Unit 5

Consolidation of soils
Introduction:
 When a soil mass is subjected to compressive force, its volume decrease. This property of the soil is known as
the compressibility of soil.
 Compression of soil occurs due to the following.
i) compression of solid particles and water in voids.
ii) compression and expulsion of air in the voids.
iii) expulsion of water in the voids.
 Compression of soil solids and water is extremely small and therefore not much significant.
 Air exists only in partially saturated soils and dry soils.
 Compression of air is rapid as it is highly compressible and is expelled quickly as soon as the load is applied.
 In saturated soils this case is not relevant.
 When the soil is fully saturated, compression of soil occurs mainly due to expulsion of water.
 Compression of saturated soil under a steady static pressure is known as consolidation.
 As consolidation of soil occurs, the water escapes and solid particles shift from one position to the other by
rolling and sliding and thus attain a closer packing.
 It is to be noted that decrease in volume of soil occurs not due to compression of solids or water but due to
shifting of position of particles as the water escapes.
 Settlement is the gradual sinking of a structure due to compression of the soil below it.
 Study of consolidation characteristics is extremely useful for forecasting magnitude and time of the settlement
of the structure.

Initial, Primary and Secondary Consolidation:

Consolidation of soil deposit is divided into 3 stages:
i) Initial Consolidation:
When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, decrease in volume occurs due to expulsion and compression of
air in the voids. A small decrease in volume also occurs due to compression of solid particles. Reduction in volume of
soil just after the application of load is known as “INITIAL CONSOLIDATION” or “INITIAL COMPRESSION.”
For saturated soils, initial consolidation is mainly due to compression of solid particles.
ii) Primary Consolidation:
After initial consolidation further reduction in volume occurs due to expulsion of water from voids. When a saturated
soil is subjected to pressure, initially all the applied pressure is taken up by water as an excess pore water pressure, as
water is almost incompressible as compared with solid particles. A hydraulic gradient develops and water starts
flowing out and a decrease in volume occurs. The decrease depends upon permeability of soil and is therefore time
dependent. This reduction in volume is called “PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION.”
As water escapes from soil, applied pressure is generally transferred from water in the voids to the solid particles.
Thus the effective stress is increased.
iii) Secondary Consolidation:
Reduction in volume continues at a very slow rate even after the primary consolidation. This additional reduction in
volume is called “SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION.” It is due to the plastic re-adjustment of the solid particles
and the absorbed water to the new stress system.

Behaviour of Saturated Soils under Pressure:

When a pressure Δσ1 is applied to the saturated soil sample, pressure is shared by the solid particle and water as
Δσ’ + u’ = Δσ
Initially just after the application of pressure, entire loads is taken by water. The pressure developed in water known as
excess hydrostatic pressure (u’) is equal to the applied pressure.
Pressure taken by solid particle, represented as the effective stress, Δσ’ is zero.
Therefore 0 + u’ = Δσ
The excess hydrostatic pressure sets up a hydraulic gradient, and water starts escaping from voids. As water escapes,
applied pressure is transferred from water to solids. Finally the whole pressure is transferred to the soil solids as the
effective stress and excess water pressure becomes zero.
 Δσ’ = Δσ
As the effective stress increases, volume of soil decreases. Decrease in volume is expressed as change in void ratio (e).
The fig shows decrease in void ratio with time (t) as the effective stress increases.

Initially at t = 0, e = e0
Finally when the pressure has been fully transferred to solid particles (t = tf), void ratio is (ef)1.
The curve is applicable for one pressure increment Δσ1
If the applied pressure is increased to Δσ2, soil attains a different final void ratio (ef)2 when the load is transferred to
the solid particles.
A curve can be drawn between the final void ratios and the corresponding effective stresses for different load
increments.
As the effective stress increases, final void ratio decreases and therefore the volume of soil decrease.

Consolidation Test:
 The test is conducted in laboratory to study the compressibility of soil. The test is performed in consolidation
test apparatus known as consolidometer or an oedometer. The test consists of a loading device and a cylindrical
container called consolidation cell. The soil specimen is placed in the cell between top and bottom porous
stones.
 The inner surface of the ring should be smooth and polished to reduce friction.
 The internal diameter of the cell is usually 60mm. Thickness of sample for a 60mm diameter cell is usually
taken as 20mm. The consolidometer has arrangements for the application of desired load increment, saturation
of sample measurement of thickness of sample at every stage of consolidation process. The cell is provided
with a perforated pressure pad. At it’s top for the application of load. Load is applied either by suspending
weights from a hanger resting at the centre of pressure pad or by a lever arrangement. Dial guage is used to
measure change in thickness. The sample is kept submerged under water to present evaporation.
 The bottom porous stone is first placed in the consolidation cell and a filter paper is fixed on porous stone. The
ring containing the sample is then placed on the bottom porous stone. Another filter paper is kept on the top of
sample and then, the porous stone is placed. The loading pad is placed on the top porous stone. The mould
 assembly is connected to the water reservoir to saturate the sample. The initial setting pressure of about 5
kN/m2 is applied to the sample. Load is allowed to stand till there is no change in the dial gauge reading or 24
hours whichever is less.
 Final dial gauge reading under the initial setting pressure is noted. Final increment of load to give a pressure of
10 KN/m2 is then applied to the specimen. Dial gauge readings are taken after 0.25, 1.0, 2.25, 4.0, 6.25, 9.0,
12.25, 16.0, 20.25, 25, 36, 49 minutes and after 49 minutes readings are taken at 1, 2, 4, 8, 10 and 24 hrs.
 The second increment of load is then applied. The load increments applied are 20, 40, 80, 160, 320 and 640
KN/m2 etc. Till the desired maximum required load intensity is governed by the actual loadings on the soil in
the field after the construction of structure.
 After the consolidation under the final load increment is complete load is reduced to 1/4 th of the final load
(i.e, 160 KN/m2) in the above case and allowed to stand for 24 hrs.
 The sample takes water and swells. Reading of the dual gauge is taken when the swelling is complete. The load
is further reduced to one fourth intensity (40 KN/m2) and the swelling is recorded after 24 hrs. The load is then
reduced to 10KN/M2) and the swelling is noted. Load is finally reduced to the initial setting load and kept for
24 hrs and the final dual gauge reading is taken. Immediately after unloading, the ring with the sample is taken
out. Excess surface water is dried using a blotting paper. Weight of the ring and the sample is taken.
 Sample is then dried in oven for 24hrs and it dry mass (Ms) and water content (w) are determined.
 The results of consolidation test are plotted in the form of a plot between void ratio and effective stress (σ’)
 Therefore void ratio (e) is required to determine at various load increments.

Height of solids method:

 In this method, equivalent height of solids is determined from dry mass of solids. Height of solids is given by
Consolidation test result:
(i) Dial gauge reading time plot:

 Fig (a) shows the plot between the dial gauge reading and time for a typical load increment for clay and sand
samples. Thickness just after the application of load increment (t=t0), is a maximum, which decreases as the
time increases. The decrease is rapid initially but it slows down as the time passes. There is practically no
change in thickness after 24 hrs. Consolidation at that load increment is considered to be completed at 24 hrs.
 For sand, change in thickness occurs very quickly and stops after a few minutes. This is due to high
permeability of sand which permits easy flow of water. The plot between dial gauge reading and time is
required for determining the coefficient of consolidation, which is useful for obtaining rate of consolidation in
the field.

(ii) Final void ratio effective stress plot:

 Thickness of the specimen after 24 hrs of application of load increment is taken as the final thickness for that
increment.
 Fig (b) shows the plot between final void ratios (ef)1, (ef)2, (ef)3 etc and the corresponding effective stresses
σ1’, σ2’, σ3’ for lead increments 1, 2, 3 etc.

 As the sand is less compressible change in void ratio is small.

 The plot between ef and σ’ is required for determination of the magnitude of consolidation settlement in field.

(iii) Final void ratio – log σ plot:

 Fig (a) shows a plot between the final void ratio and the effective stress. The curve has concavity upward.
Slope of the curve at different point is different. Slope decreases with an increase in effective stress.
  Fig (b) shows a plot between the final e plotted on the natural scale and the σ as abscissa on the log scale. (here
σ’ is plotted on log scale not log σ plotted on log scale).

(iv) Unloading and reloading plot:

 In the figure below, the curve AB indicates the decrease in void ratio with an increase in σ’. After the sample
has reached equilibrium at the effective stress of σ2’, as shown by point B, the pressure is reached and the
sample is allowed to take up water and swell.

 The curve BEC is obtained in unloading. This is known as the expansion curve or swelling curve.
 Soil cannot attain the void ratio existing before the start of test because of some permanent set of deformation.
 If the specimen is reloaded, the recompression curve CFD is obtained.
 With further increase in load, plot DG continues as an extension of the first loading curve AB. The reloaded
curve remains at slightly lower void ratio at the point D than that attained at B during initial compression for
the same load.

Definitions:
i) Coefficient of compressibility (av):
It is defined as decrease in void ratio per unit increase in effective stress (σ’). It is equal to the slope of (e- σ’) curve at
the point under consideration. Therefore

eq (1)

As effective stress increases, void ratio decreases and therefore, the ratio de/dσ’ is negative. As the value of av is
different at various effective stresses, while reporting its value, effective stress to which that value corresponds must be
mentioned. av decreases with an increase in σ’. In other words, soil becomes stiffer (less compressible) as the effective
stress is increased and the curve becomes flatter.
ii) Coefficient of volume change (volume compressibility) (mv):
It is defined as the volumetric strain per unit increase in effective stress. Thus

Where V0 is the initial volume

ΔV = change in volume, Δσ’ = change in effective stress
Volumetric strain (ΔV/V0) can be expressed in terms of either void ratio or the thickness of the specimen.

------- eq (2)

or (ΔV/V0) = (ΔH/H0)
where H0 = initial height
Therefore,

From eq (1) and eq (2), we have

mv = av / (1 + e0)
mv decreases with an increase in effective stress.

Compression index is useful for determination of the settlement in the field.

Terzaghi and peck gave the following empirical relationship for clays of low to medium sensitivity (St < = 4).

 For undisturbed soils Cc = 0.009(wL-10).

 For remoulded soils Cc = 0.007(wL-10).
Cc normally varies between 0.3 for highly plastic clays and 0.075 for low plastic clays.
Cc = 0.54(e0 - 0.35)
Cc = 0.0054(2.6w0-35)
w0 = water content
av can be calculated from Cc
av = 0.435* (Cc/σa’)
 where σa’ is the average pressure for the increment.

iv) Expansion index (ce) or Swelling index: It is the slope of e – log σ’ plot obtained during unloading.

Ce will be much smaller than Cc.

v) Recompression index (Cr): Recompression is the compression of a soil which had already been loaded and
unloaded. The load during recompression is less than the load to which the soil has been subjected previously. Slope
of recompression curve obtained during reloading when plotted as e – log σ’ is equal to the recompression index
(Cr). Thus

Cr is usually in the range of 1/10 to 1/5 of Cc.

vi) Normally consolidated (NC) and over consolidated (OC) clays:

NC soil is one which had not been subjected to a pressure greater than the present existing pressure. A soil is said to be
over consolidated if it had been subjected in the past to a pressure in excess of the present pressure.
 The maximum pressure to which an over consolidated soil had been subjected in the part divided by present
pressure is known as over consolidated ratio (OCR).
 NC soils and OC soils are not different types of soils but these are the conditions in which a soil exists.
 Same type of soil can behave as NC in a certain pressure range and an OC in some other pressure range.
 Soils in the over consolidated state have smaller compressibility.
 Settlement of structures built on an OC clays are small.

Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation:

Assumptions:
Terzaghi (1925) gave the theory for the determination of rate of consolidation of saturated soil mass subjected to a
static, steady load. Following are the assumptions in the theory:
 Soil is homogeneous & isotropic.
 Soil is fully saturated.
 Solid particles and water are incompressible. Consolidation occurs due to expulsion of water.
 Coefficient of permeability of soil has the same value at all points and it remains constant during the entire
period of consolidation.
 Darcy’s law is valid throughout consolidation process.
 Soil is laterally confined and consolidation takes place only in axial direction. Drainage of water also occurs
only in vertical direction.
 Time lag in consolidation is entirely due to the low permeability of the soil.
 Coefficient of compressibility and mv are constant.

Comments on assumptions:
 The results obtained from the use of the theory to practical problems are approximate.
 Assumptions 1 to 3 are generally satisfied.
 Assumptions 4 & 5 are not fully satisfied because k decreases as the consolidation progresses and Darcy’s law
is also not valid for the entire process. But the errors due to these are small.
 In the field, consolidation is usually 3-d and not 1-d. In the case of deposits having large areas compared with
their thickness have essentially 1-d consolidation and the error is not much.
 Assumption 7 is only for secondary consolidation and is not much significant.
 Relationship between e and σ’ is not linear. If a large no. of samples are taken from the same stratum and an
average value of the coefficient of volume change (mv) is taken for the appropriate range of effective stresses,
the error is not much.
 Terzaghi’s 1 d consolidation equation is given as

---- eq (1)
where ðu/ðt is the rate of dissipation of pore pressure and Cv is the coefficient of consolidation and is given by

------eq (2)
Equation 1 gives the distribution of hydrostatic excess pressure u with depth z and time t.

If both the upper and lower boundaries are free draining, the clay layers is known as open layer and if only one
boundary of the clay layer is free draining, that layer is called half closed layer.
 Progress of consolidation at any point depends upon the pore water pressure u’ at that point.
 Degree of consolidation (UZ) at any point at depth Z is equal to the ratio of dissipated excess pore water
pressure to the initial excess pore water pressure i.e.,

UZ =
Where ui is the excess pore water pressure and u is the pore water pressure at that particular time
 In practical problems, the main interest is to know the average degree of consolidation of the whole layer.
 Average degree of consolidation is defined as
U=
where ui is the initial excess hydrostatic pressure over the entire depth and
ut is the average excess hydrostatic pressure after time t over the entire depth.
 Average degree of consolidation (U) depends on non-dimensional time factor (T V).
U = f (TV)
= f [ (Cv t)/d2) ]
Time factor depends on coefficient of consolidation, time t and drainage path (d)

 Coefficient of consolidation represents the combined effect of the coefficient of permeability (k) and the
coefficient of volume change (mv).
  As consolidation progresses, both k and mv decreases but the ratio k/mv remains almost constant.
 Therefore coefficient of consolidation remains almost constant.
 Drainage path (d) represents the maximum distance that the water has to travel before reaching the free
draining boundary.
 For an open layer, value of d = ½ of the thickness of the layer.
 For half-closed layer, d = thickness of the layer
 Time t is measured from the instant the load is applied to the layer.

Determination of Coefficient of consolidation by Square root of time method:

 The sample of soil whose Cv is required is to be tested for a given load increment.
 For a given load increment, dial gauge readings are taken for different time intervals.
 A curve is to be plotted between dial gauge reading (R) on y-axis and √t on x-axis (figure b).
 Curve ABCDE shows the plot.

 Curve begins at dial gauge reading R0 at time t0 indicated by pt.A.

 As the load is applied, there is an initial compression. It is obtained by producing back the initial linear part of
the curve to intersect the dial gauge reading axis at A'.
 This corresponds to the corrected zero reading ( Rc).
 Consolidation between R0 & RC is the initial compression.
 Draw a line A' F (from A' passing through the linear portion of the curve to meet the x-axis at point F).
 Measure OF.
 Plot a point G on x-axis such that OG = 1.15 * OF.
 Join A' G.
 Line A' G intersects the consolidation curve ABCD at a pt H on the curve.
 Drop a vertical line from pt H to x-axis.
 The corresponding time √t is the time for 90% of consolidation.
 For U = 90% , TV = 0.848
 The value of the coefficient of consolidation of soil for that load increment is
 The test is repeated for different load increments & an average value of CV is obtained.

Pre consolidation pressure:

The maximum pressure to which an over consolidated soil had been subjected in the past is known as the
pre consolidated pressure or over consolidated pressure.

Solved Problems