources and end at sinks of the vector field. (A "source" is wherever the divergence of the vector field is
positive; a "sink" is wherever it is negative.) In physics, drawings of field lines are mainly useful in cases where the
sources and sinks, if any, have a physical meaning, as opposed to e.g. the case of a force field of a radial harmonic.
For example, Gauss's law states that an electric field has sources at positive charges, sinks at negative charges, and neither
elsewhere, so electric field lines start at positive charges and end at negative charges. (They can also potentially form
closed loops, or extend to or from infinity). A gravitational field has no sources, it has sinks at masses, and it has neither
elsewhere, gravitational field lines come from infinity and end at masses. A magnetic field has no sources or sinks
(Gauss's law for magnetism), so its field lines have no start or end: they can only form closed loops, or extend to infinity
in both directions.
Types of fields:
There three types of vector fields, they include: Gravitational field, Electric field and magnetic field
Concept of Gravitational field:
If we throw up massive object, it is our common observation that they move up to their highest points, stationary very
briefly and eventually move downward, falling faster until they hit the ground level or the lowest level on their path. The
up and down movement of objects on the earth’s surface are subject to the influence of the Gravitational field of the earth.
Gravity is a force that exists between the Earth and the objects that are near it. As you stand upon the Earth, you
experience this force. We have become accustomed to calling it the force of gravity and have even represented it by the
symbol Fgrav.
Definition of gravitational field:
The gravitational field at any point P in space is defined as the gravitational force felt by a tiny unit mass
placed at P.

Field from a Single Point Mass


GM
Field from a single point mass has field strength of . The points
r2
are towards the mass, that is, the direction of the attraction. If we
draw a few vectors showing its strength at various points it shows
rather inadequate representation because there is a lot of blank space,
and, besides, the field attracts in three dimensions, there should be
vectors pointing at the mass in the air above (and below) the paper.
But the picture does convey the general idea.
A different way to represent a field is to draw “field lines”, curves such that at
every point along the curve’s length, that is, its direction is the direction of the
field at that point. Of course, for our single mass, the field lines add little
insight:

The arrowheads indicate the direction of the force, which points the same way
all along the field line. A shortcoming of the field lines picture is that although
it can give a good general idea of the field, there is no precise indication of the
field’s strength at any point. However, as is evident in the diagram above, there
is a clue: where the lines are closer together, the force is stronger. Obviously,
we could put in a spoke-like field line anywhere, but if we want to give an
indication of field strength, we would have to have additional lines equally
spaced around the mass.
Gravitational Field for Two Masses
The next simplest case is two equal masses. Let us place them symmetrically above and below the x-axis:

Recall Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation states that any two


masses have a mutual gravitational attraction . A point
mass m = 1 at P will therefore feel gravitational attraction towards
both masses M, and a total gravitational field equal to the vector
The Principle of Superposition sum of these two forces, illustrated by the red arrow in the figure
The fact that the total gravitational field is just given by adding the two vectors together is called the Principle
of Superposition. This may sound really obvious, but in fact it is not true for every force found in physics: the
strong forces between elementary particles do not obey this principle, neither do the strong gravitational fields
near black holes. But just adding the forces as vectors works fine for gravity almost everywhere away from
black holes, and, as you will find later, for electric and magnetic fields too. Finally, superposition works for any
number of masses, not just two: the total gravitational field is the vector sum of the gravitational fields from all
the individual masses. Newton used this to prove that the gravitational field outside a solid sphere was the same
as if all the mass were at the centre by imagining the solid sphere to be composed of many small masses.
Field Strength at a Point Equidistant from the Two Masses
It is not difficult to find an exact expression for the gravitational field strength from the two equal masses at an
equidistant point P. Choose the x,y axes so that the masses lie on the y-axis at (0, a) and (0,-a). By symmetry,
the field at P must point along the x-axis, so all we have to do is compute the strength of the x-component of the
gravitational force from one mass, and double it.
If the distance from the point P to one of the masses is s, the
GM
gravitational force towards that mass has strength 2 .
s
This force has a component along the x-axis equal to
 GM 
 2  cos  , where  is the angle between the line from P
 s 
to the mass and the x-axis, so the total gravitational force on
 GM 
a small unit mass at P is 2 2  cos  directed along the x-
 s 
x axis.  GM  x
From the diagram, cos   , so the force on a unit mass at P from the two masses M is 2 2 
s  s s
Concept of Electric field:
The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. Surrounding any object with charge, or collection of
objects with charge, is an electric field. Any charge placed in an electric field will experience an electrical force. In
physics, an electric field surrounds electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic fields. It depicts the force that
is exerted on other electrically charged objects by the electrically charged particle the field is surrounding.
An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it which results in a force exerted on any other
charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the
gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship
with distance.
This suggests similarities between the electric field E and the gravitational field g, so sometimes mass is called
"gravitational charge".
Similarities between electrostatic and gravitational forces:
Both act in a vacuum.
Both are central and conservative.
Both obey an inverse-square law (both are inversely proportional to square of r).
Both propagate with finite speed c, the speed of light.
Electric charge and relativistic mass are conserved; note, though, that rest mass is not conserved. However,
there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the
electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion.
Differences between electrostatic and gravitational forces:
Electrostatic forces are much greater than gravitational forces (by about 10 36 times).
Gravitational forces are attractive for like charges, whereas electrostatic forces are repulsive for like charges and
attractive for unlike charges
There are no negative gravitational charges (no negative mass) while there are both positive and negative
electric charges. This difference combined with previous implies that gravitational forces are always attractive,
while electrostatic forces may be either attractive or repulsive.
Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus
gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.
Electric Field lines:
The electric field lines are the paths that a point (isolated small) positive charge would follow if placed in the field. OR,
they are imaginary lines drawn in an electric field in such a way that the direction at any point (or direction of the tangent)
gives the direction of the electric field at such a point. It has no physical existence. The field permeates all the intervening
space between the lines.

For example, consider the electric field arising from a single, isolated point charge.
Field lines emanating from an Field lines emanating from an
isolated positive charge above a isolated negative charge above
plane conductor a plane conductor

Properties of lines of force/ field lines:


Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties which include
They originate from positive charges and terminate at negative charges. The number of lines starting or ending is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge
They must enter any good conductor at right angles. A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface.
The field is therefore zero at all places inside the body.
They may never cross nor close in on themselves.
They are continuous in any region with free charges
They are drawn such that the electric field is proportional to the number of lines crossing unit area perpendicular to the
lines.
The closer the lines are together, the stronger the electric field in that region
They indicate the direction of the electric field.
Electric lines of force-around isolated positive charge:

Let us use the idea of a test charge to produce the E field for an
isolated positive field charge. We place small, positive test charges in
the vicinity of the field and draw the force vector on each. Note that
the closer the test charge is to the field charge, the greater the force,
but all force vectors are directed radially outward from the field
charge. At any point near the field charge, the force vector points in
the direction of the electric field. Thus we have a field that looks like
a sea urchin, with field lines radiating outward from the field charge
to infinity in all direction, not just in a plane. The number of field
lines drawn is arbitrary, but they should be evenly spaced around the
field charge. What if the field charge were negative?

Electric lines of force-around isolated –ve charge:

The opposite is true for an isolated negative field charge. No matter how complex the
field is, the electric force on a test charge is always tangent to the field line at that
point.

Electric lines of force-around two like equal charges placed near each other:

With two equal identical field charges, the field is symmetric but all field lines go to infinity (if the charges are
positive) or come from infinity (if the charges are negative). As with any field the net force on a test charge is
tangent to the field. Here, each field charge repels a positive or negative test charges. The forces are shown as
well as the resultant vectors, which are tangent to the field lines.
Electric lines of force-around two unlike equal charges placed near each other:
For two equal unlike field charges, the positive and
negative charges have the same magnitude as shown
above. The field lines move out from the positive charge
than land on the negative. Those that do not land on the
negative charge go to infinity. As always, net force on a
test charge is the vector sum of the two forces and it is
tangent to the field.

Electric line between two parallel plates carries unlike charges of


equal magnitude

Electric lines of force-around, two like Unequal amount charges placed near each other

With two like unequal field charges, more field lines emanate from the greater charge; none of the field lines
cross and they all go to infinity. The field lines of the greater charge look more like that of an isolated charge,
since it dominates the smaller charge. If you looked at the field from a great distance, it would look like that of
an isolated point charge due to one combined charge.

Electric lines of force-around, two unlike Unequal amount charges placed near each other

For unequal unlike field charges, the positive charge has a greater magnitude than the negative charge. This explains why
the field is as shown above. More field lines come from the positive charge than land on the negative. Those that do not
land on the negative charge go to infinity. Since the positive charge has greater magnitude, it dominates the negative
charge, forcing the “turning points” of the point to be closer to the negative charge. If you were to observe the field from a
distance, it would look like that of an isolated, positive point with a charge equal to the net charge of the system.
Second Law of Electrostatics or Coulomb's law:
The fundamental equation of electrostatics is Coulomb's law, which describes the force between two point
charges.
Coulomb's law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point electric charges Q1 and Q2 is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of each charge and inversely proportional to the surface
QQ KQ1Q2
area of a sphere whose radius is equal to the distance between the charges: FC  1 2 2 
4r  0 r2
Where, ε0 is a constant called the vacuum permittivity or permittivity of free space, has a unit of C2N−1m−2 or F
m−1
= point charges have unit of coulomb (C)
r = distance between the charges has unit of metre (m)
1
k has unit of Nm 2 C 2 OR F 1
4 0
Definition of Electric Field strength or Intensity:
We defined electric field strength or intensity as the electric force per unit (positive) charge on any “test charge”
placed in the field:

 F
E where
q
F is the electric force experienced by the test charge, a vector
q is the charge of the test charge in the electric field, a scalar
E is the electric field wherein the particle or charge is located. It defines the direction of the net electric force on
a positive charge; its units are N / C.
E and F are only parallel if the test charge is positive.
From the definition of electric field intensity and Coulomb's law, it follows that the magnitude of the electric
 Q
field E created by a single point charge Q is: E ( r ) 
4r 2 0
As is clear from the definition, the direction of the electric field is the same as the direction of the force it would exert on a
positively-charged particle, and opposite the direction of the force on a negatively-charged particle. Since like charges
repel and opposites attract (as quantified below), the electric field tends to point away from positive charges and towards
negative charges.
Electric potential:
The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field
experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work.
Definition of Electric potential:
The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required in bringing a unit test charge from an infinite
distance slowly to that point. It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work
must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity. Therefore, Electric potential, V, is defined as the
electric potential energy per unit charge. At any given distance from a charged surface in a uniform field, the electric
potential is a constant. Thus potential is independent of charge. If Q > q and they are at the same distance from the
surface, Q will have more potential energy than q, but they are at the same potential.

In a uniform field V = E d. Where V is electric potential, E is electric field; d is the distance from a charged surface in a
uniform field. Electric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude but no direction.

Concept of magnetism and Magnetic field

A bar magnet consist of two poles North and South poles. The poles of a magnet are the portion
of the magnet where its magnetic attraction appears to be strongest. Like or similar poles of
magnets repel each other but unlike or dissimilar poles attract each other.
Properties of a Magnet
1. Magnets attract objects of iron, cobalt and nickel.
2. The force of attraction of a magnet is greater at its poles than in the middle.
3. Like poles of two magnets repel each other.
4. Opposite poles of two magnets attracts each other.
5. If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread and if it is free to rotate, its South Pole will move toward the North
Pole of the earth and vice versa.

Magnetic field
The region or space around a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can be felt of detected is called
magnetic field.
Magnetic line of force
The magnetic line of force of a magnetic field is the line along which a free N-pole would tend to move in the
field or a line such that the tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the field at that point.
Characteristics of Magnetic line of force
1. Magnetic lines of force start from the North Pole and end at the South Pole.
2. They are continuous through the body of magnet
3. Magnetic lines of force can pass through iron more easily than air.
4. Two magnetic lines of force cannot intersect each other; otherwise the magnetic field would have two
possible directions at the point of intersection.
5. They tend to contract longitudinally.
6. They tend to expand laterally.
Field pattern with iron fillings
If a tiny sheet of glass is placed over a bar magnet, and some iron
sprinkle on the glass and taped gently, it is observed that the
filings are spread evenly over the magnetic field but all aligned in
the direction of the field. Then, based on the scale and
Field pattern with a Compass needle ferromagnetic properties of the filings they damp the field to
either side, creating the apparent spaces between the lines that we
see.
The magnetic field of a bar magnet can be investigated with a
compass needle. The magnetic poles of both bar magnet and compass
needle are symbolized by the following colors:
north pole red
south pole green
If you move the magnetic needle with pressed mouse button, the
magnetic field line through the centre of the compass needle will be
drawn with blue colour.

The blue arrows mark the direction of the magnetic field which is defined as the direction indicated by the north
pole of the compass needle. If you turn the magnet by using the red button, the direction of the field lines will
reverse. The left button makes it possible to clear all field lines.

Exercises
1. Explain what is meant by a field as used in physics
2. Mention THREE types of field you know
3. Distinguish between scalar fields and vector fields. Give TWO examples of each.
4. Draw the lines of force associated with the following situations:
i. Two unlike point charges of equal magnitude
ii. A positive charge in isolation
iii. Two parallel plate carrying unlike charges of equal magnitude
5. What do you understand by the poles of a magnet?
6. Explain the following term: magnetic field, magnetic lines of force
7. Explain why the lines of force of a magnetic do not cross each other
8. How can you plot the lines of force in the magnetic field of a bar magnet? Draw a diagram to show the
arrangement of such lines of force
9. Identify the force field from the following: Density field, temperature, gravitational field, electrostatic field,
electric field
10. Which of the following will experience a force when placed in a magnetic field; Glass, iron, steel pins pieces of
paper, aluminium?
11. An electron of charge 1.6 x 10-19 C is accelerated in vacuum from rest at zero volts towards a plate at 40KV.
Calculate the kinetic energy of the electron.
Explain what is meant by: (i) electric field intensity, (ii) electric lines of force
Two similar but opposite charges –q and +q each of magnitude 5.0 x 10-8C are separated by a distance of 8.0 cm
in vacuum as shown in the diagram below
-q P +q

5cm 3cm
Calculate the Electrical field intensity E at the point.
1
Draw the lines of forces due to this system of charge Take  9 109 Nm 2C 2 .
4 0
-5
12. A charge of 1.0 x 10 coulombs experiences a force of 40 N at a certain point in space. What is the electric field
intensity?
Define the following terms: (i) electric field intensity (ii) electric potential
Two point charges of magnitude + 20 x 10-8C and 5.0 x 10-8C are separated by a distance of 10cm in vacuum
as shown in the diagram below

Calculate:
the electrical field intensity E at the point P, midway between the charges
the force on -4 x 10-8C charge placed at P
1
[ Take  9 109 Nm 2C 2 .]
4 0
WEEK FIVE LESSON NOTE
GRAVITATIOANAL FIELD AND LAW

Concept of Gravitational field


Recall that surrounding any object with mass, or collection of objects with mass, is a gravitational field. Any
mass placed in a gravitational field will experience a gravitational force.

Definition of gravitational field strength:


We defined the field strength as the gravitational force per unit mass on any “test mass” placed in the field
given as
F
g
m
where g is a vector that points in the direction of the net gravitational force; its units are N / kg.
F is the vector force on the test mass,
m is the test mass, a scalar. g and F are always parallel.
The strength of the field is independent of the test mass. For example, near Earth’s surface mg / m = g = 9.8 N /
kg for any mass..

Types of fields:
There are two types of fields: Uniform and Non uniform/variable fields
Some fields are uniform (parallel, equally spaced fields lines) such as the field on the left formed by a sheet of
negative charge.
Non-uniform/variable fields are stronger where the field lines are closer together, such as the field on the right
produced by a sphere of negative charge.

Gravitational Force between two masses


gravitation is the force of attraction exerted by a body on all other bodies in the universe. Hence a gravitational force
exists between a body and all other bodies around it. Gravitational forces act between all masses and hold together
planets, stars and galaxies. Each mass has a gravitational field around it. The relationship between the gravitational force
F, between two masses m1 , m2 and distance r, between two masses is Known as Newton’s Law of universal gravitation.
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a
force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
(Separately it was shown that large spherically symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass
were concentrated at their centres.)
Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both
points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them:
Newton’s Law of universal gravitation can be stated in equation form F
m1m2 the
r2
magnitude of this force can be written as;
Gm1m2
F 
r2
where:
 F is the force between the masses,
 G is the gravitational constant,
 m1 is the first mass,
 m2 is the second mass, and

Assuming SI units, F is measured in Newton (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is
approximately equal to 6.674×10−11 N m2 kg−2.
Example 1
Calculate the force of attraction between two small objects of mass 10kg and 50kg respectively separated at
distance of 10 cm. Take G as 6.67 X 10-11 Nm2 Kg-2.
Gm1m2
Formula : F         (1)
r2
m1  10kg, m2  50kg, r  10cm  0.1m, G  6.67  10 11 Nm 2 kg 2
Substituti ng in (1)
6.67  10  50  10 11 Nm 2 kg 2
F  6.67  5 10114 N  33.35 107 N  3.33 106 N
(0.1) 2 m 2

Acceleration due to gravity:


The earth attracts every object existing in the earth’s gravitational field. The attraction is called gravitational
attraction and its effect is to change the velocity of objects under its influence, that is, to accelerate such object.
The force of gravity acts upon our bodies as we jump upwards from the Earth. As we rise upwards after our
jump, the force of gravity slows us down. And as we fall back to Earth after reaching the peak of our motion,
the force of gravity speeds us up. In this sense, the force gravity causes an acceleration of our bodies during this
brief trip away from the earth's surface and back.
The gravitational acceleration at a point in space is given by:
 GM 
g r
r2
where: M is the mass of the attracting object. It is the unit vector from centre of mass of the attracting object to
the centre of mass of the object being accelerated, r is the distance between the two objects, and G is the
gravitational constant. Neglecting friction such as air resistance, all small bodies accelerate in a gravitational
field at the same rate relative to the centre of mass.
It is because the acceleration due to gravity is the same for all bodies in the same locality that all objects
whatever their masses, when released from rest at the same point above the ground fall to the ground
simultaneously (at the same time). The force of gravitational attraction is given by F = mg, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity and m is the mass of the object. When m = 1, F = g. This is known as the
Acceleration of free fall.

Facts about the acceleration of a falling object due


to gravity:
i. Its magnitude decreases with altitude (height)
ii. It varies with latitude
iii. Its value is about 10 ms-2 at the equator
iv. Its value on earth is about 6 time that on the
moon/greater than the moon
v. It is a vector quantity

In fact, many students of physics have become accustomed to referring to the actual acceleration of such an object as the
acceleration of gravity. Not to be confused with the force of gravity (Fgrav), the acceleration of gravity (g) is the
acceleration experienced by an object when the only force acting upon it is the force of gravity. The acceleration of
objects due to the earth’s gravitational attraction is called the acceleration due to gravity. It is represented by the symbol g
whose average value is about 9.81ms-2

Relationship between the Gravitational Constant ‘G’ and the acceleration due to gravity at the earth surface ‘g’
The gravitational constant is a universal number that applies equally in all places, at all times, and upon all
objects. It is expressed as: 6.674×10−11 N m2 kg−2. Acceleration due to gravity is the phenomenon in which all
masses are attracted to all other masses.
The earth is supposed to be a sphere of radius, r e , with its mass, me concentrated at the earth’s centre. The distance of any
object on the earth’s surface to the centre of the earth is r e the earth radius. The gravitation force of attraction of the earth
Gme m
on any mass, m, on the earth surface is given by F  2
r e
This force is equivalent to the weight of the object, mg, where ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity
Gme m
F 2
 mg            (1)
r e

F
The force per unit mass, is given by
m
F Gme
 2  g          (2)
m re
Gme
g 2
             (3)
r e
This means that the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ can be considered as the force per unit mass on the earth’s
surface. From (3) we see that ‘g’ at the surface of the earth is dependent on me (mass of the earth) and re (radius
of the earth). With this we expect ‘g’ to be slightly less on the top of the mountain than at the sea level since r e
the distance from the centre of the earth is slightly greater at the top of the mountain than at the sea level. The
2
g re
mass of the earth me is given by me  G
Example 2
If g = 9.8ms-2 , G = 6.7 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2 . Calculate the mass of the earth if the radius of the earth is taken as
approximately 6400km.
2
g re
Formula me             (1)
G
g  9.8ms2 , G  6.7 1011 Nm2 kg2 , re  6400km  6.4 106 m
Substituting in (1)
9.8ms2  4.096 1013 m 2 9.8  4.096 101311
me  11 2
 1
 5.99 1024 kg
6.7 10 Nm kg2
6.7kg
me  6.0  10 kg
24

Shape and dimension of the earth:


On and near Earth's surface, the value for the acceleration of gravity is approximately 9.81 m/s/s. The acceleration due to
gravity g is uniform at a given place and is the same for all bodies irrespective of their masses (and assuming that the only
significant force is gravity). However g varies from place to place. It is minimum (9.83ms-2) at the poles of the earth.
Hence it is less in Lagos than in London
The value of g is dependent upon location. There are slight variations in the value of g about earth's surface.
These variations result from:
The varying density of the geologic structures below each specific surface location.
They also result from the fact that the earth is not truly spherical; the earth's surface is further from its centre at
the equator than it is at the poles. This would result in larger g values at the poles. As one proceeds further from
earth's surface - say into a location of orbit about the earth - the value of g changes still.
Gravitational potential:
The gravitational potential at a location is equal to the work (energy transferred) per unit mass that is done by
the force of gravity as an object moves to that location from a reference location. It is analogous to the electric
potential with mass playing the role of charge. By convention, the gravitational potential is defined as zero
infinitely far away from any mass. As a result it is negative elsewhere. It depends on height, h, or the relative
position of the body from the ground or zero level where the P.E is considered to be zero.

Thus potential is independent on mass. If M > m and they are at the same height then M will have more potential energy
than m, but both are at the same potential

Definition of Gravitational Potential:


Gravitational potential (V) is defined as the gravitational potential energy (U) per unit mass. At any given height
above Earth’s surface, the gravitational potential is a constant since.
U Gm1m2 Gm2 Gm 2 Gm
V But U  Fg  d ,  r if m  m then F   r  V  r
r m
2 1 2 g 2 2
m r r r
where m is the mass of the object producing gravitational field and r is the distance of the point from mass. The potential
energy is the negative of the work done by the gravitational field moving the body to its given position in space from
infinity. If the body has a mass of 1 unit, then the potential energy to be assigned to that body is equal to the gravitational
potential. So the potential can be interpreted as the negative of the work done by the gravitational field moving a unit
mass in from infinity.
The potential V at a distance x from a point mass of mass M is
GM
V 
x
where G is the gravitational constant. The potential has units of energy per unit mass, e.g., J/kg in the MKS system. By
convention, it is always negative where it is defined, and as x tends to infinity, it approaches zero.

Properties of force of gravity


1. Gravity can bend space-time
2. Gravity occurs with an object with mass
3. Gravity can attract objects through barriers
4. Gravity attracts each unit mass of an object with the same force

Escape velocity
Escape velocity is the speed that an object needs to be travelling to break free of a planet or moon's gravity well and leave
it without further propulsion. For example, a spacecraft leaving the surface of Earth needs to be going 7 miles per second,
or nearly 25,000 miles per hour to leave without falling back to the surface or falling into orbit. If the kinetic energy of an
object launched from the Earth were equal in magnitude to the potential energy, then in the absence of friction resistance
it could escape from the Earth.
Definition of Escape Velocity
Escape velocity is defined as the speed at which the kinetic energy plus the gravitational potential energy of an
object is zero. It is the speed needed to "break free" from a gravitational field without further propulsion.
Suppose a rocket of mass m is fired from the Earth’s surface so that it just escapes from gravity. Then work done = kinetic
energy of the rocket.
GM
But work done  m 
r
1 2
and kinetic energy of rocket Ek  mv
2
1 GM
 mv2  m 
2 r
2GM
 ve 
r
Where G is the universal gravitational constant (G = 6.67×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2), M the mass of the planet, star or other body,
and r the distance from the centre of gravity.
In this equation atmospheric friction or air drag, is not taken into account. A rocket moving out of a gravity well does not
actually need to attain escape velocity to do so, but could achieve the same result at walking speed with a suitable mode of
propulsion and sufficient fuel. Escape velocity only applies to ballistic trajectories.
For a spherically-symmetric body, escape velocity is calculated by the formula
2
2Gme g re
ve  but m e

re G
2
2Ggre
ve   2 gre or 2 gR
re G

How to Calculate Escape Velocity


1. Determine the mass and radius of the planet you are on. For Earth, assuming that you are at sea level, the
radius is 6.38x106 meters and the mass is 5.97x1024 kilograms. You will need the gravitational constant (G),
which is 6.67x10-11 N m2 kg-2. It is required to use S.I units for this equation.
2. Using the above data, calculate the required velocity needed to exceed the planet's gravitational potential.
1 GMm
The object must have greater energy than the planet's gravitational energy to escape, so mv 2  can be
2 r
2GM
used for the escape velocity as follows: V (escape)  where "M" is the mass of the earth, "G" is the
r
gravitational constant(6.67x10-11) and "r" is the radius from the centre of the planet(6.378x10 6 m).
3. The escape velocity of Earth comes to about 11.2 kilometres per second from the surface.
Escape velocity from the Earth
Therefore with an initial velocity greater than 11.2km/s, an
object or a rocket will completely escape from the
gravitational attraction of the earth

2GM
Formula Ve 
r
2GM
if r  R Ve 
R
gR 2 2G gR 2
but M  , Ve    2 gR
G R G

Ve  2 gR
Ve2
R             (1)
2g
g  9.8m / s 2 , Ve  11km / s  1.1104 m / s
Substituti ng in (1)

1.2544 108 m 2 / s 2
R  0.064 108 m  6.2 106 m  6400km
2  9.8 m / s 2

Assignment
1. What is the gravitational potential due to a molecule of mass at a distance r from it? (G = gravitational
constant).
2. Calculate the escape velocity for a rocket fired from the earth’s surface at a point where the acceleration due to
gravity is 10m/s2 and the radius of the earth is 6.0 x 106 m.
3. Define force field.
4. List TWO types of fields
5. State Newton’s Law of Universal gravitation
6. State the conditions necessary for a satellite to be in motion in a circular orbit
7. Calculate the gravitational potential at a point on the earth’s surface. (Radius of the earth = 6.4 106 m
mass of the earth = 6.4  10 24 kg , G = 6.7  10 11 Nm 2 kg 2 )
8. Explain why ‘g’ is slightly less on the top of the mountain than at the sea level
9. List THREE facts about the acceleration of a free falling object due to gravity.
10. Derive an expression for the relationship between G and g
11. A ball is dropped from a height, at the same time as another ball is projected horizontally from the same
height. Would the balls hit the ground at the same time? Explain your answer.
WEEK SIX LESSON NOTE
ELECTRIC CHARGES, ELECTROSTATICS AND GOLD LEAF ELECROSCOPE
Electric Charge is the fundamental conserved property of a matter such as some subatomic particles, which determines
their electromagnetic interaction and causes it to experience a force when near to other electrically charged matters.
Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between an
electromagnetic field and a moving charge is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is the one of the four
fundamental forces in nature.
Types of electric charges:

Fig 1b A negative electric charge


Fig 1a A positive electric charge
There are two types of electric charges namely: Positive and Negative charges. By convention, the charge of an electron is
−1, while that of a proton is +1. Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another (Force of
repulsion), and particles whose charges have different signs attract (Force of attraction). This is referred to as the first law
of electrostatics

Units of Charge:
The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is coulomb denoted by (C), which is equivalent to about 6.242×10 18 e (e is the
charge of a proton), although in electrical engineering it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah). Hence, the charge
of an electron is approximately −1.602×10−19C. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge.
The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an ELECTROMETER, or indirectly measured with
BALLISTIC

Definition of Coulomb
The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross section of an electrical
conductor carrying one ampere within one second.

Electrostatics or static Electricity:


Since classical antiquity, it was known that some materials such as amber attract lightweight particles after
rubbing. The Greek word for amber, electron, was the source of the word 'electricity'. Electrostatics involves the
building up of charge on the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. Electrostatic phenomena arise
from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are described by Coulomb's law. Even
though electrostatically induced forces seem to be rather weak, the electrostatic force between e.g. an electron
and a proton, that together make up a hydrogen atom, is about 40 orders of magnitude stronger than the
gravitational force acting between them.

Definition of Electrostatics
Electrostatics is defined as the branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of stationary or
slow-moving (without acceleration) electric charges. It is a phenomenon in which the net electric charge of an
object is non-zero and motionless.
Electrostatic phenomena include:
1. the attraction of the plastic wrap to your hand after you remove it from a package
2. the apparently spontaneous explosion of grain silos,
3. the damage of electronic components during manufacturing,
4. the operation of photocopiers.
Production of electrostatic charges:
Charging means gaining or losing electron. There are three methods in which an uncharged body can be
charged, namely:
1. Charging by friction,
2. Charging by contact (conduction)
3. Charging by Electrostatic induction.
Charging by Friction:
When you rub one material to another, they are charged by friction. Material losing electron is positively
charged and material gaining electron is negatively charged. Amount of gained and lost electron is equal to each
other. In other words, we can say that charges of the system are conserved. Charging by friction can easily be
produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing amber (ebonite or hard rubber) with fur
or glass with silk.
When you rub glass rod with a silk (rub silk on glass rod), friction brings about a net transfer of surface
electrons from glass to the silk. Glass becomes positively charged while silk gain electron and becomes
negatively charged.
Rubbing amber (ebonite or hard rubber) with fur a negative charge is gained by an ebonite rod due to a net
transfer of electrons from the atoms of fur. The ebonite is negatively charged and fur positively charged.
In this way non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Of
course, charge taken from one material is simply moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the
same magnitude behind. The law of conservation of charge always applies, giving the object from which a
negative charge has been taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice-versa.
The Law of Conservation of Charge:
The law of conservation of charge states that Charge is neither created nor destroyed during this charging process; it is
simply transferred from one object to the other object in the form of electrons.
Charging by Electrostatic Induction
This method is used to charge an object without actually touching the object to any other charged object. An
understanding of charging by induction requires an understanding of the nature of a conductor and an understanding of the
polarization process. In the context of electricity, polarization is the process of separating opposite charges within an
object. The positive charge becomes separated from the negative charge within an object.
Definition of Electrostatic induction
Electrostatic Induction is the process by which an uncharged body acquires charge when it is brought near a charged
body. Electrostatic induction is a redistribution of electrical charge in an object, caused by the influence of nearby
charges. Electrostatic induction should not be confused with electromagnetic induction; both are often referred to as
'induction'.
Charging a Single Sphere by Induction using a negatively charged object:

Suppose a negatively charged rubber balloon is brought near a single sphere as shown in (Diagram ii). The presence of the
negative charge will induce electron movement in the sphere. Since like charges repel, negative electrons within the metal
sphere will be repelled by the negatively charged balloon. There will be a mass migration of electrons from the left side of
the sphere to the right side of the sphere causing charge within the sphere to become polarized (Diagram ii). Once charge
within the sphere has become polarized, the sphere is touched. The touching of the sphere allows electrons to exit the
sphere and move through the hand to "the ground" (Diagram iii). It is at this point that the sphere acquires a charge. With
electrons having left the sphere, the sphere acquires a positive charge (Diagram iv). Once the balloon is moved away from
the sphere, the excess positive charge redistributes itself (by the movement of remaining electrons) such that the positive
charge is uniformly distributed about the sphere's surface.
Charging a Single Sphere by Induction using a positively charged object:

If a positively charged object is used to charge a neutral object by induction, then the neutral object will acquire
a negative charge. If you understand the induction charging process, you can see why this would always be the
case. The charged object that is brought near will always repel like charges and attract opposite charges. Either
way, the object being charged acquires a charge that is opposite the charge of the object used to induce the
charge. To further illustrate this, the diagram above shows how a positively charged balloon will charge a
sphere negatively by induction.
Charging a Two-Sphere System by induction using a Negatively Charged Object
One common demonstration in a physics class involves the induction charging of two metal spheres. The metal
spheres are supported by insulating stands so that any charge acquired by the spheres cannot travel to the
ground. The spheres are placed side by side (see diagram i) so as to form a two-sphere system.
Being made of metal (a conductor), electrons are free to move between the spheres from sphere A to sphere B and vice
versa. If a negatively charged rubber balloon is brought near the spheres, electrons within the two-sphere system will be
induced to move away from the balloon. This is simply the principle that like charges repel. Being charged negatively, the
electrons are repelled by the negatively charged balloon. Subsequently, there is a mass migration of electrons from sphere
A to sphere B. This electron migration causes the two-sphere system to be polarized (see diagram ii. below). Overall, the
two-sphere system is electrically neutral. Yet the movement of electrons out of sphere A and into sphere B separates the
negative charge from the positive charge. Looking at the spheres individually, it would be accurate to say that sphere A
has an overall positive charge and sphere B has an overall negative charge. Once the two-sphere system is polarized,
sphere B is physically separated from sphere A using the insulating stand. Having been pulled further from the balloon,
the negative charge likely redistributes itself uniformly about sphere B (see diagram iii. below). Meanwhile, the excess
positive charge on sphere A remains located near the negatively charged balloon, consistent with the principle that
opposite charges attract. As the balloon is pulled away, there is a uniform distribution of charge about the surface of both
spheres (see diagram iv. below). This distribution occurs as the remaining electrons in sphere A move across the surface
of the sphere until the excess positive charge is uniformly distributed.
Charging a Two-Sphere System by induction using a Positively Charged Object
The above examples show how a negatively charged balloon is used to polarize a two-sphere system and ultimately
charge the spheres by induction. But what would happen to sphere A and sphere B if a positively charged object was used
to first polarize the two-sphere system?

How would the outcome be different and how would the electron movement be altered? The same result will be obtained

Charging by conduction (Contact)


The process of charging by friction and charging by induction have been described and explained above. In this paragraph
a third method of charging which is charging by conduction involves the contact of a charged object to a neutral object.
Suppose that a positively charged aluminium plate is touched to a neutral metal sphere. The neutral metal sphere becomes
charged as the result of being contacted by the charged aluminum plate. Or suppose that a negatively charged metal
sphere is touched to the top plate of a neutral needle electroscope. The neutral electroscope becomes charged as the result
of being contacted by the metal sphere. In contrast to induction, where the charged object is brought near but never
contacted to the object being charged, conduction charging involves making the physical connection of the charged object
to the neutral object. Because charging by conduction involves contact, it is often called charging by contact.
Charging by Conduction Using a Negatively Charged Object
Let’s consider the case of using a negatively charged metal sphere to charge a neutral needle electroscope. To
understand this process demands that you understand that like charges repel and have an intense desire to
reduce their repulsions by spreading about as far as possible.

A negatively charged metal sphere has an excess of electrons; those electrons find each other repulsive and distance
themselves from each other as far as possible. Once the contact of the sphere to the electroscope is made, a countless
number of excess electrons from the sphere move onto the electroscope and spread about the sphere-electroscope system.
When the process of charging by conduction is complete, the electroscope acquires an excess negative charge due to the
movement of electrons onto it from the metal sphere. The metal sphere is still charged negatively, only it has less excess
negative charge than it had prior to the conduction charging process.
Charging a neutral object by Conduction Using a Positively Charged Object

What happens if a positively charged object is touched to a neutral object? To investigate this question, we consider the
case of a positively charged aluminum plate being used to charge a neutral metal sphere by the process of conduction. A
positively charged aluminum plate has an excess of protons. When looked at from an electron perspective, a positively
charged aluminum plate has a shortage of electrons. It is not satisfied until it has found a negatively charged electron with
which to co-habitat. However, since a proton is tightly bound in the nucleus of an atom, it is incapable of leaving an atom
in search of that longed-for electron. It can however attract a mobile electron towards itself. And if a conducting pathway
is made between a collection of electrons and an excess proton, one can be certain that there is likely an electron that
would be willing to take the pathway. So when the positively charged aluminum plate is touched to the neutral metal
sphere, countless electrons on the metal sphere migrate towards the aluminum plate. There is a mass migration of
electrons until the positive charge on the aluminum plate-metal sphere system becomes redistributed. Having lost
electrons to the positively charged aluminum plate, there is a shortage of electrons on the sphere and an overall positive
charge. The aluminum plate is still charged positively; only it now has less excess positive charge than it had before the
charging process began.
Properties of Charging by Conduction or contact:

1. When charged object touches to a neutral object, they both have same charge.
2. When two charged matter touch each other, total charge of the system is conserved and they share the total
charge according to their capacities. If they have same amount of different charges, when we touch one another
they become neutral. If the amount of charges is different then, after flow of charge they are both negatively or
positively charged. Having opposite charges after contact is impossible.
3. If the touching objects are spheres, they share the total charge according to their radii, because their
capacities are directly proportional to their radius. When the spheres are identical then they share total charge
equally.
Grounding - the Removal of a Charge
We have discussed the three common methods of charging - charging by friction, charging by induction, and charging by
conduction. A discussion of charging would not be complete without a discussion of uncharging. Objects with an excess
of charge - either positive or negative - can have this charge removed by a process known as grounding. A ground is
simply a large object that serves as an almost infinite source of electrons or sinks for electrons. A ground contains such
vast space from which the ideal object either receive electrons or supply electrons to whatever objects needs to get rid of
them or receive them. A ground is simply an object that serves as a seemingly infinite reservoir of electrons; the ground
is capable of transferring electrons to or receiving electrons from a charged object in order to neutralize that object.

Definition of Grounding
Grounding is the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of the transfer of electrons between it and
another object of substantial size. When a charged object is grounded, the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of
electrons between the charged object and a ground.
Distribution of charges:
1. The distribution of charges on a conductor is generally concentrated at places where
the surface is sharply curved. Thus the surface charged density or charge per unit area
is very high at sharp points with very small areas. This is the case with the pear-shaped
conductor as shown in fig. 3.
2. It is also found that charge reside only on the surface of the
conductor not inside, this occurs due to repulsion of similar charges.
Fig 3
For uniformly curved surface such as a sphere, the charge is
Storage of charges - Electrophorus distributed uniformly on the surface.
+ The electrophorus is a device for transferring and storing charges. It
Fig 4 produces electrostatic charge via the process of electrostatic
induction. The electrophorus consists of a dielectric plate and a
metal disc with an insulating handle. The dielectric plate is first
charged by rubbing it with fur or cloth. The metal disc is then
placed onto the dielectric plate (ebonite). The dielectric does not
Fig 5.1 transfer a significant fraction of its surface charge to the metal
because the microscopic contact is poor. Instead the electrostatic
field of the charged dielectric causes the charges in the metal disc to
separate. It develops two regions of charge. The positive charges in
the plate are attracted to the side facing down toward the dielectric,
charging it positively, while the negative charges are repelled to the
Fig. 5.2
5.222
Then, the side facing up is momentarily grounded (which can be done by touching it with a finger), draining off
the negative charge. Finally, the metal disc, now carrying only one sign of charge (positive in our example), is
lifted. These charges are then stored in the disc when the handle is lifted from the ebonite. The amount of the
charge stored can be built up by repeating the above process.
Example 1: When a positively charged conductor is placed near a candle flame, it spread out as shown in the
diagram above, explain this observation.

The candle ionizes the air around the conductor that is striping electrons from the air. The positively charged
conductor attracts the negative charges but repel positive charges which make the flame to spread
GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
What is an Electroscope?
An electroscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of static electricity. It consists of two thin metal leaves
suspended from a metal hook. When the hook is brought near a source of static electricity, some of the electrons in the
hook are pushed to the leaves (if the source is negative) or pulled up to the hook from the leaves (if the source is
positive), either way, the leaves are now charged the same way as each other and so they repel each other. The amount
they open up (divergence of the leaf) is proportional to the charge of the source (if the sources are always held at the
same distance from the hook).

Fig. 6
5.222of Electroscope:
Type
There are various types of electroscope which include:
 A pivoted needle called the versorium the first electroscope invented by British physician William Gilbert around
1600.
 Straw blade electroscope
 The pith-ball electroscope
 Gold-leaf electroscope.
Uses of an Electroscope:
 An electroscope is used to detect the presence and magnitude of electric charge on a body.
 It is used to illustrate electrostatic principles of charging and charge interactions. The electroscope is most
commonly used for detection and testing of small electric charge.
 It is used for testing the conducting and insulating properties of materials.
Gold leaf electroscope:
The gold-leaf electroscope was developed in 1787 by British clergyman
and physicist Abraham Bennet, as a more sensitive instrument than pith
ball or straw blade electroscopes then in use. It is a very thin piece of gold
foil (called gold leaf) fixed at the top to a piece of copper/ brass. It
consists of a vertical metal rod, usually copper/ brass, from the end of
which hang two parallel strips of thin flexible gold leaf. A large round
disk or ball terminal is attached to the top of the rod, where the charge to
be tested is applied. To protect the gold leaves from drafts of air they are
enclosed in a glass bottle, usually open at the bottom and mounted over a
conductive base, That is, the piece of copper/ brass goes through
insulation in the top of the glass case, so that any charge on the gold leaf
cannot escape.
Fig. 7.1
5.222
Charging of an Electroscope:
Charges can be transferred to the electroscope by wiping the
charged object across the cap. The charge flows over the
conducting copper/brass and gold, and the gold leaf rises as it is
repelled by having the same charge as the copper/ brass.

When the metal terminal of an electroscope is touched with a


charged object, the gold leaves spread apart in a 'V' form. This is
because some of the charge on the object is conducted through the
terminal and metal rod to the leaves. Since they receive the same
sign charge they repel each other and thus diverge. If the terminal
is grounded by touching it with a finger, the charge is transferred
Fig. 7.2 through the human body into the earth and the gold leaves close
When the 5.222 together.
materials are brought near the cap, if the material is a good insulator there will be no leakage of charge and the
leaf divergence will not be altered. If the material is a good conductor, the leaf collapses instantly. Poor insulators like
wood will produce a slow collapse of the leaf.
Lightning:
The atmosphere is known to contain ions, or charged particle, which have been produced by radiation from the sun, and
by what is known as cosmic radiation, which enters the atmosphere from outer space. Lightning is a giant atmospheric
electrostatic discharge (spark) or neutralization of electric charge that occurs when charges build up in a cloud. It is being
accompanied by thunder, which typically occurs during thunderstorms, and sometimes during volcanic eruptions or dust
storms. From this discharge of atmospheric electricity, a leader of a bolt of lightning can travel at speeds of 220,000 km/h
(140,000 mph), and can reach temperatures approaching 30,000 °C (54,000 °F). This extreme heating causes the air to
expand at an explosive rate. The expansion creates a shock wave that turns into a booming sound wave, better known as
thunder. This explains why it has the name thunderstorm.
What is the cause and mechanism associated with lightning strikes?
The precursor of any lightning strike is the polarization of positive and negative charges within a storm cloud. The second
mechanism that contributes to the polarization of a storm cloud involves a freezing process. These two mechanisms are
believed to be the primary causes of the polarization of storm clouds. In the end, a storm cloud becomes polarized with
positive charges carried to the upper portions of the clouds and negative portions gravitating towards the bottom of the
clouds. The polarization of the clouds has an equally important effect on the surface of the Earth. The cloud's electric field
stretches through the space surrounding it and induces movement of electrons upon Earth. Electrons on Earth's outer
surface are repelled by the negatively charged cloud on the bottom surface. This creates an opposite charge on the Earth's
surface. Buildings, trees and even people can experience a build up of static charge as electrons are repelled by the cloud's
bottom. The attraction increases steadily until a huge spark or discharge is produced as the charges come together. This
spark is seen as a very bright flash which we call lightning. Lightning can also occur within the ash clouds from volcanic
eruptions, or can be caused by violent forest fires which generate sufficient dust to create a static charge. Thunder and
lightning occur at roughly the same time, although you see the flash of lightning before you hear the thunder. This is
because light travels much faster than sound
The irrational fear of lightning (and thunder) is astraphobia. The study or science of lightning is called fulminology, and
someone who studies lightning is referred to as a fulminologist.

Usefulness of Lightning:
Lightning causes ionisation in the air through which it travels; leading to the formation of nitric oxide and ultimately,
nitric acid is of great benefit to plant life.

Lightning conductor:
Lightning, in discharging to the earth, tends to strike the highest part of a building, such as the chimney, and the
charge passes to the earth through the path of least resistance. A considerable heat is produced by the passage of
the current and this can sometimes set a building on fire, hence the need of a lightning conductor on a building.

Fig. 8
A 7.85.22
lightning rod (US) or lightning conductor (UK) is a metal rod or conductor mounted on top of a building and
electrically connected to the ground through a wire, to protect the building from being damaged by lightning. It
2
consist of a metallic rod, taller than the building, is being installed in the walls of the building during its
construction. One end of the rod is kept out in the air and the other is buried deep in the ground. If lightning
strikes the building it will preferentially strike the rod, and be conducted harmlessly to ground through the wire,
instead of passing through the building, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution
Lightning rod working Principle:
How lightning rods serve to protect buildings from the
devastating effects of a lightning strike -
When a strongly charged cloud passes above the conductor,
a large opposite charge is attracted to the points of the
conductor. The two large charges exert very large forces on
the electrons and positive nuclei of the air molecules
between the cloud and the lightning conductor. The forces
are so large that the electrons are torn off the molecules,
leaving them positively charged. Ions or charged particles
are thus formed.
Fig. 9
If the cloud is negatively charged, positive ions7.85.22
are attracted to the cloud. The negative charge flows to the
cloud, so that it loses its charge without any lightning
2 taking place. The air above the conductor now contains
many positive charges. This charge makes it less likely that lightning will strike the building. If the lightning
does strike, the charge is attracted towards the spikes and is carried safe away to the earth through the
conducting strip.

Exercises:
1. A rubber balloon possesses a positive charge. If brought near and touched to the door of a wooden cabinet, it
sticks to the door. This does not occur with an uncharged balloon. These two observations can lead one to
conclude that the wall is _____
A. electrically neutral B. negatively charged C. a conductor D. lacking electrons
2. Which of the diagrams below best represents the charge distribution on a metal sphere when a positively
charged plastic tube is placed nearby?

3. Charged rubber rods are placed near a neutral conducting sphere, causing a redistribution of charge on the
spheres. Which of the diagrams below depict the proper distribution of charge on the spheres? List all that
apply.

4. In the above situation, the conducting sphere is ____. List all that apply.
A. charged B. uncharged C. polarized D. Non-polarized
5. A neutral metal sphere is touched by a negatively charged metal rod. As a result, the sphere will be ____ and
the metal rod will be ____. Select the two answers in their respective order.
positively charged
negatively charged
neutral
much more massive
6. A neutral metal sphere is touched by a negatively charged metal rod. During the process, electrons are
transferred from the _____ to the _____ and the sphere acquires a _____ charge.
a. neutral sphere, charged rod, negative b. neutral sphere, charged rod, positive c. charged rod, neutral
sphere, negative d. charged rod, neutral sphere, positive e. ... Nonsense! None of these describe what occurs.
7. A metal sphere is electrically neutral. It is touched by a positively charged metal rod. As a result, the metal
sphere becomes charged positively. Which of the following occur during the process? List all that apply.
The metal sphere gains some protons.
Electrons are transferred from the sphere to the rod.
The metal sphere loses electrons.
The overall charge of the system is conserved.
Protons are transferred from the rod to the sphere.
8. a. Explain electrostatic induction
b. How would you charge a rod through this method?
c. Mention TWO other methods of producing electrostatic charges order than electrostatic induction
9. A short chain is usually attached to the back of a petrol tanker trailing behind it to ensure that
A. petrol tanker is balanced on the road
B. heat generated by friction in the engine can be conducted to the floor
C. charges generated by friction in the tanker is conducted on the floor
D. chain produces sound for the resonance of the tanker
10. Explain why the following occur
a. an ebonite rubbed with fur attracts small pieces of paper
b. nylon undergarments crackle in dry weather
c. the upper end of a lightning conductor is pointed
d. when a polythene rod which has been rubbed with dry cloth is held above small pieces of paper on a table,
the pieces of paper jump up and down repeatedly between the table and rod.
12. Draw a labelled diagram of a gold-leaf electroscope

13. In the above figure, when the negatively charged rod


X is brought near the cap of the electroscope
A. the leaves will open further
B. the leaves will close up
C. the leaves will become positively charged
D. the cap will become negatively charged
14. If a gold leaf electroscope is charged and left, the leaves gradually collapse. Give TWO possible reasons for
this.

WEEK SEVEN LESSON NOTE


CURRENT ELECTRICITY
An Electrical circuit is a complete path which electrons from a voltage or current source follow. Electric current
flows in a closed path called an electric circuit.
Components found in an electric circuit include:
 The battery (or cell),
 a switch or key to start or stop the current flow,
 a voltmeter to measure the potential difference,
 an ammeter to measure the current
 a resistor or load
 and a rheostat to adjust the flow of current

Electrical circuit

Electrical Circuit components:


Ammeter: The ammeter must always be connected in a circuit in such a way that the
Fig 1 current it measures flow directly through it. The ammeter is said to be connected in
series in the circuit, in order not to alter the current it measures, the ammeter is
constructed to have a low resistance.
Voltmeter: The voltmeter which measure the potential difference between (or across)
two points along a conductor must always be connected across or in parallel with these two
points (e.g. the points P an Q in the diagram above).
Voltmeter is constructed to have a large electrical resistance compared to the resistance across the point they are
connected. They therefore take only negligible amount of current.
Resistors: Another component of electric circuit is the resistor. A resistor is a component which is specifically designed to
provide a known amount of resistance in a circuit. There are two types of resistors; Standard and Variable resistors.

Standard resistors are those that have fixed resistance values. They are usually in form of
length of resistant wire or pieces of carbon
Variable resistors

Variable resistors are those whose resistance can be


varied. An example are the rheostat and resistance box

Switch or key: The switch or key is the component of the circuit by which the circuit
is completed or broken and the current is made to flow or stop flow.

Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of flow charge through a given point in an electric circuit. It is measured in
Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In most direct current (DC) electric circuits, it can be assumed that
the resistance to current flow is a constant so that the current in the circuit is related to voltage and resistance by
Ohm's law. The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A = 1C/s
Potential Difference:
Consider the task of moving a positive test charge within a uniform electric field from
location A to location B as shown in the diagram at the left. In moving the charge against the
electric field from location A to location B, work will have to be done on the charge by an
. Fig 2 external force.
The work done on the charge changes its potential energy to a higher value; and the amount of work that is done
is equal to the change in the potential energy. As a result of this change in potential energy, there is also a
difference in electric potential between locations A and B. This difference in electric potential is represented by
the symbol ∆V and is formally referred to as the electric potential difference
Definition of Electric potential difference:
By definition, the electric potential difference is the difference in electric potential (V) between the final and the
initial location when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy. In equation form, the electric
potential difference is
work PE
V  VB  VA  
ch arg e Ch arg e
Electric potential difference is also defined as the energy required in moving a unit charge between two specified points.
That is, the potential difference between any two points in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a
positive charged of 1 coulomb from one point in an electric field to another.
The (S.I ) unit of electric potential difference is the volt, abbreviated V and named in honour of Alessandro
Volta. The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric
potential difference that the term voltage sees greater in everyday usage. One Volt is equivalent to one Joule per
Coulomb.
The battery serves as the source of potential difference that makes it possible for current to flow. The battery is
said to have electromotive force (e.m.f) which is able to maintain a current of electricity through a circuit.

Electromotive Force (EMF)


When a voltage is generated by a battery, or by the magnetic force according to Faraday's Law, this generated
voltage has been traditionally called an "electromotive force" or e.m.f. The e.m.f. represents energy per unit
charge (voltage) which has been made available by the generating mechanism and is not a "force. It is useful to
distinguish voltages which are generated from the voltage changes which occur in a circuit as a result of energy
dissipation, e.g., in a resistor known as Terminal potential difference (pd). The electromotive force is measured
by the energy expended in causing a quantity of electricity of 1 coulomb to flow round the circuit. The unit of
e.m.f. is volt.

DEFINITION OF EMF
We can define the electromotive force as the total work done in moving a unit positive charge completely
through the circuit in which a cell is connected.
Or it defined as the total energy per coulomb obtained from a cell or battery.
Or it is also defined as the potential difference (p.d) between the terminals of a cell when it is not delivering any
current in an external circuit (or when it is in an open circuit).
EMF Where W is measured in joules, Q in coulombs, the e.m.f (E) is in volt. Hence V
OR W

Definition of Terminal potential difference


Terminal potential difference is the work done in taking a unit positive charge across the external load or
resistance in the circuit

Sources of E M.F
Sources of E M F include:
 Chemical cells from batteries; Primary and Secondary cells Examples; simple cell, Daniel cell,
Leclanché cell (wet and dry), Lead Accumulator , Alkaline-cadmium and (Nife) Nickel-iron
accumulator
 Solar cells example Photoelectric cells.
 Junction cells Example Thermocouple
 Generator cells Example Dynamo

Electric Resistance:
Current also depends on the resistance that the conductor offers to the flow of charge, which is called the
electric resistance. The resistance varies in different materials. For example, gold, silver, and copper have low
resistance, which means that current can flow easily through these materials. Glass, plastics, and wood have
very high resistance, which means that current cannot pass through these materials easily.
Definition of Electric Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the opposition to the flow of eclectic
current. It is also defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric current which flows through it. The
unit is ohms  . R = V/I where V = volts, I = amps, and R = resistance in ohms.

Internal Resistance of a cell


Definition of Internal Resistance of a cell
It is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte to the
2V motion of the current.
E r

The magnitude of the current delivered by a cell depends not only
V
on the e.m.f of the cell but on what is called the internal resistance
r of the cell. If the internal resistance is low, a large current is
R obtained from the battery. The internal resistance is often shown in
the circuit diagram as a resistor next to the cell.
If an external resistance
9Ω R is connected in a circuit containing a source of e.m.f, E, Then the current flowing will
be
E  IR  Ir
 I (R  r)
E
I
Rr
The term in the equation above is called the LOST VOLTAGE, and is equal to v, the potential drop across
the internal resistance
The smaller the value of r the larger the current will be. The internal resistance of a Daniel cell is fairly large
than Leclanché while Lead accumulator and Nife cells have very low internal resistances (fractions of Ohms).
Lead Accumulator of 2V and r 0.001Ω will generated a current of 200 A very dangerous for a small piece of
copper wire

Electric conduction through material:


Investigation on the relationship between the current passing through a wire and the potential difference (p.d.)
between the ends of the wire shows that there is a linear relationship between the two. The relationship is
known as Ohms law named after the investigator George Simon Ohm.
The damaging effects of shock are as a result of current passing through the body. This current depends on
voltage applied and also on the electric resistance of the human body. A current of 0.005 amps is painful. At
0.010 amps involuntary muscle contractions occur. There will be Loss of muscle control occurs around 0.015
amps but a current greater than 0.070 amps can be very fatal.

Ohm's Law
Ohm's law states that the current passing through a metallic conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the two points provided temperature and other physical conditions of the conductor is kept
constant.
IV (1.0)
Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes
this relationship:
V
I (1.1)
R
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the
conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states
that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.

Experimental Verification of Ohm's Law

Title: Ohm’s Law


Aim: Verification of Ohm’s Law
Apparatus: Ammeter, Voltmeter, a Cell, Key, Known resistance, Variable resistance or rheostat
Procedure: Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram below
The ammeter which measures the current flowing through the
metallic conductor is connected in series with the resistor R and
the cell (+ve to +ve). The voltmeter is connected in parallel with
the resistor to measure the potential difference across it. The
rheostat that is used to vary the current flowing in the circuit is
connected from the resistor to the key then back to the cell to
make a complete circuit.
Current flows in the circuit when the key is closed. The values of current I o and voltage Vo are recorded by both
ammeter and voltmeter respectively. The rheostat
. is adjusted to a new setting and the values of I and V are
recorded. The process is repeated for five more times. The readings are tabulated.
S/N Current I (A) Voltage V (v)
1
2
3
4
5

The Graph of Voltage V(v) against Current I (A) is plotted and a straight line graph passing through the origin
is obtained. The straight line graph shows that V varies directly with I, thus verifying Ohm’s law. The slope of
the graph gives the resistance of the conductor.
V
Slope   R()
I
This experiment is used to demonstrate Ohm’s Law and to obtain the resistance of a conductor.

Factors affecting the Electric Resistance of a material are:


Electric resistance of a conductor depends on:
Nature of the material used. Silver is the best electric conductivity follow by copper and aluminum.
The Area or thickness of the wire. Thick wires have less resistance than thin wires; long wires have more
resistance than short wires. R α 1/A
The length of the conductor (wire) R α L
Temperature. Increased temperature means increased resistance of a conductor but decreases the temperature of
a non-conductor R α T

Resistors in Series and Parallel Combinations


Series Circuits:
A series circuit is a circuit that has only one pathway. There are no branches in the circuit, and hence the
electricity can only travel in one route. The current does not change as it passes through each individual resistor.

This means that it is the same at any particular point on the circuit. The voltage in a series circuit does not
remain constant. The voltage drops across each resistor. The total voltage drop across all resistors will add up
to the voltage off the power source.

The total voltage is the sum of the voltage on each component.


eq 1: V0 = V1+ V2 + V3 +...+ Vn
(In this case, VT = V1+ V2)

The total resistance is equal to the sum of the resistance on each component.
eq 2: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 +...+ Rn
(In this case, RT = R1 + R2)

The total current is equal in every component.


eq 3: I0 = I1 = I2= I3= I4 =...= In
(In this case, IT = I1 = I2)
The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be derived with the use of Ohm's
Law, the voltage law, and the current law.

Example 1.

If have a series circuit like this. What are the total voltage,
resistance and current?

First, we have to find out the total voltage using equation 1 above, and then resistance using equation 2, and
finally you can find out the current using equation 3.
Total voltage is 9 + 1 + 16 + 4 = 30 V
Total resistance is 30 + 10 + 40 + 20 = 100 ohm
Using ohm's law, I = V / R, then we can find out the total
current.
I = 30 / 100 = 0.3 A

Parallel Circuits:
In parallel circuits current is spread along the various branches. The current in one branch will not be the same
as in other branches (unless of course all the resistances are the same). The sum of the current in each individual
branch will add up to give the total current of the circuit. The voltage in parallel circuits is actually the same for
each branch, and equal to the voltage of the power source. In series circuits, current is constant, but the voltage
is different, and adds to the total voltage. In parallel circuits, the voltage is constant, but the current varies, and
adds up to the total current in the circuit.
The total voltage is equal in every component.
eq. 4: V0 = V1= V2= V3 =...= Vn
(In this case, VT = V1= V2)

The resistance is equal to the sum of resistance on each component


divided by the product of resistance of each component.
eq. 5: 1/R0 = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +...+ 1/Rn
(In this case, 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2)

(Parallel Circuit) The total current is equal to the sum of current in each component.
eq. 6: I0= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 +...+ In
(In this case, IT = I1 + I2)
Example 2.

If you have a parallel circuit like this, what are the total resistance and voltage?
Calculate voltage and current on A, B, and C

In order to find out the total voltage, we have to find out the total resistance. Using equation 5, we can find out
the total resistance.
1/R = 1/15 + 1/15 + 1/30 = 5/30, R = 6 ohm

Then using ohm's law, V = I R, we can find out the total voltage.
V = 5 x 6 = 30 V

Using equation 4, we now know the voltage on A, B, and C, which is 30 V each. Using ohm's law again, we can find out
the current on A, B, and C.
IA = 30/15 = 2 A,
IB = 30/15 = 2 A,
IC = 30/30 = 1 A .
When you add up all the current (using equation 6), we get 5 A which is the total current.

Example 3
What is voltage on A, B, and D?
What is current on A, B, C, and D?
What is resistance on C?
What is total current and resistance?

First of all, we have to look at the diagram very carefully (The order of the questions also help us from where we have to
start). We know that the voltage on D is equal to C, which is 80 V. We also know A and B have the same voltage.
Using the voltage law, we can find out the voltage on A and B as
230v  VAB  VCD  0
230v  VAB  80v  0
230v 80v  VAB
VAB  150Veach
Now we get all the voltages on each component. Using ohm's law, we can find out the current on A, B, C, and D.
VAB 150 V 150 V 80
IA    5 A, I B  AB   5 A, I D  CD   2 A, I C  10  2  8 A . The sum of the current on A and
RA 30 RB 30 RA 40
B is equal to that of C and D . A+B = C+D.

The resis tan ce of A  B parallel connection The resis tan ce on c


R R 30  30 900 80v
RAB  A B    15 RC   10
RA  RB 30  30 60 8A
10  40 400
RCD    8
10  40 50

Using equation 2 we can find out total resistance of this circuit.


R = 15+8 = 23 ohm; I = 230 [V] /23 [R] = 10 A

Simple Calculation of E M F of a cell


The E M F of a cell can be calculated using Ohms law, current law, voltage law and Kirchhoff Laws
Using Ohm’s Law
1.
2.
Where r is internal resistance of a battery and R is the resistance of the external load.
Example 4.
A cell of emf 2v and internal resistance of 1Ώ passes current through an external load of 9Ώ. Calculate the
potential drop across the cell.
Solution 1 Using Ohm’s Law
Formula
E  Ir  IR
2v  I 1  I  9
2v  I 1  9
2v
I
10
Potential drop across the cell is
E  Ir E  0.2A 1  0.2v
Example 4 can be solved using Kirchhoff's Law.
The a lg ebraic sum of the voltage in a close loop equals zero
E - Ir - IR  0
2V
2v - I 1 - I  9  0 E = 2v 1Ω

2v - I1  9  0
2V  I 10   0
V

2V  I 10 

2V
I  0.2 A
10
V  Ir  1  0.2 A  0.20V 9Ω
Arrangement of Cell in Series and Parallel
Series Cell connection
Cells can be connected in series, which means end to end. When two or more cells are connected together the
combination is called a battery; if n identical cells each of e.m.f E and internal resistance r are connected in
series as shown below, the effective e.m.f = nE , the effective resistance = nr.
- + - + - +

V =nE

Example 5; If four cells each of e.m.f 2v and internal resistance 2Ω are connected in series, Calculate the
effective resistance and e.m.f
Solutions
E eff
 nE  4  2  8v Reff  nr  4  2  8
Parallel Cell connection
Cells can be connected in Parallel, which means side by side. If n identical cells each of e.m.f E and internal
r
resistance r are connected in parallel as shown below, the effective e.m.f = E, the effective resistance =
n

V=E

- + - +
- +

Example 6. If four cells each of e.m.f 2v and internal resistance 2Ω are connected in parallel, calculate the
effective resistance and e.m.f
Solutions
Eeff  E
 2v
r
Reff 
n
2
  0.5
4
Production of continuous electric current:
 Electric current or continuous flow of charge can be generated from
 Chemical energy
 Heat energy
 Mechanical energy
 Solar energy
Production of continuous flow of charge from chemical Energy:
Electricity is produced from chemical energy through the use of electric cells. A cell is a device for converting chemical
energy into electrical energy.
Primary cells

Simple cell Leclanché cell Daniel cell


A primary cells are kinds of batteries in which the electrochemical reaction are not reversible, rendering the cells
un rechargeable hence they cannot supply electric current for a long period of time. The disadvantage of primary
cells is that the chemicals in them are gradually used up when the cell are in use.
Three types of primary cells are the, Leclanché cell, Daniel cell and Simple cells (eg. zinc-carbon cell, disposable
batteries, Bunsen and grove cells). Familiar primary battery uses are in flashlights, watches, toys, and radios.
Leclanché cell is made of the following
Electrolyte ammonium chloride
Positive terminal: carbon rod
Negative terminal: zinc rod
The simple electrical cells were first developed in 1800s. They
Simple cell are also called galvanic cells. They consist of two dissimilar
plates or unlike metals separated by solution of various acids or
salts. These metals are electrodes and the solutions are
electrolyte. The positive electrode is known as anodes while the
negative electrode known as cathode.

These cells are commonly related with chemical reactions. For


example, a plate of zinc and a plate of copper are immersed in a
dilute solution which contains acid or salt. The solution acts as
an electrolyte (electric conductor).
When the two plates are connected to a meter with a wire, electric current will pass; this is because oxidation and reduction
processes take place in this chemical reaction turning the zinc plate to a negative electrode and the copper plate to a
positive electrode, and so the electrons flows from zinc to copper which makes the meter move. By convection current is
taken to flow from copper to zinc. A bulb connected between the copper and zinc terminal will light up, showing that
current is flowing through the external circuit. When all the zinc of such a cell is used up through the chemical action with
sulphuric acid, by which the current is produced, the cell cannot be restored or recharged. In order to cause a simple cell to
produce current once again, they must be resupplied with fresh active materials (zinc, copper, sulphuric acid). Simple cells
have defects such as Polarization and Local action.
Defect of simple cell
Simple cell supply current only for a short time. This is because of chemical processes know (i) polarization and (ii) local
action.
(i) Polarization is due to the formation of hydrogen gas bubble around the copper plate of the simple cell. The hydrogen is
produced by the reaction of zinc and the dilute teraoxosulphate (vi). An electromotive force (e.m.f) is set up between the
zinc and the hydrogen bubbles. This e.m.f opposes the e.m.f of the cell generated between the copper and zinc. This
opposes e.m.f known as back e.m.f of the cell generated between the copper and zinc. This opposing e.m.f known as back
e.m.f tends to reduce the current in the external circuit and will eventually stop the chemical action in the cell when enough
hydrogen layer is well established around the copper rod. The cell is then said to be polarized. This defect of the cell knows
as polarization. Polarization of cells is reduced or prevented by the addition of a suitable chemical known as a depolarizer;
e.g. manganese dioxide, and potassium dichromate. The depolarizer removes the hydrogen by oxidizing it to water.
(ii) Local action; is due impurities in the zinc plate. These impurities (e.g. iron and carbon) set up tiny cells around the zinc
surface, producing bubble of hydrogen. This activity leads to the dissolution of the zinc plate into solution even when no
current is being supplied to the external circuit. The zinc is thus continuously wasted. Local action can be prevented by the
process of amalgamation that is the rubbing of mercury over the surface of zinc plate. The mercury on the zinc plate
prevents the impurities from coming into contact with the acid. With this local action cannot occur.
Secondary cells

Secondary cells are rechargeable or storage batteries in which the electrochemical reaction is reversible hence
they can supply current for a long period of time. Common examples of primary cells are the Rechargeable
batteries, Lead-acid accumulator, and Alkaline- cadmium. The most common use for secondary (storage)
batteries is for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) in automobiles and engine-generator sets. Other applications
include uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) for emergency and backup power, electric vehicles (traction),
telecommunications, and portable tools.

Charged lead acid accumulator is made


of the following
Electrolyte Tetraoxo-sulphate
(vi) acid H2SO4
Positive terminal: Lead peroxide
Negative terminal: Lead

Production of continuous flow of charge from heat Energy (The thermoelectric effect):
We can show that heat energy can be converted into electric currents by joining two different metallic wires (e.g.
copper and iron) at one end and connecting the free ends to the terminals of a sensitive current detecting device,
e.g. a milligalvanometer. When the junction of the metals is along the wires as indicated by the
milligalvanometer, the junction placed in hot water is known as hot junction, while the ends connected to the
instrument constitute the cold junction.
The greater the difference in temperature between the hot and cold
junctions, the greater the current flow The two metals in this way
constitute a device known as a thermocouple and the electricity
(known as thermoelectricity) is produced by process known as the
thermoelectric effect. The current produced by the thermoelectric
effect is small and can only be detected by very sensitive
galvanometer.
When sunlight falls on a photosensitive surface (e.g. the surface of
potassium, an alkaline metal), electrons are produced whose
movement constitute a current. A photoelectric cell or photocell
consists of a photosensitive surface as a cathode and wire ring as
the anode. If visible light falls on this surface, electrons are emitted
by the photoelectric effect and the flow of these electrons can be
detected as current by micrometer

Electrical energy and power


Electric power is defined as the amount of electrical work done per second that is, the rate that energy is used or
rate of doing work. It is expressed mathematic
work Done on ch arg e ( Joules ) Energy Consumed by Load
Power  
Time ( Seconds ) Time
IVt V2 E
P  IV   I 2R 
t R t
where:
[P] is power in watts,
[V] is voltage through resistor in volts,
[I] is current through resistor in ampere,
[R] is resistance in ohms
[E] is thermal energy
[t] is time
The unit of power is watt W, hence watt = joules /s. One watt is the power consumed in an electric circuit when
one joule of work is done in one second.
The power dissipated in a resistor is proportional to the square of the current that passes through it and the
resistance. The energy is changed from electrical to thermal energy. Power varies directly with the resistance. If
all the electric energy is converted into thermal energy of the resistor, the increase in thermal energy is
E = I2R
Power companies do not sell electrons or power; they sell energy. The basic unit of energy used to determine the
amount of your power bill is the kilowatt hour (kWh) which is the rate of energy used (P) multiplied by time
(one hour)
E = Pt
Then by multiplying the number of kilowatt hours by the cost per kilowatt, the amount owed on your electric bill
is determined.
Buying and selling of electric Power
Electrical utility companies who provide energy for homes provide a monthly bill charging those homes for the electrical
energy that they used. A typical bill can be very complicated with a number of line items indicating charges for various
aspects of the utility service. But somewhere on the bill will be a charge for the number of kilowatt-hours of electricity that
were consumed.
What is a kilowatt-hour? Is it a unit of power? Time? Energy? Or some other quantity? And when we pay for the electricity
that we use, what exactly is it that we are paying for?
A careful inspection of the unit kilowatt-hour reveals the answers to these questions. A kilowatt is a unit of power and an
hour is a unit of time. So a kilowatt • hour is a unit of Power • time.
Energy
If Power  , then Power .time  Energy .
time
So a unit of power x time is a unit of energy. The kilowatt • hour is a unit of energy. When an electrical utility company
charges a household for the electricity that they used, they are charging them for electrical energy.
One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the electrical energy consumed by an appliance when a power of one kilowatt is
1kWh  1kW 1hr  103  60  60 J
used by the appliance for one hour.
 3.6 106 Joules
Example 7
Your 60-watt light bulb is plugged into a 110-volt household outlet and left on for 3 hours. The utility company
charges you N0.11 per kilowatt-hour. Calculate the cost of operating the appliance.
Solution
Energy consumed  Power  Time
60w  3hrs  180whrs  0.18kw.hr
Each kw.hr cos ts 11kobo
 0.18kw.hr  0.18  11  1.98kobo
Evaluations/ Assignments
Determine the;
State ohms Law
Define electromotive force
List sources of electromotive force other than a chemical cell
A chemical cell of electromotive force, E, and internal resistance, r, is connected in series with an ammeter, a
plug key and an external load of resistance R. A voltmeter across the cell.
Draw a circuit diagram to illustrate the arrangement
For the arrangement in (i) above, with the key opened and closed, the voltmeter readings are V o and V
Explain the physical meaning of Vo and V
Find the expression for the following:
Current passing through the circuit
Maximum power dissipated in the cell and external load respectively
Efficiency of the cell
Define Terminal potential difference of a battery
List FOUR factors affecting the resistance of a material
Explain why the electromotive force of a cell is not always the same as the potential difference between its
terminals.
A cell of e.m.f E, and internal resistance, r, is connected in series with a resistor and ammeter. A current of 0.80
A is observed to pass when the resistance of the resistor is 2Ω. When another resistor of 5Ω is connected in
parallel with the 2 Ω resistor, the new ammeter reading is 1.00 A
Draw circuit diagrams to illustrate the two arrangement
Using the circuit diagram in (i) above, write an equation for the emf, E, of the cell in each case
Calculate the internal resistance and e.m.f. of the cell
9. Current in a 120-watt bulb plugged into a 120-volt outlet.
10. Power of a saw that draws 12 amps of current when plugged into a 120-volt outlet. s
11. Power of a toaster that draws 6 amps of current when plugged into a 120-volt outlet.
12. Current in a 1000-watt microwave when plugged into a 120-volt outlet.
13.The flow of ______is called the current and it is the rate at which electric charges pass through a conductor.
14. The ______ measures the amount of charge that passes a given point in each second.
15. What is the resistance of a circuit if voltage is 3v and current is 2 A?
16. What is the current of a circuit if resistance is 3 ohm and voltage is 15V?
17. What is the voltage of a circuit if resistance is 7 ohm and current is 0.5 A?

2V

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