Read the text and choose the correct answers.

Adaptation of Trees to Climate Change: Mechanisms Behind Physiological and Ecological

Resilience and Vulnerability
Climate change [1] plants to [2] conditions that are often outside their [3] limits. Multiple biotic
stressors such as heatwaves, [4] , and insect/pathogen outbreaks are [5] pressures on plant species
and populations. However, the range of environmental conditions to which plants are [6] and their
ability to [7] to new conditions varies intra- and interspecifically. Plants can acclimate to stress by
[8] molecular and biochemical processes [9] stress perception, signal transduction, gene
expression, biochemical, physiological and morphological changes, and interactions with
beneficial symbionts. Plant [10] occurs through natural selection and [11] relies on phenotypic
[12], pigenetic modulations, and intraspecific genetic variation at individual and population levels.
Plant plasticity - the ability to change in response to stimuli or environments – [13] plant
morphology and physiology by profound changes at [14] and metabolic levels. Alderotti et al. [15]
the anatomical, physiological, and biochemical responses [16] by a heatwave in Cistus incanus L.,
a shrub species adapted to hot and arid [17] typical of the Mediterranean basin. As an [18]
mechanism to heatwaves, the leaves had increased palisade parenchyma, resulting in a thicker
lamina that enhanced [19] to dehydration and improved carbon assimilation. In addition, [20] of
secondary metabolites (tannins and terpenoids) indicated biochemical [21] to counteract increasing
oxidative stress. High plasticity is also characteristic of early successional species. Carter et al.
studied in situ the [22] of warming on photosynthesis and respiration of Psychotria brachiata and
Piper glabrescens, which were early successional and mid-successional [23] shrubs. P. brachiata
was able to acclimate the temperature optimum of photosynthesis (Topt), whereas P. glabrescens
[24] stomatal conductance to decrease water loss resulting in lower photosynthesis. Shifts in Topt
and rate of photosynthesis during acclimation to hot and dry environments could [25] by protein
expression plasticity in the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), a plant species [26] to xeric and hot
environments. This highlights the importance of [27] in acclimating to higher temperatures.
Plant resistance and resilience to [28] stress are essential for plant [29]. Xylem hydraulic failure is
a ubiquitous factor in drought-driven tree-mortality. [30] species have meristematic cells with an
[31] ability to relocate stored water in tissues to [32] plasmolysis. Schröter and Oberhuber reported
that phloem is less [33] to environmental influences, although knowledge on phloem adaptation to
[34] climate conditions at the high-elevation treeline is [35]. Besides extreme [36], global warming
shifts precipitation and temperatures, extending the growing season and increasing the
evapotranspiration of forest and cropland areas in Baltic countries. At high latitudes, the warmer
autumn seasons [37] cold acclimation - the process that [38] evergreen conifers for the winter
season. Low temperature [39] the dominant signal for the downregulation of photosynthesis and
upregulation of photoprotection in cold acclimation of Douglas-fir. Autumn warming [40] the key
components of the autumn cold acclimation process, which is usually [41] by the shorter
photoperiod and then [42] by sub-zero temperatures. Oksanen further reviewed the actual [43] of
the responses and acclimation mechanisms of silver birch (Betula pendula) to [44] environmental
conditions. This deciduous tree species has high plasticity and is widely distributed in boreal
forests, thus it has an excellent [45] ability. The high [46] variation and the [47] of genome data

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[48] silver birch a good model system for [49] the adaptation mechanisms of northern trees [50]
climate change.
1. A. exposes C. exposing
B. exposed D. exportable

2. A. physiological C. physiology
B. physics D. physiologically

3. A. evolutionary C. evolutional
B. evolution D. evolute

4. A. drought C. dried
B. dry D. drying

5. A. selective C. selection
B. selecting D. selected

6. A. adapted C. adaptation
B. adapting D. adaptive

7. A. acclimate C. acclimated
B. acclimating D. acclimation

8. A. complex C. complicated
B. complicate D. compliant

9. A. involving C. involved
B. involves D. involvement

10. A. adaptation C. adapted

B. adaptive D. adapting

11. A. ultimately C. ultimation

B. ultimate D. ulterior

12. A. plasticity C. plaster

B. plastic D. plasmid

13. A. affect C. affecting

B. effect D. affected

14. A. molecular C. molestation

B. molecule D. mollification
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15. A. showed C. is showing
B. shows D. will show

16. A. triggered C. triggering

B. triggers D. trigger

17. A. conditions C. conditioned

B. conditioning D. conditioner

18. A. acclimation C. acclimating

B. acclimate D. acclimated

19. A. resistance C. resisted

B. resisting D. resistible

20. A. induction C. inducing

B. induce D. induced

21. A. responses C. responded

B. respond D. responding

22. A. effects C. effective

B. affects D. affected

23. A. tropical C. tropically

B. tropics D. trophic

24. A. lowered C. lower

B. lowering D. lowers

25. A. be explained C. be explaining

B. explained D. be explanation

26. A. well-adapted C. well-adapting

B. well-adapt D. well-adaptation

27. A. plasticity C. plastically

B. plastic D. plasticize

28. A. drought C. dry

B. drying D. dried

29. A. survival B. survive

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 C. surviving D. survived

30. A. Drought-resistant C. Drought-resisting

B. Dry-resistant D. Dry-resisting

31. A. enhanced C. enhancing

B. enhancement D. enhances

32. A. avoid C. avoided

B. avoiding D. avoidance

33. A. susceptible C. susceptibly

B. suscept D. susceptation

34. A. extreme C. extremal

B. extremely D. extravagant

35. A. scarce C. scarcely

B. scarcity D. scarcement

36. A. conditions C. conditioned

B. conditioning D. conditioner

37. A. affect C. effective

B. effect D. affection

38. A. prepares C. preparation

B. prepare D. preparing

39. A. is C. have been

B. are D. had been

40. A. disrupts C. disruption

B. disrupt D. disruptive

41. A. initiated C. initiating

B. initiates D. initiation

42. A. triggered C. trigger

B. triggers D. triggering

43. A. understanding B. understand

4
 C. understood D. understandable

44. A. changing C. changed

B. changes D. change

45. A. acclimation C. acclimating

B. acclimate D. acclimated

46. A. genetic C. generation

B. gene D. genotypic

47. A. availability C. avail

B. available D. availed

48. A. make C. is making

B. makes D. was making

49. A. elucidating C. elucidate

B. elucidation D. elucidated

50. A. to C. about
B. from D. with

Read the text and answer the following questions.

Soil contains a living, complex ecosystem
The upper layers of the soil, from which plants absorb nearly all of the water and minerals they
require, contain a wide range of living organisms that interact with each other and with the physical
environment. This complex ecosystem may take centuries to form but can be destroyed by human
mismanagement in just a few years. To understand why soil must be conserved and why particular
plants grow where they do, it is necessary to first consider the basic physical properties of soil: its
texture and composition.
Soil Texture
The texture of soil depends on the sizes of its particles. Soil particles can range from coarse sand
(0.02–2 mm in diameter) to silt (0.002–0.02 mm) to microscopic clay particles (less than 0.002
mm). These different-sized particles arise ultimately from the weathering of rock. Water freezing
in crevices of rocks causes mechanical fracturing, and weak acids in the soil break rocks down
chemically. When organisms penetrate the rock, they accelerate breakdown by chemical and
echanical means. Roots, for example, secrete acids that dissolve the rock, and their growth in
fissures leads to mechanical fracturing. Mineral particles released by weathering become mixed
with living organisms and humus, the remains of dead organisms and other organic matter,
forming topsoil. The topsoil and other soil layers are called soil horizons (Figure 37.2). The

5
topsoil, or A horizon, can range in depth from millimeters to meters. We focus mostly on properties
of topsoil because it is generally the most important soil layer for plant growth.
The topsoils that are the most fertile—supporting the most abundant growth—are loams, which
are composed of roughly equal amounts of sand, silt, and clay. Loamy soils have enough small silt
and clay particles to provide ample surface area for the adhesion and retention of minerals and
water.
Plants are actually nourished by the soil solution, which consists of the water and dissolved
minerals in the pores between soil particles. After a heavy rain, water drains from the larger spaces
in the soil, but smaller spaces retain water because water molecules are attracted to the negatively
charged surfaces of clay and other particles. The large spaces between soil particles in sandy soils
generally don’t retain enough water to support vigorous plant growth, but they do enable efficient
diffusion of oxygen to the roots. Clayey soils tend to retain too much water, and when soil does
not drain adequately, the air is replaced by water, and the roots suffocate from lack of oxygen.
Typically, the most fertile topsoils have pores containing about half water and half air, providing a
good balance between aeration, drainage, and water storage capacity. The physical properties of
soils can be adjusted by adding soil amendments, such as peat moss, compost, manure, or sand.

51. Why must soils be conserved?

A. Because the complex soil ecosystems take centuries to form but can be quickly destroyed
by human mismanagement.
B. Because the soil ecosystems can be destroyed quickly by the weathering.
C. Because the soils are essential for agriculture.
D. Because soil formation takes a long time.

52. What regulates the soil texture?

6
 A. The soil water contents
B. The sizes of its particles
C. The soil salinity
D. The water storage capacity

53. The sizes of soil particles follow the order:

A. Sand < Silt < Clay
B. Clay < Sand < Silt
C. Sand > Silt > Clay
D. Silt < Clay < Sand

54. According to the text, the word "WEATHERING" could be understood as:
A. The changes in soil color over a period of time by the action of the weather.
B. The temporal variation of soil grain size distribution by human activity.
C. The process by which rocks are broken into smaller pieces by human activity.
D. The process by which rocks are broken into smaller pieces by the action of the weather.

55. Mechanical fracturing is caused by (i) and (ii) is responsible for chemical weathering.
A. Weak acids in the soils / water freezing in rock crevices
B. Water freezing in rock crevices / Water flows in pores between soil particles
C. Water freezing in rock crevices / weak acids in the soils
D. Weak acids in the soils / Water flows in pores between soil particles

56. How could plants contribute to the weathering of rock?

A. Plants contribute to rock weathering by adding organic matter through litter fall.
B. Plant roots secrete acids to dissolve the rock, and their growth in fissures leads to
mechanical weathering.
C. Plants contribute to rock weathering by adding amino acids and amino sugars.
D. Plant roots secrete alkaline solutions to dissolve the rock, and their growth helps break it.

57. What is HUMUS?

A. The remains of dead organisms and other organic matter.
B. The mixture of clay particles and necromass.
C. The sediments transported from upward.
D. The organic matter transported from upward.

58. TOPSOIL is
A. The horizon composed mainly of partially broken-down rock.
B. A mixture of mineral particles and humus.
C. The horizon containing a little of organic matter.
D. A mixture of mineral particles and fresh woody materials.

59. What is the topsoil depth?

A. A few meters.
B. A few centimeters.
C. From millimeters to meters.

7
 D. Depends on the local vegetation.

60. What is the most fertile topsoil?

A. Clayey soil
B. Sandy soil
C. Sandy loam
D. Loam

61. Why are loams considered the most fertile soil?

A. hyper-adhesion and water contents.
B. hypo-adhesion and water contents.
C. enough adhesion and retention of water and minerals
D. intermediate texture and hypersaline.

62. What is soil solution?

A. Water and dissolve small organic molecules in the space between soil particles.
B. Water and dissolved minerals in the space between soil particles.
C. Water and dissolve large organic molecules in the space between soil particles.
D. Water and indissoluble minerals in the space between soil particles.

63. How could rainwater be retained in the soil?

A. Water molecules are attracted to the negatively charged surface of clay and other particles.
B. Water molecules are attracted to the positively charged surface of clay and other particles.
C. Mineral ions are attracted to the negatively charged surface of clay and other particles.
D. Water is downward transported.

64. What are the advantages and disadvantages of growing plants in sandy soils?
A. weak oxygen diffusion to the roots and water deficiency for plant growth.
B. efficient oxygen diffusion to the roots and water deficiency for plant growth.
C. weak oxygen diffusion to the roots and water efficiency for plant growth.
D. efficient oxygen diffusion to the roots and water efficiency for plant growth.

65. What could be the reason for water deficiency in sandy soils?
A. the large surface area of the soil particles
B. the efficient absorption of mineral ions on the soil particles
C. the large space between soil particles
D. the efficient adsorption of mineral ions on the soil particles

66. What are the risks to plants growing in clayey soil?

A. Oxygen superabundance in the rhizosphere.
B. Water deficiency in the deeper soil layers.
C. Water excess in the deeper soil layers.
D. Oxygen deficiency caused by the replacement of air with water in inadequate drain
conditions.

67. How could the addition of compost to the soil help adjust the soil's physical properties?

8
 A. Organic matter could regulate the pore sizes and density in the soil to form a balance
between aeration and water storage capacity.
B. Organic matter could enhance the pore sizes and density in the soil to form a balance
between aeration and water storage capacity.
C. Organic matter could lead to a higher biodiversity level.
D. Organic matter favors the chemical and biological weathering.

Arrange the words to make complete sentences.

68. and/ a/ evidence/ provide/ powerful/ past/ combination/ for/ fossil/ unlock/ many/ molecular/
of/ the/ of/ the/ secrets/
A. Fossil and molecular evidence provide a powerful combination for unlocking many of the
secrets of the past.
B. Fossil and molecular evidence will provide a powerful combination for unlocking many of
the secrets of the past.
C. Many of the secrets provided a powerful combination for unlocking fossil and molecular
evidence of the past.
D. Many of the secrets provides a powerful combination for unlocking fossil and molecular
evidence of the past.

69. a/ be /biodiversity/ number/ of/ mechanisms/ for/ latitudinal/ large/ gradients/ in/ proposed/
possible
A. A large number of possible mechanisms for latitudinal gradients in biodiversity have been
proposed.
B. A large number of possible mechanisms for latitudinal gradients in biodiversity has been
proposing.
C. A large number of possible gradients for biodiversity latitudinal in mechanisms is
proposed.
D. A large biodiversity were proposed in number of mechanisms for possible latitudinal
gradients.

70. spatial/ rates/ variation/ immigration/ in/ is/ in/ biodiversity/ a/ and/ of/ patterns/ product/ of/
origination/ extinction/ emigration
A. Spatial variation in biodiversity is a product of patterns in rates of origination, immigration,
extinction, and emigration.
B. Spatial variation in origination, immigration, extinction, and emigration is a product of
patterns in rates of biodiversity.
C. Variation in spatial is a product of biodiversity patterns in rates of origination, immigration,
extinction, and emigration.
D. Variation in spatial biodiversity in patterns of rates is a product of origination, immigration,
extinction, and emigration.

71. there/ the/ the/ be/ a/ and/ exchanges/ ecosystems/ need/ to/ monitor/ prevalent/ quantify/
greenhouse/ gas/ in/ in/ various/ world

9
 A. There is a need to monitor and quantify greenhouse gas exchanges in the various
ecosystems prevalent in the world.
B. There are a need to monitor and quantify greenhouse gas exchanges in the various
ecosystems prevalent in the world.
C. There will has been a need to monitor and quantify greenhouse gas exchanges in the various
ecosystems prevalent in the world.
D. There is a needs to monitor and quantify greenhouse gas exchanges in the various
ecosystems prevalent in the world.

72. net/ ecosystem/ exchange/ between/ be/ biological/ by/ control/ rice/ paddies/ physical/
processes/ and/ the/ atmosphere/ several/ and
A. Net ecosystem exchange between rice paddies and the atmosphere is controlled by several
biological and physical processes.
B. Net ecosystem exchange between rice paddies and the atmosphere are controlled by several
biological and physical processes.
C. Net ecosystem exchange between rice paddies and the atmosphere were controlled by
several biological and physical processes.
D. Net ecosystem exchange between several biological and physical processes are controlled
by rice paddies and the atmosphere.

73. accurate/ be/ quantification/ of/ carbon/ carbon/ determine/ ecosystem/ ecosystem/ exchange/
extremely/ flooded/ important/ in/ the/ tropical/ rice/ paddy/ to/ in/ that/ stock
A. Accurate quantification of carbon exchange in the tropical flooded rice paddy ecosystem
is extremely important to determine carbon stock in that ecosystem.
B. Accuracy quantification of carbon exchange in the tropical flooded rice paddy ecosystem
is extremely important to determine carbon stock in that ecosystem.
C. Accurate quantification of carbon exchange in the tropical flooded rice paddy ecosystem
are extremely important to determine carbon stock in that ecosystem.
D. Accurary quantification of carbon exchange in the tropical flooded rice paddy ecosystem
were extremely important to determine carbon stock in that ecosystem.

74. and/ be/ CO2/ carbon/ dependent/ diurnal/ flux/ uptake/ the/ pattern/ on/ of/ sunlight
A. The diurnal pattern of CO2 flux and carbon uptake is dependent on sunlight.
B. The diurnal uptake of CO2 flux and carbon pattern is dependent on sunlight.
C. The diurnal pattern of CO2 flux and carbon uptake are dependent on sunlight.
D. The diurnal pattern of sunlight is dependent on CO2 flux and carbon uptake.

75. artificial/ in/ high/ structures/ often/ or/ result/ unnaturally/ control/ stable/ water/ tables/
water
A. Artificial water control structures often result in unnaturally stable or high water tables.
B. Artificial water control structures often results in unnaturally stable or high water tables.
C. Water control artificial structures often result in stable or high water tables unnaturally.
D. Control structures often result unnaturally stable or high water tables in artificial water.

10
76. with/ and/ cope/ cyclic/ extreme/ ecosystems/ have/ natural/ phenomena/ resilience/ to
A. Natural ecosystems have resilience tocope with cyclic and extreme phenomena.
B. Natural ecosystems has resilience to cope with cyclic and extreme phenomena.
C. Natural ecosystems will have resilience to cope with cyclic and extremely phenomena.
D. Natural ecosystems have resilience to cope with cyclic and extreme phenomena.

77. a/ an/ be/ broken/ by/ cannot/ chemical/ down/ element/ is/ into/ reactions/ substance/
substances/ that/ other
A. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical
reactions.
B. An element was a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical
reactions.
C. An element has been a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by
chemical reactions.
D. An element will be a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by
chemical reactions.

78. an/ an/ be/ be/ be/ by/ amount/ of/ mass/ mass/ matter/ in/ object/ the/ of/ object/ how/ strongly/
that/ the/ pulled/ gravity/ weight/ whereas
A. Mass is the amount of matter in an object, whereas the weight of an object is how strongly
that mass is pulled by gravity.
B. Mass is the amount in an object of matter, whereas the weight is how strongly that mass is
pulled by gravity of an object.
C. Mass is the amount of an object, whereas the matter of weight in an object is how strongly
that mass is pulled by gravity.
D. Weight is the amount of matter pulled by gravity in an object, whereas the mass of an object
is how strongly that mass is.

79. adapt/ be/ become/ contain/ have/ to/ environments/ elements/ that some/ species/ toxic/ usually
A. Some species have become adapted to environments containing elements that are usually
toxic.
B. Some species has become adapted to environments containing elements that are usually
toxic.
C. Some species become have adaptation to environments containing elements that are usually
toxic.
D. Some environments have become adapted to species elements that are usually containing
toxic.

80. a/ be/ a/ substance/ compound/ combine/ consist/ different/ elements/ fix/ of/ two/ more/ in/ a/
or/ ratio
A. A compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a
fixed ratio.

11
 B. Two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio is a substance consisting of a
compound.
C. A compound is a fixed substance consist of two or more different elements combined in a
ratio.
D. A compound is a fixed substance consisted of two or more different elements combined in
a ratio.

81. carbon/ compatibility/ configuration/ covalent/ different/ electron/ elements/ give/ it/ the/
many/ of/ with
A. The electron configuration of carbon gives it covalent compatibility with many different
elements.
B. The electron configuration of carbon give it covalent compatibility with many different
elements.
C. The electron configuration of carbon gave it covalent compatibility with many different
elements.
D. The electron configuration of carbon given it covalent compatibility with many different
elements.

82. also/ and/ bacteria/ largely/ protists/ remain/ unexamine/ viruses

A. Protists, bacteria, and viruses also remain largely unexamined.
B. Protists, bacteria, and viruses also remains largely unexamined.
C. Protists, also bacteria, and viruses is remaining largely unexamined.
D. Protists, bacteria, and viruses is remained largely unexamined also.

83. and/ all/ at/ be/ biodiversity/ biological/ biological/ collectively/ diversity/ levels/ of/ or/
organization/ refer/ ‘the variety of life’/ to/ variation
A. Biological diversity or biodiversity is ‘the variety of life’ and refers collectively to variation
at all levels of biological organization.
B. Biological diversity or biodiversity are ‘the variety of life’ and refer collectively to
variation at all levels of biological organization.
C. Biological diversity or biodiversity is ‘the variety of life’ and refer collectively to variation
at all levels of biological organization.
D. Biological diversity or biodiversity is ‘the variety of life’ and refers to collectively variation
at all levels of biological organization.

84. the/ actual/ any/ be/ be/ biodiversity/ definition/ have/ importance/ it/ may/ neutral/ of/
perceive/ with/ regard/ to/ to
A. The actual definition of biodiversity is neutral with regard to any importance it may be
perceived to have.
B. The actual definition of biodiversity is neutral with regard to any importance it may be
perceive to have.
C. The neutral definition of biodiversity is actual with regard to any importance it may be
perceives to have.

12
 D. The definition of actual biodiversity is regard to any importance neutral with it may be
perceived to have.

85. of/ about/ action/ as/ biodiversity/ be/ bases/ commonly/ conservation/ decisions/ for/
generally/ used/ more/ make/ measure/ or/ for/ plan
A. Measures of biodiversity are commonly used as bases for making decisions about
conservation action, or for planning more generally.
B. Measurement of biodiversity are commonly used as bases for making decisions about
conservation action, or for planning more generally.
C. Measuring of biodiversity are commonly used as bases for make decisions about
conservation action, or for plan more generally.
D. Measures of biodiversity was commonly used as bases for to make decisions about
conservation action, or for more planned generally.

86. abiotically/ be/ early/ have/ molecules/ may/ organic/ on/ synthesize/ the/ Earth
A. Organic molecules may have been synthesized abiotically on the early Earth.
B. Organic molecules were may synthesized abiotically on the early Earth.
C. Early organic molecules abiotically might have been synthesized on the Earth.
D. Abiotically organic molecules may early has been synthesized on the Earth.

87. chains/ carbon/ form/ molecules/ most/ of/ organic/ skeletons/ the
A. Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules.
B. Most of carbon chains forms the skeletons organic molecules.
C. Most organic molecules form the skeletons of carbon chains.
D. Organic molecules formed carbon chains of the most skeletons.

88. attach/ as/ a/ fats/ the/ molecules/ have/ hydrocarbon/ know/ component/ long/ to/ non-
hydrocarbon/ tails
A. The molecules known as fats have long hydrocarbon tails attached to a non-hydrocarbon
component.
B. The molecules know fats have long hydrocarbon tails as attached to a non-hydrocarbon
component.
C. The long molecules known as fats have hydrocarbon tails attaches to a non-hydrocarbon
component.
D. The molecules is knowing as fats have long hydrocarbon tails attachment to a non-
hydrocarbon component.

89. exchange/ fields/ CO2/ drainage/ flooding/ affect/ and/ in/ paddy
A. Flooding and drainage affect CO2 exchange in paddy fields.
B. Flooding and drainage effect CO2 exchange in paddy fields.
C. Paddy fields exchange CO2 in flooding and drainage effects.
D. CO2 exchange affects flooding and drainage in paddy fields.

13
90. and/ the/ to/ flux/ pattern/ be/ be/ on/ physical/ environmental/ particularly/ sensitive/ climate/
change/ CO2/ conditions/ dependent
A. The CO2 flux pattern is dependent on physical environmental conditions and is particularly
sensitive to climate change.
B. The CO2 flux is dependent on conditions physical environmental and is sensitive to climate
change pattern particularly.
C. The particularly CO2 flux and pattern are dependent on physical environmental conditions
are sensitive to climate change.
D. The CO2 flux is particularly sensitive on pattern physical environmental conditions and is
dependent to climate change.

Read the text and answer the questions.

The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
Although each class of polymer is made up of a different type of monomer, the chemical
mechanisms by which cells make and break down polymers are basically the same in all cases. In
cells, these processes are facilitated by enzymes, specialized macromolecules that speed up
chemical reactions. The reaction connecting monomers is a good example of a dehydration
reaction, a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a
water molecule. When a bond forms between two monomers, each monomer contributes part of
the water molecule that is released during the reaction: One monomer provides a hydroxyl group
(- OH), while the other provides a hydrogen (- H). This reaction is repeated as monomers are added
to the chain one by one, making a polymer (also called polymerization).
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis, a process that is essentially the reverse of
the dehydration reaction. Hydrolysis means water breakage (from the Greek hydro, water, and
lysis, break). The bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule, with a
hydrogen from water attaching to one monomer and the hydroxyl group attaching to the other. An
example of hydrolysis within our bodies is the process of digestion. The bulk of the organic
material in our food is in the form of polymers that are much too large to enter our cells. Within
the digestive tract, various enzymes attack the polymers, speeding up hydrolysis. Released
monomers are then absorbed into the bloodstream for distribution to all body cells. Those cells can
then use dehydration reactions to assemble the monomers into new, different polymers that can
perform specific functions required by the cell. (Dehydration reactions and hydrolysis can also be
involved in the formation and breakdown of molecules that are not polymers, such as some lipids.)

91. What is a polymer made up of?

92. What is an enzyme?

93. Why can the monomer connecting reaction be an excellent example of a dehydration
reaction?

14
94. What does POLYMERIZATION mean?

95. What is the meaning of DISASSEMBLE in this text?

96. What is an example of hydrolysis within human bodies?

97. What is the fate of monomers released from food digestion?

98. How is a bond between two monomers broken?

15
16