Unit 2: Wave form generators and Filters

Basic principle of standard AF signal generator: Fixed frequency and variable

frequency, AF sine and square wave generator using op amps, basic Wein-bridge
network and oscillator configuration, Triangular and saw tooth wave generators,
circuitry and waveforms.

Passive and active filters.

Fundamental theorem of filters, Proof of the theorem by considering a

symmetrical T-network. Types of filters, Circuitry and Cut-off frequency and
frequency response of Passive (RC) and Active (op-amp based) filters: Low pass,
high pass and band pass.

OSCILLATORS USING OP AMPS

The process of feeding a portion of the output signal back to the input circuit is
known as feedback. The effect results in a dependence between the output and
the input and an effective control can be obtained in the working of the circuit.
Feedback is of two types.

• Negative Feedback

• Positive Feedback

Negative feedback:

In negative feedback, the feedback voltage or current is out of phase with the
input signal and thus opposes it.

 Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier.

 It also reduces distortion, noise and instability.
  This feedback increases bandwidth and improves input and output
impedances.

Due to these advantages, the negative feedback is frequently used in amplifier

Positive feedback:

In positive feedback, the feedback voltage or current is in phase with the input
signal and thus aids it.

 Positive feedback increases gain of the amplifier

 It increases distortion, noise and instability.

Because of these disadvantages, positive feedback is not used in amplifiers. But

the positive feedback is used in oscillators.

In the above figure, the open loop gain of the amplifier is represented as A= 𝑉𝑉0
𝑖

The feedback network supplies a voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the

amplifier. This voltage is - β Vo for negative feedback and + β Vo for positive
feedback β.

Now, Vi=Vs + Vf =Vs-βVo for negative feedback

and Vi=Vs + Vf =Vs+βVo for positive feedback

 𝑉𝑓
The quantity β = is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction
𝑉0

Now

(Vs+βVo) A=Vo

AVs+AβVo=Vo

AVs=Vo(1-Aβ)
𝑉0 𝐴
= Therefore, the gain of the amplifier with feedback is given by
𝑉𝑠 (1−𝐴𝛽)

𝐴
Af = )
(1−𝐴𝛽)

when Aβ=1 Af = ∞

Barkhausen Criteria:

• The condition Aβ=1 is known as Barkhausen criteria. It implies

(1) Magnitude of the loop gain Aβ = 1

(2) Phase shift over the loop = 0 or 360 degrees

WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

Wien bridge oscillator is an audio frequency sine wave oscillator

The feedback signal in this circuit is connected to the non-inverting input

terminal. Therefore, the feedback network need not provide any phase shift.

The circuit can be viewed as a Wheat stone bridge with a series combination of
R1 and C1 in one arm and parallel combination of R2 and C2 in the adjoining
arm. Resistors Ri and Rf are connected in the remaining two arms.

The condition of zero phase shift around the circuit is achieved by balancing
the bridge.

The series and parallel combination of RC network form a lead-lag circuit.

At high frequencies, the reactance of capacitor C1 and C2 approaches zero. This
causes C1 and C2 appears short. Here, capacitor C2 shorts the resistor R2. Hence,
the output voltage Vo will be zero since output is taken across R2 and C2
combination. So at high frequencies, circuit acts as a 'lag circuit' and the
output voltage Vo will be zero.

At low frequencies, both capacitors act as open because capacitor offers very high
reactance. Again, output voltage will be zero because the input signal is dropped
across the R1 and C1 combination. So at low frequencies the circuit acts like a
'lead circuit'.

But at one particular frequency between the two extremes, the output voltage
reaches to the maximum value. At this frequency R =XC and gives maximum
output. Hence, this frequency is known as oscillating frequency (f).

1
f=
2πRC

1
To obtain oscillation β =
3
Since Aβ = 1 A =3

Since the feedback network is connected to the non-inverting terminal the phase
difference is 360 degrees

The gain of the oscillator is

𝑅𝑓
A = 1+
𝑅𝑖

Since A = 3
𝑅𝑓
= 3-1 = 2
𝑅𝑖

Or Rf = 2Ri

SQUARE WAVE OSCILLATOR

The square wave oscillator is based on the charging and discharging of a

capacitor. A capacitor is connected to the inverting input of the Op Amp hence
the inverting input is the capacitor voltage and the noninverting input is a portion
of the feedback through resistors R1 and R2
𝑅2
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 .
𝑅1 +𝑅2

When the circuit is first turned on, the capacitor is uncharged , and thus the
inverting input is at 0V. This makes the output a positive maximum, now the
capacitor begins to charge towards voltage at Vo through resistor R. When the
capacitor voltage reaches a value equal to the feedback voltage (V1 =Vf) on the
non-inverting input, the op-amp switches to the maximum negative state. At this
point, the capacitor begins to discharge from +Vf towards –Vf. When the capacitor
voltage reaches (V2 = –Vf) the op-amp switches back to the maximum positive
state. This action repeats and a square wave output voltage is obtained.

Time Period

 Since the feedback portion is given to the non-inverting terminal the phase
difference between input and feedback signal is 0 degrees
𝑅2 1
 Since 𝛽 = if R1 = R2 =R then 𝛽 = since A 𝛽 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 = 2
𝑅1 +𝑅2 2

T = 2RCln3

𝟏
The frequency of oscillation 𝒇=
𝟐𝐑𝐂 𝐥𝐧𝟑

TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR

 This circuit uses two operational amplifiers. Op-amp A1 functions as a

square wave generator and the op-amp A2 as an integrator. Square
 wave generator compares the voltage at point P continuously with respect
to the voltage at the inverting input which as at ground potential. When the
voltage at P goes slightly below zero, the output of A1 will switch to
negative saturation.
 Suppose the output of A1 is at positive saturation +Vsat. Since this voltage
is the input of the integrator, the output of A2 will be a negative going
ramp.
 At time t = t1 when the negative going ramp attains value of –Vramp the
effective voltage at point P becomes slightly less than 0 V. This switches
output of A1 from +Vsat to–Vsat.
 During the time when the output of A1 is at –Vsat, the output of A2
increases in positive direction till +Vramp.
 At the instant t = t2, the voltage at point P becomes just above 0 V, thereby
switching the output of A1 from –Vsat to +Vsat.
 The cycle repeats and generates a triangular waveform.
 The expression for time period is T = 4𝑅𝐶𝑅
𝑅
2 𝑅 1
or f =4𝑅𝐶𝑅
1 2


Derivation for time period
At t = t1the voltage at point P =0 this means
−𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
=−
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑅2
−𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 = − (𝑉 )
𝑅1 𝑠𝑎𝑡

At t = t2
+𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
=−
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑅2
+𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 = − (−𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑉0 = +𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 − (−𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 ) = 2 (𝑉 )
𝑅1 𝑠𝑎𝑡
Hence
𝑇
1 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇 𝑉
= − 𝑅𝐶 ∫02 −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 dt = 2 ( 𝑅𝐶 )
𝑉
Hence T = 2𝑅𝐶 𝑉 0 substituting for 𝑉0
𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑅
2 2 (𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) 4𝑅𝐶𝑅2
𝑅1
T = 2𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
= 𝑅1
OP AMP AS AN INTEGRATOR

The output voltage waveform is the integral of input voltage waveform.

To get the mathematical expression for the output voltage:

Applying Nodal Analysis: Current through resistor

Input current Iin = current through the feedback capacitor If

Iin = If

From the basic understanding of network concepts, current through capacitor is

𝑑𝑉𝑐
given by 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶 Where Vc is the voltage across the capacitor
𝑑𝑡

𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣𝐺 𝑑(𝑣𝐺 − 𝑣0 )
=𝐶
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

Using virtual ground principle 𝑣𝐺 = 0

𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 0 𝑑(0 − 𝑣0 )
=𝐶
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑣0
= −𝐶
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
𝑑𝑣0 𝑣𝑖𝑛 1
= − 𝑜𝑟 𝑣0 = − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝐶 𝑅1 𝐶 0 𝑖𝑛
SAWTOOTH-WAVE GENERATOR

A saw tooth wave generator is similar to a triangle wave generator

The difference between the triangular and sawtooth waveform is that the rise time
of the triangular wave is always equal to its fall time while in sawtooth wave
generator, rise time may be much higher than its fall time or vice versa. The
triangular wave generator can be converted to a saw tooth wave generator by
injecting a variable dc voltage into the noninverting terminal of the integrator.

This can be done by using a potentiometer as shown in figure When the wiper of
the potentiometer is at the centre, the output will be a triangular wave. If the wiper
moves towards –V the rise time of the saw tooth wave becomes longer than the
fall time. If the wiper moves towards +V the fall time becomes more than the rise
time

With a neat block diagram discuss about an AF sine wave / Square

wave generator

Or
With a neat Block diagrm describe thr basic principle of a signal
generator

The AF signal generator, which generates either sine wave or

square wave in the range of audio frequencies based on the
requirement is called AF Sine and Square wave generator.
Its block diagramis shown in below figure. The above block
diagram consists of mainly two paths. Those are upper path and
lower path.

A Wein bridge oscillator is used in this generator The frequency can

be changed by either varying the capacitance or resistance the
output is directed to a function switch when it is in position 1 it is
used to produce AF sine wave which is connected to an amplifier
and then to attenuator. Therefore, the oscillations are amplified
and then attenuated and a pure sine wave is available at the
output. Depending on the requirement the amplitude of this sine
wave can be varied from 5 mV to 5 V

When the key is connected to position 2, the oscillations are applied

to square wave shaper which converts the oscillations into square
wave. The square wave signal is amplified and then attenuated and
finally appears as pure square wave at the output. The amplitude
of the square wave can be varied from 0 V to 20 V (peak value).This
generator produces output in the frequency range of 1 0 Hz to I
MHz

What is the basic difference between a signal generator and an oscillator?

Discuss fixed and variable AF oscillator?
Ans:
Signal generators are the sources of electrical signals used for the
purpose of testing and operating different kinds of electrical
equipment. A signal generator provides different types of
waveforms such as sine, triangular, square, pulse etc., whereas an
oscillator provides only sinusoidal signal at the output.

The AF oscillators are divided into two types. They are as follows,
1. Fixed frequency AF oscillator
2. Variable frequency AF oscillator.
1. Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator
Many instrument circuits contain oscillator as one of its integral
parts to provide output signal within the specified fixed audio
frequency range. This specified audio frequency range can be 1 kHz
signal or 400 Hz signal.

The 1 kHz frequency signal is used to execute a bridge circuit and

400 Hz frequency signal is used for audio testing. A fixed frequency
AF oscillator employs an iron core transformer. Due to this a
positive feedback is obtained through the inductive coupling placed
between the primary winding and secondary winding of the
transformer and hence fixed frequency oscillations are

generated.
2. Variable Frequency AF Oscillator
It is a general purpose oscillator used in laboratory. It generates
oscillations within the entire audio frequency range i.e. from 2O Hz
to 20 kHz. This oscillator provides a pure, constant sine wave
output throughout this AF range.