Geographical Thought

Classical to Contemporary
REVISEDAND ENLARGED EDITION

C l a l e

SBSC Library
Ti
70338

LALITA RANA
 GEOGRAPHICAL
THOUGHT
Classical to Contemporary
[REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION]

Lalita Rana

SBSC Library

70338

CONCEPT PUBLISHING COMPANY PVT. LTD.

NEW DELHI-110059
Contents

Preface
List of Tables ix
List of Figures X

SECTION-I
INTRODUCTION

1. Nature and Development of Geography 3

2. Geography and Post-Modernism 19

SECTION-II
CLASSICAL TRADITION

3. Ancient Period 31
4. Medieval Period 111
5. Modern Period 128

SECTION-III
PARADIGMS

6. Paradigmatic Shifts 189

7. Major Paradigms 204

SECTION-IV
CONTEMPORARY TRADITION

8. Quantitative Revolution 245

vii GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

9. Laws, Theories and

Models 254
10. Systems' Analysis 271
11. Behavioural Geography 284
12. Marxist Geography 300
13. Feminist Geography 310
14. Positivism 319
15. Pragmatism 330
16. Phenomenology 339
17. Existentialism 348
18. Idealism 355
19. Functionalism 366
20. Realism 378

SECTION-V
FUTURE OF GEOGRAPHY

21. Scope of Geography 385

389
Bibliography
Index 401
List of Tables

1.1 Chronology of Geographical Development 8

3.1 History of China 37

3.2 The Earliest scholars and Explorers 46
3.3 Seven Voyages of Zheng He 60
3.4 Ancient Fields of Learning and the Contributors 61
3.5 Cardinal points and the Ruling Daities as per Puranic Literature 75
3.6 The Seasons as mentioned in Ancient Indian Literature 76

4.1 Explorers in Late Medieval Period 121

List of Figures

3.1 Empedocles' Cosmic Cycle 66

3.2 Brahmanda 69
3.3 Bhu-Mandala 69
3.4 The Ecliptic Model 69
3.5 Jambudvipa: As a Local Map of South Central Asia 70
3.6 Three Early Chinese Models of the Universe 71
3.7 The Puranic Dwipas (Source: Hussain, M. (1995), p. 105) 95
4.1 T-in-O' Map of Early Medieval Period 112
6.1 Paradigm of Science 190
6.2 The Paradigmatic Shifts in Geographic Development 192
10.1 Behaviour of a System 273
10.2 Hierarchy of Elements 275
10.3(a) Cause and Effect Relationship 276
10.3(b) Parallel Relationship 276
10.3(c) Feedback Relationship 276
10.3(d) Simple Compound Relationship 276
10.3(e) Complex Compound Relationship 276
11.1 Man and Environment Link 285
11.2 The Relationship among Perception, Cognitive Images, Values 286
and Behaviour
11.3 Levels of Environments within which Man operates 291
114 Environment and Behaviour Link 292
11.5 The Milieu of An Individual 297
 SECTIONI
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER-1

Nature and Development of Geography

Like a thread through beads, Geography runs through every that aspect of krowledge
which is concerned with the study of earth's surface in part or whole. Geograpny as a
field of learning is related to the study of location and spatial relations of things and
events on the surface of earth. Geography is fundamentally a holistic discipline,
of a
studying things and events in their total context. This implies study of systems
really inter-connected and inter-dependent parts of diverse origin. The geographers
are concerned with 'territorial space'. Geographical queries begin with asking a sinnple

question, ie. "where". Asking questions about location is one of the distinguishing
characteristics of the field of geography. An answer to this leads to some specified
as 'how' and "why, etc. follow
location over terrestrial space. The other questions
concerned with five sets of questions: Generic
later. Geography as a discipline is
on earth's surface;
questions: relatingto the kind (class) of phenomena distributed
of events and interaction that have
Genetic questions: concerned with the sequences
Theoretical questions: relating to formulation
gone making of present day landscapes;
Remedial questions: concerned with the application
of rules, laws and generalizations; concerned
life problems; and Methodological questions:
ofgeographic concepts to real take
skills. Taken together, all these questions
with the improvement of our scientific The first
and cultural features.
of natural
areof distributional and locational aspects located.
information of what features and where
two questions provide inventoried
the ancient and medieval period. However,
This remained a popular approach during the third question
a scientific discipline till
these two questions did not make geography between
is related to explanation or causal relationships
Was added. The third question to the
This aspect of geography is related
features and the processes and phenomena.
makes geography more and more anthropocentric;
question, 'why'. The fourth question have led to change and development
in the
whereas attempts to answer fifth question
geography is recognized as a spatial science,
methodology of discipline. Today
4 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

concerned with the study of the location and arrangement of phenomena (physical,
biotic and human) on the surface of earth and the processes that generate these
distributions. With the advancement in geography, its nature (meaning, content,
purpose, method and scope) has also changed with increased deperndence on other
disciplines.
Eratosthenes, a 3rd century BC Greek scholar, coined the term 'geography' (from
geo' meaning 'the earth' and 'graphe' meaning 'the deseription). The traditional
definition of our discipline has been derived from the literal meaning of this term, ie.
Geography is the description of Earth. Throughout the Classical Phaseofits development,
geography was considered as a descriptive field of study and the enquiries of
geographical nature had begun with the basic question, i.e. "what is where". The
emphasis of study of Classical schools of geographic thought was on this very question.
The nature of query shifted to "why what is where" after the Age of Discovery.
However, a further refinement was seen in the Modern period, when geographers
began to seek answer to the questions as "how and why what is where". In an attempt
to answer each set of these questions, geography has gained a new and more
meaningful detinition every time. In its present form Geography may be defined as
study of spatial location and distribution of various phenomena on thesurface of
earth. Geography is the science of spatial distribution. The 'spatial' here means
pertaining to physical space, and not the astronomical, microscopic or abstract space.
It is topographical space, i.e. over the surface of earth. The 'distribution' of any element
(physical, biotir cr human) is spatial in nature, if it occupies a portion of earth's surface,
or has a location over it, and which is also a phenomenon of specified magnitude, so
that it could be physically identified, measured and represented on a map. Related
with the term 'spatial distribution' are the concepts of pattern, process and stage.
various phenomena or activities on the surface of earth are not just localized in any
place, anywhere or everywhere in the same manner. They form certain kinds of patterns
and there are several processes involved behind the existing distributions, shaping
them in various forms, shapes and patterns. These processes help to understand the
causal connections among elements of spatial distribution. An understanding of the
The interplay of
process helps to answer the question "how and why what is where'.
time' and 'space' bring change in spatial distribution. The change, whether perceptible
or imperceptible, is inherent and is bound to come with time. Thus, every spatial
distribution has to be studied in terms of its chronology and chronologicalperspective.
Geography is not an encyclopaedic description of places. To know by heart a whole
gazetteer full of them would not make anyone a geographer. Geographyhashugher
aims than this, i.e. to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influence
upon man. Geography deals with an enormous range of phenomena, ranging rom
physical, biotic to human. The four spheres, namely lithosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere 'and biosphere constitute the geographic environment. This makes
geography highly interdisciplinary, drawing upon and contributing to numerous other
fields of knowledge. Geography is an observational science. Both observational and

experimental sciences demonstrate how regular occurrences are produced by the

predictable interactions in a number of variables. It is possible in experimentalsciences
 CHAPTER1 NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF
GEOGRAPH
under
un laboratory condiions, to control and introduce
to observe their effect upon the situation. But in an observational
observe the separately
the variablesscience in oraer
occurrences
must be observed as they naturally occur. Therefore, exploration or fieldworK
hasic research technique in geography. Fundamentally speaking, Geography deals
with location, place and regions. Location is studied in terms of its absolute and relative
Sense. The absoiute 1ocation 1s based on coordinate
longitudes; the relaüve location is in relation to othergrid
of latitudes ana
systemPlace
locations. is a location
having distinctive features which
give it meaning and character that is unlike any
other location. Then, geography makes sense of the world by synthesizing vast amounts
of information into spatial categories of similar traits called
'regions'.
non
The
overlapping areas of essential uniformity are formal regions, whereas those defined
by interaction and connection of a particular activity (function) are functiona.
Geographers vary considerably in their interests. Some are concerned more witn e
natural phenomena and some with the human artefacts, while some tend to focus
their attention on the man-land interactions and stress the idea of geography as
ccolog8
But implicit in all these branches of the interest is a concern with location and spatial
patterns, and a curiosity about the terrestrial space in which the patterns come to be
as they are. The physical space is the binding factor. There is no more essentially
geographical activity than explaining a spatial distribution. As spatial interrelationships
are of vital importance to this synoptic science, the maps are a key tool. The classical
cartography has now been joined by great advances in computer technology. With
this the analytical and spatial data management tools available to geographers,
including Geographic Information Systems and spatial data analysis, are now allowing
geographers for more rigorous, quantitative analysis of spatial phenomenon. A
geographer's task calls for gathering, representation and analysis (explanation) ofthe
information related to location and distribution of various phenomena on the surface
of earth. A geographer is a person who asks question about the significance oflocation
distance, direction, spread and spatial succession. He deals with problems of
accessibility, innovation, diffusion, density and other derivations of relative location'
Modern geography is a spatial science, increasingly focusing on the study of spatial
aspects of social and economic phenomena, and thus being pre-eminently
the homeof
anthropocentric. The space of geography is that of the earth's surface,
man. Thus, the nature of geography is integrative, interdisciplinary, empirical
and
also anthropocentric.
is a discipline of synthesis. It attempts spatial synthesis. Geography
as
Geography
an integrating discipline has interface with numerous natural and social sciences. Every
is linked with geography as many of
discipline, concerned with scientific knowledge takes note of the differences in
their elements vary over space. Geography not only
to place but also integrates them holistically. A geographer
the phenomena from placehave a broad understanding of all the related fields,
to be
15, therefore, required to
the earth in one way or the
able to logically integrate them. All the disciplines study
none of the disciplines can claim to be
other, but none of them completely. Therefore, a scientific
independent of others. The claim for geography as
Selt-dependent or
on other disciplines. Today, it cannot
discipline has led to its increased dependence
 6 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

survive on its own; in fact, no

universal, and is true for
discipline can do that. Disciplinary interdependenca :
every discipline. Moreover, the invention of electrom
computer and the revolutionary advances in data collecion by
the earth have made satellites orbiting aroind
geography more and more inter-disciplinary in its natura
Henceforth, the question regarding what geography does, and the
it by
drawing boundaries around it with a view to distinguish it from attempt to answer
becomes irrelevant. Thus, various reasons other sciencee
responsible having 8geography to adopt
for
an
inter-disciplinary
in nature: the
approach are three-fold: (0) the claim ot
geography to be scientific
methodology of any discipline that claims to be scientific is
all scientific
disciplines, (ii) the accommodative nature of discipline, i.e.common for
dealing with the distribution over the surface of the earth any aspect
qualifies
geographical in study and in fact, the suffix of 'geography' may be added to to become
of
learning; and (ii) heavy dependence of geography on the any branch
quantitative
computers, remote sensing and GIS. As techniques,
statistical methods and now
far as the
interdisciplinary nature of
geography is concerned, this has been a characteristic
since very
beginning. The scholars from outside the field feature
valuable contributions to our (non-geographers)
subject matter. Notable have been astronomers,
have made
astrologers, mathematicians,
interdependence has increasedgeologists,
with time.theocrats, philosophers and travellers. This
Particularly since modern period, we see geographical studies
number of allied
disciplines. Various disciplines geography relies being based on a
categorized as: earth sciences, pure sciences, life on, may be
behavioural sciences and the sciences (biological) sciences, social sciences,
dealing
computation and analysis. The elements covered under the
with data collection,
representation,
disciplines, history, demography, sociology, economics, botany,
as study of most of these
political science, etc. have spatial expressions, and thus zoology, geology
matter of they constitute relevant subject
geographical study. On the other hand, to some other disciplines, like
mathematics, statistics, cartography,
computer science, etc. geography looks
assistance in analytical and
explanatory procedures of study. The disciplines like ftor
geomorphology, geology, meteorology, pedology, hydrology, oceanography, etc. fall
under earth sciences. The
category of sciences includes
pure the basic
physics, chemistry and astronomy. The life sciences encompass a broad sciences like
spectrum of
academic fields as botany, zoology,
ecology, anthropology astrobiology which
or
together address phenomena related to living organisms. The subjects like history,
demography, economics, political science, sociology, philosophy, etc. which deal with
the study of human society constitute the
part of social sciences. The behavioural
sciences lie at the crossroads of natural and the social sciences,
scientific exploration. This group of sciences
linking broad areas of
investigates
the decision
communication strategies within and between organisms in a socialprocesses system andand
includes the disciplines like anthropology, psychology, archaeology, ete. Besides, there
are a number of other sciences that aid in data
collection, representation and analysis
in geography and they include as
computer science, cartography, surveying
mathematics and statistics, remote sensing and GIS. Thus, geography has strong
interface with all the natural and social sciences. It has osmotic relationship with these
 CHAPTER1 NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPFIT
lines. While
disciplines. Whi all the disciplines have
their own individualssscope, this individuality
not
doesnot
ioes obstruct flow of
obstruct
not ot the of informat
information as in the case of cells in the body that have
identity separated
ndividual 1identity
individual separated by by memhrs
membranes but the flow of blood is not obstructed.
Ceographers data ODtained trom sister disciplines and
Geographers use
attempt synthesis space
over
This disciplinary iinterdependence of geography also reflects in its various specialized
elds of study which constitute its subject matter.
The subject matter of geography is a clear manifestation of its
nature and reflect both the aspects of
interdisciplinary
study,
elements of studu: nh
viz. sciences and humanities. Therefore,
Cences
it covers all
covers all the elements of study: physical, human and biotic. Besides, the
representation of all these elements with the help of maps ard diagrams also tails
within the ambit of geography. Physical geography studies the spatial characteristics
of various natural phenomena that exist in earth's lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere; its various branches include geomorphology, climatology and hydrology
and oceanography. Human geography focuses on the study of patterns and processes
thatshape human interaction with various environments; it encompassesa vast fiela
of study covering, for instance, historical, demographic, political, cultural,
economic and developmental aspects. While the major focus of human geography 1ssoCld
not the physical landscape of the Earth, it is hardly possible to discuss human
geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are
being played out, and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the
two. The interface between physical geography and human geography has led to the
development of biogeography and it is the science which deals with patterns of
distribution of species (plants, animals and also humans in their natural setting) and
the processes that result in such patterns. Soil geography and environmental
geography
also fall in this category. Still another branch of knowledge is concerned with the
practical work in geography, i.e. related to data collection, representation and analysis.
The practical work in geography constitutes both the laboratory and field-work. The
data collected in the field, or from the statistical reports, are translated into maps and
diagrams in the laboratory. This practical work is based on cartography, surveying
various quantitative techniques, and more recently on renmote sensing, computers and
GIS. The subject matter of geography as outlined here is enormous and extremely
varied in nature and it is nder constant change.

EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Geography was born to satisfy the curiosity of man to acquire knowledge about the
lands lying within and beyond his familiar world. Various forms of primitive queries
have served the foundation of geography. Some of the earliest queries formulated by
man were related to his natural surroundings. These queries were in the form of the
questions, like "where to live"; "what to wear" or "what essential means of sustenance
are and how can man obtain them". The answers to all these queries have led to
accumulation of vast knowledge about the surface of earth. The records of man's
nterest suggest that his preliminary observations and reactions were of geographical
8 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

2000 years, Geography is as old ae the

nature. Having a recognizable existence of over it 1s a storv
has never been smootny
himself. However, its development
man
definition, nature and methodolop
upheavals and downfalls. With time, the
has witnessed the phases of growth and al
geography have changed. Geography
those of decline alternatively. The chronologyofgeographic
development is presented
claim a longer genealogy than geography
in Table 1.1. As such no other discipline can
in antiquity, the sciennc geogTaphy
Although, roots of the discipline lie much deeper in past two millenrnia, beginning
we know today is outcome of the developments
as of development. The nature
from the ancient period and passing to successive phases
contribution of various Classical Schools of
of geography as we know today is the Indian and Chinesein ancient period,
Thought, namely, European (Greek and Roman), British and Soviet in moderm
Arab in medieval period, and German, French, American,
from various concepts, terminologies
period. These schools have enriched geography
time. Geography has evolved
and techniques retining its methodology from time to
as an integrating field of study assimilating knowledge from these schools of thought.

TABLE 1.1 Chronology of Geographical Development

Phase Time-Period

Pre-Historic Before 800 B.C. (Appr)

Ancient 800 B.C-500 A.D.
Western (Greek and Roman)
Indian
Chinese
Medieval 500 A.D-1750 A.D.
Dark Age in Europe
Rise of Arab School
Age of Discovery

Modern 1750-World War II

(German, French, American,

British and Soviet Schools)

Contemporary Post-World War II

Quantitative Revolution
Behavioural Geography
Humanistic Geography
Methodological Revolution

Pre-Historic
Scholarly observations of the Eastern and Western civilizations had begun in
 CHAPTER1 NATURE AND
DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
historic times, approximately about 800 BC and
Pre-
ly gained
highly gained by these in its later earlier, and the field of geograpny
stage
Occurred more than
of development. Some of the first truly
four thousand vears ago in the region orte
geographical

to "the cradle of
referred as
civilization", Mesopotami
i.e.
esopotamia. Parallel developments
also
also occurred in the realms of
occurred in of Chinese
Chinese, Indus and Nile Valley civilizations.
iuilizations
civil. were first to
explore the space within and outside their Tnese
arliest evidence of such homelands. Ihe
earliest evidence «
explorations comes from
map. This world map, the first one, is archaeological discovery of a clay
tabletmap. attributed
B.C. On
to the
tablet the Earth is shown as a flat circular disk
On this tab Babylonians by6th
surrounded in century
ocean and
several mythical islands

Ancient

During ancient period, there was greater and greater concentration of

in the West and Orient, particularly Europe and Asia. This was thescholarly
period ofresearcn
rise of
first Classical Schools of thought, viz. Greco-Roman, Indian and Chinese. The
term
classical antiquity is often used to refer to ancient history since the beginning o
recorded Greek history in about 776 BC (First Olympiad). This coincides roughly with
the traditional date of founding of Rome and the beginning of history of ancient Rome.
The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, with Sumerian cuneiform being
the oldest form of writing discovered so far. For the most part ancient Greek
was the academic field. It was the Romans, the immediate successors of Greeks
geograpny
West, who made far the more extensive practical use of geography and maps. Ihe
Romans, in this manner, carried forward the Greek mathematical and literary traditions.
The Indian and Chinese (Oriental World) were the other major regions of geographical
learning in ancient period. The geographical studies in India began with the dawn of
Indian civilization and these works cover the study of the Universe, the Earth and the
Indian Subcontinent. Besides, the ancient Chinese writings of geographical nature cover
the fields of human, regional and physical studies, cartographic works and the accounts
of travels and explorations.

Medieval
The Medieval period in geography marked its beginning with the onset of Dark Age
in Europe, followed by the rise of ArabSchool and Age of Discovery. In this manner,
the medieval phase extends from the fall of the Roman Empire to the beginning ot
Modern period. It is defined partly by the process of rediscovering ancient culture
developed in Greece and Rome in the classical period, and partly by the need to address
of small groups, Islam
theological problems. Whereas, Christianity began as a religion
Within a hundred years of
developed as the religion of an expanding empire.
Mohammed's death in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India,
North Africa and Southern Spain. As a result, a variety of different communities came
under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of
Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism, and the philosophy of India and Greece.
10 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

This led Islamic theologians to use

philosophical ideas and principles to intern.
Koranic doctrines. The first
stage of this process was the translation of Gre
philosophical and scientific works into Arabic that had been preserved by Easter Sreek
Christians in Mesopotamia, tern
As far as the West is
Syria and EgYpt.
concerned, little academic progress Occurred in geography
atter the Roman
period and middle age was largely a time of intellectual stagnation
This Early Medieval
phase (500-1100 AD) is termed as the Dark Age in Europe. This
proved to be a
long period of decline during which the geographic horizons closed
in. The
wide-ranging Greek geographical concepts were largely forgotten except
among Arab scholars. Observations piled up in Christian monasteries, but
intellectual climate was not favourable for formulation of new the
this period of regression the
interpretation. During
simple
world in Europe. When the medieval
"T-in-0' map became the standard depiction of
Europe had plunged into darkness, the Arab
school rose to mark the end of recession in
return to more scholarly research. This new
development of geographic literature and
world through the work of various Arab scholars.
enlightenment spreaded from Islamic
and Roman techniques but also
They not only maintained the Greek
developed new ones. The Islamic
empire stretched
from Morocco to India, and Arab traders travelled
the Indian Ocean. The Arabs added a throughout Eurasia, Africa, and
great deal of knowledge to expand and correct
the classical sources.
During this High Medieval phase (800-1400 AD), Arab
Civilization was the most advanced and formed the largest empire that world had so
tar seen. The establishment of vast
empire facilitated coming together of intellectual
and scientific traditions of different civilizations. The Arabs made all knowledge their
own and
developed it further. The Arabs played great role in the
science. Arab civilization, in fact, became main link between the ancientpromotion
a
of
and modern
worlds. An early form of globalization
began emerging during the Islamic Golden
Age, when the knowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated
regions and civilizations began integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers,
scholars and traders. Arabic currency was in circulation
throughout the Afro-Eurasian
landmass, as far as sub-Saharan Africa in the south and northern Europe in the north,
often in exchange for goods and slaves." These factors
as the world's leading extensive economic
helped establish the Arab Empire
power throughout high medieval
The Muslim lands also witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculturephase. from
8th century to the 13th century, a period known as the Islamic Golden Age. 'Arab
Agricultural Revolution' or 'Islamic Green Revolution' are terms coined for this
change." It is argued that the economy established by Arab and other Muslim traders
across the Old World enabled not
only the diffusion of many crops and farming
techniques but also the adaptation from and to regions beyond the Islamic world.
These introductions, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture, led to
major changes in economy, population distribution and urban growth in the Islamic
world. During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the Muslim scientists
demonstrated advanced knowledge in areas such as meteorology, climatology
hydrology, soil occupation, and the economy and management of agricultural
enterprises.
 CHAPTER1 NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY *

The Age of
The Exploration began in Europe
d (140
nodern period (1400-1750) and the geographic
in the late medieval
the ea
phasepushed orrly
horizons were again back.
normous information ot geographical nature was gathered. Theagaarrival of
m o

all these
of all
the
ations in Europe started the
new observati

sequence of events that continues till present.

Age of covery was also a renaissance phase in geography. During this period
The
urneys of geographical exploration were
numerous jour issioned by a variety of
urope. Most of these voyages were financed beca
nations in Eur of the potential
returns
commercial ret from the resource exploitation. But, the yages also provided an
Dportunity for scientific investigation and discovery. These voyages added many
Opp
ignificant
sign contributions to geographic
knowledge.For instance, the trips ot
veneua
explorer Ma
explorer Marco Polo and the voyages of Europeans opened up new horizons and
stimulated geographic writings.

Modern
Following the journeys of Marco Polo, the interest in geography spreaded througnour
Europe. The reintroduction of Ptolemey's writings, which had been lost in Europe Du
preserved in Islamic world, provided a systematic framework to tie togethet an
portray geographical information. The great voyages of exploration in 16th and 17th
centuries revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical
foundations. By 18th century, geography had become recognized asa discrete discipline
and a part of university curriculum in Europe. With the rise of German School,

geography entered the Modern period of its development. A number of other modern
schools of thought emerged thereafter, namely French, American, British and Soviet.
bifurcated into
Before the beginning of Modern Period, geography had already got
After that it went on splitting, as
two basic branches, viz. physical and human.
bifurcation was
continued research became an essential feature of the discipline. This
essential for healthy and further growth of geography as a scientific discipline.
came from Bernard Varenius
Maximum impetus in the beginning of modern period
of German School. Varenius
(1622-1650), the eminent scholar of pre-Classical phase
literature in the form of Geographia Generalis.
gave the first modern geographical
Mercator's world map became prime examples of
Geographia Generalis and Gerardus his work, Varenius tried to provide a
the new breed of scientific geography. Through
viz. 'systematic' and 'regional'
initially splitting it into two,
Scientific base to geography,
However, the real beginninig of Modern
and not traditional physical' and 'human'.
Alexander-von-Humboldt (1769-1859) and Carl
period is marked with the writings of
mid-20th century. geography was developing
Ritter (1779-1859). From the early 19th to
in several directions under the influence
of distinct schools of thought. In the early
on geography,
Humboldt and Ritter was very strong
part of 19th century, the effect of historical and
and there were followers of each.
Ritter's followers emphasized on
natural aspects in
human aspect in regional studies,
and those of Humboldt on
studies bifurcated in two directions: study
sy'stematic manner. Thus, the geographical of man. This gave
of earth as a dwelling place
earth as a natural body and study
of viz. Systematic versus Regional
and Physical versus
Dirth to two types of controversies,
 12 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Human. However, in the late 19th century, the more expanding frontio.
ntiers were tho
of physical and biological sciences than human. Now, the main impa
mpact
was
Charles Darwin (1809-1882), the English naturalscientist. The year "1859s hose
thought. arks
The year marks o has aspthat
v of
the of geographical not
the ecia
SIgnificance in history not onl
of both Humboldt and Ritter but also the publication of "On the Origin
most popular work of Darwin. The philosophy of Darwin had a tremenPecie
deat
Darwin's theoryonlue
geographic thought. This influence came through uence
on
the fittest". Darwin's ideas on adaptation to the environmentaand
evolutions urvival
Social scientists to reappraise the old concepts. At the same time a number
also overshadowed the discipline for about 100 years after the emergence ofs n
stofimdualulated
School. During the entire 19th century the emphasis of geographical studietMan
shifting between physical and human, with none of the field of study being r
However, towards the close of the 19th century, the systematic studies onen
the time of the stronghoiSia]
geography superseded everything else. It was
followers of Humboldt and Darwin. Maximum contribution came from the Am
erican
Koeppen, and
scholars like Davis, Gilbert, Powell, Agassiz, Peschel, Frobel, Koeppen, and
They carried out morphological research and produced studies based on lands
and climate. Further, in the process of the study of influence of physical envirnn
on the non-physical world (including human beings) there emerged the doctrine
onment
environmental determinism' in later half of 19th century. Fredrick Ratzel, a Germ
Scholar, formally put forward this viewpoint through his famous work entited
Anthropogeographie. As an antithesis to 'determinism', the French School of Thought
led by Vidal de la Blache, gave the doctrine of possibilism' in the beginning of 20h
century. However, a compromisecould be reached only by mid-Z0th century, when
ecological viewpoint' entered geographical thought balancing the philosophies of
both 'determinism' and 'possibilism'. Long phase of dualistic tendencies that
characterized geography in the beginning of Modern period continued up to Second
World War. During this period, ie. from late 19th century until Second Workd War
geographers all-around the world were seeking to establish the status ofgeography
as an independent discipline, distinct in concepts and procedures, from other
disciplines.
Thus, the term 'modern' was coined to describe the beginning of a new era. Modem
history can be further broken down into the Early Modern Period (1650-1800) and the
Late Modern Period (1800-1950) after the French Revolution and the Industal
Revolution. Early Modern European history is usually seen to span from the turn of
the 15th century, through the Age of Reason and Age of Enlightenment' in thel/
and 18th centuries. The modern period has been a period of significantdevelou
in the fields of science, politics and technology. It has also been an age of globalizatot
During this time, the European powers and their colonies began political, econo
and cultural colonization of the rest of the world. By the 20th century, the moar
culture has come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, Durhe
every civilized area on the globe. The modern era is closely associated wi
gical
development of capitalism, urbanization and a belief in the possibilities oftechro o
e n tor
and political progress. The concept of the modern world as distinct from anan
 CHAPTER1 NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY 13

medieval world rests on a sense that the modern world is not just another era in history,
meher the result of a new type of change. This is usually conceive of as progres
but
driven hy deliberate human efforts to better their situation. dvances in all areas of
by delibe
nan activity-politics, industry, society, economics,
humar
erce, transport,
and
mmunication, hanization, automation, science,
medicine, technology,
lhure-appear to have transformed an Old World into the Modern or New World.
cult
Portions of the Modern world altered its relationship with the Biblical value system,
evalued the monarchical government system, and abolished the feudal econor
system, with new democratic and liberal ideas in the areas of politics, science ard
economics,102This combination of epoch events totally changed thinking and thought
Sy.
onomics. modern period. Particular facets of early modernity include: the
in the early
Renaissance; the Age of Discovery and Rise of Capitalism; the Scientific Revolution
and the Eastern Colonusation. The most important event in the development or eary
tne
Pre-Modern era, on
modernity period includes the arrival of printing press. In the to the comno
intermediaries
other hand, the religious officials were the spiritual had access
these intermediaries that the general masses
person. It was only through order in a culture
was sacred to ancient cultures and the social
to the divine. Iradition the pre-Modern era, Western civilization
was enforced through religion."In contrast to
when scientific methods
made a gradual transition from premodernity modernity
to
which led to believe that the use of science would
lead to all knowiedge
were developed lived. New
back the shroud of myth under which pre-Modern peoples
thus throwing versus the use
via empirical observation
information about the world was discovered
of reason and knowledge." the rise of
modern period is marked by the first European colonies,
The early that
of recognizable nation states
centralized governments and the beginnings for
strong In Africa and the Ottoman Empire,
are the direct
antecedents of today's states.
West Africa,
took place in North and East Africa. In
instance, the Muslim expansion of Southeast Asia
nations existed. The Indian Empires and civilizations
various native the Great Mughal
vital link in the spice trade. On the Indian subcontinent,
were a
Sultanate of Malacca and
later the
empires, the
Empire existed. The archipelagic the southern areas. Concerning
the Asia, various Chinese
Sultanate of Johor, controlled
Americas, Native
controlled the Asian sphere. In the
dynasties and Japanese shogunates Aztec Empire and
and varied civilization, including the
Americans had built a large and the Chibcha
Inca civilization, the Mayan Empire and cities,
alliance, the were in a movement
of reformation
Confederation. In the West, the European kingdoms
coast and consolidated
its control over the
reached the Pacific
and expansion. Russia saw the end
the 19th century. Later religious trends of the period
Russian Far East in Christendom saw
world. Christians and
of Muslims and the Muslim Church.
of the expansion under the Roman Catholic
Crusades and end of religious unity by
the end of the modern period, an age of discovery and trade was undertaken took
During the early went on a colonial expansion
and
the European nations. European
powers
of new lands and exploitation
the world. There was a conquest
possessiorn throughout North America and
powers set up colonies in
of their r e s o u r c e s . Various European was dominated by
the
the end of the early period, Europe
Latin America. Towards
14 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of mercantile capitalism
in its trade and
scene. They. Thet Economy. The Fr
the New Fro.

sstrial eyolution, which Frenchh

evolving system cal scene.
dominated the political The end
power and English
revolutions
associated with the Industrial 2
Revol d date
early modern period
is usually
Chinese merchants explored which
Orient, the
in Britain in about 1750. In the
all began
the an
East Africa with
the voyages of Zheng Foreign othe
Foreign
He.
trade and Indian
Ocean, reaching ed
increased
considera e and
consi
Onothe
Japan,
with the outside world, particularly most of on
contacts
Empire ruled ndia in
India the earl.Dly.
in the
early
Indian subcontinent, the Mughal
a highly centralized
the
During this period, the Empire
connecting the different regions.
was marked by

As part of the Eastern colonisation, the detra

of nearly all eastern hemisphereteroPmen
ministrati
of New Imperialism saw the conquest
colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced with the s b yby ritoriesnent
rule. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast
vast reso
resour Onial colonial
arge market, colonial rule did develop the region varying extent.13 Tradis and
to a

bridpitionally,
intellectual transformation of and after the Renaissance nally
the European
Middle Ages and the Modern era. The Age of Reason (or Enlightenment) in the Wece
lester
World is generally regarded as being the start of modern philosophy,and a departu
from the medieval approach, especially scholasticism." The 18th century sa
beginning of secularization5 in Europe. The Age of Enlighternment is a term used
describe a time in Western philosophy and cultural lite centred upon the 18th
centm
in which reason was advocated as the
primary source and ury,
legitimacy for authorin.
Developing during the Enlightenment era, Renaissance humanism was an intellectual
movement spread across Europe. The basic
well and write." Renaissance humanism
training of the humanist was to speak
took a close study of the Latin and
classical texts, and was Greek
on the accumulated
antagonistic to the values of scholasticism with
its emphasis
commentaries; and humanists were involved in the
philosophies, arts and poetry of classical antiquity. During Scientific Revolution sciences,
European ideas saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across the
astronomy, and bioloEY, in institutions supporting scientific physics,
more widely held
picture of the universe. Individuals investigation, and in the
started
that led to the Scientific question
of things and it was this to all manners
turn formed the foundations ofquestioning Revolution, whichh in
contemporary
modern scientific fields. Particular facets sciences and the establishment of several
of the Late Modern
role of science and
technology; mass literacy and proliferation period include: increasing
of social movements; of mass media; spread
institution of
industrialization and urbanization. Other representative democracy; individualism,
Late Modern important events
and the Firstdevelopment
in the
period
Wars. As a result of the
include: the Russian
Revolution
of
the
and Second
Modernist worldview's
Industrial Revolution and the
earlier political revolutions, Word
were more connected
emerged. great changes of centuries
The the
with ideas, before the 19th centu
advance had only made religion or military congquest,
Industrial Revolution the small changes in the material wealth of and technolo8a
with the technological and economic ordinary people. Duru
developnent of
century with the internal steam-powered ships
progress gained momena
and railways, and
later in the 19th
Industrial Revolutions combustion engine and electric
brought about major power generatio Che
technological, socio-economic and
c
 15
CHAPTER1 NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHHY

spread
changes in late
in late early 19th century that began in Britain and
18th century and North
hahout the world. The etfects spread throughout Western urope
t h r o u g h o u t
and

rica, eventually affecting

America,
the majority of world. Following the Enlightenment's
looked to the Scientific Revolution and Industrial
to ress

s. the reformers
sOcial problems. The world witnessed the European Hegemony
ideas

British Empire
during 19th century. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the
heres during
spheres
World's population
the world's leading power, controlling one quarter of the
the role of global
ame
and
one-third of the land area. Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted
one-thi
policy
policeman, aa state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign
noliceman, by the steamshp
af"splendid isolation". British imperial strength was underpinned the 19th century
and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of also laid
it to control and detend the Empire. All the major European powers
allowing over the
the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence
claim to
area.

Around the turn of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy

was challengeu
in the theory
Darwinism gained acceptance and exposed adaptation
in various quarters. also made strides
natural selection. The fields of geology, astronomy and psychology
of trend was that the Chinese philosopn
new insights. Another philosophical
and gained modernization.
concepts of Western philosophy, as steps towards
began to integrate and included the
end of the 19th century, Social Darwinism was promoted
At the all individuals, groups,
based on a concept that competition among
various ideologies human societies. In this
the framework of social evolution in
nations or ideas was "survival of thefittest
advancement was dependent on the
view, society's

Contemporary
that overshadowed geography during modern period
All the existing controversies
after the publication and popularization
resolved by mid-20th century, particularly his article entitled
got an American Scholar, through
of the views of F.K. Schaefer, entered its
With this geography is said to have
"exceptionalism in geography". this phase
The important developments of
Contemporary phase of development. use of behavioural, humanistic and Marxist
the
include: the quantitative revolution; in
and the application of models, theories and systems analysis
approaches; the geographic research
studies. From the mid-20th century onwards,
geographical The geographers began adopting
a more
new shift in methodology.
experienced a

scientific approach that relied on quantitative

techniques. Soon, the quantitative
software
even more prevalent
due to advances in computer and
approach became
as "space cadets", declared
revolutionaries, often referred to
technologies. Quantitative the spatial arrangement
to test general laws about
that the purpose of geography was
of positivism from the natural sciences
of phenomena. They adopted the philosophy
statistics-as away proving
of hypotheses.
and turned to mathematics-especially
for the development of geographic
The quantitative revolution laid the groundwork
Well-known geographers
from this period are Fred K. Schaefer,
intormation systems.
Peter Hagget, Richard J. Chorley,
William Bunge
Waldo Tobler, William Garrison,
16 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

and Torsten Hägerstrand. Though positivIst

and
sitivist approaches rem
post-positivist appros.
of
a critique of
positivimsm.remaiThen
arose as
geography.Critical Geography
important in
to emerge were the radical ge
three strains of critical geography
behavioural geographyand the humanistiC geograpiy. Drawing on the nhhy,
existentialism and phenomenology,
humanist geographers (such as ilosophi
as Yi-Fu Tuan oph
es
o with, places. More influential .Tu Ta
Tcused on people's sense of, and relationship
theories of Karl Marx and his foiaiist
was
geography, which applied the social
geographic phenomena. Feminist geographyrecent strain of criticalnce usinoiers
also came into existence
using deasis from owers to
Teminism in geographic contexts. The most cal geography
geogran
modernist geography, which employs the ideas ot post-modernist theorists toPOst
the social construction of spatial relations.
The mid-20th century is distinguished from most of human history in that
SIgnificant changes were directly or indirectiy economic and technological
the in
activi
na its
Besides, the Space Age in the 20th century is a period encompassing the activ
related to the space race, space exploration, space technology, and the c u l h
the cultu
developments influenced by these events. The Space Age began with the developma.
of several technologies that culminated with the launch of Sputnik 1 by thet
Union. This was the world's first artificial satellite. The launch of
Sputnik 1
Soviet
new era of ushereda
political, scientific and technological achievements that became known aac
the Space Age.
Regarding the 21st century and the late modern world, the Information
Age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous but often
in daily life. The presen+
development of Eastern powers was of note, with China and India
becoming more powerful. The terms
"modernity and "modernism"refer to a new
way of thinking, distinct from medieval thinking. The term Post-modern' is applied
to the
contemporary or more recent events, i.e. belonging to the current.
contemporary era follows shortly afterward with the explosion of research and The
of knowledge known as the
Information Age in the later 20th and the increase
early 21st
widespread digitality and describes the span ofcentury.
The Post-modern era is seen in
events that are historic
immediately relevant to the present time.
Thus, geography took about 2000
years to evolve as a scientific
obtain a more or less clear-cut
definition, content, purpose and discipline and
development of discipline has been like an organism methodology.The
childhood and adolescent stages. Important maturing through infantile,
its
and early Medieval development
period) included the accumulation of
of Infantile
Stage (Ancient
the fields like astronomy, knowledge, particularly
mathematics, climatology, physics, from
studies. The consolidation of
discipline into one single entity likeastrology
and plant
or less an a tree-trunk, more
independent recognition, and branching bifurcation into two
or
streams, viz.physical and human geography, characterized the major
Medieval to late Medieval Childhood Stage (early
World War), the disciplineperiod). During Adolescent Stage (late Medieval to Second
experienced marked degree of instability.
a
developments included the iníluence of the theory of Important
Charles Darwin, introduction ot
a large number of
dualistic tendencies and the
rise of various modern schools
geographic thought like German, French, American, British o
Second World War period (Second half of the 20th
and Soviet. The post
century and later) represents Sig
 CHAPTER 1 NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

.rity in the discipline. This is reflected in the developments like increase in

e and iinter-disciplinary approaches and the use of more and more utilitarian
o fm a t u r i t

integrhies. Three important trends have been observed in the field of geograpny
and
philly after Second World War: (1) Integration; (2) Interdependence, The
h i l o s o p h i e s

approach (making geography

more and more useful for mankind).
especia

eslitarian has replaced the process of separation (bifurcation)

of integration (unification)
3 )U t i l i

ess
cess now for all
fields of
Pra evident in the beginning of modern period. The trend isThe Contemporary
around specific human problems.
du to come together or
stud

eraphy spatial
is a increasingly focusing on the study of spatial aspects
SCience
C graphy
Gendeconomic phenomena, and thus being pre-eminently anthropocentric.
of thought
has been shaped by different schools
ince the basic nature geography
of
the discipline
from ancient to modern times, providing
emergingone
one after
erging after the otherthe
to Second World War may be
identified as

literature,
lite period up
with its standard thereafter as Contemporary Phase.
standard

with
Phase ot development, and the one
the Classical called 'philosophical
geographic development may be
more
nature of
The general
Phase.
Phase and more 'explanatory' in
the Contemporary
Classical
during its

NOTES

3.
1. Dikshit, 1994, p.
16.
2. Rana, 2008, p.
3. James, 1972.
1979.
4. Singh and Dutt, www.maps-gps-info.com
of World Maps, 5 (2), pp. 560-80.
5. The Early History C. Kaelin (2007), History Compass,
Kovalev, Alexis 15-34.
6. Roman K. 8-35; Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2003), pp. of
Andrew M. (1974), pp.
was an elite
cultural movement
7. Watson, of Reason)
Enlightenment (or Age of r e a s o n in order
8. The Age of that sought to mobilize the power and
intellectuals in 18th century
Europe intellectual interchange
It promoted
and advance knowledge. about 1650-1700, it
was
to reform society church and state. Originating
abuses in Pierre Bayle
intolerance and Locke (1632-1704),
opposed Baruch Spinoza
(1632-1677), John The
phiiosophers Voltaire (1694-1778).
sparked by Isaac Newton
(1643-1727) and was
(1647-1706),
mathematician
1790-1800.The centre
of the Enlightenment
about
Enlightenment
flourished untii
centres across Europe,
notably England,
spread to urban then
intellectual forces Austria, and Spain,
France. The n e w Netherlands, Russia, Italy,
the in the American
German states, a major role
Scotland, the colonies, and played
the European
jumped the Atlantic into
Revolution.
9. Henry Kitchell (2004).
Grosvenor (1899).
10. Edwin Augustus
11. Fordyce, J. (1888). (2008).
Kaufmann, W.A.
12. Baird, F.E., and 30.
76; Peers, 2006, p. which dominated teaching by the
academics
13. Bose and Jalal, 2003, p.
of critical thought from about 1100-1500,
and a
14. Scholasticism is a method universities in Europe
medieval
schoolmen) of
(scholastics,
or
 18 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

programme of employing that method articulating and

in defending orthodoxu
reasoning to extend knowledge by inference, and to resolve contradictions
phasis on dialectical
increasingly pluralistic context. Scholasticism places a strong emphasis on an

15. Secularization (or secularisation) is thetranstormation ofasociety from close ideni.

with religious values and institutions tification
towards non-religious (or irreligious") values
secular institutions. Secularization thesis refers to the belief
that as and
societies "progre
particularly through modernization and rationalizati religion loses its authority in
aspects of social life and governance. The term secularizati is also used in all
of the lifting of the monastic restrictions from a member of the clergy. the context
16. Paul Oskar Kristeller, Humanism, pp. 113-4, in Charles B.
Schmitt, Quentin S
(editors), The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy (1990). nner
17. Pax Britannica (Latin for "the British Peace", modelled after Pax
Romana) was tha
Empire controlled mostperiod
of relative peace in Europe (1815-1914) when the
British of the
key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power. It refers
to a period
British imperialism after the 1815 Battle of Waterloo, which led to of
British expansionism.
a
period of overso
erseas

REFERENCES
Baird, F.E, and Kaufmann, W.A. (2008), Philosophic classics: From
Plato to Derrida.
River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle
Bose, Sugata and Ayesha Jalal (2003), Modern South Asia:
2-3, Routledge. History, culture, political economy, Parts
Dikshit, R.D. (1994), The Art and Science of
Geograpl1y: Integrated Readings, Prentice Hall of India.
Fordyce, J. (1888), The New Social Order. London: Kegan Paul, Trench and Co.
Grosvenor, Edwin Augustus (1899), Contemporary history
York and Boston. of the world, T.Y. Crowell &Co. New
Henry Kitchell (2004), Early European History, Hutton Webster.
James, P.E. (1972), All Possible Worlds: A History of
Paul Oskar Kristeller (1990), "Humanism", Geographical ldeas. Odyssey Press, New York.
pp. 113-4, in Charles B. Schmitt, Quentin Skinner
(editors), The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy.
Rana, L. (2008), Geographical Thought: A
Systematic Record of Evolution, Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
Roman K. Kovalev, Alexis C. Kaelin (2007), "Circulation of Arab Silver in Medieval
Preliminary Observations", History Compass 5 (2), pp. 560-80. Afro-Eurasia
Singh, R.L. and P.K. Dute (1979), Elements of Practical Geography, Students' Friends, Allahabad,
India.
Watson, Andrew M. (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100"
The Journal of Economic History 34 (1).
"The Early History of World Maps", tvww.maps-8ps-info.com.
CHAPTER-2

Geography and Post-Modernism

tradition is reflected in the late 20th century

developments. These
The
The contemporary in the history of geography.'
ot intellectual excitement unique also the one
were the years relevant geography, but
works leading to more socially
period saw the of science, a set of theories
and a methodology compatible
tied still to a philosophy structure. The period
after Second
academic and disciplinary power
with the existing the discipline. It ushered in major
was a defining point for
World War, in many ways, research and education.
The changes were
direction of geographic from regional
changes in the Definitionally, the emphasis shifted
definitional and methodological. and interactions.
Methodologically,
to the study of spatial patterns, linkages method as the m e a n s
study scientific (quantitative)
geographers began employthe
to meant
scientific and model building
The emphasis on the
more

of enquiry in spatial analysis. form of enquiry. In 1953,

the paper
deductive (theoretical)
an emphasis on
a more American scholar, was published
by F.K. Schaefer, an in
"Exceptionalism in Geography" call for more theory
a strong and explicit
in the Annals. This paper
presented Hartshorne, his own country
differentiation view of
areal explore
geography and challenged
should
social science, geographic research
Schaefer believed that the
as a
fellow. those factors governing
It should be a science of believed
regularities in spatial patterns.features on the surface of the earth. Schaefer
spatialdistribution of certain
for formulating generalizations that
should be the basis and the
the geographic methodology number of cases
tested against a large
to be
be stated as hypothesis intluence led to the
generalizations. schaeter's
can
should search for 20th century, another
geographers But, towards the close of
in geography.
sharp break with spatial analysis
Quantitative Revolution came
to emerge. A
change in geography began oriented geographers. The
Marxist
major and humanistically and
with the advent of Marxist understand social inequalities
alternative to
appealing
analysis offered an causes structures. This was
and possibility of alternative social
investigate its social
 20 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

strongly reflected in the behavioral movement and the rise of a number of human
trends in geography. While the Marxists were emphasizing social inequalit
humanists were concerned about social meaning. Radical geography emergeda
inadequacies of behaviouralist methods became clear. It sought to counter the positi
9uantitative methods with normative techniques drawn from Marxist th.
utions we
quantitative methods, it argued, were not useful unless alternatives or solutions were
given to problems. Positivism is described as "making law like stalements abo
phenomena that can be empirically observed." This means USing the scientificmeth
and deductive reasoning to create an explanation of phenomena. The radicals licals were
were
new kind of
intellectuals, who thought hard and taught well in an effort to transform
SOCiety. Theoretically sophisticated ideas tended to form in areas ot radical geography
wth clear connection with more heavily theorised streams ot thought oustside the
aiscipline. As part of growing radicalisation of social thougnt, questions of gender
and gender relations were raised. In an atmosphere of social and academic ferment
typical of the early 1970s, geographers began to inquire into relations between woman
and space. During the period of methodological change in late 20th century, initially
there were symptoms of a move towards a stronger spatial view in geography; but,
later, ie. towards the close of 20th century geography was found becoming more and
more a social science discipline.
esides Behavioural geography, a number of humanistic and Marxist approaches
have been advocated in recent trends of geographic development. They constitute the
part of 'radical' geography. The radical geographers show their concern for social
values and political actions, and reject the traditional concept of geography. They
remain interested in the human and environmental relatiornships, but at the same time,
also accept geography as a legitimate field of study and feel that it has much to offer
in finding solution to the world problems. The Humanistic and Marxist approaches
that constitute the part of radical Geography have been suggested to find socially
appropriate uses for the existing techniques and theories in the discipline. Humanistic
geography' emerged in the late 1960s as the most sophisticated of a series of critical
reactions against the logical positivist forms of knowledge dominant in the established
academic discipline There lies a conceptual difference between 'behavioural
geography and the humanistic approaches. Humanistic geography' may be defined
as an approach to human geography, which is distinguished by the central and active
role it accords to human awareness, hunman agency and human creativity. Viewed
value and
thus, humanist geography is an attempt towards "understanding meaning,
human
human significance of life events"" as well as "an expensive view of what the
Behavioural Geography, on the other hand, treats man as
a
person is and can do".
that it is concerned with identification of how different
response to stimuli, so to
same individual responds
individuals respond to particular stimuli (and how the
the correlated nature of these
the same stimuli in different situations). By isolating models and
the behavioural geographers have attempted to build
varying responses,
of a given stimulus. The end product
or
theories that can predict the probable impact
environmental planning with a view to moulding
behavioural research is an input to man as
manner. As contrast
to this, humanistic geography treats
things in a desired
 CHAPTER 2 GEOGRAPHY AND POST-MODERNISM 21

an individu
dual ceaselessly interacting with his environment and, in that process,
rming both himself and his milieu. This interaction between an individual and
traironment
ransformingi

is viewed as a
particular case, and not as an example of some
Tifically defined model of behaviour. The humanistic perspective was
stateu
definite opposition to the
"dehumanizing"
rationality in the social sciences. The
characteristics of the methods of scientific
The recent use of humanistic proach in geography
rationality
is an attempt tomakeman, the human being, the very core of geographic investigation,
to make geography "people geography", about real people and for the people".
other words, to make geography a discipline 'concerned with the social organization
of space' rather the spatial organization of society'. Several Humanistic approaches
have been advocated and canvassed for. The important ones as discussed here incluae
Marxism, Feminism, Positivism, Pragmatism, Phenomenology, Existentialism,
Idealism, Functionalism and Realism.
Post-modernism can be seen to mark an unprecedented crisis of intellectual acivity
within the contemporary crisis of modernity'. Pre-modernism, modernism and post
modernism, each of these can be talked about as periods of time and as philosophica
of
systems.From the beginning of history up through the 1650s, the dominant way
system.
viewing the world was largely consistent with the pre-modern philosophical
dominant system
Around the 1650s, pre-modernism was losing its influence as the
about 300 years, this was the
and was being replaced by the modernist mind-set. For
1950s is also considered the
dominant philosophical system in Western culture. The
to post-modernism occurred. The primary
time when the transition from modernism from
was based upon revealed knowledge
epistemology° of the pre-modern period Truth could
was believed that Ultimate
authoritative sources. In pre-modern times it This direct
is through direct revelation.
be known and the way to this knowledge the holders
come from God. The church, being
revelation was generally assumed to source in pre-
was the primary authority
and interpreters of revealed knowledge, in the modern
to knowing became dominant
modern time. Two new approaches
the senses) which gradually
The first was empiricism (knowing through
period. or modern science
with the development of
evolved into scientific empiricism this period was
The second epistemological approach of
modernist methodology.
from the church, politics
reason or logic. As the
shift in power moved away
professors) took over as the
(governments, kings, etc.) and universities (scholars, into
Oftentimes, religious perspective was integrated
a
primary sources of authority. but the church no longer enjoyed
the privileged power
these modern authority sources, it a questioning of the
current times) brought with
Post-modernism (1950s to
position. to knowing, it
Instead of relying on one approach
previous approaches to knowing.
which utilizes multiple ways of knowing.
advocates for an epistemological pluralism and reason),
This includes the pre-modern ways
(revelation) and modern ways (science
such as intuition, relational and spiritual.
other ways of knowing
along with many and power.
seek to deconstruct previous authority
sources
Post-modern approaches without due reference to the
understand post-modernism
It is not possible to modern world system are
The beginnings of the
history and nature of modernity. in Europe, and organised around
market
traced back to the 16th century, beginning
 22 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

exchange at international scale. But the process was greatly intensified thross.
19th and 20th centuries through global scale of economic
operations, so that modo the
became identified as a system ot market
dased political-economic structure rnity and
organisations. Thus, by the second half of 20th century, a
and representation had begun to be felt allkround-in the profound crisis of identi.
arts, humanities ity
hthe
social sciences, owing to the accelerated pace of and
time-space
of 1950s, the modern way of
viewing phenomena in terms ofcompression.
Cartesian
By the end
had begun to be questioned; separation between
place and space began to be
coordinatesl
All this called for new
approaches drawn. 2
beyond the modernist tradition of
This was the beginning of
post-modernism in social thought. Modernismuniversalism.
intertwined with the processes was closely
and objectives of colonialism
and
imperialism, besides ethnocentricism rooted in Europe and cultural repressive
perspectives. "Modernism' has become a useful general useful term to values and
specific and changing meaning of the three most basic and capture the
human existence: formative dimensions of
space, time and being; the spatial,
human life. The temporal and social orders of
concept of modernity is intimately related to the
reconfigurations of social life that have punctuated the historical multiple
capitalism since the 16th century. In this context, modernisation refersgeography of
different processes of structural to "the many
change associated with the ability of
develop and survive, to reproduce successfully its fundamental socialcapitalism to
production and distinctive divisions of labour." Modernism is thus therelations of
evaluative, culture-shaping and situated consciousness of explicitly
able to split into modernity and is roughly
periods of conjunction with the historical rhythms of intensified
capitalist crisis, restructuring and modernisation.5
Post-modernism is a recent movement in social sciences. Its
characteristic is scepticisml6 towards the distinguishing
grand claims and grand theory of the modern
era, and the claim to intellectual
superiority. Post-modernism (as contrasted to
modernism) stresses openness to a range of opinions in social
represented a response to modernism as a homogenizing force enquiry. Post-modernism
and to its totalizing
theoreticm. It lays stress on discontinuities and
life in the real world. The disjunctures characteristic of everyday
homogeneity in the built-up landscape of the era of 'organised
capitalism' (or the Fordist era") is contrasted with the heterogeneity of economic,
social and political life in the current
phase of
accumulation of the post-Fordist era).8 The 'disorganised capitalism' (or the flexible
post-modernist emphasis on heterogeneity,
particularity and uniqueness of phenomena in differing contexts of time and space,
would appear hard back to the
regionalist tradition in geography of the Vidalian era.
Post-modern thought provides a theoretical context for the
diversity in the life-world. Viewed thus, post-modernism in geographystudy of spatial/areal
to the rise of 'new' is closely linked
regional geography. The difference between the old style regional
differentiation in geography of the Hettner-Hartshorne era
and the present-day post
modernist regional geography lies in that, while the
former was indifferent to everyday
experience of societal relationships, there is now a declared commitment
understanding of the condition of man in particular plac s, and the ways that to the
are socially constructed."
Post-modernism does not aspire to generate spaces
any grand theory
 CHAPTER 2 GEOGRAPHY
POST-MODERNISM
AND

of auniversal application; its essentially heterogeneous ethos runs counter to tne

emphasis
emphasis on consensus on theoretical perspectives (that characterised the discourse
in the spatial science era. Instead of universal theory, the emphasis now is on te
contemporaneity of soCial
process over time and space, so that
is pre-eminently a contextual discipline, engaged geography,
in the time-space
like
historyor
reconstruction
s
social life."

The movement toward post-modernism in geography started in 1970s with the

introduction of political economy perspective in human geography-a perspecuve
that reoriented human geography to the condition of man in society and gave rise to
'radical' revoluton. In the words of Gregory (1989), the cutting edge of the political
economy perspective was the logic of capital scrawling its signs on the surface of the
landscape-as against the logic of space (i.e. geometry) that dominated spatial science
geography until the 1960s. Thus, the focus of post-modern geography became a focus
on uneven development in the spatial context. The political economy derivea l
perspective from the Marxist thought.2 The post-Marxist theory of Socio-spatia
Structure emphasizes that people not only make history but also geography-whichn
Sucn a
is to say that time-space relations are intrinsic to the constitution of societies."
boundaries,
view cuts into the sociological concept of societies as totalities with clear-cut
and renders them extremely unstable, since under the new concept, society becomes
the product of the varying spans of time and space. This ends the earlier view o
structure. Sucha (supposediy)
dualism between society and space, between agency and made all the more
Kantian view of division between the social and the spatial was
distinct in the spatial science episode in human geography. This duality (born
of the natural sciences to thee
essentially out of the urge to apply the methodology
been attacked by scholars of hermeneutics
study of sociological phenomena) had long from the time of Schleiemarcher (1768-1834)3
(the study and interpretation of meaning) that the human sciences, owing
and Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911).24 Dilthey had argued
to the peculiarity of their subject matter, required special
a methodology very different
wass
natural sciences. This special methodology
from the empirical methodolo8y of
in all kinds of activities and objects,
hermeneutics that tried to search for meaning
Hermeneutics went
tools and landscapes as well as individual biographies.
including and physiological processes, and surface
mere physical appearances-physical
beyond and causes by paying attention to the meaning
patterns-to seek deeper meanings
Hermeneutics was introduced in human geography
and motivation behind actions.
of Buttimore (1974) and Tuan (1976), and
was
in the mid-1970s through the writings and critical
different titles: humanistic geography
in late 1970s visible under two
with a view to linking the
The latter was proposed by Gregory (1978)
theory26 of traditional, historical and regional geography.
hermeneutical approach to a critique
dualism between space and society was finally
Thus, by around 1980, the supposed
turn, the problem of geographical
broken, since with such a linguistic/hermeneutic The linguistic
than a mere matter of abstract logic.
description became much more the introduction of hermeneutics now
turn to the study of human geography through
with different modes of representation, so
made geography open to experimentation interaction
that the discipline reopened its doors to cultural studies through greater
24 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

across the frontier with other branches of cultural studies. Thus,was completed the
post-modernist journey in human geography. beginning inthe 1970s, through political
economy of the disorganisation of capital (and thereby highlighting the relationship
between history and geography, structure and agency), followed by the dissolution
of the barrier between the social and spatial, arrived at through revival of the frontier
between geography and sociology by giving greater attention to social theory. This
was followed by opening of the frontier with other disciplines focused on the study of
cultures.
The crisis of 'modern' geography until the mid-1970s lay in that geography had
cut itself loose from mainstream philosophy, humanities and the social sciences so
post-modernist
that the post-modernist response lay in a realignment with these other streams of
response
knowledge for intellectual leads,4yparticularly
l with with social theory.
theory. Indeed, post-
post-
modernism focuses on the creative tension among the different theoretical formulations,
so that post-modernism is essentially polyphonic: it combines a number of individual
but harmonious
mselodies, i.e. points of view or perspectives, with a view to arriving
at more comprehensive explanation of social reality. Gregory (1989) has identified
three distinguishing features of post-modernist thought in
geography. First, space
time speciticity in social explanation: this implies that post-modernist thought in social
sciences insists on the understanding of 'a world which is meaningful for the
people
who live within it'. Secondly, post-modernism insists on distancing itself from the
totalization (i.e. the concept of the society as a totality following a universal process of
historical change irrespective of space context). Post-modernist thought holds that:
"The ebb and flow of human history is not reduced to the marionette movements of a
single structural principle, whatever its location and the differences which make up
human geographies are not explained by some central
generating mechanism." Thirdly,
post-modern human geography represents a critique of spatial scienceit is not a
continuation of it-but at the same time, it does not
represent a break with the past.
Post-modern geography focuses on the essential
the geometry of social behaviour).
spatiality of social life (rather than

Anthropocentricism
The discipline of geography as practised over the past two centuries is essentially a
"European science"7 Its transformation had begun after the Age of Discovery when
the scientific methods of observation, classification and
the domain of peoples and societies that made
comparison were extended to
geography2" Some of the most seminal
cross-fertilisations during this period were those between anthropology and
geography, what later became anthropogeography. This thread of relationship is
indelibly present in the writings of Humboldt, Ritter, Blache, Ratzel and Sauer."
Towards the end of 19th century, a second thread of
relationship between sociology
and geography emerged: the interactions between the two
disciplines were, in part, a
way of clarifying their different destinations. While, sociology was to subsume the
study of the spatial structure of society-morphology sociale-the Vidalian School
insisted on the independent course of human
geography predicted,
on the one hand,
 CHAPTER 2 GEOGRAPHY AND POST-MODERNISM 25

rizontal (Spatial) relations and, on the other, on vertical relations between society
on horizo

and nature. By mid-20th century, geography had

and nature." developed close links with
economics alongside the frontiers with anthropology and sociology. Until late 1940s,
like the rest of human geography, the human geography-economics frontier was
Dursued in a resolutely empirical manner; but the emergence of the 'new geography
in the 1950s and the 1960s gave it a pronouncedly theoretical orientation so that human
geOgraphy now assumed the characteristics of the abstract sciences, in the sense that
ikesociology and economics, it also became a nomothetic science but it continued to
eschew the study of the social element. If the three strands in geoyraphy since the
beginning of 19th century to mid-20th century are joined together, then human
than
geography as spatial science would appear as a natural growth, rather
representing any break from the past. Geography as a spatial science wasa
continuation and culmination of modern geography" ina sense that it helped complete
search for scientific identity of the discipline as a nomothetic science.

NOTES

1. Peet, 67.
2. Johnston, et al., 1994.
3. Peet, 34. N,-11
4. Gregory, 1989, p. 348.
N 5. Buttimore, 1974.
6. Tuan, 1976.
7. Smith, 1977.
validation.
8. The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods and
9. "The Three Major Philosophical Epochs", Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia.
10. Dikshit, 1997, p. 270.
11. Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening
branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra,
geometric interpretations for many other
multivariate calculus, group theory, and more.
complex analysis, differential geometry,
A familiar example is the concept of the graph
of a function. Cartesian coordinates are
also essential tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including
They the most common coordinate
astronomy, physics, engineering, and many
more. are
and other geometry-
system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design,
related data processing8
12. Clifford, 1988, p. 2.
13. Gregory, op. cit.
14. Soja, 1989a, pp. 320-322.
15. Soja, 1989b.
16. Questioning attitude towards knowledge, fact or opinion.
17. Fordism, named after Henry Ford, is a modern economic and social system based on

industrial mass production. The concept is used in various social theories about production
and related socio-economic phenomena. It has varying but related meanings in different
well as for Marxist and non-Marxist scholars. In a Fordist system
the worker is
fields, as
 26 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

paid relatively high wages in order to buy in large quantity the products turned out in
mass production.
18. Harvey and Scott, 1989.
19. Dikshit, op. cit., p. 277.
20. Dear, 1988.
21. Dikshit, op. cit., p. 278.
22. Gregory, 1978.
23. Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768-1834) was a German theologian and
philosopher known for his attempt to reconcile the criticisms of the Enlightenment with
traditional Protestant orthodoxy. He also became influential in the evolution of Higher
Criticism, and his work forms part of the foundation of the modern field of hermeneutics.
Because of his profound impact on subsequent Christian thought, he is often called the
"Father of Modern Liberal Theology." The Neo-Orthodoxy movement of the 20th century,
seen to be spearheaded by Karl Barth, was in
typically (thoughnot without challenge)
many ways an attempt to challenge his influence.
24. Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) was a German historian, psychologist,sociologist and
hermeneutic philosopher, who held Hegel's Chair in Philosophy at the University of
Berlin. As a polymathic philosopher, working in a modern research university, Dilthey's
research interests revolved around questions of scientific methodology, historical evidence
and history's status as a science. He could be considered an empiricist, in contrast to the
idealism prevalent in Germany at the time, but his account of what constitutes the
empirical and experiential differs from British empiricism and positivism in its central
epistemological and ontological assumptions, which are drawn from German literary
and philosophical traditions.
25. Yi-Fu Tuan is a Chinese-American geographer famous for pioneering the field of human
geography and merging it with philosophy, art, psychology, and religion. This
amalgamation has formed what is known as humanist geography. Humanist geography as
it is sometimes called is a branch of geography that studies how humans interact with
space and their physical and social environments. It also looks at the spatial and temporal
distribution of population as well as the organization of the world's societies. Most
importantly though, humanistic geography stresses people's perceptions, creativity,
personal beliefs, and experiences in developing attitudes on their environments. In
addition to his work in human geography, Yi-Fu Tuan is famous for his definitions of
space and place. Today, place is defined as a particular part of space that can be occupied,
unoccupied, real or perceived (as is the case with mental maps). Space is defined as that
which is occupied by an object's volume. During the 1960s and 1970s, the idea of place in
determining people's behaviour was at the forefront of human geography and replaced
any attention previously given to space. In his 1977 article, "Space and Place: The
Perspective of Experience," Tuan argued that to define space, one must be able to move
from one place to another, but in order for a place to exist, it needs a space. Thus, Tuan
concluded that these two ideas are dependent upon one another and began to cement his
own place in the history of geography.
26. Critical theory is an examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from
knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two different meanings
with different origins and histories: one
originating in sociology and the other in literary
criticism. This has led to the very literal use of 'critical theory' as an umbrella term to
 CHAPTER 2 GEOGRAPHY AND POST-MODERNISM 27

describe any theory founded upon critique. In the

refers to a style of Marxist theory with a tendency to
sociological context, critical theory
engage with non-Marxist influences
(for instance the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud). Modern critical theory
arose from a trajectory extending from the antipositivist sociology of Max Weber and
Georg Simmel, the Marxist theory of Georg Lukács and Antonio Gramsci, towards the
milieu associated with Frankfurt Institute of Social Research. Five "Frankfurt School"
theorists were chiefly responsible for establishing critical theory as a specific strand of
thought Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, and
Jürgen Habermas. With the latter, critical theory shed its roots in German idealism and
moved closer to American pragmatism. Whilst the critical theorists are usually defined
as Marxist intellectuals, their tendency to denounce so many Marxian elements has been
attacked as 'revisionism' by stricter Marxists.
27. Dikshit, 273.
28. Gregory, op. cit.
29. Dikshit, 274.
30. Berdoulay, 1978.

REFERENCES

Berdoulay, V. (1978), "The Vidal-Durkheim Debate", in Ley, D. and M. Samuels (Eds.),

Humanistic Geography: Prospects and Problems, Maroufa Press, Chicago.
Buttimore, A. (1974), Values in geography, Commission on Geography, Resource Paper 24,
Association of American Geographers, Washington D.C.
Clifford, J. (1988), The Predicament of Culture, Nineteenth Century Ethnography, Literature and
Art, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Dear, M. (1988), "The post-modern challenge: restructuring human geography", Transactions,
Institute ofBritish Geographers, NS 13, pp. 262-274.
Dikshit, R.D. (1997), "Modern versus Post-Modern Geographies" in Geographical Thought: A
Contextual History of Ideas, Prentice Hall of India, pp. 270-282.
Gregory, D. (1978), Ideology, Science and Human Geography, Hutchinson, London.
Gregory, D. (1989), "The Crisis of Modernity? Human Geography and Critical Social Theory"
in Peet, R. and N.J. Thrift (Eds.), New Models in Geography, Vol. 2, Unwin Hyman, London,
PP. 348-385.
Harvey, D. and A.J. Scott (1989), "The practice of human geography: theory and empirical
specificity in the transition from Fordism to flexible accumulation", in Macmillan, W. (Ed.)
Remodelling Geography, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Johnston, R.J. (2004), Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography Since 1945,
6th Ed., Edward Arnold, London.
Kuhn, T.S. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd Ed.).
Ley, D. (1994), "Post-modernism", in Johnston, R.J, Gregory, D. and Smith, D.M. (Eds.), The
Dictionary of Human Geography, 3rd edition, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 446-47.
Livingstone, David N., (1993). The Geographical Tradition, Oxford, Blackwell
Peet, R. (1998), Modern Geographical Thought, Blackwell.
.M. (1977), Human Geography: A Welfare Approach, Edward Amold, London.
28 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of Critical Social
Soja, E.(1989a), "Modern Geography, Western Marxism, and the RestructuringVol. 2, Unwin Hyman,
Theory", in Peet, R. and N.J. Thrift (Eds.), New Models in Geography,
London, pp. 317-347.
Reassertion ofSpace in Critical Theory, Verso, London.
Soja, E. (1989b), Post-modern Geographies: The
"The Three Major Philosophical Epochs", Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia.
American Geographers,
Tuan, Yi-Fu (1976), "Humanistic Geography", Annals of Association of
Vol. 66, Issue 2, pp. 266-276.
Attitudes and Values, Englewood
Tuan, Yi-Fu (1974), Trophilia: A Study of EnvironmentalPerception,
Cliffs, Prentice Hall, NJ.
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia.
 SECTION-II
CLASSICAL TRADITION
CHAPTER-3

Ancient Period

The scholarly research began in the European and Asian realms during ancient period.
Geography evolved asa spatial and interdisciplinary science both in the West and Orient.
This is exhibited in the philosophical, literary and methodological paralels discovered
between the two worlds. This was the period of rise of three major Classical Schools of
thought, viz. Greco-Roman, Indian and Chinese. The main subject of ancient philosophy
was to understand the fundamental causes and principles of the Universe. Therefore,
important development of this period included the accumulation of knowledge,
particularly from the fields like cosmology, astronomy, mathematics, meteorology,
physics, astrology, geology, chemistry, etc. The roots of geography in antiquity can be
traced back to the works of numerous ancient philosophers, scholars, mathematicians,
administrators and explorers. The study of written past begins from the recorded human
history in the Old World until the Early Middle Ages in Europe and the Qin Dynasty in
China. The pèriod following these events includes the Imperial era in China and the
period of the Middle Kingdoms in India. The span of recorded history altogether is
roughly 5,000 years. The term'classical antiquity' is used for this long period of cultural
history. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers three major cultures. The
Greeks are the first known culture to have actively explored geography as a science.
The developments in Europe were lead by Greek School, subsequently followed by
Romans. Similar and parallel developments took place in the ancient Indian and Chinese
realms as well and geography has been highly benefited by al.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

Greco-Roman
In fact, geography, as a discipline, has grown out of three simultaneous and related
 32 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

and speculation. First two of the

activities, viz. exploration, charting and mapping,
civilizations of the time, but
the ability
to
activities were common among other that the real
scholars. Therefore, it is them
speculate was observed only among Greek known culture to
The Greeks are the first
beginning of our discipline is marked with. to be described
actively explore geography and to have developed the procedures
as put forward by ancient Greeks
first as 'scientific'. Although many of the conceptions
but their own
were based on what they had
inherited from earlier civilizations,
themselves from others
contributions were also far-reaching. Greeks distinguished
because of their intellectual, philosophical
and scientific approach. The developments
in general, carried forward the Greek
in Greek School were followed by Romans who,
in Greek
tradition. Due to rise of Roman Empire
about 1st century A.D., the interest
literature declined. The Greek Science started to
lose its originality and little of worth
Roman Empire collapsed by 500
A.D. In spite of
was produced after 200 A.D. Even the
further the Greek literary and
all odds, the Roman scholars were able to extend
mathematical traditions. For the most part ancient
Greek geography was an academic
and practical use of geography.
field; it was the Romans who made far more extensive
flourished during 8th and 6th century B.C.
The Greek colonies had established and
world in ancient times refers not
(the Golden period of Greeks). The Greek-speaking
but also to areas of Hellenic
only to the geographical peninsula of modern Greece, often grouped
in ancient times by Greeks. Roman civilization is
Culture that were settledwith ancient Greece. During its twelve-century existence,the
into classical antiquity
and to a vast
Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic
empire. It came to dominate Western Europe and the entire area surrounding
Mediterranean Sea through conquest and assimilation. Most of the Greek
accomplishments in geography were passed on to the Romans. Roman military
commanders and administrators used this information to guide the expansion of their

Empire. The Romans also made several important additions to geograpthica

knowledge. Many of the Roman scholars like Ptolemy, Strabo, Polybius, etc., wrote in
Greek itself. Strabo, for instance, wrote a 17-volume series called 'Geographia'.A century
after Strabo another Roman scholar, Ptolemy, launched a similar undertaking and
commendably contributed to practical geography; whereas Polybius enriched the field
of physical geography. By this time the Roman Empire had expanded through much
of Europe and previously unknown areas such as the British Isles had been explored.
The Silk Road was also in operation, and for the first time knowledge of the Far East
began to be known. A number of centres of Greek learning became popular during
ancient period as Athens, Miletus, Halicarnassus, Corinth, Argos, Thebes, Sparta,
Amphipolis, Methone, Potidaea, etc. The contribution of ancient Greeks and Romans
to various fields of study ranging from physical, human, historical, theoretical, political,
regional, mathematical and practical covered almost the entire gamut of geographical
knowledge. Besides, Geography as a discipline got enriched by a number of concepts,
viewpoints and techniques; and various terminologies were added to its vocabulary.
Along with coining the term geography', a number of other terminologies are aiso
credited to ancient Greeks.
 CHAPER ANCIENTPEKK
Anclent CGreek philomophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. The iest
represents four different philosophical trends, namely naturalistic, metaphysical,
ethical and religloun."It began in ancient Greece with the
and culminated in the Neo-llatonic School. In between there
emergenceof Milesian School
schools of thought. The period of Naturalism was dominated
ernerged numerous other
by the Milesian,
Pythagorean, Ephesian, Eleatic, Pluralists' and Atomists' School of thought. Thales,
Anaximander, and Anaximenes comprised the Milesian School. The teachings of
Milesian (lonian) Sclhool focused on cosmological concerns, particularly the underiying
substance of the Universe. For the Milesians, to explain the world and its phenomena
was just to show how everything came from the original stuff, such as Thales' water,
Anaximander's boundless or Anaximenes' air.
the lonic School. The First Pythagoreanism indicates progress over
Principle is elevated from a natural element found in the
lonic School to a
around the
conceptual one, the number. The Pythagorean School, revolvin8
philosophy of Pythagoras, cultivated the mathematical sciences and the
study of mathematics led them to the observation that
everything could be represented
through a number. The realization that all things are numerable,
each other in a numerical and can be related to
proportion is one factor which led the
emphasis on the value of number in explaining the world order. Pythagoreans to their
The Ephesian school,
next in
sequence, refers to the philosophical thought of Heraclitus. Heraclitus'
developed as a response to the philosophy of his Ionian theory
exists, including man himself, exists because it is in a predecessors; everything that
from one state to another, i.e. in a continuous process of passage
state of continual
contrary, was based on the doctrine of Permanence, flux. The Eleatic School, on the
Milesians, Pythagorians, Ephesians and the changelessness. Besides the
Naturalists. The chief Eleatics, there were
pluralists among
philosophers of this group are
Empedocles and Anaxagoras.
Empedocles tried to reconcile the world of change with
that the world as we know it is
composed unchanging Being by saying
of four basic material
themselves unchanging and indestructible. He
called
particles which are
they later came to be called elements. them "
the roots of everything";
earth, air, fire and water. The According Empedocles, the four elements are
to
objects of the physical world, he said, are made
haphazard çombination of these four elements. up ot a
and fell into decline
only with the advent of modern Empedocles' theory endured longest
elements became the standard
dogma
chemistry. This theory of the four
for the next two
Another philosophy to thousand years.
try to resolve the paradox of
changing world was that of a school which came to be cailedunchanging being anda
was the most radical of the Atomists. This school
all. The best known
and Democritus. Their philosophers of this school were LeucipPus
theory
elements which are characterized
that the Universe is
composed of an infinite number of
by quantitative differences has undergone many
and
important modifications, but has still maintained its validity. Democritus beleved
that "there exist invisible atoms which are impenetrable,
diitering only in form, weight, size." He declared that natureinvisible spatial enuties
of all bodies and that indeterminate matterorganizano
and the Or
matter is the
homogeneity
an infinite number
of molecules
is
divided uto
(atoms) differing in size and form but endowe
perpetual motion which is derived from their essence. Because atoms are endowe
 34 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

with motion, Democritus admits a second

primordial element, the void, that is, infinite
space which surrounds the atoms and gives them the possibility of movement. The
differences in gravity cause the atoms to whirl into motion, thus
formation of things. This ends the period of the Naturalists. Thegiving origin to the
second period of
Greek philosophy
occupied the entire 4th century before Christ. The problem which
claimed the interest of thinkers
during this period is no longer the cosmological
question, but man in his concreteness, i.e. in his knowledge, his morality and his rights
This was
Metaphysical Period which includes the philosophies of Sophists, Socrates,
Plato and Aristotle. Sophistic
thought can be considered as a transition from the old
cosmological concepts to the new ideas about man. The Sophists were the first to
show complete indifference to the problem of the world of matter and to centre their
ettorts upon man. But man can be an object of study in his sense knowledge as well as
in that more
profound one of reason. The Sophists stopped at the first, at the immediacy
of sense
impressions. The analysis of reason was reserved to Socrates and his disciples.
Socrates established the fact that true
In fact, the classic Greek knowledge means knowing through concepts.
philosophy
the Sophists, was not concerned withmainly
revolves round Socrates. Socrates, like
attention on man. But the man taken intocosmological questions,
but concentrated his
consideration by Socrates is not the individual
in
particular; rather, he is the universal man in his subjective reason. In this universal
man, Socrates discovered
knowledge whose characteristics are universality and
necessity. The doctrine of Socrates can be summed up in two
ethics. The
greatest of the words-concepts and
Socratic schools, however, referred to as the
School, was the Academy of Plato, which Major Socratic
stayed closer to the original intent of the
teachings of Socrates. The thought of Plato was revived in the later Academies, and in
particular in the last important movement of Greek thought, Neo-Platonism. Ethical
Period represents the
emergence of Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Eclecticism.
This period extends from the death of
Aristotle to the beginning of the era of the
decay and dissolution of Greek philosophy-that is, duration of about three centuries.
During this time metaphysics falls into decadence and
displacement of metaphysics by ethics, of pure speculation disappears completely. This
the unavoidable by practical thought, was
consequence of the sadness of the times. Greece loses
regained in the ancient world. First, theindependence,
which was never again to be its
Alexander the Great, and then the Romans, were to successors of
earth. Furthermore, this period is characterized become masters of this piece of
of Alexander and the Roman by endless wars between the successors
Empire, which bathed in blood not only Greece but all
the countries of the Mediterranean basin.
If one looks at the
way, there are only three possible means of problem of life in this
solving it-to appeal to reason; to appeal
to
pleasures; and to deceive oneself in the belief that every appeal is useless. These
the characteristics of the three streams of are
ethical thought which philosophy followed in its
development; Stoicism (the appeal to reason);
i.e.
Epicureanism (the appeal to
pleasure); and Skepticism (the renunciation of every solution). These three streams of
thought formed the major schools of
Greek philosophy extends to the 5th thought ofduring this period. The last period of
because of its attempt to resolve the century of
Christian era. t is called
problem human life by recourse to Religious religion.
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 35

Classical culture declined, philosophy became religious mysticism, ancient philosophy

ended, as it began, in religion. Greek speculation, Egyptian, Chaldean, and Jewish
religions tended to mingle. The problem which claimed the attention of philosophers
concerned the presence of evil and death. This period is represented by three main
Schools: The Judaic-Alexandrian School, whose greatest representative is Philo-this
was an attempt to coordinate Oriental religion with Greek speculation; The Neo-
Pythagorean teaching, whose representative is Appolonius of Tiana--the attempt to
construct a world religion upon Pythagorean doctrines; and The Neo-Platonic School,
which was founded by Ammonius Saccas, and which has Plotinus for its leading
representative-the attempt to make a religious philosophy of Plato's teaching. The
Greek philosophy culminated in Neo-Platonism, and Plato's system became the
framework for a religious world view.

Ancient India

Ancient India is usually taken to refer to the "golden age"

of classical Hindu culture,
(monarchies and republics),
beginning around 500 B.C. with several 'Mahajanapadas'
stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Atghanistan
the largest economy of the world between
Bangladesh" India is estimated to have had between one-third and one-quarter of the
the 1st and 15th centuries AD, controlling
world's wealth up to the time of the Mughals, from whence it rapidly declined during
Indian history is at crossroads of
British rule. Occupying a strategic location in Asia,
studies in India began with the dawn
cultures from China to Europe. The geographical
information is contained
of Indian Civilization in ancient times. Valuable geographical
in Hindu mythology, philosophy, epics, history
and sacred laws. Apart from religious
different regions of the world.
records, the travellers' accounts give the description of
that India had close links with the neighbouring
The accounts of these travellers reveal
with the geographical conditions of China,
lands and Indian scholars were familiar
The contributions of Indian scholars
Southeast Asia, Central Asia and Mesopotamia.
of Greeks and Romans. Major sources of
in ancient period are parallel to that
Purana and the works of Buddhists
information are Ramayana, Mahabharata, Vedas,
Vedas belonged to a period stretching from
and Jains. According to Winternitz' the
that the Indian civilization is much older
2500 B.C. to 7000 B.C. It would, then, mean who
than that of European. The ancient Rishis and sages are our first Gurus (teachers)
and wisdom. All current scientific
had blessed humanity with the ancient knowledge
on from these great divine
and spiritual teachings are based on the knowledge passed
all the major branches of human
souls. Science and technology in ancient India covered
medical science
knowledge including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry,
In fact several inventions and
and surgery, fine arts, architecture, sports and games.
from the Western world have been made
discoveries believed to have originated
Hindi (Indian Language) is called
earlier by our ancestors. "Geography' in
centuries 'round', ie. the study of the
"Bhugol'; "bhu' meaning 'the Earth' and 'gol' meaningour
round earth'. Thousands of years before Columbus, scriptures (Vedas, Puranas
and Itihaasaas) used the term 'Bhoogola' for Earth. Indian astronomers propounded
 36 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

the theory that the earth is a sphere. They also formulated ideas about gravity and
gravitation (gurutvakarshan). The ancient Indian scholars wrote elaborate treatises on
astronomy, mathematics, geometry, medicine, etc. During Aryabhatta's time (around
500A.D), our ancestors evinced keen interest in motion of bodies. Sir Isaac Newton
gained fame since his discovery of the principle of gravity, but Bhaskaracharya II
talked about
gravity much before Newton. Aryabhatta's treatise, Aryabhateeyam
contains many theorems of motion. The point is that Aryabhatta developed these
equations centuries before Newton did. It is widely believed that Christopher
Columbus was the first person to discover that the Earth was round,
around 1500 A.D. However, in 499 A.D., the famous Indian astronomer
during his voyages
had already defined the shape of Earth in his work, Aryabhateeyam, as:
Aryabhatta
Mrujjalashikhivaayumayo Bhoogola: sarvatho vruttha (Meaning: Earth which is made of
soil, water, fire and air is circular when viewed from all sides i.e. The Earth is
The vast galaxy of
spherical).
seer-scientists, philosopher-poets, savants and sages left behind a
rich history of thought that
ranged from science, philosophy, religion and the living
arts of man.
The contributions to ancient Indian
geographical literature came largely from
stronomers, astrologers, astro-physicists, mathematicians, scientists and
The views of these scholars are available on the philoSophers.
study of the Universe, the Earth and
the Indian Subcontinent. The ancient Indian literature deals with
to problems pertaining8
cosmology, cosmogony and cosmography. The theory of Philosophical origin of
the Universe is very close the
presently accepted theory of Nebular Origin. In the Rig-
Veda, there is a description of various heavenly
bodies
including
different planets and constellations. Observations about
the Sun, the Moon,
the earth are related to its
origin, sphericity, eclipses, size and dimensions, latitudes-longitudes and local time,
cardinal points, earthquakes and volcanoes,
atmosphere and seasons, and physical
divisions of the planet. The estimates regarding the earth's
and mass, as given in
volume, circumference
'Suryasidhanta', the ancient treatise of Indian astronomy, are
nearly correct and reliable. Geographical knowledge about the Indian Subcontinent is
associated with its physical identification, people, culture, relief and
The Indian mystics found answers to the drainagge.
of
questions related to the understanding
meaning and goal of human life. It is because of this
special perception their
thoughts are called darshana which actually means vision or realization of the Self.
The Indian philosophical system can be classified into two broad
orthodox (astika) and heterodox (nastika), conveying a division ofcategories,
viz.
thinkers into
'theist' and 'atheist'. Orthodox systems are those which the
accept authority of
the Vedas, while the heterodox systems are those which
reject it. To the latter group
belong three systems of Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism. The 'Shaddarshanas', or
the six systems of Indian philosophy belong to the former group. These
are cailed Nyaya, Vaisesika,
systemns
Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa or
Vedanta. They generally deal with four topics: Existence and Nature of
Brahman,
Nature of the Jiva or individual soul; Creation of the Jagat or the world; and Moksha
or liberation.
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 37

Ancient China
Besides the Christian Europe and Indian Subcontinent, there was another major centre
of geographical learning in the world in ancient period. This was China, a region in East
Asia, known as the People's Republic of China (PRC). It refers to a
civilization comprising successive cultures dating back more than 5,000
long-standing
years. Essentially,
the European and Chinese worlds remained isolated, each
discovering the other step by
step. Yet there are fascinating parallels in the concepts and methods of study that seemn
to require the existence of contacts, however indirect and remote. From about second
century before Christ until at least the 15th century after Christ, the people of China
enjoyed the highest standard of living of any people on earth. The
developments that
began here in ancient times continued up to the Age of Discovery and later.5 With one of
the world's longest period of largely uninterrupted civilization and the world's longest
continuously used written language system, China's history has been largely
characterized by repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of peace
and war, and violent imperial dynastic change (Table 3.1). For centuries, Imperial China

TABLE 3.1 History of China

Ancient
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2100-1600 BCE
Shang Dynasty 1600-1046 BCE
Zhou Dynasty 1045-256 BCE
Spring and Autumn Period (770-470 B.C.)
Warring States Period (475-221 B.C.)
Imperial
Qin Dynasty 221 BCE-206 BCE
Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE
Three Kingdoms 220-280
Wei, Shu & Wu
Jin Dynasty 265-420
16 Kingdoms 304439
Southern and Northern Dynasties 420-589
Sui Dynasty 581-618
Tang Dynasty 618-907
(Second Zhou 690-705)
5 Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms 907-960
Liao Dynasty 907-1125
Song Dynasty 960-1279
Yuan Dynasty 1271-1368
Ming Dynasty 1368-1644
Qing Dynasty 1644-1911
Modem
Republic of China 1912-1949
People's Republic of China 1949-present
 38 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

was also one of the world's most technologically advanced civilizations and East
Asia's dominant cultural influence, with an impact lasting to the present day. The
country's territorial extent expanded outwards from a core area in the North China
Plain, and varied according to its changing fortunes to include multiple regions of
East, Northeast, and Central Asia. The term "China Proper" is used to describe this
core territory. China Proper is bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan
Plateau. As in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and along the Indus River, Chinese civilization
began within a major river valley, the Yellow River Valley. Around 4000 B.C. the
modern China, with a huge geographical expanse, contained an almost infinite number
of ethnic groups and languages. Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical
heartland China,
of the
China Proper. China
was one
of the earliest
centres of human
civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing
independently. The Chinese script is still in use today by the Chinese, Japanese and
Koreans. This script is the only logographic script used in the world.
Chinese civilization, as described in mythology, begins with Pangu, the creator of
universe,anda succession of legendary sage-emperors and culture heroes who taught
the ancient Chinese to communicate and to find sustenance, clothing, and shelter.
But, the written history of China as recorded at the traditional historical records extends
as far back as the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors about 5000 years ago. China is
one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations. Turtle shells with
markings
eminiscent of ancient Chinese writing from the Shang Dynasty have been carbon
dated to around 1500 B.C. Chinese civilization originated with city-states in the Yellow
River (Huang He) Valley. The conventional view of Chinese
history is that of a country
alternating between periods of political unity and disunity and occasionally becoming
dominated by foreign peoples, most of whom were assimilated into the Han Chinese
population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of Asia, carried by
successive waves of immigration, expansion, and assimilation, merged to create the
Chinese culture. The first dynasty according to Chinese sources was the Xia
from about 2100 to 1600 B.C. But its reference has been believed to be
Dynasty,
legendary.
However, the earliest discovered written record of China's past dates from the Shang
Dynasty and takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells
of animals-the so-called oracle bones. Its civilization was based on
augmented by hunting and animal husbandry. Two important events of the period
agriculture,
were the development of a
writing system and the use of bronze metallurgy.
Workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization. The Shang were
invaded and by the end of the 2nd millennium B.C., the Zhou Dynasty began to emerge
in the Yellow River valley. Sharing the language and culture of Shang, the early Zhou
rulers, through conquest and colonization, gradually extended Shang culture in much
of China Proper north of the Yangtze River. In 771 B.C. the Zhou court was sacked,
and its king was killed by invading barbarians who were allied with rebel lords. The
capital was moved eastward to Luoyang in present-day Henan Province. Because of
this shift, historians divide the Zhou era into Western Zhou (1027-771 B.C.) and Eastern
Zhou (770-221 B.C.). With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou court gradually
diminished; the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated. Eastern Zhou divides into
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 39

two sub-periods. The first. from 770 to 476 B.C., is cailed the Spring and Autumn
Period, after a famous historical chronicle of the time; the second is known as the
Warring States Period (475-221 B.C.). But, the territory was again unified under one
emperor in 221 B.C. by Qin Shi Huang, ushering in the Qin Dynasty, the tirst
centralized Chinese state. Historians often refer to the period from Qin Dynastyunitied
to the
end of Qing
Dynasty as Imperial China. The Qin Dynasty is well known for beginning
the Great Wall of China, which was later
augmented and enhanced during the Ming
Dynasty. The major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized
government, the nification of the legal code, written language, measurement, and
rrency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring
Periods. After the fall of a Qin States
Dynasty in 206 B.C. emerged the Han Dynasty which
lasted until 220 A.D. Han Dynasty was the first dynasty to embrace the philosophy of
Confucianism, which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the
end of imperial China. Under Han Dynasty China made great advances in many areas
of arts and sciences. Han power declined again amidst land acquisitions, invasions,
and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. In the ensuing turmoil, three states
tried to gain predominance in the Period of the Three Kingdoms. Though the three
kingdoms were reunited temporarily in 278 by the Jin Dynasty, the contemporary
non-Han Chinese ethnie groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century
and provoked large-scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the Chang Jiang. Sixteen
kingdoms were a plethora of short-lived non-Chinese dynasties that came to rule the
whole or parts of northern China in the 4th and 5th centuries. Many ethnic groups
were involved, including ancestors of the Turks, Mongolians and Tibetans. Most of
these nomadic people had to some extent been sinicized long before their ascent to
power. Signalled by the collapse of East Jin Dynasty in 420, China entered the era of
the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Han people managed to survive the military
attacks from the nomadic tribes of the north, and their civilization continued to thrive.
An increasing number of nomadic people in Northern China adopted Confucianism
as personal life guidance and state ideology while becoming gradually assimilated
into the Han Chinese civilization. During the rivalry belween Northern and Southern
China, Buddhism propagated throughout China for the first time. In 589, Sui annexed
the last Southern Dynasty, Chen, through military force, and put an end to the era of
Southern and Northern Dynasties. A period of disunion followed again. In the late
6th century, China was reunited under the Sui. Under the succeeding Tang and Song
dynasties, China reached its golden age. For a long period of time, especially between
the 7th and 14th centuries, China was one of the most advanced civilizations i e

world. The Sui brought China together again and set up many institutions that were
to be adopted by their successors, the Tang. Like the Qin, however, the Sui overused
their resources and collapsed. In 618 A.D. the Tang Dynasty was established, opening
a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. Buddhism, which
had gradually been established in China from the first century, became the predominant
religion and was adopted by the imperial family and many of the common people.
The Tang and the Han are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of Chinese
history. The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and
40 GECGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

merchants
there was foreign countries and many foreign
extensive trade with distant
decline due to a series of
settled in China. From about 860 the Tang Dynasty began to
between the Tang and
rebellions within China itself. The period of political disunity
lasted little more than
the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period,
this brief China was in all
era, when
half century, from 907 to 960 A.D. During
a
in control
succeeded another rapidly
respects a multi-state system, five regimes
one

this s a m e time, 10 more stable

of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During referred
western China, so the period is also
regimes occupied sections of southern and
to as that of the Ten Kingdoms. In 960 A.D., the Song Dynasty
(960-1279 A.D.) gained
(1115-1234 A.D.) emerged to
power over most of China. The Jurchen Jin Dynasty
Meanwhile, in what a r e now the
prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty.
northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi,
and Ningxia, there emerged a
established by Tangut tribes. In the
Western Xia Dynasty from 1032 up to 1227 A.D.,
the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty and the
ensuing years China was divided between
considered by many to be classical China's
Tangut Western Xia. The Song Dynasty is innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song
with
high point in science and technology,
The Song Dynasty fell to the invading
(1020-1101 A.D.) and Shen Kuo (10031-1095 AD).
Kublai Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty.
Mongols in 1279 A.D. The Mongols, under in 1368 A.D. and founded
A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols
After the Ming dynasty, came the
the Ming Dynasty, which lasted until 1644 A.D..
A.D. During
which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911
Qing (Manchu) dynasty, adventurous Westerners such as
the era after the war, later called the Pax Mongolica,
the first reports of its wonders
Marco Polo travelled all the way to China and brought
intellectual introspection characteristic of the
to Europe. Despite the xenophobia and
neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming
increasingly popular n e w school of
trade and other contacts with the outside world,
Dynasty w a s not isolated. Foreign Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian
particularly Japan, increased considerably.
He. During the Ming Dynasty
Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages Zheng
of
China from
undertaken to protect foreign
the last construction on the Great Wall w a s the
was founded after the defeat of
invasions. The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.) the
the last Han Chinese Dynasty, by the Manchus. Over the next half-century,
Ming, areas originally under the Ming, including
Manchus consolidated control of s o m e
Yunnan. They also stretched their sphere
of influence over Xinjiang, Tibet and
Frustrated by the
But during the 19th century, Qing control weakened.
Mongolia.
reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military
Qing coure's resistance to overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and
officers, and students began to advocate the
China's political, economic, and
creation of a republic. By the 19th century, however, and the
relative to the growing regional power of Japan
military influence declined in China ended with the
influence of Western powers. The imperial system Chinese
in 1912. After its victory in the
establishment of the Republic of China (RoC)
of China
Civil War, the Communist of China established the People's Republic
Party
known by this n a m e till date.
(PRC) in 1949. The region is a rich heritage of geographical
The ancient Chinese scholars and travellers possessed
o n to the generations in spite of physical
succeeding
knowledge and this has passed
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 41

isolation from the West and the communication (language) barrier.

European and Chinese worlds remained isolated, there are fascinating
Although, the
parallels in the
concepts and methods of study. Written records of China's past date from the
Shang
Dynasty in 13th century B.C., and take the form of inscriptions on the bones or shells of
animals-the oracle bones. The earliest Chinese writing system was developed at around
6000B.C From the 3rd century onwards, the Chinese methods of
geography became more systematic. The earliest known reference to the documenting
application of
a geometric grid and
mathematically graduated scale to a map was contained in the
writings of the cartographer Pei Xiu (224-271).! The ancient Chinese historian Ban Gu
(32-92) started the trend of the Gazetteer in China, which became
Southern and Northern Dynasties period and Sui prominent in the
feature a wealth of geographic information,
Dynasty. Local Gazetteers would
although its cartographic
aspects were not
as
highly professional as the maps created by professional cartographers*. From 5th
century B.C. onward, Chinese geographical writing provided more concrete information
and less legendary element. In later
periods
of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) and
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) there were much more
approaches geographic literature. The Song Dynasty scholar and
to
systematic and professional
Fan Chengda government official,
(1126-1193), wrote the geographical treatise known as the 'Gui Hai Yu
Heng Chi'' It focused primarily on the topography of the land,
agricultural, economic and commercial products of Chinese provinces.along
with the
Chinese scientist Shen Kuo The polymath
work to
(1031-1095) devoted a significant amount of his written
geography, particularly geomorphology. The Ming Dynasty geographer Xu
Xiake (1587-1641) travelled
throughout the provinces of China to write his enormous
geographical and topographical treatise, documenting various details of his travels, such
as the locations of
gorges, mineral beds, etc.10 The Chinese were also concerned with
documentinggeographical information of foreign regions far outside. The most
contributions of Chinese scholars go to the fields of cosmology, human andimportant
geography, physical geography, mathematical and regional
geography and accounts of travels and
practical geography, economic
developed the Decimal
explorations. The Chinese mathematics had
System, which
800 from the Indians. The Chinese were
was introduced to the Arab world in about A.D.
expert in map-making on the latitudinal-
longitudinal grid, and this art is believed to have developed much earlier than in Greece
or Rome. Also
commendable are their observations on weather and
are known to have climate, since they
before Christ. These
prepared a number of weather
reports dating back several centuries
reports are now
preserved in the National Archives. The
of the rest of world
by Chinese travellers is an aspect of the history of discovery
often overlooked in western geography
writings. The ancient Chinese scholars and
that i
possesseda rich heritage of geographical knowledge and this travellers
the succeeding heritage
generations in spite of physical isolation and
has passed on to
the communication
(language) barrier. In fact, the record of geographical work in ancient China is
impressive. In fact, the developments that began here in ancient times continuedhighly
the Age of up to
Discovery and later.
However, with time the West became centre of
continuously increasing
developments took place in Western Asiascholarly
research. Towards West the earliest
(present
42 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

and Europe, and various cultural groups,

Turkey, Lebanon, Syria and Israel), Egypt Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks and
namely Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians,
the credit the beginning of geographical writings
Romans were involved. Although,
Greek scholar, but the carliest known map was made
in the West is given to Homer, a

by the Pre-Greek civilizations(particularly Sumerians) about 2700 B.C. The scholars

of data on the motions of stars and
of Babylon had already collected a large number
of the celestial bodies
planets, and they had developed the concept that the position
had a fundamental effect on human activities. The roots of geography lie in antiquity
and can be traced back to the works of numerous ancient schools of thought,
philosophers, scholars, mathematicians, administrators and explorers. But, most of
the literature dealing with historical geography has a western bias, contributions of
schools other than Greco-Roman being overlooked. The literary and other evidences
suggest that that there were schools even before and also parallel to Greeks that have
been instrumental in the process of evolution of Geography as a discipline of
scholarship during the ancient period. Geography is still indebted to all these
developments that took place in classical antiquity.

Pre-Greek Civilizations
The ancient civilization, particularly the Western, had a deep sharing and inheritance
culture, knowledge, science and technology trom many of its
preceding
civilizations that emerged in Mesopotamian region, commonly known as the "cradle
of civilization". Various cities here served as
capitals of theSumerian, Akkadian,
Babylonian, Assyrian, Phoenician and Carthaginian empires. The region was famous
of the riverine civilizations as that of Indus
as one
Valley in Indian subcontinent and
the Yellow River Valley in China.
Mesopotamian history extends from the emergence
of urban societies in Southern
Iraq in the 5th millennium B.C. to the arrivalof
Alexander the Great in 4th century B.C. which is seen as the hallmark of
the
Hellenization of the Near East. The earliest
language
written in
Mesopotamia
Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate and later the cuneifornm
was
script was
invented. Mesopotamians used a sexagesimal (base
60) numeral system. This is the
source of the current 60-minute hours and
24-hour days, as well as the 360 degree
circle. This mathematical
knowledge
familiar with the general rules for
was used in
mapmaking. The Babylonians were
measuring the areas and distances. This
neasurement tor distances
eventually was converted to a time-mile used for
measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. Mesopotamian people
invented many technologies,
invention in
notably the wheel, the most important mechanical
history; other inventions being flood control, water storage and irrigation
techniques. They were also one ot the tirst Bronze
Ageused
people in the world.
Lariv
they used copper, bronze and gold, and later they iron. The Sumeria: on
nd
Babylonians developed the earliest system of economies. Food suppiy in
Mesopotamia was quite rich due to the location of the two rivers, Tigris and
Euphrates. The Tigris and Euphrates River vallevs formed the north-eastern
of the Fertile Crescent. portion
Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 43
crops, portions of land further from the water
This why the
were dry and largely uninhabitable.
is
development of
irrigation
earliest known peopie of Fertilevery important for settlers of
was
Mesopotamia. The
Crescent were the Sumerians,
who lived in southern
Mesopotamia.
to dwell in Iraq's arid southern
The challenge for
any population attempting
round agriculture and floodplain was to master the river
waters for year-
drinking water. The Sumerians were
farmers, who had
developed a social organization and a technology that enabled them,
control of the water, to survive and through their
Besides the cuneiform prosper in a difficult environment.
script, the Sumerians also developed
astronomy, basic
algebra, geometry and the number system based on the unit of 60. Using this number
system, thhey developed mathematics and invented the clock and
still used today. An 12-month calendar
on clay tablets. With
extremely large body of texts in Sumerian language has survived
the invention of
knowledge and pass it on, particularly, writing, Sumerians were able to record their
to the Greeks and Romans. Sumerian
literature achieved a written
high degree of excellence in the Akkadian
Akkad became
synonymous with the Sumerians. Southern period. The name
known as the "land of Sumer and Mesopotamia became
Akkad". Combining the territories
Akkad there emerged a new state, of Sumer and
one of the most fertile
Babylonia, in southern
Mesopotamia. Babylon was
areas despite its location in
the desert. But, the
completely destitute of mineral wealth, and possessed no stone orcountry metal.
was
The
Babylonian civilization was like the Sumerian that preceded it, urban in
although based on agriculture rather than industry. The character,
and Babylonians
intelligent people who made large advances in the techniques of
were an inventive

science. Babylonians adopted the Sumerian style of writing. Amongagriculture and

the sciences,
astronomy and astrology occupied a conspicuous place in
Astronomy was of old standing here. Observatories were attachedBabylonian society.
to the
temples,
reports were regularly sent by astronomers to the king. The stars had been numbered and
and named at an early date. Great attention
Babylonian astrology was based on the belief that thenaturally paid to the calendar.
was
entire universe was created in
relation to the earth. Thus the ancients saw it as no accident that
the stars and planets
were set in a certain divine order at the time of
creation. The Babylonian texts contain
catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings
and the setings of the
planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water-clock, gnomon,
shadows, and intercalations. During the 8th and 7th centuries B.C.,
astronomers developed a new approach to Babylonian
astronomy. They began studying
philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing
an internal
logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important
contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and the scholars have thus
referred to this new approach as the
first scientific revolution. This new approach to
astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.
TheBabylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets
IS Considered to be
a major episode in the
history of astronomy. Since the Babylonian
civilisation replaced the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations, the
inherited their sexagesimal number system. The city of Assur, a
Babylonians
colony Babylonia,
of
44 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Assyria, in the northern reaches

of Mesopotamia,
grew to turn out to be a great empire, four
its capital. Assyria spanned
the southern half being Babylonia with Nineveh as
areas comprised the Assyrian
ountries: Syria, Turkey, Iran and Iraq. Two large
breadbasket: the Artbel plain and the Nineveh plain.
The Assyrian culture showeda
times. Among the
dramatic growth in science and mathematics in the pre-historic
circle into 360
Assyrians was the division of
great mathematical inventions of the and latitude in navigation.
degrees and Assyrians were the first to invent longitude maritime culture that spreaded
Among others, there were phonecians, an enterprising of
across the Mediterranean fronm 1200 to 800 B.C.
The Phoenicians owed a great deal
remarked in The
their prosperity to trade. Fernand Braudel, a French historian,
of a 'world-economy
Perspective of the World' that Phoenicia was an early example was ideally suited
surrounded by empires. This league of independent city-state ports
rest of the ancient
for trade between the Levant area, rich in natural resources, and the
world. The most important of their early cities were Tyre, Sidon, Berytus (modern
Phoenician colony was at Carthage, others
Beirut), and byblos. The most important Cartagena), The early
being in Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and Spain (modern Cadiz and and cloth dyeing. The
Phoenician economy was built on timber sales, wood working,
1200
Phoenicians' initial trading partners were the Greeks. In the centuries following
the region. The
B.C., the Phoeniciarns formed the major naval and trading power of
Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, the most
in North Africa. The Phoenicians were the first
strategically important being Carthage
state level society to make extensive use of the alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet
arose around 1400 B.C. from a need to communicate with the diverse languages of
served as the
their trading partners encircling the Mediterranean Sea. The alphabet
origin of the Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and Arabic alphabets.
This system of writing consonants and leaving out vowels is still in use today.
North
Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to
Africa and Europe where it was adopted by Greeks, who later passed it on to the
Romans. Carthage, the civilization founded by Phoenician colonists, became a large
and major power of the Mediterranean. Carthage was built on a promontory with
inlets to the sea to the north and south. The city's location made it master of the
Mediterranean's maritime trade. The Carthaginian Empire was one of the longest living
and largest empires in ancient Mediterranean. The empire was in a constant struggle
with the Roman Republic, which led to a series of conflicts known as the Punic Wars.
After the third and final Punic War, Carthage was destroyed and fell into Roman
hands from then on. The empire of Carthage depended heavily on its trade. Its trade
relations with the berians and the naval might that enforced Carthage's monopoly on
trade with tin-rich Britain and the Canary lslands allowed it to be the sole significant
broker of tin and maker of bronze. Maintaining this monopoly was one of the major
sources of power and prosperity tor Carthage." In addition to manufacturing, Carthage
practiced highly advanced and productive agriculture, using iron plows, irrigation
and crop rotation. Carthage's merchant ships, which surpassed even those of the cities
of the Levant, visited every major port of the Mediterranean, Britain, the coast of Africa,
and the Canary Islands. The commercial fleet of Carthage was comparable in size and
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 45

tonnage to the fleets of

major European powers in the 18th century.
commodity wanted by the ancient world. When theCarthage
in almost every
traded
civilizations stagnated and declined, there arose in the MediterraneanMesopotamian
and inquisitive sea faring group of people-the Greeks. The Greeks aggressive
an

assimilated
technology and knowledge from almost all cultures they encountered-picking and
choosing the best. The main feature of Greek thought represents the knowledge of
these pre-Greek civilizations. These civilizations
bequeathed later civilizations the
sexagesimal system of numerals, the earliest known form of writing (cuneiform) and
a system of
alphabet, besides a number of valuable mathernatical and astronomical
contributions.

CONTRIBUTORS
The contributions to ancient
geographical knowledge came largely from astronomers,
astrologers, astro-physicists, mathematicians, scientists, philosophers and
explorers
belonging to Greco-Roman, Indian and Chinese realms. These all are listed in Table 3.2.
Greco-Romnan
There is a long
list of scholars and travellers, whose efforts laid the
foundation of
geographic knowledge in the West in ancient period. They included, for instance,
Homer, Thales, Anaximander, Pherecydes, Anaximenes,
Hecateus, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Pythagoras, Xenophanes,
Zeno of Elea, Gorgias, Herodotus, Leucippus, Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Empedocles,
Philolaus, Socrates, Melissus, Prodicus,
Democritus, Xenophon, Plato, Archytas, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Hippias,
Pyrrho, Epicurus, Zeno of Citium, Euclid, Archimedes, Theophratus, Eudemus,
Apollonius, Polybius, Crate, Hipparchus, Posidonius, Marcus Chrysippus, Eratosthenes,
Tullius Cicero, Strabo,
Philo, Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, Claudius Galen, Ammonius
Proclus. In addition, there were Saccas, Porphyry and
Alexander The Great
explorers like Hanno The
Navigator, Pytheas and
The first European poet, Homer, was the author of
two literary works, the 'Iliad'
and 'Odyssey', which contain a
great deal of
insight into early Greek civilization. Moving geographical
information and give an
much involved in the beyond traditional mythology, Thales
was
problems of astronomy and provided explanations for
cosmological events that traditionally involved supernatural entities. His successor
Anaximander was the first person to have
world and to have introduced the instrument attempted to create a scale map of existing
functioning like a Sun-dial (Gnomon).
Pherecydes is the first ancient author to introduce the everlastingness of time
(chronos). Anaximenes, a younger contemporary of Anaximander and Thales,
continued their philosophical inquiries into the first material
different results. He believed that air was divine and principle, but with
common substance, and that it
is responsible for
as "the father of
the creation, destruction, change or evolution
ofeverything Known
numbers", Pythagoras, a 6th century B.C. mathematician, believed
that
everything was related to mathematics and that numbers were the ultimate
reality
46 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

TABLE 3.2 The Earliest Scholars and Explorers

Acharya Kapil (3000 B.C.) .Zeno of Citium (334-262 B.C.)

Acharya Bharadwaj (800 B.C.) Euclid (325-265 B.C.)
Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 B.C.)
Baudhayana (800 B.C)
Homer (8th Century B.C.) Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.)
.Thales (639-544 B.C.) Eratosthenes (276-194 B.C.)
Anaximander (610-547 B.C.) Apollonius (262-190 B.C.)
Pherecydes (600-550 B.C.) .Polybius (203-122 B.C.)
Acharya Charak (600 B.C./300 B.C.) Crate (2nd Century B.C.)
Acharya Kanad (600 B.C.) Hipparchus (190-120 B.C.)
Acharya Sushrut (600 B.C.) Chang-Chien (172-114 B.C.)
Laozi (6th Century B.C.) Sima Qian (145-90 B.C.)
Anaximenes (585-525 B.C.) Posidonius (135-51 B.C.)
Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.) Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.)
Xenophanes (570-480 B.C.) Strabo (64 B.C.-20 A.D.)
.Gautama Buddha (563 to 483 B.C.) Philo (20 B.C.-50 A.D.)
Confucius (551-479 B.C.) Ban Gu (32-92)
Hecateus (550-476 B.C.) Chang Heng (78-139)
Heraclitus (535-475 B.C.) Nagarjuna (100 A.D.)
Hanno the Navigator (500 B.C) Ptolemy (90-168 A.D.)
.Parmenides (510 B.C.) Claudius Galen (129-200 A.D.)
Leucippus (500-450 B.C.) Ammonius Saccas (176-242 A.D.)
Anaxagoras (500-428 B.C.) .Pei Xiu (224-271 A.D.)
Protagoras (490-420 B.C.) Porphyry (234-305 A.D.)
Empedocles (490-430 B.C.) Proclus (411-485 A.D.)
Zeno of Elea (490-430 B.C.) .Aryabhatta 1 (476-550 A.D.)
Gorgias (487-376 B.C.) Varahamihir (499-587 A.D.)
Herodotus (485-425 B.C.) Brahmagupta (598-668 A.D.)
Philolaus (480-385 B.C.) Bhaskara I (600-680 A.D.)
Socrates (470-399 B.C.) Huan-Tsang (602-664 A.D.)
.Melissus of Samos (470 B.C.) I Ching (635-713 A.D.)
Prodicus (465-415 B.C.) Jia Dan (730-805 A.D.)
Hippias (460-399 B.C.) Madhav (8th century)
Democritus (460-370 B.C.) Adi Shankara (788-820 A.D.)
Xenophon (430-354 B.C.) Aryabhata lI (about 920 A.D.)
Plato (428-348 B.C.) Sridharacharya (991 A.D.)
Archytas (428-347 B.C.) Su Song (1020-1101 A.D.)
Eudoxus (408-347 B.C.) Shen Kuo (1031-1095 A.D.)
Panini (4th century B.C.). Brahmadeva (1060-1130 A.D.)
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) .Bhaskara II or Bhaskaracharya (1114-1183 A.D.)
Pytheas (380-310 B.C) Fan Cherngda (1126-1193)
Theophratus (372-7 B.C.) Jayadeva (1200 A.D.)
Eudemus of Rhodes (370-300 B.C.) Zhou Daguan (13th century)
Pyrrho (360-0 B.C.) Zheng He (1371-1433)
Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) Xu Xiake (1587-1641 A.D.)
Epicurus (342-270 B.C.)
72 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

cosmos. That is, for the Chinese, the universe was in fact infinite, but they confined
their models to a space called "the heavens and the earth"; (2) The earth is flat; (3) The
heavens are round; the heavenly bodies are floating, unattached to the heavens, and
moving freely; and (4) There is a lack of emphasis on reasoning and consequently the
structural view of nature. These features interestingly are distinguished from those of
the Greek cosmological models: (1) The universe is finite, where "the heavens and the
earth" are located; (2) The earth is round (spherical); (3) The heavens are layers of
solid spheres; the heavenly bodies are attached to the layers respectively; and (4) Efforts
are made to search for reasons and to establish a structural view of nature. In the
Greek cosmological models, the universe was finite, Earth was round (spherical) in its
centre, and the heavens were layers of solid spheres; the heavenly bodies were attached
to the layers respectively. Another common perception in Chinese cosmology was the
shape of Heaven and Earth.
The earth was divided into nine continents, each surrounded by ocean, and further
divided into nine provinces. The Chinese perceived Heaven to be round. It had nine
levels; each of which was separated by a gate and guarded by a particular animal. The
highest level, the Palace of Purple Tenuity, was where the Emperor of Heaven ived in
the constellation we call Ursa Major. At the centre of Heaven were the North Pole and
the polar star. The celestial pole was a critical characteristic of Chinese
the Chinese, the centre was the most
cosmology. To
important geographical point because it was the
closest to Heaven. They believed that the heart of civilization lay at the centre of the
earth, and as the land spread out, the lands and its inhabitants became more
savage.
Naturally, this emphasis on the centre point lead to the polar axis as a pivotal aspect
ot Chinese
astronomy. While the Greeks focused on the constellations on the horizon
and created a solar calendar, the Chinese observed the circum polar stars, which lead
them to devise a lunar calendar instead. The
polar axis which ran from the
south to Earth was the pivot of the heavens. The heavenly vault slid up and polar
star,
down this
axis while the earth itself oscillated along it to create the seasons. The stars around the
pole were also an integral part of Chinese cosmology. At the equator, the Chinese
divided the sky arbitrarily into
twenty-eight divisions, each corresponding to an
equatorial and a circumpolar constellation. Based on which mansion the moon occupied
atnight, the Chinese created their lunar calendar. The Chinese calendar was particularly
notable because the equinoxes and solstices marked the centre of the seasons rather
than the beginnings. Like many other cosmologies, Chinese interpretation ot the
universe was not
completely secular. There was an incredibly strong emphasis Ot
harmony and balance that originated from philosophical ideas. In accordance with
the Taoist philosophy of yin and yang, everything in the universe had a counterpart.
The fusang tree in the east over
which the sun would rise, complimented the ruo tree
in the west which
watched the sun set every evening. The Yellow Springs that tlowed
under and supported the earth opposed the sky above. Another example of this balance
1s

and
ne hinese dependence on
numerology and various characteristics to determne
maintain celestial and earthly balance. Five was a very
a
auspicious number.
here were the five directions: north, south, east, west, and centre. Each had a
Corresponding colour, animal, element, and flavour. Each of these aspects had to De
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 73

mixed and balanced in everyday life, be it in the food people ate, the houses they
built, or the furniture they chose. Nine was also a very divine number. It was the
number of pertect yang and highest completeness. There were nine continents with
nine provinces. There were also nine layers to Heaven. The Round Mound at the Temple
of heaven has nine rings at its zenith, each comprised stones in multiples of nine. It is
overwhelmingly obvious the great extent to which the Chinese took this numerology.
To them, foilowing the rules of numerology was more than showing respect to heaven
and nature, but more importantly, it was continuing the celestial balance between
Heaven and Earth. Ancient Chinese
cosmology is more than a cultures interpretation
of the universe. In his publication called The Spiritual Constitution of the Universe (Ling
Xian),Zhang Heng theorized that the universe was like an egg "as round as a crossbow
pellet" with the stars on the shell and the Earth as the central yolk." This universe
theury is congruent with the geocentric model. Zhang supported the "radiating
intluence theory to explain solar and lunar eclipses. Some other contemporary writers,
as Jing Fang (78-37 BCE), also wrote about eclipses and the sphericity of heavenly
bodies. The theory posited by Zhang and Jing was supported by later pre-modern
scientists such as Shen Kuo (1031-1095), who expanded on the reasoning of why the
Sun and Moon were spherical."32 Much like what Zhang Heng had said, Shen Kuo
likened the Moon to a ball of silver, which does not produce light, but simply reflects
light if provided from another source (the Sun). Shen's hypotheses were similar to the
concept of the epicycle in the Greco-Roman tradition. Shen likened the relationship of
the Moon's path to the ecliptic, the path of the Sun, "to the figure of a rope coiled
about a tree".

Earth Studies
A number of queries have frequently made by ancient scholars related to the earth.
Thales, for instance, solved problems related to its shape; its size; the cause of
earthquakes; the dates of solstices; and the size of the sun and mo0on. Thales's hypothesis
was substantiated by sound observation and reasoned considerations. At the busy
city-port of Miletus, Thales had unlimited opportunities to observe the arrival and
departure of ships with their heavier-than-water cargoes, and recognized an analogy

to floating logs. Aristotle wrote that the earth rests on water. He explained his theory
ot wood and
Dy adding the analogy that the earth is at rest because it is of the nature
not on air.
Similar substances which have the capacity to float on water, although
Thales envisaged the earth as spherical. Aristotle used several arguments to support

view. First is the fact that solar eclipse, the shadow caused by the
during
this a
moon is always convex; theretore,
nterposition of the earth between the sun and the
who is acknowledged as an observer of
he earth must be spherical. Second, Thales, visible in a certain locality may not be
the heavens, observed that stars which are within
could be explained
iSible further to the northsouth, a phenomenon which
or
from mere observation the earth has the
tne
understanding ofa spherical earth. Third, that the earth is covered by
appearance of being curved. From observation, it appears
a dome. When observed from an elevated site, the sky seems to surround the earth,
 74 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

observed over the seasons, the

ike a dome, to meet the apparently curved horizon. If
bodies changing their
dome would appear to revolve, with many of the heavenly
to a similar place in the heavens.
position in varying degrees, but returning annually
From the ship can be seen to be descending,
shore, a gradually, below the horizon,
masts and sails. Further,
with the hull disappearing from view first, to be followed by
with his hypothesIS that
Thales's theory about the cause of earthquakes is consistent
on water simile to the
earth floats upon water. It seems that he applied his floating
Democritus found in water the cause
natural phenomena of earthquakes. Thales and
of earthquakes.
about the earth
geographical observations of the ancient Indian scholars
are
The
earth studies deal with its
in general and the Indian subcontinent in particular. The
origin, sphericity, eclipses, size and dimensions, latitudes, longitudes and local time
directions or cardinal points, earthquakes and volcanoes, atmosphere and seasons,

and its physical divisions. As far as the origin of the earth is concerned, many of the
facts as put forward by the ancient Indian scholars were more or less accurately known.
They believed in the solidification of earth from gaseous matter. The earth's crust,
according to them, is made of hard rocks (sila), clayey material (bhumih) and sandy
material (asma). The Puranas mention the earth to be apparently floating on the water
like a sailing boat on the river. They were also aware of the fact that there is more land
surface in the Northern Hemisphere. The concept of Prithvi (Earth) was the most basic
in the study of geography. It has been profusely used in the Vedas and Puranas. The
study of the earth or Prithvi has been called Bhugol' or Geography. Thus, the use of
the term Bhugol' for the discipline of Geography was the most appropriate and it
clearly suggests that the ancient Indians endorsed the earth being a sphere, and not a
flat disc as believed by some of their parallel civilizations. This fact was further affirmed
by: (1) the periodical occurrence of eclipses and the circular shadow of the earth casted
on moon during lunar eclipse; and (2) the rise and setting of Sun, which according to
the prevalernt belief, never sets but goes on the other side of the sphere earth. The
ancient Indian scholars were aware of the causes of occurrences of
eclipses (grahanas).
Some rituals and ceremonies of Indian society were being performed on the days when
eclipses occurred. The Aryans, for instance, considered an eclipse as unlucky
(inauspicious) and a messenger of disaster. It was also believed that if a solar and
lunar eclipse occurs in the same month, it becomes more
disastrous. Varahamihira
considerèd the effects of eclipse month-wise and
emphasized that eclipse in Pusa
(December) leads to famine and its occurrence in April and May results in
while and eclipse in Phagun (March) and Asadh good rainfal
(June) is unlucky. It was believed that
the looking at eclipses is bad, because
seeing the eclipse (particularly Solar) is harmfu
for the naked eyes. The facts related to the size and
dimension of the earth were quite
near to accuracy. It was well known to the ancient
Indian scholars that the earth is an
oblate spheroid slightly flattened at the poles. Also, its
than its polar diameter. The literature of the 5th and 6thequatorial diameter is greater
centuries A.D. on astronomy
gives convincing information on earth's volume, its equatorial circumference, mass
or weight.
The estimates made by
Aryabhatta in this regard were very close to those
established in the modern period. Akshansh and Deshantar are the
terms used for
 ANCIENT PERIOD
75
CHAPTER3

latitudes' and longitudes' respectively in ancient Indian literature. Puranas have

reference of three imaginary lines of latitudes passing through Equatorial belt, Nort
Pole and South Pole. Accordingly, three major regions have been identified in the
Literature, viz. Equatorial (Nirakshadesha), Northern Polar (Meru) and Southern Polar
(Bhadoanala). The North Pole has been called as Zenith and the South Pole as Nadir.
The South Pole was truly considered as the antipode of the North Pole, i.e. diametricaly
opposite to it. However, the world was not believed to exist beyond Equator, as the
region here was compared to hell of the earth. The Eastern part, on the other hand,
was believed to be 'the land of Gods'. This thinking is in consonance with that of the
Europeans in the Early Medieval period, when the Dark Ages prevailed and the East
in T-in-O' Maps (Fig. 4.1) was assumed to be the place of Adam and Eve. The ancient
Indian scholars have also drawn Prime Meridian. These imaginary lines, the position
of Sun and various stars have helped them to determine local time at various places.
In Rigveda, there is formulated the idea of four main directions, viz. Purva (East),
Paschim (West), Uttar (North) and Dakshin (South). By adding Zenith (Meru) and Nadir
(Bhadvanala) it was raised to six. But, afterwards, ten directions have been frequently
mentioned in the Puranic literature. The designation of these directions in the Puranas
in each
is significant in the sense that it bears concept of the ruling deities dominating
of these ten directions (Table 3.5).

TABLE 3.5 Cardinal points and the Ruling Daities as per Puranic Literature

Direction Ruling Deity

Purva (East) Indra (The God of Rain)

Agneyay (Southeast) Agni (The God of Fire)

Dakshina (South) Yama (The God of Death)
Niriti (The God of Disaster)
Nairitya (Southwest)
Varuna (The God of Water)
Paschim (West)
Vayavya (Northwest) Marut/Vayu (The God of Air)
Kubera (The God of Wealth)
Uttar (North)
Isa (The God of Power)
Isana (Northeast)
Brahma (The Creator of Universe)
Urdhava (Zenith")
Adhoh (Nadir") Sesanaga (The Universal Ocean)

The point directly above the observer.

observer.
The point directly below the
climate and
the earthquakes, atmosphere, weather,
The knowledge regarding term bhukamp has been used
excellent. For 'earthquakes' the
seasons in this period is caused earthquakes.
the deities of Air, Fire and Water
in Puranas. It was assumed that between the earth and the
have identified the vacuum
The ancient Indian scholars to 'space' or 'atmosphere'.
not clear whether it referred
heaven as antariksha. But it is
 76 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

vast extent or thickness and the

However, they were undoubtedly aware of its
Occurrence of various weather phenomnena here. Ramayana furnishes a lot of this kind
of information. Bhaskaracharya has conceived the thickness of this antariksha around
the earth to be 12 yojans (or 96 kms). As far as the knowledge about the seasons is
concerned, it is based largely on the studies in India. Kigveda mentions five seasons,
In Valmiki Ramayan, however, six seasons have been identified. They are listed below
(Table 3.6):

TABLE 3.6 The Seasons as mentioned in Ancient Indian Literature

Season Months

Basant (Spring) Chaitra-Baisakh (March-April)

Grishna (Summer) Jyestha-Asadh (May-June)
Prourit/Varsha (Rainy) Shravan-Bhadrapad (July-August)
Sharad (Autumn) shvin-Kartik (September-October)
Hemant (Winter) Mangsir-Peus (November-December)
Shtsltir (Severe Winter) Magh-Plagun January-February)

The earth studies of Chinese scholars

pertain to hydrological cycle, forests,
seismology and weather and climate. There is record of
progress in the understanding
of natural processes,
particularly hydrological cycle, work of running water in wearing
down mountains and forming down alluvial
plains, erosion of mountain
study and measurement of the amount of silt carried by the rivers. The slopes, studies
and
on
forests and effects of forest
clearinig
The observations of Chinese scholars on
were going on in China
around 4th century B.C.
weather and climate are
are known to have commendable. They
prepared a number of weather reports on the basis of empirically
based facts. Some of these
reports date back to 13 centuries before Christ. Shen Kuo
devised a geological
hypothesis for land formation, based upon findings of inland
marine fossils, knowledge of soil
erosion, and the deposition of silt. He also
a
hypothesis gradual climate change, after observing ancient
of proposed
that were preserved
underground in a dry northern petrified bamboos
bamboo growth in his time. Early habitat that would not support
now known as
speculation and hypothesis
pertaining to what is
meteorology had a long tradition in China before Shen Kuo. For
example, the philosopher Wang Chong (27-97)
water cycle.3 Shen wrote vivid accurately described the process of the
of them in East Asia-and descriptions of tornadoes-the first
known description
gave reasoning that rainbows were
formed
of the Sun in rain,
occurring when the Sun would skine upon it. Paul by the shadow
Shen's explanation of the rainbow as a Dong writes that
basically in accord with modern scientific phenomenon of
atmospheric refraction "is
of sunlight refract before principles."Shen hypothesized that rays
reaching the surface oi the earth, hence
people on earth
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 77

observing the Sun are not viewing it in its exact position. Shen also hypothesizea uat
the altitude of the apparent Sun is higher than the actual altitude of the Sun.
Known for excellent record keeping, the Chinese kept accurate records of not only
celestial events, but of earthquakes as well. From the earliest times, the Chinese were
concerned with the destructive force of earthquakes. The people of the ancient Zhou
Dynasty explained them as disturbances with cosmic yin and yang, along with the
heaven's displeasure with acts committed (or the common
people's grievances ignored)
by the current ruling dynasty.35 At the time, people believed that seismic events were
supernatural in origin: signs from heaven from angry gods designed to punish those
below. Heng discounted these superstitions and offered a scientific explanation in its
place. He proposed that earthquakes were caused by wind and air, writing: The chief
cause of earthquake is air, an element naturally swift and shifting from place to place.
As long as it is not stirred, but lurks in a vacant space, it reposes innocently, giving no
trouble to objects around it. But any cause coming upon it from without rouses it, or
compresses it, and drives it intoa narrow space..and when opportunity of escape is
cut off, then 'With deep murmur of the Mountain it roars around the barriers', which
after long battering it dislodges and tosses on high, growing more fierce the stronger
the obstacle with which it has contended.
Physics
The foundations of physics lie in Empedocles' assumption that there arefour'elements
of matter, or 'roots' as he calls them: earth, air, fire and water. These are able to create
all things, including all living creatsres, by being 'mixed' in different combinations
and proportions. Each of the elements, however, retains its own characteristics in the
mixture, and each is eternal and unchanging. The four elements correspond closely
to
their expression at the macroscopic level of nature, with the traditional quadripartite
bodies. These
division of the cosmos into earth, sea, air, and the fiery ether of heavenly
fundamental natural
four naturally occurring 'elements' of cosmos clearly represent
a
division of matter at the largest scale. This division at the macroscopic level of reality
between the constituents
is applied at the microscopic level to produce parallelism
a
constituents of the cosmos. Empedocles stresses this
of matter and the fundamental
different levels of reality by using the terms 'sun',
parallel between the elements at the
with 'fire', 'water' and 'earth'. In Stoic physics,
sea' and 'earth' interchangeably
the organic interrelation of all
Posidonius advocated a theory of cosmic "sympathy",
from the sky to the earth, as part of a rational design uniting
appearances in the world,
even those that were temporally and spatially
humanity and all things in the universe,
separate.
to know that the of atom (Anu, Parmanu) and
concepts
It would be surprising
stated by an Indian philosopher nearly 600
relativity (Sapekshavada) were explicitly 3000 to 1000 B.C., the
birth of Christ. From the Vedic times, around
years before the
material world into five elements, viz. Earth (Prithvi), fire
Indians had classified the Pancha
and ether or Akasha. These five elements or
Jala)
(Agni), air (Wayu), water
various human senses of perception; earth with
Mahabhootas' were identified with
 78 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

sound.
ether with Whatever
smell, air with feeling, fire with vision, water with taste and
ancient times Indians
validity behind this interpretation, it is true that
since very
had perceived the material world as comprising these 5 elements. Since ancient times,
Indian philosophers believed that these elements were physically palpable and hence
miniscule particle of matter which
comprised miniscule particles of matter. The last
could not be subdivided further was termed Parmanu. The word Parmanu is a
combination of Param, meaning beyond, and anu meaning atom. This Indian concept
of the atom was developed independently and prior to the development of the idea in
the Greco-Roman world. The first Indian philosopher who formulated ideas about
the atom in a systematic manner was Kanada who lived in the 6th century B.C. Kanada
propounded that the Parmanu (atom) was an indestructible particle of matter
According to him the material universe is made up of Kana. When matter is divided
and subdivided, we reach a stage beyond which no division is possible, the undivisible
element of matter is Parmanu. Another 6th century B.C. Indian philosopher was
Pakudha Katyayana,7 a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. He propounded ideas
about the atomic constitution of material world. These philosophers considered the
Atom to be indestructible and hence eternal. There are different types of Parmanu for
the five Panchn Mahabhootas, Earth, water, fire, air and ether. Each Parmanu has a
peculiar property which depends, on the substance to which it belongs. It was because
of this conception of peculiarity of Parmanu (atoms) that this theory founded by Kanada
came to be known Vaisheshika-Sutra (Peculiarity Aphorisms). The Vaisheshika School
of philosophers believed that anatom was a mere point in space. Indian theories about
the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as
they were based on logic
and not on personal experience or experimentation. In this context Kanada seems to
arrive at conclusions which were surpassed only many centuries after him. Kanada's
idea also had shades of relativity in it which was propounded
by Einstien in our times.
About his ideas on atom, Kanada observed that an inherent
urge made one Parmanu
combine with another. When two Parmanu belonging to one class of substance
combined, a dwinuka (binary molecule) was the result. This dwinuka had
similar to the two parent Parmanu. In the material universe, properties
acording to him, Parmanu
belonging to different classes of substances combine in different combinations giving
us a variety of dwinuka, which in other words
means different
Thus, it remains a fact that Indian ideas about atom are the oldest. types of substances.
It is only after the
4th century B.C., after the Greeks had come in contact
with India do we find references
to the idea of an atom in Greek science.
Hence, it is quite possible that the Greeks
borrowed the ideas about atom from Indian
philosophers in the 4th century B.C.
Astrology and Astronomy
Astrology developed in the Greco-Roman world during Hellenistic
many elements from Bahylonian period, borrowir
astronomy, and Ptolemy played a
key role in this.
Ptolemy's treatise on astrology, the Tetrabiblos, was the most
work of antiquity and also popular astrological
enjoyed great influence in the Islamic world and the
medieval Latin West. Ptolemy's
astrological outlook was quite practical: he thought
 CHAPTER3 ANCIENT PERIOD 79

that astrology was like medicine, that is conjectural, because of the many variable
factors to be taken into account: the race, country, and upbringing of a person affects
an individual's
personality as much if not more than the positions of the sun, Mo0
and planets at the
precise moment of their birth. Ptolemy's is the most popular work
on
astronomy, the scientific study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate
outside the Earth's atmosphere. The Ptolemaic
explanation of the motions of planets
remained the accepted wisdom until the Polish scholar Copernicus proposed a
heliocentric view in 1543. In the Almagest, one of the most influential books of classical
antiauity, Ptolemy compiled the astronomical knowledge of the ancient Greek and
Babylonian world. The Almagest also contains a star catalogue, which is an updated
version of a catalogue created by FHipparchus. Its list of forty-eight constellations is
ancestral to the modern system of constellations. The Babylonians and the Egyptians
merited in the field of observational astronomy. These observations
were made with
naked eye and with the help of some simple instrumernts as gnomon. Unlike them, the
Greeks, more particularly Anaximander's merits lie in that of speculative astronomy.
Three of his astronomical speculations include: (1) that the celestial bodies make full
circles and pass also beneath the earth, (2) that the earth floats free and unsupported
in space, and (3) that the celestial bodies lie behind one another. These propositions,
which make up the core of Anaximander's astronomy, meant a tremendous jump
forward and constitute the origin of our Western concept of the universe.
Anaximander's vision implied depth in the universe, that is, the idea that the celestial
bodies lie behind one another. Anaximander's order of the celestial bodies is clearly
that of increasing brightness. Due to the inclination of the axis of the heaven, the celestial
bodies do not circle around the earth in the same plane as the earth's-flat-surface, but
are tilted. This tilting of the heaven's axis has been one of the biggest riddles of the
universe. Hipparchus is considered the greatest astronomical observer of antiquity.
He was the first Greek to develop quantitative and accurate models for the motion of
the Sun and Moon. For this he made use of the observations and knowledge
accumulated over centuries by the Chaldeans from Babylonia. With his solar and lunar
theories and his numerical trigonometry, he was the first to develop a reliable method
to predict solar eclipses. His other achievements include the discovery of precession,
and the invention of
the compilation of the first star catalogue of the western world,
able to measure the
the astrolabe. With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be
stars. Previously this was done at day
geographical latitude and time by observing or with the portable instrument
time by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon,
historians of astronomy is Hipparchus'
known as scaphion. The most intriguing for
use of Babylonian astronomical
material, including methods as well as observations.
link between Babylonian and Greek astronomy.
Hipparchus' work provides a clear
transmission of both Babylonian observations and
He was responsible for the direct
and Greek astronomy. The
procedures and for the successful synthesis Babylonian
of
is most famous is the discovery of precession which
discovery for which Hipparchus direction of the axis of rotation of the earth. This work
is due to the slow change in
came from Hipparchus' attempts
to
calculate the length of the year with a high degree
of accuracy. There are two diterent
definitions of a
"year for one might take the time
 80 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

stars or one could take

that the sun takes to return tothe same place amongst the fixed
is a length of time defined by
the length of time before the seasons repeated which
the sidereal year while the second
considering the equinoxes. The first of these is called the
is called the tropical year. Hipparchus also
calculated length of the sidereal year,
accurate figure of hu
again using older Babylonian data, and arrived at the highly
of 1° per century.
days longer than 3654 days. This gives his rate of precession
motion of moon. There are three different
Hipparchus also made a careful study of the
the time taken for the moon to return to
periods which one could determine. There is
to the same velocity (the anomaly)
the same longitude, the time taken for it to return
In addition there is the synodic
and the time taken for it to return to the same latitude.
of the sun and moon. Hipparchus
month that is the time between successive oppositions
which enabled him to compute
not only gave observational data for the moon
theoretical model of the motion of
accurately the various periods, but he developed a
the moon based on epicycles. Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles
Philolaus' astronomical
to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface.
that lying at the
system is the first to consider the earth as an orbiting planet instead
centre of the universe believed earlier. Copernicus referred to Philolaus as his precursor
in his De Revolutionibus. Unlike Copernicus, however, Philolaus did not replace the
geocentric with a heliocentric universe. The central fire rather than the sun at the
is
centre of Philolaus' cosmos. The heavenly bodies are arranged in ten concentric circles
around this central fire. Beginning from the outside, the fixed stars come first, then
the five planets, the sun, the moon, the earth and a mysterious counter-earth. The
fixed stars serve as the backdrop against which the other heavenly bodies move. Al
of the bodies have only one circular motion around the central fire, from west to east.
It is the motion of the earth that accounts for the apparent daily motion of the sun
across and hence for night and
the sky day. Philolaus is the first to incorporate all five
planets commonly known in antiquity into an astronomical scheme in thecorrect order,
which indicates that he was aware of the most up-to-date astronomical data.
The knowledge of ancient Indian scholars in astronomy, particularly, was
fascinating. Astronomy has been interwoven with astrology since ancient times in
Indian literature. The planets Shani (Saturn) and Mangal (Mars), for instance, were
considered inauspicious. In the working out of
horoscopes (Janmakundali), posilion
the
of the Navagrahas (nine planets) plus Rahu and Ketu (mythical demons/evil forces)
was considered. The scholars like
Aryabhatta-I, Bhaskara-II, Varahamihira, Latadeva
(505)38 and Brahamgupta were associated with astronomy. In Indian language, the
science of astronomy is called
of renowned astronomical
Khagola-shastra. The word 'Khagola' is derived from the
name
observatory at the
Khagola that Aryabhatta studied and extended the University
of Nalanda. It was at
astronomical facts thousand years before subject. Aryabhatta discovered
an early pioneer of the field.
Copernicus and Galileo, and this'makes him
Aryabhatta was the earliest to discover that the orbits of
planets around the Sun are ellipses. He made an accurate
circumference and diameter. His book, the Aryabhattiya, approximation of the Earth s
described numerical
geometric rules for eclipse calculations. He gave logical explanation to the theoryand
solar and lunar eclipses. Solar and lunar
eclipses, he believed, occurred not because o
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 81
Rahu gobbled the sun and
the moon, as the
the shadows cast
by the Earth Hindu mythology claimed, but because o
and the
the sun being the source of Aryabhatta's ideas about eclipses and
moon.
moonlight may not have
European astronomers as by then caused much of an
observations of Copernicus and they had come to impress1on
know of these facts through the
Aryabhattiya were available in the Galileo. However, earlier Arabic translations ot
Middle East by the the
took place, so it's also 10th century, before the Crusades
ideas. Aryabhatta was likely that Aryabhatta's work
had an influence on
own axis which results
pioneer to infer that the
Earth Copernicus
is spherical and it rotates on its
in day and
and shines because of the night. He even concluded that the moon is dark
light of sun.
Considered in modern English units ot time,
calculated the sidereal rotation
fixed stars) as 23 hours 56 (the rotation of the earth referenced the
minutes and 4.1 seconds; the
Similarly, his value for the modern value is 23:56:4.091.
30 seconds is length of the sidereal year at 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes
remarkably close to the true value. He was aware that the earth
its axis, and that it moves
round the sun and the moon spins on
has been rotates round the earth. Thus it
suggested that Aryabhatta's calculations were based
heliocentric model in which the on an
underlying
of planets in relation to its planets orbit the Sun. He discusses about the location
movement around the
planets and the moon as reflections from the sun.39 sun. He refers to the light of the
to make an Aryabhatta
attempt at measuring the Earth's circumference
was the first astronomer
(200 B.C.). His measurement, which remained the most since Erastosthenes
accurate for over a thousandd
years, was a significant improvement over the computation by Eratosthenes. His
working was later adopted by the Greeks and then
the Arabs. Another Indian
astronomer, Brahmagupta estimated in 7th
century that the circumference of the
was 5000
yojanas (A yojana being equal to 7.2 kms). Calculating on this basis weearth
see
that the estimate of 36,000 kms as the earth's
circumference
actual circumference known today. Bhaskara-II and his
comes quite close to thee
works also
significant contribution to mathematical and astronomical knowledge ofrepresent
a

His main works were Lilavati (dealing with arithmetic), antiquity.

Siddhanta Shiromani consisting of two parts: Goladhyaya
Bijaganita (Algebra) and
(sphere) and Grahaganita
(mathematics of the planets). In "Siddhant Shiromani' Bhaskaracharya mentions about
force of attraction or gravity, discovered centuries later by Newton, The
study of
astronomy in Bhaskara's works is based on a model of the solar system which is
heliocentric and whose movements are determined by gravitation. Heliocentrism had
been propounded in 499 by Aryabhata, who argued that the planets follow
elliptical
orbits around the Sun.
Using this model, Bhaskara accurately defined
astronomical quantities, including, for example, the length of the sidereal year, the
many
time that is required for the Earth to orbit the Sun. There is an old Sanskrit Sloka
(couplet):" Sarva Dishanaam, Suryaha, Suryaha, Suryaha. This couplet means that there
are suns in all directions. This couplet which describes the night sky as full of suns
indicates that in ancient times Indian astronomers had arrived at the important
discovery that the stars visible at night are similar to the Sun visible during day time.
In other words, it was recognized that the sun is also a star, though the nearest one.
The Indian astronomers had also formulated ideas about gravity and gravitation.
 82 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

"Bodies fall towards the

said about gravity that
Brahmagupta, in the 7th century had as it is in the nature of
earth as it is in the nature of the earth to attract bodies, just
water to flow". About a hundred years before Brahmagupta, anotner astronomer,
Varahamihira had claimed for the first time that there is a force which might be keeping
bodies in their determined places.
bodies stuck to the earth, and also keeping heavenly
force that governs the falling of
Thus the concept of the existence of some tractive
after having once fallen; as also
objects to the earth and their remaining stationary
bodies occupy, was recogrnized. It was also
determining the positions which heavenly
force. The Sanskrit term tor gravity is
recognized that this force is a retractive Akarshan means to be
Gurutvakarshan which is an amalgam of Guru-tva-akarshan.
attracted. Thus the fact that the character of this force of attraction was also recognized.
sun. The term Guru-
was attributed to the
The function of attracting heavenly bodies
"to the attracted by the Master. The sun was
t-akarshan can be interpreted to mean, of light and warmth. Among the
recognized by all ancient people to be the source
of the chief deities in the Vedas.
Aryans the sun was deified. The sun (Surya) was one of warmth (Bhaskara). In the
It was recognized as the source of light (Dinkara), source
creation and the centre
Vedas it is also referred to as the source of all life, the centre of
universe (solar system).
of the spheres; thesun
sun
being recognized as the centre of the bodies is
The idea that the was looked upon as the power that attracts heavenly
supported by the virile terms like Raghupati and Aditya used in reterring to thesun.
While the male gender is applied to refer to the sun, the earth (Prithivi, Bhoomi, etc.,) is
Gurutvakarshan also
generally referred to as a female. The literal meaning of the term
supports the of the heliocerntric theory, as the term Guru corresponds with
recognition
the male gender, hence it could not have referred to the earth which was always referred
to as a female. Thus, heliocentricism and the concept of gravitation could have existed
in India before the Greek astronomers developed it. The heliocentric theory of
gravitation was, a thousand years later, articulated by Copernicus and Galileo.
The intellects in the two early worlds, Europe and China, paid great attention to
the sky and believed the heavens to be organized in order. Kegulating the calendar,
drawing the sky map, and investigating omens are the same tasks they undertook.
However, the early Chinese and Greek astronomy have fundamental differences: first,
Greek astronomy highlighted planetary motions; as the apparent irregularities
threatened the very notion of celestial order itself, the Greeks sought to geometrize
them and
in doing
so turn irregularities
into regularities. In contrast, the Chinese were
more confident in the inherent order of the heavens and more open minded about its
possible messages for the earth. Chinese theories seem to have "imposed far less rigid
patterns on the order they expected, and they would no doubt have been amazed at
the Greek ambition to prove celestial egularities". Secondly, the early Chinese and
Greeks developed very different models of the universe: the former primarily with a
flat earth, round heaven, free heavenly bodies and infinite cosmos, and the latter with
a round earth centred by layers of round heavens, bound heavenly bodies and finite
cosmos/heavens. The motions of heavenly bodies were, for the Greeks, the
consequence of the rotation of the concentric celestial spheres on a common axis, and,
for the Chinese, generated by vapour with each having its own path around the earth
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 83
For the ancient Greek
scientists, their aim was to provide a
universe tor
explaining the apparent motions of the tempo-spatial modei Or
u
Chinese cosmological theories heavenly bodies. In contrast, eariy
did not give detailed
the heavenly bodies, as
they viewed
descriptions of the movenent o
moving freely. It is because, as Needham independent entities from one another,
are as

concentrate on the polar star (1959) commented, the Chinese appeared to

Greeks emphasised on the earth (based on their keen observation to the
sky) while the
the sun. Ancient Chinese
(or rather, where man is located) and, much later on,
astronomy
astronomer's role to keep track of
was
primarily government activity. It was the
a

astronomical phenomena may mean planetary motions as well as divine what

for the ruling emperor. Solar
important enough to be recorded in chronicles and on "oracle" bones.eclipses The
were

observations from the Chou eclipse

onward, have been
dynasty and Warring States period
(1050-221 B.C.), and
reliably dated. The ancient Chinese invented the first
By 2300 B.C., ancient Chinese planetarium.
astrologers and astronomers already had sophusticated
observatory buildings. By about 20 B.C., the Chinese astrologers understood what
caused eclipses. By 206 A.D. Chinese
total solar eclipses was a
astrologers could predict solar eclipses. Observing
major element of forecasting the future health and successes
of the Emperor. Based on the theories of
his predecessors, Zhang Heng
systematically
developed the celestial sphere theory. An armillary constructed on the basis of his
hypotheses bears a remarkable similarity to Ptolemy's earth-centred theory. It is
astonishing that the celestial model Zhang Heng constructed was almost a physical
model of Ptolemy's earth-centred
theory. Su Song created a celestial atlas, which had
the hour circles between the xiu (lunar mansions)
with stars marked in an equidistant cylindrical
forming the astronomical meridians,
projection on each side of the
equator,
and thus, was in accordance to their north polar distances. Being the head official for
the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of medieval
astronomy. Shen
is credited with making improved designs of the gnomon, armillary sphere, and
clepsydra clock. Much like what Zhang Heng had said, Shen Kuo likened the Moon to
a ball of silver, which does not
produce light, but simply reflects light if provided
from another source (the Sun). Heexplained that when the Sun's light is slanting, the
Moon appears ful. He reasoned that celestial bodies were spherical" Shen compared
the relationship of the Moon's path to the ecliptic, the path of the Sun, "to the figure of
a rope coiled about a tree". Shen is also known for his cosmological hypotheses in
explaining the variations of planetary motions, including retrogradation. Shen's
hypotheses were similar to the concept of the epicycle in the Greco-Roman tradition.

Mathematics
Among the various fields of Greek interest, mathematics was one and Pythagoras,
known as 'the father of numbers', excelled init. The importance he gave to numbers
was upheld by his followers, many of whom thought numbers were divine. Plato was
also fond of mathematics because of its idealized abstractions. The heavenly bodies,
he believed, exhibited perfect geometric form. This he expresses most clearly in a
dialogue called Timaeus' in which he presents his scheme of the universe. One of the
 84 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

most startling discoveries of early Greek science was that the fundamental intervals
of music, the octave, the fourtlh, and the fifth,
corresponded to whole number ratios of
string length. This discovery that the phenomena of musical sound are governed by
whole number ratios played a central role in the
Pythagorean conception, first
expressed by Philolaus, that all things are known through number. The Egyptian
mathematics had also reached its heights in ancient times when he practical skill of
land measurement was invented in Egypt because of the necessity frequently to re
measure plots of land after destructive inundations.
As a part of mathematics, Geometry is concerned with questions of size, shape,
and relative position of
figures and with properties of space. Geometry originated in
EEYpt where it developed out of necessity; it was adopted by Thales who had visited
EgYpt, and was introduced into Greece by him. It was from Egypt that Thales acquired
the rudiments of
geometry. However, the evidence is that the Egyptian skills were in
orientation, measurement, and calculation. Thales' unique ability was with the
characteristics of lines, angles and circles. Initially a
body of practical knowledge
concerning lengths, areas, and volumes in 3rd century B.C. geometry was put into an
axiomatic form in 'the Elements' by Euclid. Euclidean
centuries to follow. The development of
geometry set a standard for many
geometry is preserved in a work of Proclus, A
Commentary on the First Book of Euclid's Elements. Proclus provided a remarkable amount
of intriguing information on the subject.
Hipparchus made an early contribution to trigonometry, the study of angles and
of the angular
relationships of planar and three-dimensional figures. He produced a
table of chords, an early
example of a trigonometric table. He also introduced the
division of a circle into 360 degrees into Greece.
of trigonometry but also the man who Hipparchus was not only the founder
transformed Greek astronomy from a
theoretical into a practical
predictive science. purely
In India, mathematics has its roots
in nearly 4000
which a number of mathematical years old Vedic literature during
traditions were set forth for the first time. It has
been generally
accepted that the technique of
algebra and ihe
now
in India.2 In
addition, trigonometry, having evolved in the concept of zero originated
been introduced into ancient India Hellenistic world and having
advanced in India. Even the rudiments through the translation of Greek
works, was further
of Geometry, called
formulated here. Also the
technique of Rekha-Ganita, were
widely used in designing software calculation, called algorithm, which is today
derived from Indian mathematics. programmes (instructions) for computers was
These mathematical
the rest of the worid and led to
further concepts were transmitted to
of mathematics. Vedic literature developments
is replete with
that now form the
foundations
algebra and algorithm, square root and concepts of zero, the techniques o
cube root. The
known as the golden
age (the classical period) of Indianperiod 400-1200 A.D. is often
saw mathematicians such as Mathematics. This period
Mahavira, and Aryabhatta, Varahamihira,
Bhaskara-If give broader and clearer Brahmagupta, Bhaskara-l,
mathematics including, for instance, shape to many branches of
logic, General mathematics and Arithmetic, Geonmetry, Algebra, Mathematical
Asia, the Middle East, and Trigonometry. Their contributions would
spread to
eventually to Europe. In fact, mathematics of this period
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 85

was included in the 'astral science' (jyotisa stra)

mathematical sciences
(ganita or
and consisted of three
sub-disciplines:
divination (samhit ). Excavations tantra), horoscope astrology (hor or j taka) ana
at Harappa,
Valley Civilization (IVC) have uncovered Mohenjodaro and other sites of the Indus
mathematics". The people of the IVC evidence of the use of "practical
the proportion manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in
4:2:1, considered favourable for the
used a standardized stability of a brick structure
system of weights in regular geometrical shapes, which included
hexahedra, barrels, cones, and
cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge ot basic
geometry"The inhabitants of Indus civilization also tried to standardize measurement
of length to a
high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler-the
whose unit of Mohenjo-daro ruler
length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into
ten equal
parts. Bricks
manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions
that were
integral multiples of this unit of length. Baudhayana (8th century B.C)
composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, best known as Sulba Sutras. The Sulba Sütras
("Aphorisms of the Chords" in Vedic Sanskrit) (700-400 B.c.) list rules for the
construction of sacrificial fire altars.
Jaina mathematiciarns (6th cerntury B.C.) are
important historically as crucial links between the mathematics of the Vedic period
and that of the Classical
period. significant historical contribution of Jaina
A
mathematicians lay in their freeing Indian mathematics from its religious and ritualistic
constraints. In particular, their fascination with the
enumeration of very large numbers
and infinities, led them to
classify numbers into three classes: enumerable, innumerable
and infinite. In addition, Jaina mathematicians devised
notations for simple powers
(and exponents) of numbers like squares and cubes, which enabled them to define
simple algebraic equations (beezganit samikaran). Jaina mathematicians were
also the first to use the word shunya apparently
(literally void in Sanskrit) to refer to zero. More
than a millennium later, their appellation became the
English word "zero" after a
tortuous journey of translations and transliterations from India to
Europe. Important
Jaina mathematicians included Bhadrabahu (298 B.C), Yativrisham Acharya (176 B.C),
and Umasvati (150 B.C.). Among other scholars of this
period who contributed to
mathematics, the most notable is Pingala (pingalá) (300-200 B.C.). There is evidence
that in his work on the enumeration of syllabic combinations, Pingala stumbled
upon
both the Pascal triang'e and Binomial coefficients."SIt is well-known that the decimal
place-value system in use today was first recorded in India, then transmitted to the
Islamic world, and eventually to Europe. The earliest surviving evidence of decimal
place value numerals in India and Southeast Asia is from the middle of the first
millennium A.D. Decimal numerals recording the years 683 A.D. have also been found
in stone inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia, where Indian cultural influence was
substantial.4 Besides, there was the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics,
founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala, South India. It fourished between
the 14th and 16th centuries and included among its members: Parameshvara,
Neelakanta Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri
and Achyuta Panikkar. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school
astronomers independently created a number of important mathematics concepts.
The most important results, series expansion tor trigonometric lunctions, were given
 86 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

in Sanskrit verse in a book by Neelakanta called Tantrasangraha. Their discovery of

these three important series expansions of calculus-several centuries before calculus
was developed in Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz-was a landmark
achievement in mathematics. The invention of the Concept of Zero, Numerals,
Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Algorithm, Trignometry and Calculus are major
mathematicians.
accomplishments of ancient Indian
Numerals are found in the inscriptions of Ashok the Great in 3rd century B.C.
This knqwledge travelled from here, to West and in Arab countries even now numerals
are known as Hindse, i.e. from India. The concept of zero originated in ancient India.

Apart from being a numeral, it is also considered a fundamental concept. The inclusion
of zero in mathematics opened up a new dimension of negative numerals and gave a
cutoff point and a standard in the measurability of qualities whose extremes are as yet
unknown to human beings, such as temperature. Like the technique of algebra, the
concept of zero also reached Europe through the Arabs. With the integration ot zero
into the numerals it became possible to note higher numerals with limited characters
In the earlier Roman and Babylonian systems of numeration, a large number of
characters were required to denote higher numerals. Thus enumeration and
computation became unwieldy. The first, however, to compute with the zero as a
number was Brahmagupta. Brahmagupta's treatise Brahma-sputa-sidahanta was
translated into Arabic and for several centuries this translation remained a standard
text of reference in Arab world. It was from this translation of an Indian text on
Mathematics that the Arab mathematicians perfected the decimal system and gave
the world its current system of enumeration which we call the Arab numerals.
Arithmetic was discovered by Indians in about 2nd Century B.C. Bhaskaracharya's
book 'Lilavati' is regarded as the first book on modern arithmetic. The Arabs learnt
and adopted it from India and spreaded it to
Europe." Algebra is the Arabic name
for Bijaganit. Algebra as we know it
today is a corruption of the term 'Al jabr' which
the Arabs gave to
Bijaganitam. In India around the 5th century A.D. a system of
mathematics that made astronomical calculations
easy was developed. Astronomical
calculations are complex and involve
many variables that go into the derivation of
unknown quantities. Algebra is a short-hand method of
it scores over conventional
calculation and by this feature
arithmetic. In ancient India conventional mathematics,
termed Ganitam, was known before the
the development of algebra. This is borne out by
name--Bijaganitam, which was given to the algebraic form of computation.
Bijaganitam means "the other mathematics' (Bija means 'another'
Ganitam 'second' and or
mathematics). The fact that this name was chosen for this
means
computation implies that it was recognized as a parallel system or
different from the conventional one which
was
of system
used since the past and
computation,
the only one. It is certain that this till then was
was current around 1500 technique
computationof
originated in India ana
years back. Aryabhatta has referred to Bijaganitam in his
treatise on Mathematics,
Aryabhattiya. Another Indian mathematician-astronomer,
Bhaskaracharya, has also authored a treatise, 'Siddhanta-Shiromani', on this subject.
Thus the technique of
algebraic computation was known and was
century onwards, India was subjectdeveloped
in earlier times. From the 13th in India
to invasions from
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 87

the Arabs and other Islamic communities like the Turks and Afghans. Along with
These invaders, came critics like AI-Beruni who studied Indian society and polity.
The Indian system of mathematics could not have escaped their attention. It was also
the age of the Islamic Renaissance. Between the 10th to 13th centuries, the Christian
kingdoms of Europe made numerous attempts to conquer the birthplace of Jesus
Christ from its Mohammedan-Arab rulers. These attempts (the Crusades) tailed in
their military objective, but the
contacts they created between oriental and occidental
nations resulted in a
to the West at this time.
massive exchange of ideas. The technique of
algebra passed on
During the Renaissance in Europe, followed by the industrial
revolution, the knowledge received from the East was further developed.
In the area of
Geometry, as well, the Indian mathematicians had their contribution.
There was an area of mathematical
applications called Rekha Ganita (Line Computation).
The Sulba-sutras, which
of constructing altars and
literally mean 'Rule of the Chord' give geometrical methods
temples. The brick work of Harappa and Mohenjodaro
excavations
shows that people of ancient India (2500 B.C.) possessed knowledge of
geometry. Aryabhatta formulated the rules for finding the area of a 'triangle', which
led to the origin of
Trignometry. Baudhayana was the author of one of the earliest
Sulba-sutras (texts dealing with
geometry and mathematical principles). His writings
contain several important mathematical concepts that were later attributed to the
Greeks. One such example is the Pythagorean Theorem. The now known
Pythagorean
Theorem is believed to have been invented by Baudhayana. The Sulba-sutra of
Baudhayana contains geometric solutions.
Algorithm, a process of calculation based on decimal notation numbers, was
deduced by Khwarazmi from the Indian techniques of geometric computation which
he had studied. Al Khwarazmi was the chief exponent of this Indo-Arab amalgam in
mathematics who evolved a technique of calculation from Indian sources. This
technique which was named by westerners after Al Khwarazmi as "Algorismi" gave
us the modern term Algorithm, which is used in computer software. In mathematics,
computer science, and related subjects, an 'algorithm'is an efective method for solving
a problem expressed as a finite sequence of instructions. Algorithms are used for
calculation, data processing, and
many other fields.
Aryabhatta and Bhaskara-II demonstrate the knowledge of trigonometry, a branch
of mathematics that studies triangles. Aryabhatta's contribution in trigonometry is
unparalleled. He suggested formula to calculate the areas of a triangle and a circle,
which were correct. He was the first mathematician to give the 'table of the sines'. The
Siddhanta Shiromani of Bhaskara-II imparts knowledge on the sine table and
relationships between different trigonometric functions. He also discovered spherical
rigonometry, along with other trigonometrical results.
Calculus constitutes a major part of modern mathematiCs. Calculus has widespread
applications in science, economics and engineering. The Siddhanta Shiromani of
Bhaskara-II is an astronomical treatise, but the preliminary concepts of infinitesimal
calculus and mathematical analysis, along With a number ot results in trigonometry
differential calculus and integral calculus that contained inthe work are of particular
interest in the field. Madhava (1340-1425) and the Kerala Sichool mathematicians from
88 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

the 14th expanded

to the 16th century on Bhaskara's work and further
century
advanced the development of calculus in India.
mathematics have not been
It has been suggested that Indian contributions to
discoveries and inventions by Indian
given due acknowledgement and that many
mathematicians were known to their Western counterparts,
copied by them, and
that this mass plag1arism has gone
presented as their own original work; and further,
unrecognized due to Eurocentrism. of 'decimal system', which was
The Chinese mathematics had discovered the use

superior to the sexagesimal system of Mesopotamia

and
EgYpt. It iS generally
vastly
believed that the Indians derived their decimal system from the Chinese. This decimal
A.D. from the Indians. AS many of the
system was introduced into Baghdad about 800
have diffused westward from
innovations, eg. that of decimal form of arithmetic,
of survey and the use of
China, it is believed that the idea of triangulation method
from Greeks, to
grid-lines to locate places has travelled from the West, particularly
China. Chang Heng, the 2nd century scholar, was the first to introduce the grid system
into China. In the broad field of mathematics, Shen Kuo mastered many problems,
including various complex formulas for geometry, 'packing' equations for calculus,
and chords and arcs problems employing trigonometry. Shen addressed problems of
Writing out very large numbers, as large as 10. Shen's "technique of small increments"
laid the foundation in Chinese mathematics for packing problems involving equal
difference series.s

History
Herodotus is the first known historian of Classical Antiquity. His account, the Histories,
is the first example of historical writing in Western World. Before Herodotus the idea
of recording past was not widespread and not attempted in a systematic manner.
Polybius is another historian among the ancient Greeks to attempt to present history
as a sequence of causes and effects, based upon a careful examination of tradition. For
Posidonius "history" extended beyond the earth into the sky; humanity was not isolated
each in its own political history, but was a part of the cosmos. His
Histories were not,
therefore, concerned with isolated political history of
peoples and individuals, but
they included discussions of all forces and factors (geographical factors, mineral
resources, climate, nutrition), which let humans act and be a
For example, Posidonius considered the climate part of their environment.
of Arabia and the
of the sun, tides (taken from his book on the life-giving strength
oceans), and climatic theory to explain
people's ethnic or national characters
Although the style and form of Chinese historical writings varied
ages, Shiji has defined the quality and style from then onwards. through the
were writen as certain events or Before Sima, histories
certain periods of
general history affected later historiographers like Zheng history of states; his idea of a
Sima Guang in writing Zizhi Qiao in writing Tongshi and
Tongjian. The historians
model, which stands as the "official format" of the regard Sima Qian's work as their
Sima initiated a new writing history of China. In
style by presentirng history in a series of writing Shijt,
biographies. His
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 89

work extends over 130 chapters-not in historical but divided

particular subjects, including annals, sequence, was into

chronicles, treatises-on music, ceremonies,

calendars, religion, economics, and extended biographies. The modern historian
Mei-ling states that Ban Gu's
written work in geography set the trend for the
Hsu
establishment of geographical sections of
trend of the history texts, and most likely sparked the
gazetteer in ancient China.
Cartography
Pei Xiu (224-271 A.D.), active during Three
analyzed the advancements of cartographyKingdoms
Period of China, outlined and
and surveying up to his time. There is
also evidence that
Zhang Heng (78-139 A.D.) was the first to establish the grid reterence
system in Chinese cartography. However, the Qin State
of the Han maps and Mawangdui maps
Dynasty discovered by modern archaeologists were far superior in quality
than those by Pei Xiu. The makers of
Han maps were familiar with the use of scale. Fei
Xiu outlined six
principles that should be observed when creating a the first
three principles outlined the use of scale, direction and distance, whilemap;
the last three
principles were related to the calculation of distances and represention on a flat, two
dimensional map.50 Pei Xiu states: In
making a map there are six principles observable:
(1) the graduated divisions, which are the means of
determining the scale to which the
map is to be drawn; (2) the rectangular grid (of parallel lines in two
which is the way of depicting the correct relations between the variousdimensions),
parts of the
map; (3) pacing out the sides of right-angled triangles, which is the way of fixing the
lengths of derived distances (i.e. the third side of the triangle which cannot be walked
over); (4) measuring the high and the low; (5) measuring right angles and acute angles;
(6) measuring curves and straight lines. Pei Xiu was the first in China to describe in
full the geometric grid reference for maps that allowed for precise measurements using
a graduated scale, as well as topographical elevation. Historian Howard Nelson states
that there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular
grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng.

Meteorology
The studies in meteorology stretch back millennia, though significant progress in
meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. Anaxagoras claimed that the earth
is flat, rests on air, and remains where it is because of its size. A number of
eteorological views attributed to Anaxagoras were also held by Anaximenes. Despite
the manner of its formation, the earth is stationary,notspinning. The (relative) flatness
of the earth allows water to spread over the earth, with mountains and plains rising
above the level of the water. The levels change as water is evaporated or added by
rain, and as water that has been trapped in the earth by the rotation makes its way out
through rivers to the sea. The extant sources report views on thunder and lightning
the source of the Nile, the first correct account of the nature of. hail, and inquiry into
why the sea is salty.
 90 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Biology and Botany

Aristotle's most successful scientific writings were those on biology, the science of
iving organisms. He was a careful and meticulous observer who fascinated by the
task of classifying animal species and arranging them into hierarchies. His formation
of a hierarchy of living things led him towards the idea that animals represented a
chain of progressive change, a sort of evolution. Other Greek philosophers groped
similarly in this direction. However, barring any knowledge as to the physical
mechanism whereby evolutionary changes could be brought about, such theories
invariably became mystical. A rational theory of evolution had to await Darwin, 2200
years after the time of Aristotle. Botany, as a branch of biology and the scientific study
of plant life and its development, began with tribal efforts to identify edible, medicinal
and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest
in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study ot over 550,000 species
of living organisms. Greek philosopher, Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle, is regarded
as the founder of botany. Theophrastus classified plants into trees, shrubs, under shrubs
and herbs.

Chemistry and Metallurgy

Parallel to the development of the concepts of atom and atomic combinations in
physics there also was a similar development of ideas in the area of Chemistry. In
ancient India, chemistry was called
Rasayan Shastra, Rasa-Vidya, Rasatantra and
Rasakriya all of which mean 'science of liquids'. There also existed chemical
laboratories and chemical works, which were called
shala which literally mean 'School where Rasakriya-nagaram and Rasakriya
Rasa which means liquid, another word,
liquids are activated'. Apart from the term
to refer to chemicals. Thus, in ancient
Dravya which means slurry, was also used
India, chemistry was evidently
significant level. In the area of metallurgy, Indians had acquired developed to a
extraction of metals from ore, and also in the proficiency the
in
around 2000 B.C. the idea of casting of metals. In very
early times:
Near East. Though Indians could smelting metals was known in
Mesopotemia and the
have had borrowed the idea of smelting metals
from an outside source,
they seem to have had used
1500 B.C. when the Aryans are said to metals in warfare from around
have invaded the Indus
definite reference to the use of metals
by Valley cities. The next
Indian soldiers is by the
historian Herodotus has observed in the Greeks. The Greek
5th century that
army used arrows tipped with iron". Indian "Indians in the Persian
used by the Romans for steel and iron
manufacturing armour as well as
were
reportedly being
apart, is in India itself that we find actual
it cutlery. But these references
the technique of
smelting. objects that reflect the advancement of
Ashoka pillar at Mehrauli, New
pillar in Karnataka stand proof of India's Delhi and another iron
metallurgical
anywhere else in the heritage.
proof iron had not been smelted This kind of a
stainless steel a few decades ag0. Another world, till we inventedrust
the
instance of Indian
statue of Gautama Buddha found
at Sultan Ganj in
metallurgy is the
Bihar. There copper
are many such
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 91

examples that bear testimony to the excellence in smelting metals achieved

in ancient times. This testifies
to the fact that Indian
in lndia
metallurgy
and chemistry
reacned a high stage of perfection more than 1500 years ago. Nagarjuna
had
was one
such practitioner
of the
technique
of combining various metals in
order to inventa
superior metal. The technique of alchemy was borrowed
by the Arabs
The homeland of the Arabs is
not rich in metals, thus
trom indla.
metals could not have been alchemy and the smelting of
Al Kimia which means the
indigenous to the Arabs. The Arabs called the
technique
'transformation of metals'. Al means "The' and Khimia
which is derived from the Greek
term Khemia means "to transmute metals.
word Alchemy is a
corruption of the term Al Kimia which the Arabs Lne
to the
gave
technique of converting base metals into gold like substances which they culled out
from Indian texts on the
subject.
Psychology
PsycholoEy is a discipline involving the systematic, and often scientific, study of human
mental functions and behaviour.
Psychologists study such phenomena as perception,
cognition, emotion, personality, behaviour and interpersonal relationships. Philolaus
presents account of psychic faculties: The head is the seat of intellect, the heart of soul
psyche) and serisation, the navel of rooting and first growth, the genitals of the sowing
of seed and generation. Philolaus thus recognizes four distinct psychic faculties. He
makes a clear distinction between intellect (nous), which is limited to human beings,
and perception, which animals possess as well. This hierarchy of four faculties is
strikingly associated with the hierarchy of living beings (human, animal, plant) as
well as a hierarchy of parts of the body (head, heart, navel, genitals). Philolaus makes
a significant advance over earlier Pre-Socratics by making a firm distinction between
thinking and perception.

Linguistics
The learning of Indian curriculum in classical times had at its heart a system of
grammatical study and linguistic analysis. The core text for this study was the
A_tadhyäyi of PäFini, the sine qua non of learning. Pâpini's grammar can be considered
tobethe world's first formal system. To design his grammar, Panini used the method
of "auxiliary symbols," in which new affixes are designated to mark syntactic categories
and the control of grammatical derivations. This technique was rediscovered by the
Post and is now a standard method in the design of computer
logician Emil
programming languages.

Science and Technolo8

The Ancient Chinese are only their trade and travels, but also for their
known for not
and technolo8ical advancements. These inventions and advancements
many inventions
instance, the development of writing a calendar, gunpowder, printing
included, for
 92 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

silk, paper, and the compass, besides the use of rain and snow gauges, use of magnetic
compass for navigation, surveying and cartographic skills. Zhang Heng is the first
person known to have applied hydraulic motive power to rotate an armillary sphere
an astronomical instrument representing the celestial sphere. The Greek astronomer
Eratosthenes (276-194 B.C.) invented the first armillary sphere in 255 B.C. The Chinese
armillary sphere was fully developed by 52 B.C. Zhang Heng's water-powered
armillary sphere had profound effects on Chinese astronomy and mechanical
engineering in later generations. In 132, Zhang Heng presented to the Han court what
many historians consider to be his most impressive invention, the first seismometer. It
wasnamed Houfeng didong yi (instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the
movements of the Earth), and it was able to determine the exact direction of tremors
and earthquakes. The device was considered important enough to be mentioned in
the "Annals" chapter of the Book of Later Han, detailing the reign of Emperor Shun.
Although Heng's original seismograph did not survive time, its description did, and
several modern scholars have tried to recreate the device. Su Song was the engineer of
a water-driven astronomical clock tower in medieval Kaifeng, which employed the
uSe of an early escapement mechanism.4Su Song compiled one of the greatest Chinese
horological treatises of the Middle Ages. Xinyi Xiangfayao (lit. "Essentials of a New
Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an
Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe"),
written in 1092. In his written work, Shen Kuo made one of the first references in
human history to the magnetic compass-needle, the concept of true north, and its use
for navigation at sea.55 Shen Kuo's
writing on magnetic compasses has proved
invaluable for understanding China's earliest use of the
compass for seafaring
navigation. An artisan known as Bi Sheng (990-1051) invented ceramic movable type
printing.56 Although the use of assembling individual characters to compose a piece
of text had its origins in
antiquity, Bi Sheng's methodical innovation was revolutionary
for his time. By 15th century, metal movable
type printing was developed in Ming
Dynasty China and was widely applied in China by 16th century. Zhang Heng is
often credited with inventing the first odometer, an
achievement also attributed to
Archimedes (c. 287-212 B.C.E.) and Heron of Alexandria
devices were used by the Roman and Han-Chinese (f1. C.E. 10-70).57 Similar
The South Pointing Chariot was another empires at about the same period.
mechanical device credited to
It was a
non-magnetic compass vehicle in the form of a two-wheeled Zhang Heng.
Differential gears driven by the chariot's wheels chariot.
allowed a wooden
figurine (in the
shape of a Chinese state minister) to constantly point to the
south, hence its name.
Travels and Explorations
The discovery of the rest of world
by Chinese travellers is an aspect of
Travels beyond the Chinese history
often overlooked in Western that is
writings.
undertaken by orders of an emperor or horizons were
by missionaries or traders. The travel
are known as the 'Travels
of Emperor Mu', who ruled from 1001 to 945 B.C. books
MuS, it is recorded, had the ambition to travel Emperor
marks of the chariot wheels on every land. all-round the world and to leave the
These books, which
may be compared
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 93

with that of Odyssey of Homer, the ancient Greek scholar, also reveal the story of high
adventures. There is no doubt that at a very early date, the Chinese travellers had
gone tar beyond their original cultural hearth area. The discovery of
civilization is credited to Chinese scholar, Chang Chien (Zhang Qian),Mediterranean
in 128 5..
There are a number of other Chinese travellers whose
records are enougih
to ensure
their place in history. One of the most distinguished was the Buddhist monk, Huan
Tsang. In the 7th century after Christ, he was able to cross the
high windswept plateau
of Tibet and the world's
highest mountain on the way to India. After studying in the
centres of the Buddhist faith for several years, he returned to China, carrying back a
large collection of Buddhist relics and manuscripts. He was also the Chinese discoverer
of India. In the same
century, another Buddhist monk, I Ching, reached India by sea.
When he returned to China he carried with him more than
10,000
rolls of Sanskrit
Buddhist texts, which he undertook to translate into Chinese. In 1296 A.D. the Chinese
traveller,Chou Ta Kuan, visited Combodia and wrote a detailed account of the
strange
customs of the Combodians. By 13th merchants
century A.D. the Chinese were sailing
their junks to Java and Malaya and even as far as India. Cheng Ho, a Chinese admiral,
carried out major work of exploration in this direction. His voyages opened regular
trade routes to Java, Sumatra, Malaya, Ceylon and the west coast of India. He also
reached the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the east coast of Africa, south of the
equator.
In the east he went as far as Taiwan. Zhang Qian, a 2nd century B.C. explorer, visited
directly the kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana, the territories of the Yuezhi in
Transoxiana, the Bactrian country of Daxia with it remnants of Greco-Bactrian rule,
and Kangju. He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he not did
Such as Anxi (Arsacid territories), Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), Shendu (India) and the
visit,
Wusun. The inhabitants of Dayuan, in Ferghana, west of the Tarim Basin, are
considered by Zhang Qian as sophisticated urban dwellers, on the same footing as the
Parthian and the Bactrians. Zhang Qian also describes the origins of the Yuezhi,
explaining they came from the eastern part of the Tarim Basin, a momentous
explanation which has encouraged historians to connect them to the Caucasoid
mummies, as well as to the Indo-European-speaking Tocharians that have been
identified from precisely the same area. Zhang Qian witnessed the last period of the
Greco-Bactrian kingdom, as it was being subjugated by the nomadic Yuezhi. Zhang
Qian also reports about the existence of India southeast of Bactria. The name Shendu
comes from the Sanskrit word "Sindhu", used for the province of Sindh (now a province
of Pakistan) by its local people. Sindh was one of the most advanced regions of India
at the time. Although it was part of India, it practiced separate authority over itself.
Because of its coastal borders with Persia and the Arabian Sea, it invited great wealth
from these regions. Parts of Northwestern India (modern Pakistan) were ruled by the
Indo-Greek Kingdom at the time, which explains the reported cultural similarity
between Bactria and India. Zhang Qian identifies "Anxi as an advanced urban
civilization, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and Daxia (Bactria). Zhang Qian also visited the
area of Sogdiana (Kangju), home to the Sogdian nomads. From his missions he brought
back many important products, the most important being alfalfa seeds (for growing
horse fodder), strong horses with hard hooves, and knowledge of the extensive
 94 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

existence of products, peoples, and technologies of the outside world. Zhang

new
Qian's journeys had promoted a great variety of economic and culturai
between the Han Dynasty and the Western Regions, because silk was exchanges
the dominant
product traded this trade link became known as the Silk Route.

GEOGRAPHICAL INHERITANCE
Geography in ancient world has originated out of the disciplines as discussed above.
The initial contribution of ancient scholars and
travellers goes to the fields of regional,
mathematical and practical, historical,
physical, economic and theoretical geography.
Regional Geography
The field of regional geography in Europe was largely aided by the works of Homer,
Hecateus and Strabo, and the
explorations of Alexander the Great and Pytheas. As
derived from the work and experience of these
world into three continents,
people, the ancient Greeks thedivided
Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa). Hellespont formed the
border between Europe and Asia, and the Nile River
between Asia and Libya. 'Ges
Periodos', the literary work of Hecateus, is actually
earliest known continents. Besides, regional description of these two
parts of northern Africa have also been discovered.
Homer describes a circular world
ringed by single
a massive
that the Greeks, by the 8th century B.C., had considerable
ocean. The works show

the eastern Mediterranean. 'Iliad' and knowledge of geography of

'Odyssey', epic poems of Homer, containa
the
large number of place names and descriptions. The relatively narrow habitable band
was considered to run from the
Atlantic Ocean in the West to India in the east. The
southern portion of Africa was unknown, as was the northern
Asia. It was believed that they were circled portion of Europe and
considered uninhabitable. The military and armed
by a sea. These areas were
generally
added substantially to the field of explorations of Alexander the Great
regional descriptions. His conquests pushed Greek
knowledge of the earth as far as Indus River in the east and to Egypt southward,
where he established his rule. A
large part of the Mediterranean
part of his kingdom. He founded the city of 'Alexandria' in 332region became the
emerged as one of the great commercial and intellectual centres ofB.C., which later
ancient world.
Alexander's staff, while travelling, included writers to
and astronomers to make observations. describe the lands they crossed,
Although, the primary
objective of Alexander's
conquests was to expand Greek territory, he sent back to the Greek world a wealth of
new observations
concerning what it was like beyond and they proved highly beneticial
to the field of ancient
geography. With his accounts the Greeks became familiar with
the natural features of P'ersian
Empire, Central Asia,
parts of Iran. While Alexander was extending Greek Afghanistan, India and coastal
Pytheas was voyaging to the northwest, covering parts geographic horizons to the east,
of Western and Northern
Europe. He is known to have mnade remarkable voyages between 330-300B.C.
described about the customs of people of Britain in detail. Pytheas
He observed the change in
character of agriculiure from south to north in Great
Britain. His
writings contain a
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 95

reference of a sea full of ice that could neither be traversed on foot nor in a boat. He
has
mentioned a
place north of Norway, where the length of the
between 17 and 19 hours, and where the Sun remained longest day
above horizon during whole wa
of day. He was also the first Greek to tell
about ocean tides and their relation to
various phases of moon. Thus,
Pytheas reported things that were so contrary to Greek
experience that the scholars of his day discredited him and treated his important
observations and information as pure fantasies.
him as a great scholar of the ancient
However, today we acknowledge
man with the habitable land, with
period. In the view of Strabo, geography acquainted
oceans, with vegetation, fruits, and with the
socializations of earth's surface, etc. that helped various
in identifying the various related
problems and happiness of the man. He called all these elements as 'natural atributes
of a place', and established their
relationship with man and other places of the surface
of earth. This concept is still the basic in all
spatial studies and has a firm in place
present day geography. These natural attributes of the place distinguish it from other
places and regions. These ideas underlie the "areal differentiation" viewpoint, as
presented later by Richard Hartshorne, a 20th century American scholar. Strabo
considered 'place' in two different
perspectives, viz. in terms of its astronomical
(abstract) location and in terms of its terrestrial (on land)
position.
In ancient period, the
knowledge about various parts of the world was limited.
It was due to the poor means of communication and
transportation. Even then, the
attempts were made to divide the world into several regions. Such descriptions exist

THE PURANIC DWIPAs

index
Jambu Dwipa
Krauca Dwipa
Kusa bipa
Plaksa Dwipa
Puskara Dwipa
NSaka Dwipa
SaBmali Dwira

FIGURE 3.7 The Puranic Dwipas (Source: Hussain, M. (1995), p. 105)

96 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

in Puranas. Although incorrect, the term Dwipa has been used to

designate various
realms (continents) of the earth. Different scholars have interpreted this term in
several
ways. Some conceived its meaning as 'an island', others as peninsula', 'doab' or even
a 'natural region'. Accordingly, the known world
during the Puranic period was
divided into seven Duipas or 'regions" (Fig. 3.6). These divisions exclude the American
Continents, Greenland, England and Antarctica, since they were discovered
during the Age of Discovery in the late medieval period. The regions, as depicted in
only
Fig. 3.7, seem to have derived their names from the existing popular vegetation (trees
or grasses) here.
Theseseven regions were known as Jambu, Krauncha, Kusha, Plaksha, Pushkara,
Shaka and Shalmali. Jambu dwipa lies in the centre of all these continents. În relation
to the present day context, Jambu covers present Central Asia from North to South,
including India, or the region north of Salt Sea. Jambu, in fact, is a bush tound in
Himalayan region. Kusha extends over present Middle East and most of Africa. The
name is taken from a sacred gras, Kusa, used in brahmanical ceremonies. The present
Eastern Asia and adjoining lands form Pushkara. The present Mediterranean region
forms Plaksha. Shalmali represents the region of Eastern Africa and Madagascar Isiand.
This region is rich in Salmala, the silk-cotton tree, found on the margins of Equatorial
regionsof monsoon lands with moderate rainfall. Most of present Europe was Kraunca.
Lastly, Shaka forms South-East Asia and adjoining Island groups. Hot and moist clinmate
and thick evergreen forests characterize the region.
The geographical knowledge about Indian Sub-continent is related to its
identification, people and culture and relief and drainage. In Vedic and Puranic
literature, the entire country from Himalayas to Kanyakumari has been referred to as
Bharatvarsha by the Aryans. This name has both geographical and historical
significance.
According to one school of thought, the name is derived after the name of Bharat, the
ruling king. Bharata, according to Hindu legend was the first King to conquer all
worlds as known to the Vedic Aryans, uniting it intoa single entity which was named
after him as Bharatoarsha. Bharata is regarded as the first and only emperor to rule all
of India. Bharata's paramount position as founder of modern India is imbibed in the
consciousness of Indians, but mainly through sources of Hindu mythology and Hindu
religious works. Archaeological evidence of Bharata's kingdom and reign is scarce.
Bharata is construed by many historians as having been an Indo-Aryan king, and as
king he unified the entire Indian subcontinent with the Dravidian peoples and other
indigenous peoples as his subjects. According to the Mahabharata, Bharata's empire
covered whole of the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan and Persia. The Republic of
India is also known as Bharat after Bharata. This Bharatvarsha, in ancient times was
divided into Nav-Khandas (nine divisions)-eight shown as part of Greater India and
the 9th surrounded by the sea (i.e. present day Sri-Lanka). Certain
parts of the country
are very
distinctively mentioned in the ancient Indian literature. They are, e.g. Sapta-
Sindhu (Punjab Plains), Aryavarta (the Aryan domain) and the
region of Indus valley
or the Upper Gangetic Plains. The Vedas, Epics and Puranas make mention of a series
of mountains in Bharatvarsha. They are, for instance,
Himalayas (Himavat), existing
like a bow in its northern part and divided into Antagiri (Inner
Himalayas) and
Bahyagi
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 97
(Outer Himalayas); Kailash
and rich Parbat, the abode of
in
diamonds, minerals Apsaras (nymphs) and Devas
stones; Vindhayans, the (Delnes
and other precious
mountains with hundreds of peaks,
Eastern Ghats; variegated extensive
trees and creepers; Mahendra Mali, the
Sahyadri, the Western Ghats; Rika,
Ton rivers north of the mountain range from Ken too
and Golkunda. The Vindhayans; and Suktiman, the
mountains of Khandera,
other Inland rivers. descriptionsare also available
for a number of Ajanta
viz. Ganga, Yamuna, Rigveda has mentioned various rivers Himalayan and
Brahamputra, originating from Himalayas,
Jhelum), Arjikeya (upper part of Saraswati, Satudri (Sutlej), Asikni (Chenab), Vitasta
(Kabul), Gomati (Gomala), KrumuIndus), Susoma (Savan), Sindhu (Indus), Kubha
important ones that get a mention are (Kurrum), etc. Among the inland rivers the
Cauvery and Narmada, Tapti (Tapi), Godavari, Krishna,
Tungbhadra.
and Brahamaputra. The However, the most elaborate descriptions exist about
rivers have been religious flavour is Ganga
considered sacred, to be very strong in these descriptions, as the
mythology. worshipped as Goddesses in the Hindu
While the invaders
ruthlessly
country and imposed their despoticdestroyed the architectural
achievements of this
outside world. Along with rule, they also transmitted Indian sciences to the
Mahmud of Ghazni came scholars like Al
studied Indian texts and translated Beruni who
them into Arabic.
were Many
incorporated into the Unani system of medicine of the Arabs.Indian ideas of medicine
could not have escaped their
attention. Nagarjuna's works
In China, the earliest known
and this belongs to the geographical writing dates back to 5th century B.C.,
Warring States period (481 B.C-221 B.C.). It is in the
the book Shu Jing
(Classic of History), which describes the traditional nine form of
with their human, physical and economic provinces,
characteristics. These regional descriptions
pertain areas of the Yellow River, the lower valleys of the
to
peninsula, and the parts of the Wei and Han Rivers in theYangtze,
the Shandongg
west. In this ancient
geographical treatise that later greatly intluenced geographers and cartographers, the
Chinese used the mythological figure of Yu the Great to describe the known
world.
Although the Chinese geographical writing in the time of Herodotus and Strabo were
oflesser quality and contained less systematic approach, this
changed from the 3rd
century onwards when Chinese methods of documenting geography became more
complex than found in Europe. From the time of the 5th century B.C. Shu Jing forward,
Chinese geographical writing provided more concrete intormation and less
legendary
element. In later periods of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) and Ming Dynasty (1368-
44 A.D) there were much more systematic and professional approaches to
geographic literature. The Song Dynasty scholar and government official Fan Chengda
1126-1193 A.D.) wrote the geographical treatise known as the Gui Hai Yu Heng Chi. It
focused primarily on the topography of the land, along with the agricultural, economic
and commercial products of each region in China's southern provinces. The polymath
Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095 A.D.) devoteda significant amount of his written
Work to geography. The Ming Dynasty geographer Xu Xiake (1587-1641) travelled
throughout the provinces of China to write his enormous geographical and
TOpographical treatise (compiled posthumously into The Travel Diaries of Xu Xiake),
 98 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

documenting various details of his travels, such as

the locations of small
mineral beds such as mica schists. From
the snowy gorges, or
of Szechuan, to
tropical jungles of Guangxi, to the mountains of passesXu the semi-
Tibet,
experiences and provided enormous amounts of written detail Xiake wrote of all his
In Guizhou, he made the from his observations.
discovery of the true
Guangdong. He was also responsible for the source ofthat the West River (Xi
Jiang) in
rivers were in fact discovery the Mekong and Salween
separate. Local
information in ancient China. The gazetteers featured a wealth of geographic
the trend of the ancient Chinese historian Ban Gu
gazetteer. (32-92) started
The Chinese were also
concerned with documenting
foreign regions outside China. They have been geographical information of
India, and Central Asia since the time of writing of civilizations of Middle East,
Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) Chinese traveller Zhang Qian (2nd century B.C.). The
(modern northeastern India) diplomat Wang Xuan-ce travelled to Magadha
zhu Guo Tu during century A.D. and wrote the book Zhang Tian-
7th
(llustrated Accounts of Central India), which included a wealth of
geographical information. Chinese geographers such as Jia Dan (730-805) wrote
descriptions of places far abroad, including a sea route
geography of medieval Cambodia through the Persian Gulf. The
Zhen-La Feng Tu Ji of 1297 A.D., (the Khmer Empire) was documented in the
book
written by Zhou Daguan. Zhou
known for his accounts of the
customs of Cambodia and the Daguan most well
is
during visit there. Zhou's portrayal is
his Angkor temple complexes
understanding of historical Angkor and thetoday
one of
the most
Khmer important sources of
Empire.
Tang Records on the Western Regions, was one of the Huang-tsang's book, Great
the regions of Central and primary sources for the study of
South Asia. He was also the
the same century, another Chinese discoverer of India. In
Buddhist monk, I-Ching, reached India
of 1-Ching's travels
contributed to the world by sea. The records
knowledge
Srivijaya, as well as providing information about of the ancient kingdom of
the other
route between China and the
Nalanda Buddhist kingdoms lying on the
seven
expeditions University in India.
(1405-33) to what the Chinese called "the Western Zherng He led
Ocean) and brought back information on more than thirty Ocean" (Indian
instance, Champa, Java, kingdoms, covering, for
Palembang, Malacca, Aru, Sumatra, Lambri,
Cochin, Calicut, Siam, Kayal,
Pahang, Kelantan, Ceylon, Kollam,
Barawa, Malindi, Aden, Muscat, Dhufar, Hormuz, Maldives, Mogadishu,
Quilon, Kaya, Coimbatore,
Sharwayn, East Africa and countries of the Arabian Puttanpur,
Peninsula (Table 3.3). His
opened regular trade routes to Java, Sumatra, voyages
India. He also
reached the Persian
Malaya, Ceylon and the west coast of
south of the equator. In the east he Gulf, the Red Sea, and the east coast of Africa,
went as far as Taiwan.
directly the kingdom of Dayuan in Besides, Zhang Qian visited
Transoxiana, the Bactrian Ferghana, the territories of the Yuezhi in
and Kangju; he also madecountry
of Daxia with it remnants of
reports Greco-Bactrian rule,
such as Anxi (Arsacid
territories),
on
neighbouring
Tiaozhi
countries that he did not visit,
Wusun. (Mesopotamia), Sihendu (India) and the
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 99

Mathematical and Practical Geography

The development of
mathematical and practical geography is linked
Crates, Thales,
Anaximander, Pythagoras, primarily to
Aristotle, Ptolemy and Eudoxus of Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Posidonius,
the shape of earth, the size Cnidus. The studies were conducted in relation to
of earth, the
observations on earth's surface. Thales and location over earth's surface and the
the originators of
mathematical tradition inAnaximander, particularlý, are known as
geography. Greeks gave the system of
latitudes and longitudes and
proved that the earth is a sphere.
arguing that the sphere was thePythagoras
first to propose a was the
spherical
This idea was embraced world, most perfect form.
by Plato and Aristotle presented
this. The arguments
given in
support
empirical evidence to verity
of his statement about the
were twofold: (1) he
deduced from the law of sphericity of the earth
towards the centre and gravitation the tendency of all things
course of
proved that the
by action of this, when the earth was in the
formation, and the component elements were
thus formed by acceleration was so coming together, the mass
constituted that its entire circumference must be
equidistant from its centre; and (2) He inferred the shape from what is seen to take
place in lunar eclipse,
i.e. the shadow falls on moon is
Earth's shadow during an spherical. He noted that the
one moves north.
eclipse is curved, and also that stars increase in
height as
Aristotle, whose ideas were later adopted by Eratosthenes and
was of the view that the Earth lies
in the centre of universe around which
others,
bodies revolve. This the celestial
misconception prevailed for centuries. Eudoxus of Cnidus used
the idea of a sphere to explain how the sun created
latitude. This led the Greeks to believe in a division differing climatic zones based on
of the world into five
Crates of Mallus is famous for regions.
constructing the earliest known globe of earth. Thus,
during the time of Aristotle, the sphericity of earth had been proved, latitudes and
longitudes of many places had been calculated and the practice of plotting world map
on a
grid had begun. Eratosthenes and Posidonius, both, further extended the
mathematical tradition in geography, but the works of the fornner were more elaborate
and substantial. The size of earth was an important
question to Eratosthenes, who
attempted to calculate its circumference. That some of the figures Eratosthenes had
used in his calculation were considerably in error became known, and Posidonius set
out to get a more accurate measurement. The first of Greek scholars concerned about
the measurement and the location of things on the face of the earth was Thales. He
was very sharp in understanding mathematical and geographical regularities. Thales
Was first to apply various geometrical concepts (circles, diameter, angles, etc.) in
geographical studies. Anaximander is known for the introduction into Greek world
of a Babylonian instrument called 'Gnomon' (an instrument having functions like a
sundial). With the help of Gnomon, it was possible to make a variety of observations
regarding noontime, duration of sunshine, time of solstices and equinoxes, the time of
sunrise and sunshine and so on. Anaximander is also said to have made the first map
of the world. Hipparchus, another mathematician and astronomer of this period,
attempted to determine exact positions of every point on the earth's surface. He w
first to divide circle into 360 degrees, based on Assyrian mathematics. Hipparchus
100 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

defined a grid of latitudes and longitudes. The equator, he pointed out, was a great
circle (one that divides the earth into two equal parts) and meridians, drawn converging
at the poies, are also great circles. The parallels become shorter and shorter as they
approach the poles. Since the earth makes one complete revolution in 24 hours and
there are 360 meridians drawn from equator to poles, each hour the earth furns through
15 degrees of longitudes.
Among all the ancient scholars of Greek and Roman period Ptolemy was most
influential. His contribution in the field of mathematical geography is highly
commendable and has been acknowledged throughout ages. Ptolemy developed the
sound principles of mathematics and applied to the study of practical geography. He
recalculated the circumíerence of earth. He redesigned a graticule and plotted the
world using the concept of conical projection with remarkable accuracy, He worked
out the dimension of inhabitable world and plotted the places of physical and human
interest of contemporary times. Of the two great books Ptolemy authored, one is 'the
Syntaxis', popularly known as 'Almagest', which is a great work in classical astronomy.
It long remained the standard reference work on the movement of the celestial bodies.
The otherbook is 'Geographia' and it is devoted to the exact determination of the position
of places by means of latitudes and longitudes. In the opinion of Ptolemy, geography
is a science that deals with the art of map-making. Maps based on scientific principles
had been made since the time of Eratosthenes (3rd century B.C.), but Ptolemy improved
on projections. Ptolemy used geometric models to predict the positions of the sun,
moon, and planets, using combinations of circular motion known as epicyc
on his observations ofsolstices and equinoxes, Ptolemy found the lengths of seasons
and proposed a simple model for the sun which was a circular motion of uniform
angular velocity, but the earth was not at the centre of the circle but at a distance
called the eccentricity from this centre. This theory of sun forms the subject of
The planetary theory which Ptolemy developed here is a masterpiece. He created a
Almagest.
sophisticated mathematical model to fit observational data which before Ptolemy's
ime was scarce, and the model he
produced, although complicated, represents the
motions of the planets fairly well. The most significant contribution of Ptolemy and
his maps is the first uses of longitudinal and latitudinal lines and the specifying ot
terrestrial locations by celestial observations. When his Geographia was translated trom
Greek into Latin and introduced into Western
Europe at the beginning of 15th century
the idea of a global coordinate system revolutionized
and put it upon a scientific and numerical basis. The European geographical thinking
map distinguishes two large
enclosed seas, the first one being Mediterranean, and the second one being Indian
Ocean (Indicum Pelagus), which extends into the China Sea
The major geographical locations are (Magnus Sinus) in the tast
Europe, the Middle-East, India, Sri Lans.
(Taprobane), the Southeast Asian peninsula (Aurea Chersonesus or "Golden Peninsula)
and beyond it China (Stnae). The
Geographia and the maps derived from it playedthe
a
important role in the expansion of Roman Empire to the East. Trade throughout
Indian Ocean was extensive from 2nd century, and many Roman trading ports have
been identified in India. From these ports, Roman embassies to China are recorded in
Chinese historical sources from around 166. The basic
objective
of Ptolemy's attempts
 101
CHAPTER3 ANCIENT PERIOD

was to reform the map of worid, on the basis of astronomical principles. Therefore, ne
was able to prepare the tirst complete map of the known world. Ptolemy's concept or

Universe agreedwith that of Aristotle: "the earth was a sphere that remained stationary
in the centre while the celestial bodies moved around it in circular courses". This
remained an accepted doctrine until the Age of Discovery. Another important
contribution ot Ptolemy was "Guide to Geography", the largest geographical gazertet
of the times, which contained 8 volumes and the basis on which he revised the world
map. In the art ot map making, the great contribution made by Ptolemy was his
improvement over the previously drawn maps and this he did by adopting projections
for the world map, showing the graticule of latitudes and longitudes. In fact, in regard
to the mathematical construction of the projection of his maps, Ptolemy was far ahead
of his predecessors. The writings and maps of Ptolemy inspired the geographers and
explorers of Great Age of Discovery. With the death of Ptolemy, the geographic
horizons that had beern widened both physically and intellectually by the Greeks closed
in again.
In the field of mathematics, Shen Kuo developed techniques that laid the
foundations for spherical trigonometry and high-order arithmetic progressions. In
his Dream Pool Essays (Mengxi Bitan) Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle
compass used for navigation. Shen discovered the concept of true north in terms o
magnetic declination towards the North Pole, with experimentation of suspended
magnetic needles and this was the decisive step in human history. The Chinese
mathematics had discovered the use of 'decimal system', which was vastly superior
to the sexagesimal system of Mesopotamia and Egypt. It is generallybelieved that the
Indians derived their decimal system from the Chinese. As many of the innovations,
diffused westward from China, it is
eg. that of decimal form of arithmetic, have
believed that the idea of triangulation method of survey, and the use of grid-lines to
locate places has travelled from the west, particularly from Greeks to China. Chang
Heng, the 2nd century scholar, was the first to introduce the grid system into China.
He also devised an armillary or celestial globe to track the movement of planets and
and latitude
stars, proposed the concept of the lunar eclipse, developed longitude
was a "mileage cart". A
grids for maps and invented the odometer. The odometer
visionary mathematician, Heng computed the value of pi asa the square root of 10, or
He constructed sundial to measure the
approximately 3.162, not far off from 3.14.
position of sun.
The earliest extant maps found in China date to the 4th century B.C.
and were
to the application of a
made in the ancient State of Qin. The earliest known reference
scale to a map was contained in the
geometric grid and mathematically graduated
Pei is best known for his work in
Writings of the cartographer Pei Xiu (224-271). and was claimed to be
cartography. He lived during Western Jin Dynasty (265-316),
the father of China's Scientific Cartography." He was equally famous as Claudius
the ancient Greek cartographer. He
was
the first to mention a plotted
tolemy, the surface of
graduated scale displayed on maps to
eometrical grid reference and between different locations. Pei Xiu, in
gain greater accuracy in the estimated distance
Turn, derived the idea of the grid reference from the map of Zhang Heng (78-139 AD),
102 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

a polymath of the Eastern Han period. Zhang Heng invented quantitative cartographu
a grid system to maps, from which positions,
distance, and itineraries cou
applying
be calculated. His book, Discourse on Neuw Calculations, established the basis for #
mathematical use of the grid with maps. He perfected the science of latitude and
longitude, and his grids were said to form a "net over the Earth." Per's major contribution
ion
to cartography lies in his establishment of a theoretical foundation for the making of
traditional Chinese maps for the first time by summing up the experiences of hi
predecessors. He put forward the six principles inmap-making,representinga milestone
in the development of cartography theories. The first three principles outlined the tiso
of scale (fan lu), direction (zhunwang), and road distance (daoli), while the last three
principles were used to properly calculate distances on uneven terrain asS represented
on a flat, two dimensional map. Beside Pei Xiu and Zhang Heng, Su Song also hadin
depth knowledge of cartography. He made a celestial atlas which was a work of great
precision. The unique characteristic of his star maps was that the maps were laid out in
printed form. He created many terrestrial maps as well.
Historical Geography
Mainly Herodotus and Strabo contributed to this field. Although Herodotus is usually
described as the first great historian, a large part of his work is easily identified as
geography. Infact, he is credited with the very old idea that all history must be treated
geographicaly and all geography must be treated historically. The notion of geography
as "the hand-maiden of
history" came from Herodotus. According to him Geography
provides the physical backgrournd, the stage setting, in relation to which the historical
events take on meaning. He provided excellent
examples of what we would call
todayof
"historical geography', ie. the re-creation of past geographies and the tracing
geographical change through time. The contributions of Herodotus are based on his
own
personal observations during many years of travel. Strabo, on the other hand,
compiled the writings of his predecessors, particularly Homer, Herodotus, Aristotie
Eratosthenes, Posidonius and Hipparchus, and wrote a
17-volumed book entitled
Geographie'. The major part of this work is devoted to detailed description of various
parts of the known world. First twó volumes are
six Asia; and one covers general; eight books cover Europe
present Africa. This work is mainly historical, but Strabo also
described in it-the character,
physical
production of each country known inproperties, surface configuration and
his times. Strabo considered natural
essentially as an encyclopaedic description of the known geograpny
inhabited world.
Physical Geography
The Greeks made a remarkable
works contain numerous references development in the field of
to studies, for geography
physical ne
tides, change of weather, rain, instance, on mountains, delta-building
like Homer, Posidonius, earthquakes, volcanoes and the plant studies. The
HHerodotus, schola
Theophratus, Plato and Aristotle made valuadie
contributions in this direction. From the
Aegean Sea the Greeks expanded the
horzo
 ANCIENT PERIOD 103
CHAPTER 3

of knowledge in the study of seas and oceans distinguishing the varying properties or
their coastlines, salinity, waves, tides and winds. Posidonius was the
physical geographer. He was considered an authority on oceanography, moston
outsta
which he
contributed a book, entitled "The Ocean". The studies on tides and the measurement or
the depth of the sea and related aspects go to his credit. Interestingly, Herodotus was a
historian by profession, but he always placed and studied historic evernts in
setting. He introduced Greek alphabet 'delta' to geographical dictionary, geograpnic
his observations of the black soil on the Dasis ot
along the Nile River. He linked the shape of silt-deposits
on the flood plain to Greek
alphabet 'delta' (A). He also corrected the
regarding Caspian Sea, for which the contemporary identification wasmisconceptions
that of a sea".
He supported evidences for it's being a 'lake'-with no contacts with the outside world.
Physical geography was the field of interest for Aristotle and Plato as well. Aristotle, for
instance, explained the phenomenon of expansion of land in the shallow seas and
formation of delta. He correctly pointed out the process of alluvial deposition by which
so many places of land area being eroded and added into the sea. He affirmed this with
the study of Sea of Azov, which was
continuously becoming shallower dry land.
that one day it would be filled up completely and would convert into a and he teared
The
delta formation of Nile was also attributed to the enormous silt carried by the river from
its upper reaches (Ethiopia). Plato discussed some of the barren landsof Attica (Greece)
and explained that such waste tracts in the past were full of vegetative covers and fertile
soils. Under the impact of the external forces, the forests have been depleted and soils
leached resulting into barren topography. Such waste lands he said are like the skeleton
of sick man, all the fat and soft earth having been wasted away, and only the bare
framework of the land being left. Plato considered man also an active agent who changed
the face of the earth. Theophratus was a student of Aristotle. He examined the
relationships ofplants and climate, and this marked the beginning of the study of plant
geography. Besides, the Greeks, right from the Homerian period, have recognized four
major winds, having different properties, directions and the associated weather type.
They are: Boreas: the north wind-strong, cool, with clear skies; Eurus: the east wind-
warm and gentle; Notus: the south wind--wet and sometimes violent; and Zephyrus: the
west wind-balmy (fragrant) but with gale force. Moreover, the Greeks also divided
the world into: Torrid, Temperate and Frigid zones. They established a relationship
between temperature and ecumene regions of the world. The physical studies of Chinese
scholars, on the other hand, pertain to climatology and paleoclimatology, earthquakes
and seismology, hydrological cycle and geomorphology.

Economic Geography
The travel reports of Chinese stimulated trade relations with the West. Particularly,
the Chinese discoverer, Zhang Qian (172-114 B.C.), travelled as far west as Samarkand
and Usbekistan almost 1400 years before Marco Polo. On a second trip he visited
Bactria and Sogidiana in Parthia. His travels led to the introduction into China of a
superior breed of horses and new plants, such as grapes and alfafa. He was the first
otficial diplomat to bring back reliable intormation about CentralAsia to the Chinese
 104 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

imperial court, then under Emperor Wu of Han, and played a pioneering role in the
colonization and conquest of the region now known as Xinjiang. Today Zhan
ninesetravels
Qian's are associated with the major route of transcontinental
trade, the Silk
Road. In essence, his missions opened up to China the many kingdoms and products
of a part of the world then unknown to the Chinese. Following Zhang Qian's embassy
Central as well as Western
Asia
and report, commercial relations between China and
flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the end of the 2nd century
B.C., initiating the development of Silk Road. Although Zhang Qian's journeys had
promoteda great variety ofeconomic and cultural exchanges between the Han Dynasty
Western Regions, because silk was the dominant product traded this trade
and the
link became known as the Silk Route. In the 40-volume work that Jia completed in
801, Jia wrote of two common sea trade routes in his day: one from the coast of the
Bohai Sea towards Silla in Korea and another from Guangzhou through Malacca
towards the Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and India, the eastern and northern shores of
the Arabian Sea to the Euphrates River. A small branch of this extensive second trade
route led all the way to Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania, East Africa. In his work written
between 785 and 805, he described the sea route going into the mouth of the Persian
Gulf, and that the medieval Iranians (whom he called the people of Luo-He-Yi) had
erected 'ornamental pillars' in the sea that acted as lighthouse beacons for ships that
might go astray. Confirming Jia's reports about lighthouses in the Persian Gulf, Arabic
writers such as al-Masudi and
al-Muqaddasi a century after Jia wrote of the same
structures.

Theoretical Geography
Two great philosophers, namely Plato and Aristotle, made
development of geographical ideas. They respectively were the contributions to the
masters of deductive
and inductive
reasoning. Plato insisted that the observable things on earth were
poor copies of ideas, or perfect only
predicates
degenerated or were in process of degenerating.
from which observable
things had
related to man's activities are the
result of
According him, the existing patterns
to
that every system is his thinking, ideas or imagination. He argued
gradually moving towards chaos, i.e.
of things from their
original perfect state. He argued that there is always
degeneration
should proceed from general theory to in seeking
explanationsinone
context of some
general rule or particular situation, i.e. to explain things the
cause behind every occurrence theory. Because he
believed that there is hidden
reasoning. But, (existence). This kind of
thinking is called
a

according Aristotle, the best way to build

facts and the best
to deductive
Plato believed in
way to test theory was to
confront it with theory was to observe
building theory by observations. Whereas,
order, i.e. by reasoningfrom the general to particular,
did it in the reverse from
approach is inductive. Aristotle reasoning the
particular to general. TheAristote
can never
provide recognized that observations latter
explanations.
but cannot tell us that
Our senses, he made
said, can tell us that, through senses
'why it is hot'. Unlike Plato, e.g., fire is hot
inprocess of physical change leading to a final Aristotle assumed that things were
perfect shape. This model for scientific
 PERIOD 105
CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT

explanations constituted the world's first paradigm for the guidance of scholars
to
works ofthis great philosopher created a keen desire in his pupils
mulnrarious
make direct observations. One of his outstanding and adventurous pupils
was

Alexander, who made his own heroic efforts for travelling.

and
Thus, the major contribution of ancient scholars was a body of philosophical
cOsmoiogical ideas, besides a number of terminologies that still constitute
the
basic
of literary and
vOcabulary of geography. The ancient Greeks were the originators
mathematical traditions in geography. Academically, these ancient scholars formed
not be
strong ties of geography with and this inter-disciplinary bond could
history
broken for several centuries to come, and has been intensely represented in the writings
of geographers till the modern times. The roots of the concept of 'areal differentiation
the 1st
as adopted by Hartshorne in the modern period lie in the writings of Strabo,
the universe, i.e. "the earth
century B.C. Roman scholar. Ptolemy's geocentric view of
was a sphere that remained stationary in the centre, while
the celestial bodies moved
of Discovery.
circular courses", remained an accepted doctrine until the Age
round in
it
one of the first scientific
The Greeks are also credited for the introduction of Gnomon,
as a sundial and
instruments ever made. The Gnomon is an instrument that functions
can be used for finding the declination of the
Sun through the year, among other

things. towards suggesting the

One of the major contributions of the Greek scholars was
a well known Greek scholar,
methods of theory building and hypothesis testing. Plato,
from general to particular (the
favoured theory building by intuition and reasorned
the method of reasoning
deductive approach). On contrary to it Aristotle suggested
These methods of deductive and
from particular to general (the inductive approach).
introduced to geography as early as 4th and 5th
centuries
inductive reasoning were
B.C.
and negative gains from the Greek and
To conclude, there were certain positive
'Geo-centric Concept of the Universe' was one of
Roman Schools of thought. Belief in
this period. This was contrary to the present
the negative views prevailing during translate the works of Greek
were made to
Helio-centric view'. Moreover, no attempts
in use. Therefore, the interest in philosophical
or Roman writers into other languages
to face a period of recession in
declined and Geography
and scientific writings had
However, the positive gains of the period
were more numerous.
the centuries to come.
number ofviewpoints and techniques
discipline got enriched by
a
Geography as a
to its vocabulary. Besides coining the term
and various terminologies were added
number of other terminologies are also credited to
geography' for our discipline, a for instance, 'cartography, 'chorography',
ancient Greeks. The important ones include, All these terms
and more.
longitude', "latitude', 'torrid', frigid',oftemperate
many
contribution ancient Greeks and Romans to various fields
are still in use today. The
of geographical knowledge.
of study covered almost entirely the gamut
106 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

NOTES

1. Crawford, O.G.S. (1927). Antiquity. [Gloucester, Eng

2. Rana, L. (2011), pp. 46-74.
3. Rana, L (2011), pp. 164-226.
He was an outstanding scholar
4. Moriz Winternitz (1863-1937), was a German Indologist.
literature. He is best remembered
who wrote on religion, folk-lore, the epics and Sanskrit
three volumes, which is considered
for his "History of Indian Literature," a work in
indispensable for teachers and students alike.
5. Rana, L. (2011), pp. 227-292.
6. Breasted, J. H. (1916), op. cit.
7. Needham (1986), Volume 3, 500.
8. Needham (1986), Volume 3, 512-17.
9. Hsu (1993), 98.
10. Eves, Howard (1969), p. 31.
11. The Levant is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly
bounded on the north by the Taurus Mountains, on the south by the Arabian Desert, and
on the west by the Mediterranean Sea. Levant refers to an area of cultural habitation
rather than to a specific geographic region. The Levant forms the middle part of the Fertile
Crescent, between the Nile Valley (Egypt) to the south-west, and Mesopotamia (Iraq) to
the east. It consists of Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Jordan.
12. Ancient History, www.infoplease.com.
13. Devlin, Keith, 1996.
14. The period from 800 BCE to 200 BCE, during which, similar revolutionary thinking
appeared in China, India and the Occident. The period is also sometimes referred to as
the axis age.
15. Durant, Will (1939), p. 538.
16. John Dalton FRS (1766-1844), was an English chemist, meteorologist and physicist. He is
best known for his pioneering work in the development of modern atomic theory, and
his research into colour blindness (sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour).
17. His book on arithmetic is the source of interesting legends that assert that it was written
for his daughter, Lilavati. In one of these stories, which is found in a Persian translation
of Lilavati, Bhaskara II studied Lilavati's horoscope and predicted that her husband would
die soon after the marriage if the marriage did not take place ata particular time. To alert
his daughter at the correct time, he placed a cup with a small hole at the bottom of a
vessel filled with water, arranged so that the cup would sink at the beginning of the
propitious hour. He put the device in a room with a warning to Lilavati to not go near it.
In her curiosity though, she went to look at the device and a
accidentally dropped into it, thus upsetting it. The marriage tookpearl
from her nose ring
place at the wrong time
and she was soon widowed.
18. Rana, L. (2011), pp. 239-262.
19. Ru "Coníucian"-originally term denoting "ritual dancer"; school/sect of early Chinese
thought that emphasizes correct social and ethical relations through literary and ritual
self cultivation based on models derived or idealized from the early Zhou era.
 CHAPTER 3 ANCIENT PERIOD 107

20. Nelson (1974), 359.

21. Needham, Volume 4, 446.
22. Sivin (1995), I1, 22.
23. Bowman (2000), 105.
24. Yao (2003), 545.
25. Needham, Volume 3, 524.
26. Vlastos, Gregory (1975).
27.
Radhakrishnan and Moore, (1957), pp. 453-487.
28. Dasgupta, Surendranath (1992). p. 258.
29. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution
was a social-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from
966 through 1976. Set into motion by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist
Party of China, its stated goal was to enforce socialism in the country by removing
capitalist, traditional and cultural elements from Chinese society, and to impose Maoist
orthodoxy within the Party. The movement politically paralyzed the country and
significantly affected the country economically and socially.
30. Husain, 1988.
31. Huang (1997), 64.
32. Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 479.
33. Sivin (1995), II, 17.
34. Needham (1986), Volume 3, 413-414.
35. Needham (1986), Volume 3, 625.
36. Neehdam (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 484.
37. Pakuda Katyayana was one of the seven well-known heterodox thinkers of 6th century
B.C. He put forward a theory known as Anuvada (Atomism). Very little is known of this
man's personal life or his overall philosophy. Apparently, he was obsessed with getting
to "the root of things." He theorized that man is made up of seven eternal elements, which
are nothing but atoms ("that which cannot be split"): four basic elements, namely fire,
air, earth, water, (which Charvakas also believed made up the body), pleasure and pain
(Dwandwanm, which Upanishadist considered as the main function of mind-likes and
dislikes, pleasure and pain, gain and loss), and the soul (which Brahmins and
Upanishadists called Atman).
38. Latadeva the author of "Soorya Siddhanta", talked about the earth's axis and called it
SUMERU. "That the earth is a sphere and it rotates on its own axis", was known to
Varahamihira and other Indian astronomers much before Copernicus published this
theory. Latadeva in his Surya Siddhanta text has divided the year into 12 months. Seven
planets of the solar systerm effect the earth's atmosphere and their names were added to
the seven days of the week, which was accepted all over the world.
39. Boyer, Carl B. (1991). p. 207.
40. Jewish Encyclopaedia.
41. Ebrey et al. (2006), 162.
42. Ifrah 2000, p. 346.
43. Katz 1995, pp. 173-174.
44. Seidenberg 1978.
45. Fowler 1996, p. 11.
46. Filliozat 2004, pp. 143-144.
 108 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

47. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

48. Hsu (1993), 96-97.
49. Hsu (1993), 98.
50. Sivin (1995), II, 23-24.
51. Huffman, Carl A. (1993).
52.
An armillary sphere is basically a skeletal celestial sphere with a model of the Earth or,
later, of the Sun placed in the centre. Armillary spheres were developed by the Greeks in
antiquity for use as teaching tools. Armillary spheres became popular again in the late
middle ages.

The Armillary sphere consists of two major components, the sphere and the stand, as
in the figure above. The central
seen
body in the sphere represents the Earth, which was,
of course, considered the centre of the Universe. The colures
and the Equator (the rings
defining the sphere) represent the firmament, that is, the sphere upon which the fixed
stars reside. The band
going around the sphere, at an angle to the equator, represents the
zodiac. The line running through the middle of this band
defines the ecliptic, or the path
followed by the Sun through the
53. Crespigny (2007), 1050; and Loewe
sky.
(1968), 107.
54. Bodde (1991), 140.
55. Needham (1986), Volume 1, 135; and Fraser & Haber
56. Wu (1943), 211-212. (1986), 227.
57. An odometer
(milometer) indicates distance travelled by a car or other vehicle. The device
may be electronic, mechanical, or a combination of the two. The word derives from the
Greek words "hodós",
meaning "path" or "way", and "métron", "measure".

58. Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 40.

59. King Mu was the fifth sovereign of the Chinese Zhou
Dynasty. King Mu was the most
pivotal king of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty, reigning nearly
sixty-six years, from ca. 976
 ANCIENT PERIOD 109
CHAPTER 3

B.C. to ca. 922 B.C.. He was reputed to have lived until the age of 105. He liked to trave
and in particular visited the Kunlun Mountains several times during his reign, and is

said that he traveled 90,000 kilometers

60. Husain, 1988.

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Ancient History, www.infoplease.com.

Bodde, Derk (1991). Chinese Thought, Society and Science. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Boyer. Carl B. (1991). "The Mathematics of the Hindus". A History of Mathematics (Second Ed.).
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0471543977.
Breasted, J. H. (1916). Ancient times, a history of the early world: an introduction to the study of
ancient history and the career of early man, Boston: Ginn and Company.
Crawford, 0. G. S. (1927). Antiquity. [Gloucester, Eng.]
Crespigny, Rafe de. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220
CE). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill.
Banarsidass
Dasgupta, Surendranath (1992). A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1. Motilal
Publ.
Order in Life, Mind and
Devlin, Keith, (1996), Mathematics: The Science of Patterns: The Search for
ISBN 978-0-7167-5047-5.
the Universe (Scientific American Paperback Library) 1996,
538.
Durant, Will (1939) The Life of Greece. New York: Simon and Schuster, p.
B. Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social,
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall, and James ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Eves, Howard, (1969) An introduction to the History of Mathematics,
Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written
Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit
Renn, Jürgen et al., History of Science,
Literature", in Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.;
Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands,
History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of
PP. 137-157, 360-375.
Function", The American Mathematical Monthly 103
Fowler, David (1996), "Binomial Coefficient
(1): 1-17.
to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways
to
Fowler, Jeaneane (2005). An Introduction
Academic Press.ISBNN 1-84519-085-8.
mmortality. Brighton: Sussex
free encyclopaedia.
History of China', Wikipedia, the and Concepts, Fourth Edition, Sage, London.
A. (2009), Geography: Its History
iolt-Jenson, Sea Charts of Pre-Modern China," Imago
Hsu, Mei-ling (1988) "Chinese Marine Cartography:
Mundi, Volume 40, pp. 96-112.
A Clue to Later Chinese Cartographic Development"
Hsu, Mei-ling, (1993), "The Qin Maps:
90-100.
mago Mundi, Volume 45, pp. York: An East Gate Book, M.E. SHARPE Inc.
A Macro History. New
Huang, Ray (1997). China:
Croton: Pythagorean and Presocratic, Cambridge University
Huffman, Carl A. (1993) Philolaus of
Press.
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Husain, M. (1988), Evolution of Geographical Thought, Second Revised Edition, Rawat Publica tions,
Jaipur.
Ifrah, G. (2000): The Universal History of Numbers. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Jewish Encyclopedia.
Katz, Victor J. (1995), "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", Mathematics Magazine (Math.
Assoc. Amer.) 68 (3): 163-174.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Cioilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations.
Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Cioilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences

of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.

(1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part
2: Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
(1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part
3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
Nelson, Howard. "Chinese Maps: An Exhibition at the British Library," The China Quartery
(Number 58, 1974): 357-362.
Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, C. A. (1957). A Source Book in ndian Philosophy. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-019584.
Rana, L. (2008), Geographical Thought: A Systematic Record of Evolution, Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
Rana, L. (2011), Ancient Tradition in Geography: The Western and Oriental Perspective, Project Report
(unpublished), ICSSR, New Delhi.
Seidenberg, 1978. The origin ofmathematics. Archioefor the history of Exact Sciences, vol. 18.
Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont:
VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
Vlastos, Gregory (1975). Plato's Llnioerse. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Wu, Kuang Ching. "Ming Printing and Printers," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (February
1943): 203-260.
Yao, Xinzhong. (2003). Routledge Curzon Encyclopaedia of Confucianism: Volume 2, 0-Z. New
York: Routledge.
CHAPTER-4

Medieval Period

The Medieval phase is a

very long period of development in the history of geographical
thought, i.e. beginning from the end of Roman Empire (5th century A.D.) to the
beginning of Industrial Revolution (1750). The developments during this period may
be studied under three phases, viz.: Early Medieval
period: Dark Age Europe (500
in
1100 A.D.); High Medieval period: Rise of Arab School of
Thought (800-1400 A.D.);
and Late Medieval period: Age of Discovery (1400-1750A.D.).

EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD

The Early Medieval period is associated with the Dark Age in Europe. By 500 A.D.,
the Roman Empire in the west had declined and this marked the onset of Dark Age in
Europe which continued up to 1100 A.D. The political unity of the Roman Empire
dwindled after 3rd century and its territories were settled by succeeding waves of
barbarian tribal confederations, which rejected the classical culture of Rome. Prominent
among these peoples in the movement were the Huns, Avars and Magyars with the
large number of Germanic peoples. The barbarian invasions brought the end of the
Roman Empirc. Christianity influenced the social,economic, literary and philosophical
developments during the early medieval period. The Christian era was marked by the
loss of ancient scientific concepts about the world and theirreplacements by
unscientific, uncritical cosmogonies based largely on scriptures. During this period,
travelling and explorations, owing to political instability was hazardous. However,
the missionary travels were the only source of knowledge for the regional account of
different nations of that period. The approach to studies of any kind became theocratic.
During Dark Age, Geography made a little progress as the organized body of
knowledge. Thequest for scientific learning stopped; instead, there was regression of
the already acquired scientific knowledge. At best, the scholars made accurate but
 112 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

sterile copies of the works of ancients, rejecting anything that did not conform to the
of
dogmas of Church. Such an intellectual environment stifled any development critical
scientific analysis. Concepts, which had been developed in Greek and Roman times,
were reshaped to conform to the teachings of Church. The image of world was moulded
to fit Biblical references. The earth was considered as a flat disc with Jerusalem at its
on the art of map-making and this
centre. This kind of thinking had an adverse impact
resulted in its great distortions. The tradition of making fairly accurate maps, as started
there emerged maps, which were purely
by the Greeks and Romans got lost. Instead, was 'Orbis-Terrarum or: T-in-0
fancy and unscientific. The ideal map of this period
Map (Fig.4.1). Orbis-Terrarum' means 'wheel of the world'; world', ofcourse, meaning
the World as it was known at the Time'. This originally included the Mediterranean
Sea and its surrounding territories. In the Early Middle Ages, the religious map-makers
wished to illustrate geography of faith rather than the terrestrial territory. The 'Orbis-
Terrarum' maps literally used 0 'with a T' in it-a circular ocean surrounding the
earth, which itself surrounding a T-shaped body of water (the stem of T representing
the Mediterranean Sea and its top showing the Aegean and Black Seas on the one
hand and the Nile River and Red Sea on the other). Thethree divisionsurope, Asia
and Africa-were accepted as standard. The centre of the inhabited world, just above
the centre of the T, was Jerusalem. At the Far East, beyond the limit ofthe inhabited
world, was conceived the location of paradise (the house of Adam and Eve).
Moreover,
in all these maps were inserted the mythical places, beasts and dragons. This type of
cartography was in practice for a lorng time. These maps were made very beautiful
and extremely decorative, but have less relation to actual facts, as they were far from
reality with no scientific base. As compared to modern standards, the orientation of
the maps was totally erroneous; as there was vagueness in the east-west and north-
south extension of world.
EAST

ASTA

NORTH AEGEAN& BLACK SEA RED SEA SOUTH

AFRICA
EUROPE

INHABITED WORLD
WEST
FIGURE 4.1 T-in-0' Map of Early Medieval Period
 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 113
CHAPTER 4

So far the sprawl of the habitable world is concerned many wrong ideas were put
forward. The sphericity and the nearly correct distances of places, latitudes and
longitudes were ignored. As for the travels and journeys, they continued but geograpny
was hardly benefited. Because, the purpose of these travels was not scientitic or
speculative; these were mainly religious or missionary movements made by pilgrims
to holy shrines. Moreover, the descriptions made were also purely aesthetic (beautifu
without logic). Most of the classical correct concepts were forgotten, and the old errors
appeared again about the world maps and habitable portions of the earth. Moreover,
the involvement of Christians and Muslims (Arabs) in crusade (holy) wars further
aggravated the problem. Against this background, there emerged an intellectual
curiosity of the Arab scholars that led to the great achievements of Islamic civilization.
Thus, when Europe was plunged into darkness, the Arab world was 8etting
enlightened. Now the new zeal of learning spread through the world of Islam. The
Arab civilization, in fact, became the main link between the ancient civilization and
the modern world. The rise of Arab school marks the end of the recession in
development of geographic literature and return to more scholarly research.

HIGH MEDIEVAL PERIODD

Arab civilization became the most advanced during medieval period. In the early years
of 7th century, Prophet Mohammad founded Islam. This new religion, within a very
short period of time, not only united the warring tribes but also led to the establishment
the
of a big empire and the building of a civilization, which in many respects was
became
finest civilization of time. Nearly all Arabia had accepted the new religion and
a new unified state before the death of Prophet
Mohammad in 632. After his death,
his successors, known as "Caliphs' or 'Khalifas', held the religious and political
other parts of the world.
authorities. From Arabia, Islam spread very fast to many
Khalifas and their generals had conquered Iran,
Within about a hundred years, the
The Arabs had also come to India.
Syria, Egypt, Central Asia, North Africathat itSpain.
and
unified the scattered Arab empire under
The greatest contribution of Islam was
one faith and spreaded a lesson
of equality and brotherhood among all the Muslims.
went with them. This astonishingly rapid
Wherever, the Arabs went, their religion but economic and
reasons. It was partly missionary zeal,
conquest was due to several who were the inhabitants of a poor
social causes favoured the expansion. The Arabs,
of the
lands. They were excellent fighters. The people
country, wanted richer rule and fascinated by simplicity of the
neighbouring countries tired of oppressive
invaders. The Arab empire was the largest that the
teachings of Islam, welcomed the of their history, the Arabs were illiterate
world had so far seen. In the pre-lslamic period
United by Islam, the Arabs started on their
and unfamiliar with the art of writing.
wlherever they could find it. In fact, the
quest for knowledge. They sought knowledge
that of Europe in these centuries. In 762, Muslims
Arab Civilization was far superior to
for more than a century it was the centre of
founded the new city of Baghdad and
Harun-al-Rashid an academy, entitled
intellectual world. With the patronage Caliph
of
114 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Baitul-Hikma', was established. At this academy, scholars from all over the world
were invited to teach and assist the Arab academicians and to help them in the
translation of the Greek, Latin, Persian and Sanskrit works into Arabic. Arabs invited
the Indian schglars at Baghdad to learn Indian mathematics and numerals.
They studied
Surya-Sidhant, the ancient Indian astronomical treatise, and the works of Aryabhatta.
The Arabic trañslation of the
Surya-Siddhanta was a landmark in the history of Arab
astronomy'. e this manner, the Arabs collected
geographical ideas from the Greeks,
Romans and Indians. On the basis of their
observations, explorations and studies they
developed their own concepts and theories with great vigour and produced
innumerable books on various aspects of
geography and allied sciences; and carried
their knowledge to far-off lands from the shores of Atlantic to the Pacific and Indian
Ocean. The establishment of vast
and scientific traditions of
empire facilitated the coming together of intellectual
worlds. The Arabs made all
disparate civilizations, from the Western to the Oriental
knowledge their own and
borrowed, for instance, the knowledge of medicine fromdeveloped
it further. They
Greece and the system of
numerals (Hindsa) from India. Their
system of medicine is still called 'Yunani' that
means 'Greek'. Besides, the Arabs also
developed a decorative style of writing called
calligraphy. The Arab traders travelled widely and brought back new information
that the scholars compared with Greek ideas
and incorporated into
Besides Baghdad, the main centre of the Muslim Ptolemy's maps.
centres of learning that
intellectual world, the other major
in Egypt; Toledo in
emerged during this period included: Jerusalem in
Israel; Cairo
Spain; Istanbul in Turkey; Damascus in Syria; and Shiraj in Iran.
Various factors that helped to stimulate this
interest in
as: (i) The
large extent of Arabic Empire which stretchedlearning may be summarised
from the Atlantic to the borders of over so
many different areas
of Rome; (ii) The desert routes which
China; (ii) The excellent system of
roads, a legacy
encouraged
pilgrimages to Mecca demanded by the faith; (iv) Trade, which
movement and facilitated the
the diversity within the
Empire and was further stimulated naturally arose out of
in Muslim by high rank of traders
the
society; (v) The conquest of Syria, Persia and Bactria-where the Greek
culture still flourished and
gave to the Muslims a rich fruit of Greek
(vi) The cultural and economic ties with the Indian learning; and
In the West, on the other Sub-continent.
hand, from the
greater stability was observed in Europe. Here beginnings roughly about 1000 A.D.,
too, the 'High Middle
revival from the late 11th to theAges'
the expansionalist culture and intellectual describe
14th century.

CONTRIBUTION
Many Arab scholars, most of
whom were also travellers,
contributed to the
development during High Medieval Phase of geographic development.
for instance, Al Battani, Al Masudi, Al Beruni, Ibn They included,
Al Sina,
ldrisi, Ibn Batuta, Ibn
Khaldun, etc. Al Battani (858-929) was an astronomer,
He made important observations and measurements astrologer and mathematician.
astronomy, his well-known discovery is the
regarding celestial bodies. In
determination of solar year as being
 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 115
CHAPTER 4

365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds, which is very close to the latest estimates
Al-Battani also determined with remarkable accuracy the obliquity of the ecliptiC, u
length of the seasons and the true and mean orbit of the sun. He proved, in snal
contrast to Ptolemy, the variation of the apparent angular diameter of the sun and tne
possibility of annular eclipses. He rectified notions about the orbits of moon and planets
and propounded a new theory to determine the conditions of visibility or the n
moon. He also provided solutions by means of orthographic projection for various
problems of spherical trigonometry. In mathematics, he was the first to replace the
use of Greek chords by sines, with a clear understanding of their superiority. He also
developed the concept of cotangent and furnished the table in degrees. He wrote a
number of books on astronomy and trigonometry. His most famous book was his
astronomical treatise with "De scienta stellerum-De numeris stellerum et motibus. iis

treatise was extremely influential in Europe till the Renaissance, with translations
available in several languages. Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Husain Ibn Ali Al-Masu'di (888-
957), the Arab discoverer, was born in Baghdad and is known as the Herodotus of the
Arabs' because he was the first Arab to combine history and scientific geography. He
travelled extensively in India, Middle East and Africa. Al-Masudi wrote a 30-volume
history of the world, AL-Tanbih, recounting the experiences of his travels from Europe
to India. By presenting a critical account of historical events, he initiated a change in
the art of historical writing, introducing the elements of analysis, reflection and
riticism, which were later on further improved by Ibn Khaldun. In particular, in his
Al-Tanbih he makes a systematic study of history against a perspective of geography,
sociology, anthropology and ecology. Masu'di had a deep insight into the causes of
rise and fall of nations. AI Biruni (973-1032), whose full name was Abu Arrayhan
Muhammad Ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, was a Persian mathematician, physicist, scholar,
and teacher. He
philosopher, astronomer, astrologer, traveller, historian, pharmacist,
contributed greatly to the fields of mathematics, philosophy, medicine, and science.
Al-Biruni crater, on the Moon, is named after him. He was a colleague of the Iranian
Muslim philosopher and physician, Ibn Sina. He also travelled to South Asia with
Mahmud of Ghazni, who also became his patron. Based on his travels and observations,
he wrote Ta'rikh al-Hind ("Chronicles of India"). He knew Greek, Sanskrit and other
languages; but, he wrote his books in Persian and Arabic, although his native language
was Khwarezmian. At the age of 17, he had calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarazm,
recalculated the Earth's radius from
using the maximum altitude of the sun. He
Eratosthenes in 240 A.D.) to 6,339.6 km. This
approximately 6,314 km (measured by until the 16th century. Abu Ali al-Husayn
featwas not surpassed in the western world
bn Abdullah Ibn Sina (980-1037) was one of the foremost philosophers of the golden
"Al-Sheikh al-Rais' (Leader among the
age of Islamic tradition. He is also known as
Wise men), a title that was given to him by his students. In the west he is also known
as the "Prince of Physicians" for his famous medical texts. Ibn Sina he became the
most influential of all the Islamic philosophers and earned royal favour for treating
the Kings of Bukhara. Though trained as a physician, Ibn Sina made important
contributions to philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy. His philosophical

encyclopaedia, Kitab al-Shifa ("Book of Healing"), brought Aristotelian and Platonian

116 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

the field of knowledge into two

together with Islamic theology. It divided
philosophy and practical knowledge. Al Idrisi (1099.
major streams, viz. theoretical knowledge He was a historian, politician
of the 12th century.
1166) was one of the leading scholars several languages as Persian, Arabian, Latin.
and geographer. He was the master
of
contribution lies in the form of his book, Kitab al
Greek and Spanish. Idrisi's major the literature on
which is a study and review of all
Jami-li-Sifat Ashtat al-Nabatat,
he made original contributions to geography.
medicinal plants. In addition to this,
factors and cultural aspects. He made a
especially related to economic, physical
planishere in silver for King Roger 1,
and
described the world in Al-Kitab al-Rujari
also entitled Nuzhat al-Mushtag fi Ikhtiraq al-Afaq (The delight
of him
(Roger's Book),
who desires to journey through the climates). This is practically a geographical
of his time, containing intormation not only on Asia and Africa, but
encyclopaedia
also on Western countries. Al-Idrisi also compiled another geographical encyclopaedia,
wa-Nuzhat al-Nafs (Pleasure of
larger than the former; it was entitled as Rawd-Unnas
men and delight of souls) also known as Kitab al-Mamalik wa al-Masalik. Apart from
botany and geography, Idrisi also wrote on fauna, zoology and therapeutical aspects.
His work was translated into Latin and, especially, his books on geography remained

popular both in the East and the West for several centuries. Abdullah Muhammad Ibn
Batuta (1304-1378) was of Negro origin, but was educated in Muslim religion. He was
the most remarkable traveller, whose voyages extended east as far as Northern China
and south along the coast of Africa well beyond the Equator, covering Egypt.Syria,
Persia, Arabia, Zanzibar Isles, India, Maldives, Ceylon, Sumatra and China. Ibn Batuta
visited China sixty years after Marco Polo and in fact travelled 75,000 miles, much
more than Marco Polo. Ibn Batuta's contribution in geography is unquestionably great.
His writings, including the book "Travelogue' (1357), are an inmportant source of
knowledge on large parts of the known world of medieval times. Ibn Batuta was the
only medieval traveller who is known to have visited the lands of every Muslim ruler
of his time. He is still considered a most reliable source for the geography of his period
anauthority on the cultural and social history of Islam.
IbnKhaldun (1332-1406) was the last great Moslem scholar, and a great historical
geographer. He is seen as one of the forerunners of modem historiography, sociology
and economics. He is best known for his book "The Mugaddimah" (The introduction to
History). bn Khaldun is said to have been the first social scientist. He was a Muslim
philosopher and statesman who provided a useful way of looking at the political and
social conditions of the pre-modern world. He lived in the era when the Western world
was experiencing the renaissance. This was also the beginning of the decay of Islamic
Civilisation. There were crusades and invasions from East. Besides, disputes of Caliphs
were common. Among all this background, Ibn Khaldun represents the climax of
history of Islamic economic thought. The Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun records an
early Muslim view of 'universal history'.
Through their travels and extensive works on history, botony, mathematics.
astronomy and astrology the Arabs made outstanding contribution to various fields
of geographical learning as Mathematical and Practical Geography, Regional and
Historical Geography, Physical Geography and Climatology and Human
Geography.
 CHAPTER 4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 117

Mathematical and Practical Geography

In Arab School, the Greek science
was the starting
point. The works of Aristotle and
Ptolemy werestudied elaborately. It is not
surprising, therefore, that mathematical
geography received the maxinmum attention. The factors like semi-desertic conditions,
open atmOSphere, clear skies and vast distances to scan facilitated the astronomical
observations and also helped in promotion of studies in this field. The Arabs, who
were largely intluenced by the Greek tradition,
adopted the same ideas about shape
and size of earth. The early Arabs considered the earth as the
centre of Universe,
around which revolved seven planets. These
the earth were: Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars,
planets, in order of their distance from

that each of these planets occupied a

Jupiter and Saturn?. It was imagined
particular 'sky' or rather using the
Ptolemy a separate 'sphere' and that each sky was under the authority ofexpression
of
the 'planet
to which it had been
assigned. In his hypothesis all the stars formed the seven skies
or
the highest heaven'. They believed that the first of the seven skies, closest to the earth
is of green-emerald, the second of white silver, the third of red ruby, the fourth of
white pearl, the fifth of red gold, the sixth of yellow topaz and the seventh of a mass of
fire (nur). Similarly, they imagined of seven earths, one inside the
other, the lowest of
them being hell. There were several attempts to ascertain the size of earth.
Al-Battani,
for instance, calculated the length of equator at 27000 miles, whereas Ptolemy in 157
A.D. had established it at 24000 miles. Sea-Charts and
maps based on cylindrical
projection were made. The Arab geographers borrowed from the Greeks, the division
of earth into five zones; each zone represented particular temperature conditions. The
five zonesare: i) the Torrid Zone-situated between the two tropics, (ü) the two Frigid
Zones-placed near the poles, and (ii) the two Temperate Zones that occupied the
intermediate positions. For the determination of latitudes, the Arabs like Eratosthenes
and other Greeks, made use of the sun's shadow when it happened to be on the
meridian; the shadow was marked by a column
(gnomon). Arabs
The improved over
the works of Greeks. Besides, another greatest contribution of the Arabs to the
advancemernt of mathematical knowledge was the introduction of Hindu invention of
the zero in arithmetic (Hindsa). Before this, the Roman numerals were in use and their
range was limited. The zero liberated arithmetic and people could now count in
millions, billions and trillions. In mathematics, the Arabs learned the Indian numerals
and spread their use far and wide, so that in the West they are to this day called
"Arabic numerals". They improved upon the existing knowledge of
Algebra,
trigonometry and chemistry. However, surprisingly enough, the attempts of Arao
scnolars did not bring about any marked improvements in cartography and map-
making. Because, it was distorted by their love of ornamentation in speech and writing
Moreover, they still believed in geocentric view of the planetary system.

RECIONAL AND HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

A wealth of regional descriptions exists in the works of Arab scholars, particularly Al
ldrisi and Ibrn Batuta. Both physical and human aspects are covered in detail. According
118 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

to Arabs the western limit of the habitable

world is at the end of the Mediterranean
Sea, the eastern at the Sila
(Japan), northern in the land of Yajuj Majuj (Siberia) and
the southern to the south of the
the

ecumene areas of world. The travels

equator.3 The writings of Ibn Batuta described the
of Ibn Batuta took him to
never visited earlier. His many parts of Arabia
travels extended as much as
more. This venture 10 south of the
Equator and
had been wrong in
brought empirical proof that Aristotle, the ancient Greek
scholar.
asserting that the Torrid Zone was too hot and unfavourable for
human habitation. Batuta, on the
contrary, confirmed that numerous tribes
it. The major focus of the
writings occupied
of Al Idrisi, on the other hand, was on Arabia
India. He has described the and
country of India as an agriculturally rich country, and
mentioned the presence of about 150 towns and cities at
that time. Al Idrisi also
provided the detailed descriptions of these regions.
Physical Geography and Climatology
The physical geography finds a special place in the
Al Idrisi, Al Masudi, Al Balakhi writings
of the scholars like Al
Biruni, Ibn Sina, and Al Aaqdisi. Their
observations are related to the
study of: (i) the important
processes
deposits; and (ii) phenomenon of tides. Al Biruni in his book shaping landforms; (ii) alluvial
describes the fluvial processes and alluvial entitled 'Kitab-al-Hind'
he recognized the deposits
of the rounded stones heHimalayan
of
region. In this book
significance found in the alluvial
south of the
Himalayas. The stones became
rounded, he
deposits
along torrential mountain streams. Furthermore, he
the pointed out, as they rolled
material dropped close to the mountain recognized that the alluvial
became finer in texture farther
was
relatively coarse in texture and that it
away from the mountain. Ibn Sina wrote
processes shaping landforms, viz. about the
weathering and
findings, the streams play an important role in this and the denudation. According to his
exposed to the process of weathering than any other high mountains are more
the work of agents of landform. He keenly observed
denudation and weathering in the
that the mountain streams erode
the slopes. He formulated
mountains and ascertained
were being the idea that mountains
constantly worn down
by rivers and that the
the rocks were
especially resistant to erosion. highest peaks occurred where
out, and are Mountains are raised
immediately exposed to this
process by
up, he pointed
goes on
slowly and steadily. Ibn Sina also noted the wearing down, a process that
high mountains. Various Arab scholars and presence of fossils in the rocks of
tides, and proved that they are caused navigators observed the phenomena of
because of the
the moon. Al Masudi who
navigated in the Caspian Sea gravitational pull of the sun and
tides. Besides, Al Idrisi corrected the erroneous ideas
recorded the spring and neap
Caspian Sea. The Indian Ocean was about the Indian Ocean and the
Sea was shown as an arm of the supposed to be
enclosed, whereas the Caspian
World Ocean in
period. He also tried to redefine more T-in-O maps of Early Medieval
including that of Denube and Niger rivers. accurately the courses of
many of the rivers
However, the most notable were the contributions made
important contributions in the field have come in the form of to climatology. The
coining of the term
 CHAPTER 4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 119

GHSim (Monsoon); preparation of the first Climatic Atlas; and division of the world
ba Climatic Regions. The term "monsoon' has an Arabic
into
t to give the idea of origin, from mausim. Arabs
vere the firstt
periodic nature of monsoons. The studies of Al Masudi,
rticularly, deal with the Indian Monsoons. The
hitled 'Kitabul Ashkal" was prepared by Al Balakhiinfirst Climatic
921 A.D. He
Atlas of the world,
data and information from the Arab travellers. AI Aaqdisi gathered the climatic
world into 14 Climatic Kegions in attempted to divide the
985 A.D. He also observed that climate varies not
only by latitude, but also by the positions east and west. He
theSouthern hemisphere has most of the water and that most of presented the view that
the land area is in the
Northern hemisphere and this has reflection in the climate as well.
idea had been conceived from the Greeks, Undoubtedly, this
basically.
Ht:ma Geography
The studies carried on under Human
the writings Ibn Khaldun. They deal
of
Geography by Arab scholars are dominated by
on life forms, including human
mainly with the influence of physical factors
beings. Ibn Khaldun, in his monumental work,
Muqaddimah', instance, has described and discussed various aspects of human
for
society. The work has been divided into 6 sections, viz.: (1) On
and anthropology; (2) The nomadic culture and its contrast civilization, geography
with the sedentary culture,
sociological and historical causes and consequences of the conflicts arising
from that of fundamental
opposition; continually
(3) Dynasties and Kingdoms; (4) Life in villages
and cities; (4) Professions or the Means of
Livelihood; and (5) Classification of Sciences.
The prime focus of the
writings Ibn-Khaldun was on human society, culture and its
of
development. Modern geographers are particularly impressed with his cultural
interpretation of the physical environment; and his analysis of the role of the city in
regional economy. The work of Ibn-Khaldun begins with a discussion of man's
environment and its influence on the living physical
styles of people. He
stages of social organization, identifying the desert nomads as theinvestigated
various
most primitive and
the purest. He
suggested that the sedentary city dweller is dependent on luxuries and
ecomes normally soft. He discussed the forms of government, describing a sequence
of stage that marks
the rise of dynasty to power, followed
by its decline through
Corruption to its fall. Thus, he explained, in a way, the rise of Arabian
toresaw its fall. Khaldun power, and also
maintained that the northern hemisphere is more densely
populated than the southern and also that the population is meagre along the equator;
ut away rom equator, there are greater concentrations of population up to 64th
parallel. Further away, there is once again very little or no population at all. The intense
neat of the equatorial belt, he considered as the discouraging factor for the
Or
population. A harmonious blending of heat and cold in the concentratio
temperate region
according to him, is conducive to human growth and settlements. Away trom the
Emperate regions, the excessive cold of the Polar areas is again deterrent to nutal
EOWth. About the origin of settlements, he stated that 'those who settle are attracted
tertility of land and by the seas with which they can defend themselves agaust
duers n course of time the population increases, and so also the pressure on land,
120 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

and the habitation becomes a permanent settlement. The settlement grows in the course
of time and becomes city-which shows a definite socio-economic structure, in ways
of division, dearth and abundance, supply and demand. The roots of all cities have
always been these small settlements at sometimes or the other. Moreover, he tried to
explain various human activities with the help of environment. He explains why the
Arabs are nomads and why the Negroes are of easy disposition. Ibn-Khaldun tried to
correlate man and environmental relationships in a scientific way. According to him,
the people of warmer climates are noted for their passionate nature. Those of the
colder climate incline to stolidity and lack of vivacity. Those in the temperate climates
excel in wisdom and are neither excessively passionate nor markedly stolid. He also
explained that the Negros are black because they live in the warm and hunid climatic
zones while the people of temperate and cold regions are whitish in colour. Similarly,
people try to build their houses and setlements on the southern slopes and close to
the springs and water sources. In fact, the roots of the concept of climatic determinism
e in the writings of Ibn-Khaldun, who believed that the climate has a tremendous
influence on the nature of human beings, their colour and settlements. AcCcording to
him, in warnm climates the people are more passionate; in colder climates peopleare
stolid and are of harsh nature; whereas in temperate climates they are full of wisdom
as they occupy the middle position. Similarly, the settlement patterns are also
influenced by the climates, according to him.
As a result of expanding colonialism and imperialism, the Arab Empire started
disintegrating after 1400 A.D. and the Arab School also came to a decline. However,
the important contributions of the Arabs may be summarized as follows:
(1) Laying
roots for the philosophy of environmental determinism (climatic); (2) Generating a
voluminous literature on the ecumene and non-ecumene areas of the known world;
and (3) Presenting a newer outlook of the world that later led to the onset of Age of
Discovery. The scholarly works of Arabs provided a new and more realistic picture of
the world. But, on the whole, the literary developments among the Arabs were
hampered by the over-refined state of language and love of story-telling in which the
geographical nature of facts was over-shadowed. Nevertheless, the Arabs did keep
the Greek learning alive, and it was from their hand the
Dark Age drew to a close. The Renaissance Movement had
Europe received it, as the
Arabs and got momentum in the Age of
begun in the times of
Discovery. Starting in the 8th century the
renewed study of Greek revived much of the forgotten
But the classical spirit was not revived, i.e. no new
learning during the Arab period.
concepts were established or
formulated by Arab scholars in a recognizable manner. The renaissance remained
largely a religious movement, more concerned with preserving the knowledge of the
past than expanding it through scientific investigation.

LATE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

The Age of Discovery (1400-1750 A.D.) in late Medieval period was the age of
colonization and exploration, a period from the early 15th century and continuing
into the 18th century. During this period, the European ships travelled around the
 CHAPTER 4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 121
world in search of new trading routes and
partners to feed burgeoning capitalisrm in
Europe. In the process, Europeans encountered
to them. Among the most
famous peoples and lands previously unknown
explorers of the period were
Vasco da Gama, Pedro Alvares
Cabral, John Cabot, Yermak,Christopher Columbus,
Fernand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Juan Ponce de León,
and Willem Jansz (Table 4.1). The Tasman, Captain Cook, Amerigo Vespucci
Age of Exploration was
and ideas growing out of the Renaissance rooted in new technologies
and these included advances in cartography,
navigation, and shipbuilding, besides the
geography was the most benefitted field of discovery of new lands. Obviously,
Arab phase was not only the Age of learning during this period. This post
Discovery,
medieval to modern, from Old to New. The but also a period of transition from
include: Exploration of New Lands; Scientificimportant developments of this period
Improvements in Cartography and Map making.
and
Technological innovations; and
Exploration of New Lands
Although the travels had become very popular in Arab
other developments gave further period itself, a number of
impetus
(i) colonization, (ii) use of magnetic compass, andexplorations; and they included:
to the
(ii) improvement in the art of
navigation. Great explorers emerged in the scene. Numerous
exploration were commissioned by a variety of nation states journeys
of geograplhical

voyages were
inEurope.
financed because of the potential commercial returns
Most of
these
from resource
exploitation. The voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation
and discovery. These
voyages also added many significant contributions to geographic
knowledge. Most of the explorers of this period were of Italian, Portuguese and Dutch
origin, besides a few also being Spanish, Russian and English.

TABLE 4.1 Explorers in Late Medieval Period

Name Time Nationality Area Explored

John Cabbot (1450-1499) Italian Newfoundland

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Italian America
Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) Italian America
Juan Ponce de Leon (1460-1521) Spanish Florida, USA
Pedro A. Cabral (1467-1520) Portuguese Brazil (South America)
Vasco-da-Gama (1469-1524) Portuguese Indian Ocean
Fernand Magellan (1480-1521) Portuguese Circumnavigation of Earth
Yermak Timofeyevich (1532-1585) Russian Siberia
Willem Barents (1550-1597) Dutch Northern Shores of Europe
Willem Janszoon (1570-1630) Dutch Coast of Australiaand New Zealand
Abel Tasman (1603-1659) Dutch Tasmania, New Zealand and Fiji Islands
James Cook (1728-1779) English Pacific Ocean
122 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Columbus and Amerigo

The Italian discoverers, namely John Cabbot, Christopher
Cabbot was an Italian-born-
lands across the Atlantic Ocean. John
Vespucci explored name of Giovanni
of Venice, Italy, his Italian
English. Born in Gaeta and later a citizen Cabot after he had lived in Bristol
Caboto beame shortened to the English style John
In Italian, 'Caboto' means 'a coastal seaman'
and was quite a common name given to
merchant (Guilo Caboto). The Caboto
sailors and navigators. He was the son of a spice
Giovanni worked with his father in
Venice in 1461 where this young
family moved to
a spice shop for many years. John
Cabot was attracted to the treasures of the Orient
man he moved to Venice and it was
from a relatively early age. Whilst still a young
and materials as it became
there that he began learning of the value of Eastern spices
Northwest Passage. John Cabot
his trade. He was the first European to search for the
was also an
discovered the island of Newfoundland in 1497. Christopher Columbus
Italian explorer and trader. He sailed across the Atlantic Ocean, hoping to find a route
to India in order to trade for spices. Instead, he crossed Atlantic Ocean and reached
the America on October 12, 1492 under the flag of Castile. History places great
significance on his landing in America in 1492, with the entire period of the history of
the Americas before this date usually known as Pre-Columbian. The anniversary of
event, Columbus Day, is celebrated in many parts of America. Columbus is
commonly credited as the first European to see the Americas because of the profound
impact his contact wrought on history. His voyage marked the beginning of European
exploration and colonization of the Americas. Although Columbus was the first
European to land America, the continent has actually been named after another Italian
explorer, Amerigo Vespucci. He explored the east coast of South America between
1499 and 1502. His exploratory journeys along the eastern coastline of South America
convinced him that a new continent had been discovered, a bold contention in his day
when European explorers crossing the Atlantic Ocean, including Christopher
Columbus, thought they were travelling to East Asia. Vespucci's voyages became
widely known in Europe. In 1507, this new continent was named as "America"after
Vespucci's first name, Amerigo.
Juan Ponce de León was a Spanish explorer and soldier who was the first European
to set foot in Florida. He also established the oldest European settlement in Puerto
Rico and discovered a current in the Atantic Ocean, the Gulf Stream. Born in Santervas,
Spain, Ponce de Leon was a soldier fighting Muslims in southern Spain in the early
1490s. He sailed on Christopher Columbus' second expedition to the Americas in 1493,
but did not return to Spain with Columbus. Instead, he
stayed in Santo Domingo
(now called the Dominican Republic). He was appointed governor of the Dominican
province of Higuey. He later heard of gold in the neighbouring island of Borinquen
(now called Puerto Rico) and brutally conquered the island, claiming it for Spain. He
was then appointed governor of this island. Ponce de Leon was then given the right to
find and take the island of Bimin (in the Bahamas); he was searching for riches and
the fountain of youth (a legendary spring that gave people eternal life and health). He
sailed from Puerto Rico on March 3, 1513, and reached the east coast of Florida (St.
Augustine) in April 1513. Ponce de Leon named the land "Pascua de Florida" (feast of
flowers). He also claimed this land for Spain.
 CHAPTER 4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 123

Pedro Alvares Cabral was a

as first European discoverer of
Portuguese navigator and explorer, generally regardea
Brazil (1500). He was born in Belmonte, in the Beira
Baixa province of Portugal. He had excellernt
as a seaman. Vasco da Gama was also
training in navigation and large experience
a
Portuguese explorer who discovered an ocean
route from Portugal to the East. He was one
of the most successful in the
Age of Discovery, and the first person to sail directly from European
Europe to India,
through
Cape of Good Hope in Africa. Another Portuguese maritime
explorer,
Magellan, led the first successful attempt to circumnavigate the Eerth. ButFerdinand
not complete his final
voyage as he was killed. However, his voy ge made him one of
he
could
the first individuals to cross all meridians of the
lead an expedition sailing westward from
globe. He became the first person to
Yermak Timofeyevich, a Russian
Europe to Asia and to cross the Pacific Ocean.
by birth, was the Cossack leader and
explorer ot
Siberia. His exploration of Siberia marked the
towards this region and its colonization. Yermak's
beginning of the expansion of Russia
exploration of Siberia is reflected
in the so called Siberian Chronicles. His life and death have been
Russian songs, books, and paintings since the 16th
subjects for numerous
century.
Willem Barents was a Dutch navigator and explorer, a leader of
early expeditions
to the far north. Near the end of 16th century, several expeditions tried to find a
northeast passage to Asia. No one pursued this quest with such persistence and skil!
as this Dutch navigator, for whom the Barents Sea is named. Seeking the illusive
Northeast Passage, Barents made three voyages in 1594, 1595, and 1596-97 along the
frozen and dangerous northern shores of Eurasia. Another Dutch navigator and
colonial governor, Willem Janszoon, was the first European known to have seen the
coast of Australia. Janszoon was born in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. He is first
recorded as entering into the service of the Oude compagnie, one of the predecessors of
the Dutch East India Companyr (VOC), as a mate aboard the Hollandia, part of the
second fleet dispatched by the Dutch to the Dutch East Indies in 1598. He again sailed
from the Netherlands for the East Indies in December 1603 as captain of the Duyfken,
part of a fleet of twelve ships. He proceeded to chart some 320 km of the coastline,
which he thought to be a southerly extension of New Guinea. Finding the land swampy
and the people inhospitable, Willem Janszoon headed home in 1606. He called the
land he had discovered "Nieu Zelandt" after the Dutch province of Zealand but this
name was not adopted, and was later usedby Abel Tasman to name "New Zealand'
Abel Janszoon Tasman was also Dutch by birth. He is best known for his voyages of
1642 and 1644, in the service of the VOC (Dutch East India Company). His was the
first European expedition to reach the islands of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania)
and New Zealand and the first to sight the Fiji islands in 1643. He also mapped
substantial portions of Australia.
Captain James Cook was an English explorer and cartographer. He made three
voyages to the Pacific Ocean, accurately charting many areas and recording several
islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. His most notable
accomplishments were the British discovery and claiming of the east coast of Australia;
the European discovery of the Hawaian Islands; and the first circumnavigation and
mapping of Newfoundland and New Zealand. James Cook's eleven years sailing
124 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to

European knowledge of the area. Several
islands such as Easter Island and the Sandwich Islands(Hawaii)were encountered
for the first timeby Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of
areas of the Pacific was a large
major achievement.
With the
discovery of new lands across the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean, the
Age Exploration is generaly said to have ended in the early 18th
of
the Arctic and Antarctic seas were century. However,
not explored until the 19th
much longer for century. It also took
Europeans to reach the interior of continents such as Africa and North
America than it did the coasts. Columbus, Vasco da
all the
Gama, Magellan, Cook and almost
expeditionary leaders relied on Ptolemy's calculations about latitudes and
circumference of the earth. As a result of these
voyages huge
accumulated. There was a huge mass of literature that had to be knowledge
was
tested, to be made
accessible to others.

Scientific and Technological Innovations

Mainly the invention of printing machine and the works of scholars like
Copernicus,
Kapler, Galileo and Newton brought the scientific and technological developments in
geography during the Age of Discovery. The printing press was invented at a time
when it was really desired. The older form of
printing machine had already come into
existence before the Age of Discovery; it was invented in China
1041 and 1048. But, the use of movable
by Bi Sheng between
type to mass produce printed
popularized by a German printer, Johannes Gutenberg in 1450. While
works was
there are several
local claims for the invention of the
printing press in other parts of Europe, including
Laurens Janszoon Coster in the Netherlands and Panfilo Castaldi in Italy, Gutenberg
is credited by most scholars with its initial invention.
The invention of "Printing
Machine' in Europe aided the scientific
developments by publishing the accounts of
explorations, voyages, discoveries and the geography of newly discovered lands. Up
to 15th century most of the scholars took earth as the
centre of universe and tried to
study the universe with a geo-centric approach. But during the Age of Discovery, the
heliocentric idea was strengthened. The Polish Scholar, Nicholus
Copernicus
(1473-1543), carried out numerous observations about the stars, planets and moon for
32 years (1497-1529). His experiments provided the first modern formulation of a
heliocentric (sun-centred) theory of the solar
system in his epochal book, De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of Celestial
Spheres). In 1618, Kepler
proved that planetary motions were elliptical rather than circular.
(1571-1630), a German mathematician and astronomer, was one of theJohannes Kepler
niost important
scientists in the field of astronomy. He was the founder of "celestial
been the first to explain planetary motiorn. He
mechanics", having
gave fundamental laws of
motion and postulated that the Earth and planets travel about the sun inplanetary
orbits. In 1623, Galileo presented the proof that elliptical
Copernicus was right about the
heliocentric Universe. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian
physicist, astronomer
and philosopher closely associated with the scientific revolution. Galileo's career
coincided with that of Johannes Kepler. Galileo's achievements include improvements
 MEDIEVAL PERIOD
125
CHAPTER 4

tothe telescope, a variety of astronomical observations, the first and second laws
motion, and etfective support for Copernicanism. He has been referred to as the ta
of science. In 1686, Newton presented the 'Laws of Gravitation'. Isaac Newton
(1644
1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor, and
natural philosopher generally regarded as one of the most influential scientists in
history. Newton wrote the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica wherein he
described universal gravitation and the laws of motion, laying the ground tor classica
mechanics. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he
was
the first to show that the motions of bodies on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed
by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and deterministic power of his laws was
integral to the scientific revolution and the advancement of heliocentrism.

Iinprovements in Cartography and Map Making

The field of geography that was most negatively affected during Dark Age was the
most benefited one during the Age of Discovery. It was Cartography. Ptolemy's maps
were unearthed and restudied. The missing details were filled in and the discrepancies
were removed. Ptolemy's calculations about the latitudes, longitudes and
circumference of the earth were corrected. The shapé of earth (i.e. elliptical and not
sphere or round) was finally ascertained. Missing details being filled up, the world
map became almost complete. On this basis the first accurate 'globe' of world was
made. Martin Behaim (1459-1507), a Portuguese navigator and geographer, created
the spherical globe depicting the Earth in its three-dimensional form in 1492. Behaim's
invention was a significant advance over two-dimensional maps because it created a
more realistic presentation of Earth's shape and surface configuration. Mercator's
Projection was devised (1569 A.D.) and the new maps were prepared on it. Gerardus
Mercator (1512-1594) was a Flemish* mapmaker and geographer best known for the
is based on the concept of
map projection that bears his name. Mercator's projection
loxodrome' or 'rhumb line', the line of cons tant bearing. It makes this projection
particularly useful to navigators.
With all the above developments, there came a scientific revolution not only in
materialistic terms but also in the ideas and thinking of man. All the disciplines, along
with geography, were benefited. Many of the earlier erroneous ideas were eliminated
The quality of geographic literature,
gradually giving way to more reliable accounts.
as such, improved.

THEIMPACT
of Discovery on Geography was
The impact of the developments during Age
were constituted in different parts
remendous. A number of Geographical Societies
of the world to promote further research in the discipline. The 18th and 19th centuries
became recognized distinct academic field and
as a
Were the times when geography This development took place with
became part of University curriculum in Europe.
the foundation of, for instance, Societie de Geographie, Paris (1821); Royal Geographical
126 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Society, London (1830); Russian Geographical Society, St. Petersburg (1845); American
Geographical Society, New York (1851); and National Geographical Society
Washington D.C. (1888). Due to vast amount of accumulated knowledge there began
branching of geography into different specialized fields of study. Earlier geography
was 'all-in-one'. Many old theories or concepts were corrected and re-established
and many new theories about the origin of the earth, continernts and man-nature

relationships were advocated. The German scholar, (1622-1650) made

Bernard Varenius
the most fruitful use of all available information and knowledge about the earth during

Age of Discovery; and gave the first scientific literature in geography in the form of
Geographia Generalis. The positive gains of this period may be summarized as foliows:

Discovery of new lands and completion of world-map;

The revival of interest in geography from a scientific perspective;
'Academic Freedom' of geography, i.e. identification as an independent field
of study;
Accumulation of huge amount of data and knowledge of geographical nature
and its publication the form of Geographia Generalis;
Advancements in Cartographic technique of data representation and map
making;
Beginning of scientific or speculative investigations and generalizations in

Emergence of various modern schools of thought in geography (as German,

French, American British and Soviet);
Geography acquiring a new definition and methodology; and
Split of geography in various specialized fields of study, eg. physical, human,
etc.

In spite of large-scale' and worldwide explorations and voyages during the Age of
Discovery, certain parts of the world still remained unexplored and untouched. They
were the Polar areas, more specifically the parts of Arctic and Antarctic regions. The
scientific explorations of these regions began only in the 20th century. Further, due to
vast knowledge and information as accumulated during the Age of Discovery, the
field of geography could not remain unified. The scholars did not have a common
consensus on the definition, content, scope and approach of geography as a scientifC
discipline. Consequently, the discipline entered into a long period of dualism, as
physical versus human, idiographic versus nomothetic, or systematic versus regional.
Then, with the passage of time there was more and more use of theoretically deductivo
approaches. The empirically inductive methods became less popular and there emergeu
a whole generation of armchair geographers.
However, looking on the positive side of development, the foundations of Modern
period of geographical thought were already laid before the Medieval period came to
a close after the Age of Discovery. This
was
in the form of the writings of Bernard
Varenius, the scholar of Pre-Classical phase of Germarn School of Thought.
 CHAPTER4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD 127

NOTES
1. The Surya Siddhanta was an astronomical treatise written in India, which had rules laid
down to determine the true motions of the luminaries, which conform to their actual
positions in the sky.
2. Husain, 1988, p. 83.
3. Husain, 1988, p. 84.
4. A chronicle is the historical account of events. The Siberian Chronicles are the Russian
chronicles of the late 16th-18th centuries on the History of Siberia.
5. Flemish is the territorial name for the Dutch language spoken in historic Flanders, a region
mostly comprising the northern part of Belgium, but also including a southern part of the
Netherlands and a small area of northern France.

REFERENCES

Husain, M. (1988), Evolution of Geographical Thought, Second Revised Edition, Rawat Publications,
Jaipur.
Rana, L. (2008), Geographical Thought: A Systematic Record of Evolution, Concept Publishing
Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
CHAPTER-5

Modern Period

The "modern" era is

generally associated with the European
Enlightenment, which
began in the middle of 18th
century. The thinkers of
as
continuing the work of the great 17th century Enlightenment saw themselves

Kapler, Copernicus, etc. who extended scientific methods pioneers-Galileo, Isaac Newton,
into every field of
thus laying the
groundwork for the
development of modern social sciences.
inquiry,
the modern
period begins from 1750s onwards. In fact, the scientific Precisely,
know today is outcome of the
product geography
of last 250 years, i.e. after the
as we
German School of Thought. It was this period that a number of emergence
of
to define the field, content during scholars tried
and scope of
geography
among them were, for instance, Bernard Varenius,
in the way we
accept today. Notable
Humboldt, Carl Ritter, Friedrich Ratzel, Vidal de la Emmanuel Kant, Alexander von
Carl Sauer and Blache, Jean Bruhnes, W.M. Davis,
many more.They discussed and
elaborated on the methods of
organizing and presenting the information of collecting,
mid-18th century was not more than
geographical
nature. Geography before
encyclopaedic
orderly presentation (general principles) of areal compilations of places, without
geographic descriptions was primarily due to German differentiation. The new form of
American, British and Soviet. It is writers, followed by French,
generally said that as far as
the Germans built the geography concerned,
the Greeks laid the foundation and is
structure.
GERMAN SCHOOL
In spite of all the adversities and
other developments, it was clear, at
geography is a science of areal distribution. But the principles and least, that
areal distributions were not at hand. Because, the methods to study
knowledge of geography was not
organized up to this point. The principles behind spatial arrangement of phenomena,
their causal connections, inter-relationships, which could
give geography a true
 CHAPTER 5 MODERN PERIOD 129

scientific status, were yet to be established. The credit for making attempt in this
direction for the first time goes to the German School of Thought. For the next three
centuries after the Age of Discovery, geography was largely a German science. The
German scholars organized the large amount.of empirical knowledge accumulated
during Age of Discoveryina systematic manner. Geography became very popular
under the German School. This was a period when the relationships between the
physical and biological phenomena were explored in a new perspective. The scientific
academies were established and attempts were made to formulate generalizations
and laws. However, this long period was not a period of steady and smooth
development in geographical thought, as soon the discipline entered into a number of
controversies. The roots of geography, as a field of learning, reach back to antiquity,
but its establishment as a modern science was essentially the work of decades from
1650 to 1950. The period since early 19th cerntury to the end of it may be termed as the
Classical Phase' (1800-1880) of German School. This was mainly the period of
Alexander von Humboldt(1769-1859)and Carl Ritter (1779-1859). Humboldt and Ritter,
together, are popularly known as the "Fathers of Modern Geography. Although, the
real beginnings of German School are believed to have been made with the writings of
these two founders of Modern Geography, contribution of the School had actually
even after
began with the works of few other scholars before them and also continued
their death. Therefore, the period of German School before Humboldt and Ritter may
conveniently be called as "Pre-Classical" (1650-1800) and that after them as "Post-
Classical" (1880-1950).

Pre-Classical Phase

The pre-classical phase at the close of

phase of the German School (1650-1800) wasIta was the time when a
Medieval period and before the beginning of Modern period. on
was organized systematic lines.
large mass of accumulated empirical knowledge considered the most important
Bernard Varenius and Emmanuel Kant are as

Pre-Classical Phase'. Bernard Varenius (1622-1650) was highly

personalities of the Galileo. Varenius made two
influenced by the works of Copernicus, Kepler and
Firstly, he brought together
significant contributions to the development geography.
of
and cartography and made their
the contemporary knowledge of astronomy divided
he the nature of enquiries in
constructive use in geography. Secondly,
this led to the development of
into two: 'general and 'specific'. Later,
geography Varenius believed in two-fold division of
systematic' and 'regional geography. or special). The
or topical) and regional" (specific
geography, i.e. 'systematic (general all the regions. The
one aspect of study throughout
former approach emphasizes on all its
deal with a particular area in detail covering
regional studies, on the other hand, The formulation of
relevant and inter-related elements. systematic studies lead to the
that
theories. Generalgeography provides the fundamentals
generalizations, laws and to understand the
to regional studies. These generalizations help
need to be applied Generalis of Bernard
these ideas are summarized in Geographia
regional geographies. All be a standard geographic reference for about
Varenius. This work continued to
130 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

100 years. The book is divided in two parts, viz. General Geography and Regional
of featuress of
Geography. General Geography consists of descriptions of three types
earth. They are: (i) Absolute Part: covering terrestrial characteristics of the earth,
Part:
of others, as size, shape, form, etc.; (i) Relative covering the planetary
independent
characteristics of the earth in relation to Sun or other planets, as revolution, rotation,
and relative locations of various
etc.; and (ii) Comparative Part: dealing with absolute
the earth. Similarly, Regional Geography
places, features and areas over the surface of
also consists of descriptions of three types of properties of the constituent areal units.
These include: (i) Celestial Properties: related to the study of climate, a tm0sphere, etc.;

location, relief, soil and land characteristics; and

(1) Terrestrial Properties: related to
11) Human Properties: concerned with population, political divisions, communication,
socio-cultural traits, religion, diet, etc. Varenius' Geographia Generalis became so popular
that Newton, his contemporary mathematician and astronomer, got it translated into
English as well. However, the scientific trend started with the writings of Varenius
was interrupted by Kantian philosophy. Kant considerably modified the scientific
structure of geography as proposed by Varenius.
Emmanuel Kant (1724-1794) was a Professor in Konigsberg University, where he
taught geography for about 40 years. He tried to secure the foundations of geography
within the framework of traditional philosophy. As per the tradition, 8eography was
being considered as a discipline concerned with the description of phenomena
distributed over space. In this process, he overlooked the scientific beginnings marked
by the work of his predecessor, Bernard Varenius. Kant's main interest was in physical
geography, which he considered as the basis (preliminary) of all geographical studies.
Kant's philosophical contribution goes primarily to the method of
acquiring
knowledge; classification of knowledge; and classification of geography. Kant agreed
that there are two ways to acquire
knowledge, viz. through sense perceptions and
pure reasoning. The former approach is 'inductive' and the latter is 'deductive'. The
sense perceptions, in turn, are of two
types, viz. 'inner' and 'outer'. However, Kant's
approach to geographical studies was purely deductive. He pointed out that there are
two ways of
organizing knowledge for the various phenomena on the surface of earth,
logical and physical. The Logical Classification is grouping
of inherent characteristics of the according to the nature
phenomena. It deals with
according to the type of objects studied, and accordingly coversorganizing
a series of
knowledge
sciences that are devoted to the
study of particular kinds of phenomena, e.g. systematic
Zoology, Physics, Chemistry, etc. The Physical Classification, on the Botany,
grouping according to the position or occurrence of other hand, is
deals with
organization of phenomena in time or space. It
knowledge
therefore, includes historical and
in its
temporal or
spatial dimensions and,
with the spatial sciences. The historical sciences are concerned
arrangement of phenomena in
chronological order; and the spatial sciences
are concerned with the arrangement of
phenomena in chorological order. The
disciplines falling within this category, according to Kant, are
the previous classification. In different from those in
simple words, history is the
and geography in terms of space. In this manner, Kant
description in terms of time;
geography descriptive in their nature. He also considered both history and
regarded both of these
disciplines
 CHAPTER 5 MODERN PERIOD 131

complementary to each other.

Besides laying emphasis on the study of
Physica
Geography, Kant also identified some other branches, namely: (i) Mathematical
Geography-studying the form, size and movement of earth, and its place in the Solar
system; (ii) Political Geography-the study of relationship between the political units
and their physical background; (iii) Moral Geography-the study of customs and
characteristics of man in relation to environment; (iv) Mercantile Geography--the
study
of trade and commerce; and (v) Theological Geography-the study of distribution of
religious traits in different types of environment, e.g. Christians in Europe, Muslims
in Central Asia, Confucians in Hwang Ho
Valley in China, and Vaishnavs in Sutlej-
Ganga Plains, etc.
Kant's views have been criticized on various grounds. Particularly since the later
part of 19th century, the questions have been raised about the validity of his concepts
and classification. Kant became highly unpopular, later, and came to be known as the
Father of Exceptionalism' in geography. It is because he accorded
geography a purely
descriptive status, bisecting it from the other scientific disciplines. He made this
exceptionalist claim not only for geography but also for history. The most notable
opposition was put forward by F.K. Schaefer, a 20th century British scholar. According
to Schaefer, there is only one form of explanation for all disciplines, i.e. to recognize
phenomena as instances of laws. Even if the explanations are considered of two types,
viz. descriptive and scientific, this holds true for all disciplines. It is illogical to state
that some disciplines are purely descriptive and others purely scientific. The very
basic distinction of knowledge between "scientific (systematic) and descriptive'
wrong in principle. Because, the so-called systematic sciences also have spatio-temporal
is
dimension. Moreover, every study begins with some kind of description. The
explanations, causal connections, laws and theories follow later. Schaefer considered
Kant a poor and immature geographer in comparison to his predecessor, Bernard
Varenius, who died 150 years ago. He called Kantian philosophy as pre-Newtonian.
Kant was not influenced by the ideas of Newton, who established a functional similarity
among the formally diverse things. However, the subsequent writers, namely,
Humboldt and Ritter, revived the tradition of Varenius in geography, again giving
the discipline a scientific twist.

The Classical Phase

The writings of Humboldt and Ritter characterize the Classical Phase of German School.
In spite of being short spanned, this phase of German School turned out to be a very
influential period of development. Humboldt and Ritter lived and worked at Berlin
for more than 3 decades and tried to mould the subject matter of geography into
scientific form. Both were outstanding scholars of the first half of 19th century and
were also contemporary. Both died in the same year, i.e. 1859. Coincidently, 1859 is
also the year of publication of Charles Darwin's "Origin ofSpecies". Their ideas, although
formulated before the great impact of Darwin's evolutionary thought, and before the
enormous exploration and mapping in the latter half of the 19th century, have
continued to serve to the day as 'guide posts' in the field of geography.
132 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) was a great traveller, explorer,

and cosmographer. He led the way in the expansion of geography naturalist
in and outside
Germany. He was a scholar of versatile genius, who contributed richly toa
fields, as geology, botany, zoology, variety of
physics, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, history,
climatology, geomorphology, plant geography, orography, oceanography,
cartography, vulcanism and magnetism. He travelled about 45,000 thousand miles
and in all his travels, however short, he made multitudinous observations. He remained
a
living model for subsequent generation of researchers. The adventurous
nature of
Humboldt did not permit him to stay at one place. His travels covered the
around Mediterranean in regions
Europe, Mexico and Caribbean Islands in the West and Siberia
in the East. He travelled across the
Llanos, sailed up to the Orinico, visited Cuba and
Mexico, journeyed extensively in the Northern Andes, and climbed
many mountain
peaks, including Chimbarajo (the highest peak of Andes, in Equador, South America).
The last 3 decades of his life he devoted in the
Cosmos. The prevalent
writing of his best-known work, The
and 'moral'. The natural
philosophies at the time of Humboldt were those of
'natural'
philosophies
the earth as an organic whole,
were related to the
physical world, envisaging
the moral
inseparable and mutually
interdependernt; whereas,
philosophies were related to man's inner world and human
Although, Humbolde's basic inclination was towards natural, he did not thinking.
other view. Instead, he ignore the
regarded both (natural and moral)
and considered through the scientific philosophies in synthesis
analysis of the ways in which
things and
phenomena on the surface of the earth depended upon each other-an idea which
runs right
through Cosmos. Thus, he envisaged the earth as a whole, organic whole,
an
of all
parts of which being mutually interdependent. Although Humboldt contributed
richly to a variety of fields, he was always concerned with the areal associations of
natural phenomena. Humboldt included man and his works in the of
and natural areas, but he.did not consider man as a concept nature
of knowledge related to natural world, he primary determinant. The division
contemplated falling into three
viz.: (i) Systematic
Sciences: studying the phenomena in terms of their groups, similar
characteristics, e.g. Botany, Geology, Physics, Chemistry, etc.; (i) Historical Sciences:
studying the history of development of existing groups of
Anthropology, etc.; and (ii) Earth Sciences: phenomena, e-g. History,
concerned with the distribution and
arrangement of phenomena on the earth's surface. The objective of such
Geography, is to study the phenomena in their spatial distribution, spatial sciences, e.g.
and interdependence. The basis of Humboldt's classification was relationships
close to that of Kant's;
but, the former treated all kinds of subject-matter
as scientific and accorded them the
(including history and geography)
status of sciences. While
matter of earth sciences, Humboldt coined the dealing with the subject
Universe) and divided it into Uranography and Geography.'cosmography'
term
In his
(study of the
is the descriptive astronomy that deals with the opinion, Uranography
celestial bodies. In other words,
Uranography is the celestial cartography, the branch of astronomy concerned with
mapping the stars, galaxies, or other celestial bodies. Geography, on the other hand,
deals with the terrestrial part. Geography,
accordingly, is the an area. Humbolde's
dealing with interrelationships of phenomena that exist together indescription
of earth,
 CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD 133

approach was holistic. Unlike Kant, he followed empirical and inductive method or
study. It was based on self-observation and experimentation, because he himseir
collected enormous data related to plants,
animals, are and
methods of recording and describing in the fieldrocks importantaspects.
other HumboldtHes
in themselves.
noted, measured and mapped
a way that had never been done
changes in relief, plant life, crops, tree and srnowine
before. To generalize these features (particularly
importarnt since no maps were available) he drew cross-sections of the areas he
travelled. While travelling he used 40 different types of instruments for observation
and recording. They included,
e.g. telescope, sextants, quadrants, barometer,
cyanometer, etc. As far as the analysis of recorded information was concerned, ne
used systematic and comparative methods. Because the
purpose of his travels
not only to measure and record various kinds of phenomena, but also to find outwas the
ways in which the great variety of observable phenomena of landscape are associated
and inter-connected with each other at different
places. In order to bring about precision
and accuracy in the descriptions he also used various
cartographic techniques.
Although Humboldt's approach was systematic, he could not ignore the importance
of regional studies due to his belief in inter-relationships and causal connections.
According to him, there is an order under chaos. The systematic distribution of every
phenomenon at individual level produces some areal associations or assemblages.
Although each of these associations appears different in outlook from the other, it is
not difficult to establish an order to find logic behind this distribution. Therefore, the
systematic and regional studies are not different; rather they are complementary to
each other. Humboldt conceived man and his activities as the part of nature. Man and
nature relationships produce different types of areal associations. No two landscapes
exhibit exactly same characteristics; but, there are some similar features; some common
cause of their existence may be explored. For example, Llanos (South America), Pampas
(Argentina), the Russian Steppes, the Tropical Savannas, the American Prairies, the
Tundra Grasslands, etc. are unique in themselves and exist in different regions; but
still some common genetic causes of existence or common features (nature of
vegetation) may be found among them. Thus, relationships among unique landscapes
became core of all geographic studies. In
may be established. This kind of approach
other words, the world is ordered, and the geographer's task is to discover that order.
Cosmos' (the Ordered Universe) is Humbolde's best-known work. It is a comprehensive
world. Runningin five volumes, published during 1845-62, the work is
survey of the
translated into eight languages. It is monumental compilation,based on conclusions
a

drawn from his lifetime travel and research. In 'Cosmos', Humboldt regards
manas an
an item in the balanced unity of nature.
integral and constituent part of the Universe, be derived
Some important concepts of geography may from the work of Humboldt.
Surface as a home of man; (i) Geography is
They are:) Geography considers earth's of world-phenomena (the basic concept of
a science of the spatial distribution
geography); (ii) General geography Physical
is geography, and includes man wherever
is the study of inter-relationships, i.e. relation
he is part of nature; (iv) Geography
is the
between living (organic) and non-livin8 (an-organic) worlds; (V) Geography
comprehension (understanding) of the world phenomena; (vi) There exists
134 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

task is to search for

heterogeneity of phenomena in geography, and the geographers'
The unity of nature
similarities or general (common) rule of their existence; and (vii)
IS a characteristic feature of studies. Thus, Humboldt tried to make
geographical tacts from the
Seography as.original (distinctive) science ratherthàn a collection ot
described him as "the greatest traveller
physical and biological sciences. Charles Darwin and knowledge transformed the
who ever lived". Humboldt's travels, experiments
Western science in 19th century.
was one of the founders of
Carl Ritter (1779-1859), a scholar of diversified interest,
his career as Professor in Geography
modem school of geographical thought. He started
at the University of Berlin and remained
there till his death, spending a total of 40 years
exercise profound influence on
of teaching here. During these years he was able to
not only contemporary to Humboldt, but his work
was
geographical thought. He was was towards nature,
also complementary to that of his. Where Humboldt's inclination
and Ritter
Ritter emphasized more on human. Humboldt followed systematic approach
was in favour of regiona, Although
Ritter did make some travels in Europe, he was
'Cosmos' of Humboldt, Ritter also authored
basically an armchair geographer. Just like
a great work entitled Die-Erdkunde. Die
Erdkunde is Ritter's best-known work and is
based on the regional descriptions of the earth covering largely Asia, Africa and Europe.
the earth as a
Ritter was deeply a religious man and thought that divine has created
is famous as a
school of man and looked upon it as a home of man. He, therefore,
had a vision of an ordered and
regional geographer and anthropogeographer. He also and he made it clear to his
harmonious universe. But, his approach wa_ teleological
He founded the
students how God's plan revealed in the harmony of man and nature.
Berlin Geographical Society. Ritter identified geography as an empirical and descriptive
science. According to him, geography deals with the local
conditions and embraces
natural divisions of
three attributes of a place, viz. (i) Topographical: dealing with the
the earth; (i) Formal: concerned with systematic or general features as, e.g. atmosphere,
movement of water, etc.; and (ii) Material: which describes the geographical aspects
and animals.
of natural history and cover distribution of human beings, minerals, plants
These three attributes constitute the basic content of Die-Erdkunde. This work is a survey

of the known world, i.e. based on the of three continents, viz. Asia, Africa and
study
written with distinct theme, i.e. comparative and inter-relationships,
Europe. It was a
On the basis of his work he
showing connections between man's history and nature.
considered as a science,
proved that geography also has a right to be distinctively the central
with the same dignity as other sciences. Ritter claimed that principle of
forms of nature to the human race,
geography is "the relation of all phenomena and
are examined and organized within the framework of unique geographical associations
has made a
of land and man on the earth's surface". Through "Erdkunde', Ritter
'the science of the earth', 'the
rhetorical (super-natural) claim for geography as
man'. Ritter believed that the earth to be an
description of the earth as a home of the with divine intent, to fit the needs of man
organism made, even in its smallest details,so is the
'As the body is made for soul, physical globe made for mankind'.
toperfection. termed as teleological interpretation of man-nature
This kind of explanation has been also a professional
of Humboldt, Ritter's Erdkunde was
relationships. Like the Cosmos
 CHAPTER 5 MODERN PERIOD 135

work--a product of his lifetime reading, selection, interpretation, and

wo
organizanOn o
a mass of available data. Thus, like Humboldt, Ritter also believed in the unity of
nature, and considered the earth as an organic whole. But, his approach to the study
af man-nature relationship was anthropocentric. Ritter sought to develop the concept
of terrestrial unity. He divided the earth into major continental units (Erdtele).
According to him the major continental units were to be arrived at deductively; and
the smaller units within each continent to be derived and studied with an inductive
approach, i.e. to divide the individual continental units into smaller areal units on the
basis of empirical observations. But, he could not attempt this himself due to the lack
of maps and related data. Therefore, he was forced to involve himself in teleological
speculations. However, he has always argued that the study must advance by collection
and generalzation ot data about particular localities (synthetic approach). Ritter is
often accused of making geography "a handmaiden to history"; and mixing religious
philosophy of divine purpose with objective investigation. Writers of later period,
attempted to discredit the importance of Riter's work by attacking his philosophical
concepts, in particular his teleological view of the universe. But, if one overlooks this,
there still remains a treasure of geographic insights. His main contribution is that he
conceived each individual units of the earth as inter- related complex of elements. His
plan of study became the model for regional presentations and had far-reaching
influences. Ritter became popular among geographers for his Regional Concept. His
division of the Earth consists of four levels in hierarchical order, viz.: Earth (Erdkunde);
Continental Units (Erdteile); Orographic regions at continental level; and smaller areal
or terrestrial units arrived at inductivelyat the lowestlevel. After
the Earth, the second
Ritter, are arrived at deductively. The conceptual basis of
order units, according to
this division is traditional, i.e. each continent to be sub-divided by its orography (relief
but a complex of
characteristics). He held that the continent is not a generic complex, from the detailed
individual units. The fourth order areal units are arrived at inductively
to have envisaged each continent
configuration and terrestrial mosaic. Ritter appears
as a complex of individual units
whose whole structure and content could be arrived
at by inductive procedures from the smallest areas of associated phenomena (synthetic
the regions of various orders (micro to macro
approach). In this way one can classify be discussed as: (i) Geography
and vice versa Ritter's main geographical concepts may
on deductions from rational principles
is an science and not the one based
empirical
words Ritter saw geography proceeding from
or from a priori theories. In other
There exist regional-associations of terrestrial
observation to observation; (ii)
phenomena over the surface of earth; (ii)
Geography finds coherence (inter-
of terrestrial phenomena and this view has
relationships) in the spatial arrangement
been termed later as "areal-differentiation;
(iv) The boundary lines, whether wet or
real purpose of geography,
only a means towards the
dry (rivers or mountains) are coherent areas; (v) Physical (or any other)
classification
which is understanding of the
Just the beginning forgeographiral
the earth's surface is not an end-product; is
it
of
must proceed both chorological1y
studies and not the aim; and (vi) Geographical studies
principal evolved by
Ritter was in
'Unity
and chronologically. The fundamental fundamental in the biotic and abiotic
him there is unity
Diversity'. According to
a
 136 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

components of habitat in which man sculptures his cultural environment. In such an

approach all the physical and cultural components of ernvironment are taken into
consideration and their interrelationship is established in understanding the geography
of an areal unit. This is regionalapproach. Unity in diversity means that every naturally
bounded area is in unity in respect of climate, production, culture, population and
history. Thus, Ritter's main contribution to geography was his concept of regional
associations ofterrestrial phenomena at various levels on the earths surtace. ut, he
never
recognized any basic difference between the geographicalstudy of particular
areas and the general geography. This mixing of two approaches led to dualism later.
Further, Ritter has been also criticized for his teleological or anthropocentric
interpretations. Finally, he could not break away from the thought that united
influenced by Kantian
geography with history, and here he appeared to have been In sum, Ritter's
Philosophy, although extreme generalizations were not there. which on the one hand
preparation for research covered an extremely wide field, in
natural sciences, and particularly the observational methods of nature study,
in human
predominated, but in which, on the other hand, his interest was increasingly
that geography must be an
problems. His first principle, frequently repeated, was rational
empirical science, rather than one deduced from principles-from
"The fundamental rule
philosophy-or from a priori theories of 'general geography.
from observation to
should proceed
assure truth to the whole work", he wrote, "is to
observation and not from hypothesis to observation"
If the works of both Humboldt and Ritter are compared, the writings of Varenius
acted as springboard in the thinking of both the scholars. Inspired by Varenius, they
worked towards providing geography the status of a scientific discipline. Although,
for geography, Kantian thought influenced
they did not lay any exceptionalist claim Humboldt and in
both. This influence can be seen in the classification of sciences by
the chorological perspective of Ritter. Both had a holistic approach to geography,
as

a causal
they believed in the unity of nature. This concept of unity of nature presumed of
interrelation of all the individual features in nature. Accordingly, the phenomerna
nature were required to be studied in order to establish this coherence. For both the
scholars, it was axiomatic that the unity of nature included organic as well as inorganic,
human as well as non-human, immaterial as well as material. The exclusion of any
part would destroy the coherence and unity of the whole. The writings of Humboldt
Ritter have a thrust on inter-relationships, spatial association or integration or
and
phenomena. The Physical Geography was considered as the base of all geographica
by Humboldt and Ritter. Both emphasized on the importance emplrcau
of
studies
method of research in geography. As far as the differences between the two a
concerned, Humboldt and Ritter were different from each other in their personalu
temperament and family background. Hurnboldt was born in a wealthy family an
was educated privately till the age of 18. But this was not true for Ritter, who belom
toa normal middle class family. Humboldt was a student of science and we kno nd
as
a natural scientist; whereas, Ritter was basically a religious man, a human a
regional geographer, an anthropogeographer. The sphere of research of both diftere
D O l d t worked on
general or systematic studies with a major emphasis on phys
 CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD 137

geography. Ritter, on the other hand, mainly explored the human world with regional
approach. Although both believed in the unity of nature, they differed in their
philosophical approach to geographical studies. Humboldt's work has deterministic
flavour since he considered man as a part of nature, whereas Ritter considered nature
as the habitat of man, exhibitinga possibilistic tint. For Humboldt, this unity of nature
was a balanced unity of the wholë of nature, of which man was a part; whereas for
Ritter, it was teleological, as he spoke of discovering the 'divine secrets.
Humboldt and Ritter were not only contemporary; their works wereThus,
also
complementary to each other. None of the personalities were complete in themselves
as far as their contribution to geography is concerned. The great difference in
temperament and in general outlook on life gave different colour to the work of the
two founders of modern geography, and this difference became fundamental in the
works of their followers as well. Because, they could not leave a clear framework for
our subject. Therefore, after their death in 1859 geography entered a long phase of
dualism. Coincidently, both of them died in the same year. The year 1859 marked not
only the death of Humboldt and Ritter but also the publication of Darwin's "On the
Onigin of Species".Charles Darwin(1809-1882)wasan English naturalist who estabished
the theory of organic evolution. In spite of all the diffferences, the works of Humboldt
and Ritter together, particularly Cosmos and Erdkunde did provide an almost complete
explanation for geography, in terms of its definition, content, scope, approach and
method of study.

The Post-Classical Phase

The Classical Phase of German School terminated with the death of Humboldt and
Ritter. The post-Classical period, however, in many respects may be regarded as the
critical period. The period from late 19th to mid-20th century was full of debates,
controversies, differences and dualisms. As no clearly unified field of geography was
left either by Humboldt or by Ritter, the emphasis of geographical study kept on shifting
like a pendulum. This situation became more complex with the publication of the
work of Charles Darwin. The decades after 1859 saw not only the impact of Humboldt
and Ritter, but also of the revolutionary theory of Darwin. The followers exaggerated
certain aspects of the views of each of the founders, Humboldt and Ritter.
Consequently, geography for a time kept on splitting in several directions and its
position as a branch of knowledge thereby brought into serious question. The major
problem of this phase of developmént was to overcome the apparent disunity in the
methodology of the field and thus definitely to establish its position as a single field of
Science. The shift in geographical thinking during this period came primarily due to
the works of Oscar Peschel, George Gerland, Ferdinand Richthofen, Friedrich Ratzel,
Albrecht Penck, Alfred Hettner, Otto Schluter, Alred Wagener and Walther Penck.
Most of these scholars, except Ratzel, Hettner and Schluter, promoted physically biased
studies. Ratzel was an anthropogeographer, whereas, Hettner and Schluter advocated
tor chorological perspective in geography.

Oscar Peschel (1826-1875) is described as the last great geographer before the
138 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

by the impact of Darwinian ideas'. He raised

discipline was finally overtaken
and was critical of the
fundamental questions concerning the nature of geography,
was very critical of
Ritter's method
approaches of both Humkoldt and Ritter. Peschel
units contained great deal of internal
and noted that since cont ents and large areal
in the proper
(one quite different from the other) they could not be compared
diversity in respect of clearly identifiable features
sense. Comparison was possible only
SCientitic of landforms, climatic types, or distribution
or characteristics, such as particular type
should have a definite
of plant cover. Peschel insisted that comparative geography
should seek (with
method and purpose: the geographer pursuing comparative study
features in different parts of the earth's
the help of large-scale maps) similar physical
and try to relate them all genetically
surface, compare their characteristics and origins,
Peschel thus laid a sound basis for
(following the method of comparative anatomy).
method required the student to begin by
comparative research in geography. His
"(i.e., landforms
studying topographic maps with a view to identifying "homologies
of similar types), and then try to trace their origins in each of the areas where they
occur. Peschel believed that physical and human geography constituted two entirely
could not form part of a single
separate domains of knowledge, and as such the two
science. But, he was strongly of the view that geography should be pursued primarily
as a study of the physical phenomena of the earth?. He was critical of Ritter for having
neglected physical geography, and he criticized Humboldt for not having attempted
a scientific classification of landforms. He was also critical of Humboldt for creating
the impression that general geography could be equated with natural science. He
further decried Ritter for holding a teleological view about the nature and origins of
earth phenomena, and for having subordinated geography to history. Peschel's
exhortation that in order to project its status as a science, geography should identify
itself more and more as physical geography was further advanced by two other
contemporary scholars, namely George Gerland (1833-1919) and Ferdinand Richthofen
(1833-1905). Gerland was professor of geography atthe University of strasbourg, and
had been the supervisor of the doctoral thesis of Alfred Hettner. In a long essay
published in 1887 Gerland had gone so far as to suggest that since man could not be
put to scientific analysis, study of man should be taken outside the purview
geography. Richthofen was primarily interested in geomorphologY. He had received
an advanced training in geology. In geography, Richthofen is best known for his epoch
making inaugural address delivered at the time of accepting the chair of geography at
Leipzig in 1883. In this address, he took over the idea of Humboldt and Ritter of
geography as science that is distinguished by its spatial-distributional perspective.
However, given the fact that he was himself trained as a geologist, Richthofen was in
greater sympathy with Humboldt than Ritter, and like Humboldt, he endeavoured to
restore the close connection of geography with natural sciences. According to
Richthofen, it was the distinctive purpose of geography to focus attention on the diverse
Richthofen,
distincuv
phenomena that occur in interrelation on the face of
the face of earth.
earth. But,
But, at
at the same
same time he
u
also emphasized that in order to reach useful and reliable conclusions, geographical
study of any partofearth's surface must start with a careful description of its physical
features, and from there the student should move on to examine the interrelationships
 MODERN PERIOD 139
CHAPTER 5

of other features of the earth's surface, and before anything else the physical geographic
framework should be described at the outset. But, Ratzel, a younger contemporary
o
Richthofen, was rnot in much agreement to this view. He again brought humarn
component in the fold of geographical studies. Ratzel and his work continued to be
influentialin the studies of modern
geography.
Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904) was a remarkable human geographer. The thinkers
like Charles Darwin and the zoologist like E.H. Haekel, in turn, influenced Ratzels
writings. Anthropogeographie' and 'Politische Geographie' are his two most important
literary contributions. He is also notable for advocating the doctrines of 'determinism'
and 'geopolitics' and coining the term lebensraum' (living space). After he finished
his education, Ratzel beganthe travels that converted him into a geographer. Upon
his return from the travels in 1875, Ratzel became a lecturer in geography at the
Technical High School in Munich. In 1876, he was promoted to assistant professor,
and then rose to full professor in 1880. While at Munich, Ratzel produced several
books and established his career as an academician. In 1876, he accepted an

appointmentat
Leipzig and continued
to work here till his
death.
The main
interest
o
Ratzel was in geology, zoology and comparative anatomy. He became popular among
geographers because of his work on Man-Nature relationships and Political Geography
Ratzel explored human relationships with physical surroundings in a systematic
manner (a mix of the ideologies of both Humboldt and Ritter). The findings of his
work are based on empirical observations as he approached all human-nature

relationships through travel and direct contact with the realities.

In Anthropogeographie, Ratzel explores the influence of physical
environment on
in two volumes. The basic
mankind systematically and empirically. The work runs
in 1882, is that the man and his actions
theme of the work in first volume, published
are not free from the influences of
the surroundings. They are controlled by nature.
environment in much the same way as
He believed that man is the creature of his
and survival of the fittest in animal world.
Darwin had demonstrated the adaptation
in 1891, is written with more liberal views
The second volume of the book, published
he added that the survival of man and his
on man-nature relationships. Because,
on fact that how fit and skilful he is
in
adaptation to the environment also depends
the nature differ sharply
the natural circumstances. Man's reactions to
moulding historical background. If belonging to primitive
culture
accordingly to his culture and if advanced technologically the nature's hold
then nature has a stronghold; and toRatzel,
dominant. However,
nature is according
becomes weaker. But, even then the case is the creature
modifies the surroundings, in any
the man, whether he adapts or
is a kind of adaptation p
even the act of moulding
his environment; because
OT
by nature in an indirect
manner.
work written with systematic
published Politische Geographie, the first
In 1897, Ratzel
In this book, Ratzel develops
the concept that views
approach to political geography'. grouping ontheearth's
surtace. "The state, as defined
as "a particular spatial
the state with definite organization and distribution"
Ratzel, consists of "a human group
by developed the concept of In: Lebensraum' or living space,
From these ideas, Ratzel
seeks to increase its size. If the state's
hvpothesized that the state naturally
Ratzel
140 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

neighbours are weak, the state will grow larger and spread into other states. As
evidenced, Ratzel believed that space was a great
political force. Unfortunately, the
people as Karl Haushofer and Adolf Hitler, who used these ideas to formulate their
Own theories about world
domination, misinterpreted these ideas. Ratzel's work, ina
way, was reworking of the theme developed by Ritter in his 'Erdkunde', but witha
newly established scientific method. The difference lies in two respects, viz. () Ratzel
reatedHuman Geography systematically and not regionally as done by Ritter;
() Ratzel's views were highly influenced by Charles Darwin. Ratzel saw man as the
end-product of evolution, in which the mainspring was natural selection of types
according to the human capacity to adjust to the physical environment. Thus, where
utter considered man and nature as part of harmonious whole serving the creative
purpose of God, Ratzel tended to see man as a product of his environment, molded by
physical forces that surround man, and succeeding only in so far as he made the correct
adjustment to their demands; the ultimate purpose of these adjustments, if any, lay
outside the core of his enquiry. A deterministic tint, thus, colours most of his writing
Ratzel is known as the propounder of environmental determinism in
geography.
systematically postulated the viewpoint in the later half of 19th century. According to
He
this viewpoint, man is the product of nature. It is the nature that
governs man and his
activities, and determines his way of life, living styles and also physical
Because of this postulation, Ratzel became very appearance.
U.S.A. The influence of
popular particularly Germany and
in
revolutionary biologyof Darwin led Ratzel to adopt the
organic
theory of state and society as well. The political entities (nations or states) expand or
shrink like organisms. Based on this
viewpoint, he postulated the 'Organic Theory of
State, the concept of state as an organism, a piece of
He believed that state (nation) is not humanity on the surtace ot earth.
only a spatial unit, but also a human entity, and
therefore, it is a living unit. The state is not only a man-made, but also a
However, during the Second World War, the spatial unit.
extreme form 'Organic Theory of State' attained its
explanation, and out of Political Geography of Ratzel emerged a new
of
concept, ie. the
concept of Geopolitiks'. Rudolf Kjellen, a Swedish student of Ratzel,
further elaborated on the
became the
'Organic theory of State' and coined the term geopolitics. lt
governingprinciple in Germany during the Second World War (the period
of Hitler), when Germans considered themselves as the
contribution to geography was both supreme race. Thus, Ratzel's
of 'determinism', besides philosophical methodological. His doctrine
and
being a strong
understanding the man-nature relationships.viewpoint,
also provided a method tor
Ratzel viewed man-nature
in balanced way. He gave a new definition to
a relationship
human studies
Out of his works,
particularly
in a
systematic way.
'"Anthropogeographie' and 'Political
emerged two new doctrines, viz. 'environmental determinism' Geography, there
Whatever the final verdict on Ratzel's work and 'geopolitiks
that it corrected the may be, it was of
major importance in
prevailing
and establish a more balanced
tendency to overstress the
physical aspects in geography
more firmly on systematic studies,
viewpoint. Indeed his work served to fix interest still
although
scant attention. In his book, The Makers Modern regional geography continued to receive
of Geography,
1964) states, "There is no doubt that Friedrich Ratzel hasRobert E. Dickinson (1961,
been the greatest single
 141
CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD
contributor to the development of the geography of man." But, this humanistic trend
in geographical studies Was again broken by the writings of two subsequent scholars,
Penck and Wagener.
In the name of Penck, there were two scholars, Albrecht Penck (1858-1945) and
Walther Penck (1858-1923), former being the father of latter. Albrecht Penck was
basically a geologist. He was professor first at the University of Vienna (1885-1906)
and then at Berlin (1906-26) and was also the director (1906-22) of the Institutes of
Oceanography and of Geography, Berlin. He is noted for his study on glaciation (in
the Alps), for his pioneer classification of landforms, and for his work in the
development of modern regional geography. Outstanding among his many works is
'Morphologie der Erdoberfläche' (Morphology of the Earth's Surface) (1894, Rev. Ed. 1928).
Penck particularly dedicated itself and raised the Viennese school of physical
geography to international meaning. Following the footsteps of his father, Walther
Penck was also an outstanding geomorphologist. Walther Penck was born in Vienna,
Austria. From an early age he knew would pursue a career in earth sciences. He became
a geologist in 1912 and was offered a professorship in geology at Leipzig University
Research was the lifeblood of Penck and he studied all over Europe. He was offered
many other lucrative positions but refused them on the account that it would prevent
him from continuing his research. Walther Penck's life was cut extremely short when
he died of cancer in 1923. After his death, his father, AlbrechtPenck, gathered together
his research and published the book Morphological Analysis of Landforms'. Walther Penck
contributed considerably to the field of geomorphology and more specifically to the
idea of slope development. The main opponent to Penck's view of
landform
theories and ideas of Walther Penck have
development was William Morris Davis. The
of slopes. During 1920s the ideas
provided many debates concerning the development Penck
of Davis had already captivated many in the field. disagreed strongly with
of no tectonic
Davis' idea that land is rapidly uplifted, followed by prolonged period
a

wear down the uplifted land toa flat surface

movement during which erosive features
of the grournd was continuous and
called a peneplain. Penck believed that the uplift
erosive powers, such as rivers, the slope
long-lived. He then assumed that through
would form a concave, convex or straight profile depending on the intensity of the
formation of a certain slope type, Penck
tectonic activity of the area. After the
rather low-lying, featureless plain would form called
ascertained that in some cases a
controversial and, thus, were never extremely
a primarrumpf. Penck's ideas were very
the death of Penck became
popular. But, the physical geographer who emerged after
He was Alfred Wagener, who gained popularity
nghly popular among geographers. the
geographers for postulating theory of
Continental Drift. Born in Berlin,
among and geophysicist. He studied natural
Alfred Wagener (1880-1930) was a climatologist
a doctorate in astronomy in 1904. He did
sciences at the University of Berlin, receiving
turned instead to meteorology, where
not pursue in astronomy, however, but
a career
wireless were fostering rapid advances in storm
the telegraph, Atlantic cable and
went to work at the Royal Prussian
tracking and forecasting. In 1905, Wegener
where he used kites and balloons to study the
Aeronautical Observatory near Berlin,
upper atmosphere. He also flew in hot air balloons; in 1906 he and his brother Kurt
142 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

broke the world endurance record by staying aloft for more than 52 hours.
Then,
Wegener was invited to join a Danish expedition to Greenland's unmapped northeast
coast in1906 itself. During this expedition Wegener became the first to use kites and
tethered balloons to study the polar atmosphere. When he returned to Germany
Wegener's Arctic research earned him a position at the University of Marberg where
beginning in 1909, he lectured on meteorology, astronomy, and "astronomic.
geographic position-fitting for explorers." Both students and professors were impressed
by the clarity of the young meteorologise's thinking by his ability to explain difficult
concepts in simple terms, and by the intuitive leaps of his nimble mind. In 1911, still
only 30, Wegener collected his meteorology lectures into a book, "The Thermodynamics
ofthe Atmosphere', which soon became a standard text throughout Germany. În 1912.
Wagener carried on another expedition, and this time to Greenland. During this
expedition, he collected volumes of unique scientific data. The resulting publications
established him as one of the world's leading experts on polar meteorology and
glaciology. When he returned to Marberg, he worked on continental drift; marshaline
all the scientific evidence he could find to
support his theory. Using this pioneering
nterdisciplinary approach, Wegener wrote one of the most influential books in the
history of science: "The Origin of Continents and Oceans' published in 1915. This work
was one of the first to
suggest continental drift and plate tectonics. He suggested that
a
supercontinent called Pangaea' had existed in the past; it broke up starting 200
million years ago and the pieces "drifted" to their
South America and Africa, ancient climate
present positions. He cited the fit of
similarities, fossil evidence (such as the
fern Glossopteris and Mesosaurus), and
similarity of rock structures. Because of the
First World War, Wegener's book went unnoticed outside
a third Germany. In 1922, however,
(revised) edition was translated into English, French, Rusian,
Swedish, pushing Wegener's theory of continental drift to the forefrontSpanish, and
the earth sciences. of debate in
Wegener also noted that the continents move up and down to
maintain equilibrium in a
process called 'isostasy'. He also noted that when the
continents of Africa and South America are fitted
deposits) run uninterrupted across both continents, together, mountain ranges (and coal
refit the torn pieces of a writing: It is just as if we were to
the lines of print ran
newspaper by matching their edges and then check whether
smoothly
that the pieces were in fact
across. If
they do, there is nothing left but to conclude
In spite of the fact that
joined in this way.
German School is famous for its
in
geography, by the mid of 20th
century,
physically-biased
the School showed a
studies
towards the use of chorological gradual inclination
velopment was parallel to the one viewpoint in the
discipline. Interestingly, tnis
well, and more particularly in France going
in other modern
schools of geography as
and America. Two
to have
brought this change and they are Alfred Hettner German scholars are knoWn
Hettner (1859-1941) was the and Otto Schluter.
geographer and a teacher. His Altrea
materialistic philosophy, grounded in the
work of Immanuel methodology and his
influence. He founded the journal Kant, had a grea
"Geographische Zeitschrift (1895). Hettner
to a view of classification of
to Kant's view on the
sciences, placing geography subscrioeu
as a science that was
subject. Hettner noted that on the one hand simiuar
we have a 'logical
 143
CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD
fields of learning, according to which we have series of subject-
of the
sification'
classification' of a
ciences, each concerned with the study and analysis of a logically defined circle of
facts. On the other, we have a physical classification' of fields of knowledge according
to which fields of study are defined not on the basis of logical unity of the subject
to
matter concerned, but on the basis of the physical association of phenomena of diverse
origin existing together. The physical association of phenomena may be viewed in
HuO different dimensions: Time and Space. Accordingly, physical classification of
knowledge gives us two groups of fields of study, namely, "historical sciences, which
study integrations ot diverse phenomena occurring together in the context of time;
and 'chorological sciences' which study diverse phenomena existing together in
segments of the earth's surface. Hettner has put this idea forward in the first of his
methodological essays published in the inaugural issue of his journal Geographische
Zeitschrift. Hettnervigorously encouraged the development of regional studies through
publication in the Geographische Zeitschrift. Under the leadership of Hettner, chorology
became the guiding principle of Geography in Germany, and soon all over the English
speaking worlds. An alternative view was built around 'the concept of landscape by
concentrate
Otto Schluter (1872-1952). Schluter suggested that geographers should
on the study of phenomena on the surface of earth that could be perceived through
in each area. This
the senses; and the focus should be on the totality of perception
totality of "visual perception of area" was termed as landscape. According to him,
matter of geography had raised the discipline
acceptance of landscape as the subject the
to the level of the other logically defined fields of science. incorporated
Schluter
time, in his concept geography as the
of
concept of process, i.e. development through
derivative concepts of cultural and natural
science of landscape by means of the the
'Kulturlandschafe' and Naturlandschaft'. For him
landscapes. He called them as of
of landscapes was "not only of classifying categories
purpose of the study
distribution and associations, but of examining
phenomena and determining their time." The concept of
their characteristics through the process of change through
and the related methodological principles of Schluter have also been widely
landscape German before the Second World War.
used by geographers other than the
and Ritter in 1859 till the First World War,
Thus, after the death of Humboldt this shift
of geographical studies kept on shifting in Germany. Although
emphasis to Physical
and Systematic (Peschel, Gerland),
was evident in the form of Physical
Human (Ratzel), to primarily
to Systematic and
and Regional (Richthofen, Penck),
Schluter) and predominantly
Physical (Wegener, Penck) during
Kegional (Hettner, bias was very
School of Thought, the physical
the post-Classical phase of German
the contribution of German school goes to
strong in most of these works. Altogether and
viz.
geography, Physical Geography, Kegional Geography
three major fields of works are concerneda special mention may
Geography. As far as the literary
Human Generalis (Varenius); the Cosmos (Flumboldt);
Die Erdkunde
Geographia
Demade of Anthropogeographie Besides, Hettner
and Politische Geographie (Ratzel).
(Ritter); and
of a
named
geographical journal 'Geographische
1S credited to begin the publication and
The concepts of Determinism, Geopolitics
Zeitschrift" since 1895 onwards. Germans thereby adding new terms to the
Lebensaraum were also put forward by
144 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT
vocabulary of Geography. On the negative side, Geography also became dualistic in
nature during this phase of development. Two forms of dualism were found rooted
cleariy in the works of Post-Clasical period German scholars. They were Systematic
overcome this of the field
separation
eTsus Kegional' and Physical versus Human'. To
into distinct directions, Hettner regarded it necessary to make choroiogical concept
dominate. Consequently, the geographical development in Germany largely showed
studies) in the late 19th and early
a tilt towards chorology (the regional/landscape
20th century.

FRENCH SCHOOL
While the German tradition
France entered the modern era shortly after Germany.
owe much of their tradition to one man,
quickly filled with new scholars, the French
Paul Vidal de la Blache. Blache is credited for establishing an entire generation of
various fields of geography. The
geographers, who made valuable contributions to
of interest in geographyin France dates from the country's losses in the
awakening
Franco-Prussian (German) War in 1870-017. Smarting under this defeat in Europe,
France sought compensation in new lands in Africa and South-East Asia. Besides the
Colonial expansion of France in African and South-East Asian countries after the
Franco-German War, there were two other reasons for the evolution of French School
of Geographical Thought, viz. the impact of Darwinian Evolutionary thought and big
advances in the study of human societies. The newly founded geographical societies
in the provinces of France were the leaders of the movement in favour of colonial
expansion. It caused the people to be interested in the discipline of geography. It was
out of this backgrournd that in the last quarter of 19th century there emerged a new
school of modern geographers in France under the leadership of Blache. But, geography
could not emerge as an independent discipline in France till the end of 19th century. It
because Geography in France in the latter half of 19th century was in the hands of
few historians, who taught geography merely as a background to history. Moreover,
there was a division between the faculties of Science and Letters (Humanities), so that
geographers who were in the Faculty of Letters (Humanities) were not allowed to
givelectures on physical geography, which was reserved to the Faculty of Science.
Courses on regional, colonial and human geography were prominent in the Faculty of
Letters (Humanities) and that on
Physical geography in the Faculty of
However, it was due to the efforts of Blache that geography in France could Science
and there emerged new a (unified) get unified
geography in France in the beginning of 20tn
century. The beginning of 20th century from this point of view may be considered the
watershed between the Old and the New Geography France. Up to that time, the
lectures were given either by historians, or were devised as
subordinate to the teaching
of history. In such circumstances, geography was considered as mere description or
the environmental influence upon historical
geography emerged as an independent field indevelopment.
But, in the 20th centu
France; and after the First World War
(1914) it was well represented in all the universities and nearly all the professors wer
pupils of Vidal de la Blache.
 MODERN PERIOD 145
CHAPTER 5

Contribution

The growth of geography in France, unlike that in Germany with its several distinct

schools of thoughthas been shaped by the work of one man. For about 4to 5 decades
in the late 19th and early 20th century, geography in France was largely a one-man
show. Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918) was the leader of French School of Geographical
Thought. For generations his school was dominant and nearly all the professors ana
the occupants of chair in geography were either the pupils or the pupils of Blache. No
country ot comparable age, population, universities and resources has produced such
a galaxy of genius, as did France. They altogether have made outstanding contributions
to geography primarily in three ways: (i) to the status of discipline, as an integrating
link betweenthe humanities and natural sciences; (i) to the scope of subject, i.e. towards
its consequential acceptance in the higherstudies as an analytical field and to the use
of geographers in the governmental work; and (ii) to the development of its inner
framework, particularly through the research in regional, human and historical
geography. Blache dominated the scene for nearly 4 decades. The firsthalf of his career
covers the last quarter of 19th century when he was a junior contemporary of
Richthofen, Ratzel and Wagner, and learned much from them. He was particularly
influenced by the second volume of 'Anthropogeographie' (1891) of Ratzel. The latter
half of Blache's career was in the first quarter of 20th century and he was then virtually
contemporary with Penck and Hettner. This period also saw the florescence of his
school with the publication of massive doctorate studies by his pupils. This tradition
also continued even after his death. In the first quarter of 20th century there emerged
the first generation of scholars with the inspiration of Blache. Distinguished scholars
of this phase included Auguste Himly, Elisee Reclus, Franz Schrader, Lucien Gallois
and De Margerie. The outstanding students of Blache who dominated the professional
scene in second quarter of 20th century make up the second generation; they include
Jean Bruhnes, Camille Vallaux, Albert Demangeon, Em de Martonne, Andre Seigfried,
Raoul Blanchard, Jules Sion, Henri Baulig, Rene Musset, etc. The younger scholars as
Andre Cholley, George Chabot, Roger Dion and Pierre Deffontaines emerging after
Second World War belong to third generation. The fourth generation represents still

younger geographers as Jean Gottmann, Garnier,

B.
Pinchemel, Pierre Vilar, etc. Thus,
influence of Blache penetrated rightinto the late 20th century. Geography, France,
in
the
had a subsidiary position. Blache proceeded to direct geography away from its
in historical studies. His approach to geography was empirical. He
stultifying place as substantial monographs in
encouraged detailed field studies and their publication
the Annals de Geographie', which he founded. Under his vigorous leadership, various
after Ritter, it was Blache who
university departments undertook field studies. fact,
In

re-emphasized the regional studies and synthetic approach in geography, Blache put
forward two inter-related viewpoints in geography, viz. Possibilism' and 'Genre de
Vie'. Emm de Martonne collected all the major works and articles of Blache in the

form of a book 'Principles of Human GeoSraphy, published in 1921, after the death of
Blache. Blache drew attention to the need for detailed regional studies to elucidate the
influence of the rich variety of factors-physical, historical, political and economic-
146 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

which affect the existing pattern of an area. From detailed regional studies could be
built up a synthesis of general and
comparative studies, wherein the causes and
consequences of factors would be clarified. This later led him to plan the great
Geographic Universelle', the best complete study of the world on a regional basis
available in any language. Finally, Vidal de la Blache encouraged a number of students
to take up regional studies. With the inspiration of Blache, there began the publication
of a series of 'Regional Monographs' in France. This trend continued even after his death
and included regional studies not only of France, but also of its colonial territories and
other parts of the world. The major thrust of the work of Blache was on the study of
man-environment relationship and from the point of view of man. We know him as a
great human geographer.
Among other scholars the contributions of Auguste Louis Himly, Élisée Reclus
Franz Schrader, Lucien Gallois, Jean Bruhnes, Camille Vallaux, Albert
Demangeon,
Emmanuel de Martonne, Andre Seigfried, Raoul Blanchard, Henry Baulig, Jules Sion,
René Musset, Pierre Deffontaines, Roger Dion, Pierre Vilar Jean Gottmann and
Philip
Pinchemel need special mention. Auguste Louis Himly (1823-1906) was a historian
and geographer. He wrote, in two volumes, his remarkable 'Histoire de la
formation
territoriale des etats de l'Europe centrale", in which he showed with a firm touch, the
reciprocal influence exerted by geography and history. Francois Jean Daniel Schrader
(1844-1924), better known as Franz Schrader, was a geographer, mountaineer,
cartographer and painter. He contributed to the understanding and mapping of the
Pyrenees. While devoting most of his spare time to long hikes in the mountains, during
which he collected thousands of data records for its
time to paint landscapes,
topography, he still used to find
including the Pyrenees Alps. In addition to the immense
work that left us this great
geographer, the scientific committee today that Franz
Schrader had established in the French Alpine Club still
exists, and the Society of
Painters Mountain-Paris. Lucien Louis
the Ecole Normale
Joseph Gallois (1857-1941) was a student at
Superieure in Paris, where he took classes from Paul Vidal de la
Blache. Gallois made major contributions to the Annales de
journal that was founded with his mentor, Blache, and aftergeographie, geographical
a
the latters' death in 1918,
he assumed directorship of
Geographie universelle, a
major project
geography of the whole world. Gallois had a keen interest involving
involving regional
the history of
geography and cartography, as made evident by an influential 1890 study on German
geographers of the Renaissance titled Les geographes allemands de la Renaissance. Another
noted publication of his was
Regions naturelles et noms de pays: Etude sur la region
Parisienne (Natural Regions and
Bruhnes (1869-1930) was a leading
Country Names: A Study of the Paris region). Jean
exponent of systematic (as opposed to regional)
geography in France. Bruhnes is well known because of the English translations of the
works of Blache on Human
Geography. Bruhnes elaborated a system of "Human
Geography" with its raw material in "the visible and tangible facts" of the human
activity on earth's surface. He has called these the 'essential facts' of the human
geography. Similarly, if one adds the physical facts of the landscape-surface
configuration, vegetation, soils in their surface expressions as forms of terrain, then
we have 'the essential facts of geography'. The essential facts of
geography are divided
 CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD 147

into three: (1) Facts of

unproductive occupation of the soil roads, settlemens
etc.); (ii) Facts of plant and animal conquest (e.g. cultivation (houses,
of crops, animal husbandry,
plantations, etc.); and (ii) Facts of destructive economy or exploitation (i.e. negave
use of land, e-g. clearing of
forests, hunting and mining, etc.). These were examined
'regional studies' to show
the interdependence of these
phenomena
physical and social environments. According to Bruhnes, study
in
contrasted
of these three sets of
observable phenomena does not set the limit of
geography, a fact that is not area of
appreciated. Beyond the essential facts, but in association with them, is angenerally
wider study. This is described as "the geography of history", and it embraces five
aspects: (1) The distribution of population (static conditions and migrations);
(ii) Geography of work or economic activities (related to
production, transport,
exchange, etc.); (ii) Geography of political control or power of man (territory, routes
and frontiers, groups of states); (iv)
Geography of civilization or social geograpny
(nationalities, races, languages, religions, intellectual, artistic and technical phenomena)
and social attitudes (mentality, organization, judicial, social) where these are associated
with essential facts; and (v) Regional Geography (i.e. a synthesis of all the above).
Camille Vallaux (1870-1945) was an eminent geographer and
pioneer of
The originality of Vallaux is to have directed its work towards the oceanograpny
geography ot sea
and oceans. Various publications that go to his credit include: Low Brittamy, Study of
Human Geography (1907), Thesis of Doctorate. Republished in (1980); Seas and Oceans
(1932); and General Geography of the Seas (1933). Albert Demangeon (1872-1940) was an
outstanding promoter of regional and human geography. He wrote great number of
articles in the Annales de Géographie and also collaborated in the sprouting of the
magazine Annales de Economic and Social Historia. Demangeon was highly influenced
by Blache to whom he inherited his inductive and historicist methodology. Jean
Gottmann and Pierre Vilar were his disciples. His best-known works include Le Déclin
de L'Europe (1920), L'Empire britannique (1923), and Les les britanniques (1927). Emmanuel
de Martonne (1873-1955) was one ofthe leading physical geographers of 20th century.
He was highly influenced by the American geographer W.M. Davis. Topicaly, he
concentrated on geomorphology, especially the processes of mountain glaciation,
peneplain development, and hydrography. As a regional geographer, he contributed
numerous studies: on districts in France, Rumania, the Alps, Central Europe, etc. But
his most important legacy was his lifelong project, the Traité de Géographie Physique.
This first appeared in two volumes in 1909, and had expanded to three volumes
fourth edition of 1925-27, and
(including a separate one for biogeography) by the
eventually reached a tenth edition by the time of Martonne's death. Andre Seigfried
was the French political scientist
and educator. Siegfried's works were
(1875-1950)
dedicated to the study of geopolitics of its time, to the history of countries like United
States, England, New Zealand and France, and to economic and political geography.
Raoul Blanchard (1877-1965) was a highly skilled and prolific writer with remarkable
personality.He wrote a monograph on Flanders that earned him the chair of geography
at the University of Grenoble, a position he held tor 50 years. But, later the Alps became
his privileged field of study and the object of several works. He established the Institute
of Alpine Geography and founded its journal, the Review of Alpine Geography, in 1908.
148 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

He completed a classic 12-volume work on the French Alps in 1956. Henri Baulio

(1877-1962) was aFrench specialist in geomorphology.

While following a
at
course
the American
the University of Harvard in 1904, he came
under the intluence ot
Since Baulig wa
founder of geomorphology.
geographer: William Morris Davis, the
he adopted the approach ot
his master,
the
mainly interested in physical geography,
to the cycles of erosion.
Pierre Deftontaines (1894
genesis of form and its relationship known for his work in humar
and is mainly
1978) was a disciple of Jean Brunhes
São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro
Institute of Geography of
geography. He founded the historians of 20th
Vilar (1906-2003) were great
Roger Dion (1896-1981) and Pierre idea of fundamental human science
century. Vilar was committed to the history as a

to the discipline was always historical

Geography was his first calling, but approach
his
the Annals of Lucien Febvre. Jean Gottmann
Therefore, he contributed regularly to
was a French geographer
who was most widely known for his seminal
(1915-1994) His main contributions were to
study on the urban region of Megalopolis.
Northeast
fields of urban, political, economic, historical
hutman geography and they were in the
from France and the
and regional geography. His regional specializations ranged
Mediterranean to the United States, Israel and Japan. Philipp Pinchemel (1923-2008)
was a disciple of André Cholley. Faced with the evolution of contemporary geography
social sciences, he had the desire to refocus the geography
of what he calls the
to the
humanize (or transformation
terrestrial interface. On this interface part two processes:
of the natural environment) and spatial (or spatial organization clusters, networks,
in
The Face of the Earth that he wrote is the result
political or administrative boundaries). manifesto for
of his intellectual journiey, a reflection on the focus of geography. It is a
human
the unity of the discipline. Geography is defined as the study of writing on
reach
societies the natural interface of the Earth, writing that reflects the geographic
men, writing complex made of lines, points, surfaces, shapes,
volumes and colour
From there, Pinchemel developed a general conception, ambitious in geography: access
to "the intelligence of the terrestrial interface". For him, discipline is knowledge, action
and thought. Philippe Pinchemel made known the great works of the "new geography
by the early 1970s. They were "The Spatial Analysis in Human Geography" bye
Haggett and "The Geography ofMarkets and Trade Detail" of Brian Berry. From the 105
Philippe Pinchemel published the collection of the Works Committee Historical and
Scientific Works of Geographers (often forgotten or ignored by the scientiric
community) contributing to clarify the basis of geography (epistemological and
historical) and testifying to its will continue to define its "essence"
The French school largely contributed to human studies with regional approacn
particularly emphasizing on the historical, economic, political, colonial and electora
aspects. Besides, the modern French scholars are also credited to have put forward
three interrelated doctrines, viz. 'Possibilism', 'Genre de Vie' and
'Paysage
Regional Geography
Mainly Vidal de la Blache, Gallois and Martonne have produced a large number o
regional monographs, particularly on French regions. French regional geography
 MODERN PERIOD 149
CHAPTER 5

scientific and is the product of the synthesis of geological and historical schoolsS.
Contribution to regional studies has been made through the works like Geographie
Universelle series, Bibliographie Geographie Internationale (founded by Blache and known
as Annals de Geographie), and Paris Geographical
the
Society (founded in 1921 and the
oldest in world). Blache insisted that the geographical research and
concentrate on the study of particular areas-small and accessible enough training srou
for thorough
study in the field. By region he did not mean the clearly bounded area in space as a
frame for areal description. Instead he classified it to be an area selected on the basis
of some homogenous (similar) characteristics and where there is an inter-dependence
of areal phenomena.

Human and Historical Geography

The French have excelled in the study and development of Human Geography. In
this, as in regional, they have brought to their geographical work a fine literary style
and a
firmhistorical background that is particularly important in this aspect of
geography. Here again the work of Blache is pre-eminent. His Principles de Geographie
Humaine, is regarded by geographers as a classic. Ratzel was used as a springboard in
the thinking of social scientists in general. Blache and his collengues developed from
Ratzel's "geographical determinism" what began to be called "geographical
Possibilism". This field of human geography as founded by Blache was fully discussed
and its limitations were pointed out in an outstanding workby Lucien Febvre (Professor
of History in the University of Strasbourg) in a work published in France in 1922,
translated into English and published in 1924 as A Geographical Introduction to History.
This book is a critical reflection of the Vidalian concept of human geography and is an
important work in the history of geography.Another early writerinhuman geography
was Jean Bruhnes, a pupil of Vidal de la Blache. Bruhnes published his Geographie
Humaine in 1910; it was revised and ernlarged in 1912, 1925 and 1934. The book was
published in America in 1920 as Human Geography, being translated and edited by I.
Bowman, R.E. Dodye and T.C. Le Comple. This book was the first large-scale attempt
in France to examine fully the geographical facts in human economy. He has described
and analysed the patterns of man's occupancy of the earth as expressed in housing

types in villages and town sites, their shapes and development and changing forms of
communication. He has also discussed man's conquest and adaptation of the vegetable
and animal kingdoms and man's destructive or robber economies of mineral extraction.
All these matters were examined universally as a world picture and in a comparative

manner.
Deffontaines other
outstanding human
Albert Demangeon (1872-1940) and
were
had become the most
geographers of France. By the time ofset himself Demangeon
his death
two aims, first to produce a manual
distinguished exponent of the field. He
of Human Geography, and secondly, to write an Economic Geography of France. One
of Demangeon's greatest interests was Rural Settlement in France. On the question of
concentration or dispersion as the vital matter.
Settlement, he regarded the degree of
His work attracted great attentionat the Interrnational Geographical Congress at Cairo
150 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Human GeOßraphy
and Paris (1931). Demangeon defined to the physical
(1925), Cambridge (1928) societies in their
relationships
human groups and ernvironment by
as the study of
the
man in modifying
on the work of evolution of
environment. He laid emphasis rivers, and the
artisan wells, the control of he rejected
means of
communications, behind his studies,
If considers the principle is given by
new plants for
human food. one
nature of geography
of the
crude determinism. A further examination
of study
the is the struggle of man
of Bruhnes. One aspect results achieved and
Deffontaines, a collaborator analyses the
and the other aspect
against his raw
environment
one side are
man's struggles againstdeserts
the and limits. Thus, on the of settlement.
classifies types and on the other
side the geography
rivers, Deffontaines
mountains, forests, seas, the harsh environment).
colonization (i.e. winning which there is an
transport, and of human occupancy;
one in
differentiated two types
of regions intensive and
human economy and
the other where through
individual pattern of influences.
life is the result of many complicated
long contact present day

Political and Colonial Geography

geography. Siegfried
Ancel have brilliantly promoted political
Andre Siegfried and Jean of geography among
has been most successful in securing
recognition of the value
on the political and
and outside France. His lectures
economists and politicians inside in the French
of the Great Powers are regarded as outstanding
economic geography Panama Canals
the United States, the Suez and
academic world. His books on England,
successful among geographers and general
and the Mediterranean have been highly
translations. Seigfried has indeed interpreted
readers in the world and have had many
of the geographical factors. Jean Ancel, pupil
a
to the general reader the significance and Central
of the Balkans
of Demangeon, produced studies on the political geography
was a staunch opponent of
German "8eopolitics" as developed by
Europe. Ancel
Haushofer.
which French have made their great
Among other fields, it is Colonial Geography stimulated particularly after
contributions. The interest in Colonial Geography was
French conception of Colonial
the Franco-Prussian War. Demangeon best expresses the
translation 1925
Geography in his book "L' Empire Britannique" (1923, with English
and German 1926). Here he explains that it is not merely a question of studying the
of the regional
regional geography of the colonies, for that is part of the normal work of two
geographer. Rather, it is a study of the geographical effects of the contact types
of peoples associated by the fact of colonization.

Physical Geography
Since Geography first evolved in France from history, the whole emphasis of its trenu
has been with the humanities. The development of Physical Geography was slower
and was effected by geographers taking further training in geology or by geolog
becoming interested in surface forms. It is Emm de Martonne who was the first Frencn
tne
geographer to concentrate on Physical Geography. He has produced one of
 MODERN PERIOD
151
CHAPTER5

"Traite ae
fundamental geographical texts for geographers the world over, namely
Geographie Physque 909).This classic work has been translated into manylanguages
Martonnealso brought to completion in 1943 the magnificent 'A tlas de France An
mention. Blanchard,
the other French physical geographers Blanchard needs a special
reference has already
apart from studies in Human and Regional Geography, to which himselt in
been made, also did lengthy work on the French Alps; and distinguished
and peneplain surtaces.
Central Massif, particularly in its several erosion
analyzing the to
He also tried work out the consequences of physical factors upon man's economy.

The Doctrines of "Possibilism', 'Genre de Vie' and "Paysage

able to put forward
With the union of regional and human approaches, Blache was Possibilism, Blache
of
the doctrines of "PoSsibilism and 'Genre de Vie'. As a proponent
considered that the main task of geographer is to
correlate the physical and human
He viewed this man-nature
conditions on the basis of their spatial inter-relations.
the doctrine of
from the point of view of m a n and, thus, opposed
relationship is that the physical
Environmental Determinism'. The main theme
of Possibilism'
choice. This
of possibilities to man and man makes a
surroundings provide a range m a n establishes
choice depends onhis needs, aspirations and capacities. Secondly,
In other
as a group or society.
with nature not as an individual, but
relationships the prism of culture. 'Culture'
here includes
words, m a n views this relationship through skills,
language, diet, habits, customs,
beliefs, institutions, traditions, attitudes, religion, o w n habitat, the local modified
m a n creates his
technology, etc. In this way, distinct landscape
environment, within which
the m a n lives and acts. This habitatisa
been termed as
man's and usage. This landscape has
created because of occupancy
Blache. with
Thirdly,
paysage' at macro level in French by
pays' at micro level and and environment
level of interaction of m a n
and cultural advancement the well. Thus, the possibilistic
time in human life-styles as
increases. This brings changes demands a three-fold
m a n - e n v i r o n m e n t relationships
the study of
approach to perspectives.
i.e. in terms of 'spatial,'cultural and historical (temporal) and
interpretation, of life of a society, its cultural,
socio-economic
In other words, the present ways of the physical
is the result of the history of its occupation
overall development, notable historian of his
friend of Blache and also a
Lucien Febvre, a
surroundings. framework of Possibilism'. While
Blache recognized
times, supported the conceptual sciences, both natural
and social, neither was as
to the
geography's relatioship as its connection with
human activity. He stressed
geography's
to identity
important naturai environment. As a regional
m a n in relation to his
the importance in viewing
to view man within a physical
milieu, or 'pays', or within
geographer, he preferred is a natural region with
his cultural milieu,
vie'. A
'genre de
or pays', accordingly,
Massif Central
physical characteristics, such as the mountainous
some homogeneous
A 'genre de vie', on the other hand,
is a way of living or local culture.
region in France.
habits, foods, etc. of a people. In other
It includes the traditions, institutions, language,
one may identify a region with regard
words, when ones studies geography regionally,
characteristics and its human characteristics. According to
to both, its physical
152 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

determinists, the human response to environment is the same in similar physical

Circumstances. Contradicting this viewpoint the possibilists believe that even the similar
de Vie) depending upon
physical circumstances can generate different life-styles (Genre
Thenature sets limits and
and system of occupancy of land.
the culture, economy
offers possibilities for development, but the way man adjusts to natural conditions of
the area of his inhabitancy is largely a function of his own tradition and mental
different meanings to people
structuring. Therefore, the same environment carries
with different Genres de Vie (ways of life or culture). According to Blache, culture
(inherited trait) is the basic factor in determining which of the many possibilities in
natural environment should be selected or exploited by a givencommunity. He drew
attention to the fact that the complex of institutions, traditions, attitudes and technical
skills which make upa Genrede Vie, largely determine which of the many possibilities
offered by nature in any given area shall be selected for development. Blache was
of
opposed to the concept of dichotomy between 'natural'and'cultural aspects earth's
surface; instead, he considered them as the two ends of the same continuum. To him,
natural and cultural aspects of earth's surface cannot be separated from each other. It
is because, he reasoned, in every inhabited part of the earth's surface, the original
landscape is significantly transformed as a result of human habitation. Such changes
are greater in the case of culturally advanced societies where, owing to the more
developed technology, the degree of man's intervention in nature is more far-reaching
(Dikshit, 1997, pp. 85-86, 92-93, 245). It is, therefore, impossible to study landscapes
meaningfully without due reference to the interlocking roles of the nature and culture.
The relationship of a community to the physical landscape of the area of its inhabitancy
is so intimate that it is difficult to think of the one without the other. As such, each
segment of the cultural landscape, with the passage of time, acquires a uniquue
personality of its own. Such areas were named as pays'. According to Blache, the
study of such regions constitutes the primary task of geography as a professional
field. Thus, in his scheme of geography, Blache asserted thathumanoccupancy creates
homogeneity even where natural features are not homogeneous. The 'cosmopolitan
urban culture' may be cited here as an example.
Blache sought to establish geography as a distinct discipline. Its field ofstudy is
the "ensemble of phenomena that occurs in the zone of contact of solid, liquid, and
gaseous masses that make up the planet" (Recent German scholars refer to this as the
'geosphere). These phenomena are studied in relation to 'place, localization and
distribution'. Thus, the field of study has a double aspect-Nature and Man. To explain
their expression on the earth's surface one needs to borrow from both the natural
sciences and the humanities, especially from geology and history. He outlines the
distinctive characteristics of geography and claims that study has its goal in
the
characteristics and groupings of the phenomena of the landscape as the expression or
man's presence and works in it. Blache lists the distinctive concepts of the discipline
as: () Geography is a distinct discipline essentially concerned with the phenomena
that occur in the zone of contact of solid, gaseous and liquid materials (geosphere);
(i) The field of geography has double aspects, i.e. nature and man and therefore, it
borrows from both the natural sciences and the humanities; (ii) Geography recognizes
 MODERN PERIOD
153
CHAPTER 5

the earth phenomena and is concerned with their inter-dependence and

the unity of
inter-connections; (iv) Geography seeks for scientific methods (as human, regional
and classifying terrestrial
and historical approaches followed by Blache) of defining
man played in moditying
phenomena; and (v) Geography recognizes the great role of
his basic environment.
the two World
To conclude, the French School had been in the forefront between
outside the country and in
Wars. The French geographers were read and appreciated
not exist any dualism
social sciences as well. However, unlike in Germany, there did in only
between and human studies in France. Because, the French believed
physical de
or 'paysage', the cultural (human) landscape. Principles
one kind of landscape
'Atlas of Geography
Geographie Humaine, the Annals de Geographie' (Blache) 1891 onwards; Universelle';
and History' in 1894; 'Tableau de la Geographie de la France' 1903;'Geographic
in
Humaine (Bruhnes, 1910); and "Traite de Geographie Physique'
(Emm de
"Geographie French geographers.
Martonne, 1909) are important literary contributions by modern

AMERICANSCHOOL
discovered only in the 15th century.
American Continent as part of the New World was
was introduced by Europeans
in American Institutes.
Geography as academic discipline Princeton and Pennsylvania were
The Harvard, Dartmouth, Mary, Yale, Columbia,
education in Geography. However, geography
the earliest Universities imparting The
here at least up to mid-19th century.
remained an unorganized discipline
was constituted in 1851,
and thereafter the discipline
American Geographical Society credited to the scholars
The initial development is
started making steady progress. William Ferrel,
Samuel Forry, J.H. Coffin, Elias Loomis,
like P. Marsh, M.F. Maury, influence of Darwin
Agassiz, Arnold Guyot, etc. By 1880s, the
G.K. Gilbert, J.W. Powell, There w a s a shift from Ritterian
o n American Geography.
had become strong paradigm
tradition to hypothetic-deductive based geography. till Darwin's
teleological all the Old traditions the emergence of
Davis's replaced
in conjugation with that of 1880 may, therefore, be called
view of Carl Sauer in 20th century. The year
Landscape thereon marks the
watershed' in the history of American Geography. The period
the status. The
in the discipline, giving it an independent
beginning of professionalism role in bringing this professionalization
in the
of W.M. Davis played a great
writings in geographical research,
continent. As a result more
and more scholars were involved
and specialization and
the subject into a discipline of advance learning
converting in the
W.M. Davis was the leading promoter of geography
continued research. Just as of the 2nd
Carl Sauer the dominant figure
late 19th and early 20th century,
so was

quarter of 20th century.

integrate the elements, viz. Nature and Man. This he did
two
Davis sought to
marked dualism prevailed in the discipline, i.e. between
after period in which a
a
Davis found the key in the
exclusively physical geography and geography of man.
the
Darwinian evolutionary approach that regarded the lacts of nature and man as existing
continuous chain of cause and effect. Definite shifts
in a 'harnmonious relationship' in a
 154 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of emphasis took place from the environmental approach in the 1920s. Now, the laered
and Haran Barrows. Ther
Carl Sauer
from men trained
in Chicago, notably so-called
'naïve environment
tal
came to the
and writing; and
alternative
search for a n
eager
an routine of thinking
was
tended to fell into a simple the goals wcre cleari.
determinism' that analysis, o n c e y
methods of geographical
effective various expressions
search for more
relations assumed
to land-man in America. BarrOws
The revised approach
set.
in France and in
the form of ecology and chorology
the notion of environmental
possibilism shifted
of man'. He
the
to be 'ecology that man adiust
adjustment, meaning thereby
claimed geography
environmental
of and technical
to to 'attitudes, objectives
influence one
environment, according
himself to and utilizes
his the life of m a n on earth
Further, in focusing geography upon
abilities' of the group. in so far as they were
of the earth would only be investigated
the physical aspects those of the ChicagoSchool
Barrow's views expressed
relevant to man's occupancy. influenced by them. The
and geographers from that school were
in the 1920s many Sauer. They rejected
most active group, however, emerged
through contact with Carl
influences as the central purpose
of geography, and in
the concept of environmental w a s to be studied with
its place advocated the study
of "landscape'. This "landscape'
functiorns and patterns of the elements
and their associations in
respect to its forms, environment or as the
area-whether the expresion of adjustments to the physical
as
These were the views of the self
cultural deposits of the group occupying the area.
on areal
a field for geography based
styled 'chorographers'. They formulated Their credo is expressed in
characterization, rather than environmental relationship?,
the statement: "We conceive of the earth's surface as composed of a 'mosaic of spaces',
both natural and cultural
differing in their surface impressions as exhibited through is the
features. To delimit these spaces, to describe and interpret their characteristics
field of geography. By this definition, geography becomes a comparative study of the
earth's regions." The physical bias in geographical studies is also clearly evident in
the works of American scholars prior to Davis. This bias continued even inthethinking
of Davis and his followers, with an inclination towards environmentalism. Since the
times of Carl Sauer, a chorological tilt has replaced everything. However, the American
writers after Sauer seem to be mainly interested in defining the nature of geography
and its development over the
Hartshorne and Thomas Kuhn.
years in general. Notable among these were Richard

Contribution
The American scholars have ceaselessly contributed to
geography since the beginning
of 19th century to the end of 20th century. The
prominent ones include, for instant
M.F. Maury, Louis Agassiz, Arnold Guyot, Samuel
Forry, Elias Loomis, William Ferrel,
John Wesley Powell, Grove Karl Gilbert, W.M. Davis, Ellen Churchill Semple, Ellswortr
Huntington, Harlan Barrows, Carl Sauer, Richard Hartshorne, Thomas Kuhn, etc
Of theearliest American scholars, M. F.
Maury (1806-1873) truly deserves in ter
of greatness and fame. He joined the Navy in 1825 and
inspired by his naval profession
he began recording information on the ocean currents and winds.
This informatio
 MODERN PERIOD 155
CHAPTER 5

was the basis for many of his publications that earned him the title of "Pathfinder
of te
Seas", Jean Louis Kodolphe Agassiz (1807-1873) earned him the title of " Pathfinaer
the Seas." was a swiss-born American zoologist,
the first world-clasS American
glaciologist, and geologist, and o
scientists. Louis Agassiz's primary work was on the
classification ot living and fossil
fish-ichthyology. He also promoted the concept ora
great "Ice Age" in the recent geological past. Agassiz was the first to scientifically
Dropose that the Earth had been subject to a past Ice Age. On this theme he
the work entitled Etudes sur les glaciers ("Study on Glaciers") in which he publishea
discusSsed
the movement of glaciers, their moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding
the rocks over which they travelled, and in producing the striations seen in Alpine
style landscapes. A friend and contemporary of Agassiz was Arnold Guyot (1807
1884). Guyot's interests were in glaciology, physical geography, meteorology and
cartography. His early studies on the flow of ice ànd the distribution of glacial erratics
inSwitzerland served to underpin the theory of glaciation that had been
advancedd
and championed by his close associate, Agassiz. His main activities focused on
hypsometric measurements of the eastern mountains from New England to North
Carolina, on meteorology, and on the reform of geographic teaching in colleges and
secondary schools. Guyot made fundamental contributions to the study of geology,
glaciology, and meteorology of two continents, namely Europe and America. Samuel
Forry (1811-1844) was basically a physician. He worked in the U.S. army as surgeon
and also practiced in New York City contributing many articles to the New York Journal
of Medicine. He is the author of "The Climate of the United States and its Endemic Injluences
(New York, 1842) and "Meteorology" (1843). Although Elias Loomis (1811-1889) was a
professor of natural philosophy and not strictly a geologist, his contributions to
atmospheric science and geomagnetism are important components in the development
of the earth sciences. Loomis encouraged the use of the growing national telegraph
to record weather conditions around
system in the 1850s, especially as used by military
the United States. He was the first to use these synoptic data to map the air pressure
differences across parts of the country. On these maps the isobars define high pressure
well
and low-pressure areas. Loomis, in a sense, was the originator of experimental as
as observational meteorology. William Ferrel (1817-1891), a meteorologist, developed
circulation cell in detail, and it
theories which explained the mid-latitude atmospheric
demonstrated that it is the tendency of
is after him that the Ferrel cell is named. Ferrel
Coriolis Effect, to pull in air from more southerly,
rising warm air, as it rotates due to the It is thisrotation which creates the complex
warmer regions and transport it pole ward.
the north from the
curvatures in the frontal systems separating the cooler Arctic air to
John (1834-1902) is an
Wesley Powell
warmer continental tropical air to the south.
world geomorphology of 19th century. He is
important name in the American and
Colorado Canyon (1869), emphasizing river
well known for exploration of the Great
and temporal erosion base, classification and
erosion, for the theory of absolute
basins, genetic types of and structural
rivers types
erminology of landforms, drainage
in foundation of Geological Survey and Land Office.
of valleys. In 1879 he helped of the late 19th century.
was another important geologist
Grove Karl Gilbert (1843-1918) on mechanics of river processes. But he also h.
He is known for his geological study
 156 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

merits for many new ideas, e.g. the theory on dynamic equilibrium of river profil
and concept of grade, which were crucial in constructing of Davisian geographical
cycle. His geomorphologic inventions were also the explanation of many other aspects
of the shore-lines of ancient iak
o geomorphology, as for example, the up warping kes,
the study of climatic influence orn land forming, the law of uniformity of the slopes
the laws of declivities and structure, the law of divides, the idea of lateral planati
1on
and origin of pediments, etc.
All the above scholars who wrote prior to W.M. Davis (1850-1934) coverod
numerous aspects of physical geography in their studies, ranging from meteoroloo
oceanography, glaciology and ichthyology. However, the influence of Davis becam
stronger than anyone else in the late 19th and early 20th century in America. Tho
writings of Davis, in turn, do bear the influence of his predecessors, and more
specifically of Powell and Gilbert. William Morris Davis was an eminent geologist
and geomorphologist. Davis was very excited about the discipline of geography; and
he worked hardtoincrease its recognition. He is also known as the founder of modern
geography in America in the late 19th and early 20th century. Davis is often called
"the father of American Geography". He is responsible for enlarging the scope and
systematizing the study of geography. Publishing over 500 works, Davis was certainly
one of the greatest academic geographers of the century. He is not only responsible
for that which he accomplished during his lifetime, but also for the outstanding work
done across geography by his disciples. In 1904, he founded the Association of
American Geographers (AAG). The geographers like Mark Jefferson, Isaiah Bowman,
Ellsworth Huntington, Ellen Semple, etc. were the pupils of Davis. W.M. Davis brought
professionalization in geography. The writings of Davis, particularly on physical and
general geography, bear an imprint of N.S. Shaler, Agassiz and also Powell. From
Shaler, he was directly influenced, as he was his contemporary and also his senior.
N.S. Shaler is often regarded as a geologist by training but a geographer by instinct
Shaler transmitted to Davis the vision of the earth as the resource base on which the
human habitants are dependent. Moreover, Davis is believed to have acquired the
habit of careful observation from N.S. Shaler when he worked with him as an
From the works of Powell and Gilbert, Davis has
assistant.
respectively
of Base Level' and 'Gradation' while postulating his famous
incorporated the concepts
theory on 'Cycle of Erosion"'.
Davis mostintluentialconcept was the "cycle of erosion". He worked on refining and
detailing this concept for most of his professional career. Davis had great impact or
Darwin's Organic Evolution Theory. The
'Theory of Cycle of Erosion' is the most
important contribution to Physical Geography by Davis. This revolutionary concep
was later applied to the
study of evolution of Glacial Landforms, Limestone Region,
and Islands bordered by Coral Reefs as well.
A shift in emphasis is evident in the interest of
Davis in the later years of his lire
i.e. from physical geography to defining
the nature of geography in
general, Dy
adding the human component. The core of
geography, Davis restated, is the stuuy
of the relationship between the physical environment
(the control) and the hunat
behaviour (the response). This kind of
explanation represents the influence O
deterministic thinking that that predominated in the first decades of 20th
centur
 PERIOD 157
MODERN
CHAPTER 5

Davis sought to classify the facts of man in reference to the facts of the ppys
earth, calling them respectively Ontography' and 'Physical Geography'. 1he pny
earth required to be studied by physical geographers with respect to orig

processes. The resultant forms of land, water and air were to be examined by
ne

geographers in relation to the 'human responses' and 'controls'. The human facts on
the earth were called 'Ontography' as opposed to the facts of the physical eart
(physiography). This was an extension of the evolutionary interpretation of man on
the earth in so far as human characteristics show direct results of geographical
(physical) influences and controls. Davis believed that such a system would form
the framework of an integrated science. This viewpoint very clearly set the pattern
for the pursuit of man-land relationships on a deterministic basis. Davis identified
Ontography' as the other half of geography, and defined it as 'geographical
description of life forms on the earth'. This 'Ontography' (study of human groups,
plants and animals), according to him, demands the appraisal of adjustment to the
physical earth. This leads to migration (mobility, movement) and segregations
(assemblages, groupings) over view that is close to Ratzel's work.
space: a
the
The end result is: different regions, landscapes. Davis also recognized
He stated
importance of regionalization of the phenomena on the surface of earth.
that this of the earth
regionalization phenomenais the of three forces, viz.:
product
site-based, migratory and associative (combinations, segregations). Regional
of a given area in
Geography, he wrote, 'seeks to describe the geographical elements
combinations and correlations'. When
totality as they exist together in their natural more meaningful. Davis
human responses are to be studied, regional approach is
envisaged the field of regional geography as the one elucidating the modes of areal
associations of phenomena on the surface of earth. He considered regional geography
elements and activities occurring, organic and
synthetic, so that all the geographical
their true spatial relations. There are many methods
inorganic shall be appreciated in remains true that pure regional geography is
still
of geographical presentation, but it the larger regions are the assimilations
the final object of a geographical efforts. Then,
Davis insisted that regional descriptions
of smaller regions or landscapes. Further,
climate, vegetation, animals and
must be homologous, i.e. all related aspects-land,
in the study. Thus, two important trends
man-having equal importance enmphasis viz. Geomorphic and Geographic. Davis
or

were noticed in the writing

of W.M. Davis,
of the late 19th and early 20th century.
emerged as one of the greatest geographers
not only in America, but also in European scientific
His works had profound influence
France. He set forth a tradition, which continued
particularly in Germany and
thought, several decades. His ideas on
for
to dominate the Americangeographical scholarship
long time in America and outside.
geomorphology remained largely unchallenged or a
subjected to criticism in the earlier period,
His 'Ontography' paradigm, which
was
in the late 1960s, when the emphasis
developed into a major paradigm (i.e. toecological)
the ecosystem as a geographical principle and
attached
of geographical studies was
method.
of geographical studies in the early decades of 20th
The important paradigm
A strong physical bias was followed in evaluating
century w a s 'environmentalism'.
158 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

man-nature relationships or any study emerging out of this interaction. Davis

himselt has propounded this kind of approach most lucidly initially. Besides Davis,
the contemporary thinking was also dominated by the ideas of Ellen Churchill Semple
(1863-1932), Ellsworth Huntington (1876-1947), Mark Jefferson (1863-1949), Harlan
5arrows (877-1960), and Isaiah Bowman (1878-1950). Ellen Churchill Semple was a

very intriguing geographer and was the first woman to teach at Clark University. A
tollower of the German geographer Ratzel, Semple helped to develop the study of
anthropogeography and lectured on the subject at the University of Chicago. Semple
Was an environmental determinist, as proved through her publications on American
History and Its Geographic Conditions (1903), Influences of Geographic Environment (1911)
and The Geography of the Mediterranean Region (1931). Ellsworth Hfuntington was a
of Economics at Yale University in early 20th century. He is known for his
professor
studies on climatic determinism, economic growth and economic geography. He
was devoted chiefly to climatic studies and anthropogeography. The Climatic Factor
(1914), Civilization and Climate (1915, rev. ed. 1924), and Climatic Changes (1922) were
among his works. He also wrote Principlesof Human Geography (1934) and Mainsprings
of Cieilization (1945). The environmentalist approach was taken up in the diligent
and far ranging researches of Huntington. He sought to measure theinfiuences of
physical environment on human activities and historical development. In 1934,
Huntington formulated 'Principles of Human Geography on the basis of the study of
nature and distribution of the relationships between geographical environment and
human activities. He particularly examined the influence of climate and climatic
change oron and the course of history. He linked natural and cultural or historical
phenomena in causal relations. This book sold 85,000 copies in its fourth edition
alone. Harlan Barrows was known for his book "Geography as Human Ecology',
published in 1923. In American Geography, Barrows presented the concept of
geography as human ecology for the first time. He stated that the physical
environment does not cause man's adaptation to the conditions of his habitat. This
adaptation, in fact, is the function of human choice. Barrows proposed human ecology
as
the unifying theme in
geography",
Just as William Morris Davis was the main exponent of geography in the first
quarter of 20th century, so was Carl Ortwin Sauer (1889-1975) a dominant figure in its
second quarter. And just as the contributions of Davis can be appreciated in the light
of prevailing philosophies, so also the appraisal of Sauer's work demands consideration
of the background of thought among his
contemporaries. Carl Sauer was appointed
as the Professor of Geography in the University of Michigan, his first post. Thereatter,
he moved to the University of California, at Berkeley and stayed there till his retirement
in 1957. He remaineda leading geographer and carried on research and
about 40 years in America. He was conferred with the title of 'Professor teachung
Emeritus'tot
in
1957. He is famous as a human geographer and a
chorographer. During histhrees
decade career at Berkeley, Carl Sauer led the field of cultural geography. Sauer
influence in the field became known as the 'Berkeley School of geography. The best
known work of Carl Sauer is "Morphology of Landscape published
in 1925. His other
notable publications include: 'Ozark Highlands of Missouri' (1920), 'Aboriginals of N.W.
 CHAPTER 5 MODERN PERIOD 159

(1935), 'Co
Merico (1935), Colima of Spain in 16th Century' (1948), 'Agricultural Origins and
rsals' (1952), 'Cultural Crography (1947), and 'Land and Life' (1963). Sauer's main
Dispersals' (1952
s t was in
interest
wasin athe study of the impact of physical environment on man. Sauer insisted
instead of
instead o going into the field with a set of a priori principles concerning the eftect
that
hvsical environment on man, one should seek to observe facts himself and draw
ofphysic
o n c l u s i o n s later. In other words, he favoured the use of inductive approach and

hasized on the importance of field studies in acquiring knowledge. Therefore, he

vocated for the formulation f a posteriori theories, in which the conclusions are
drawn on the basis of the facts empirically observed and collected on the field.
According to Sauer, geOgraphy relies on a purely evidential system, without
prepossessions regarding the meaning of its evidence. "Geography is concerned only
toestablish the connections ot phenomena in a visible landscape; and these connections
are ones of spatial assoCiations and not of some hidden causality." According to Sauer,
the field of geography is based on areal characterization, rather than on environmental
relationships, which he considered too general and wider field to be enfolded within
the content of geography. This was the main philosophy of the school of chorographers,
which Sauer actually belonged to. Sauer's Concept of Landscape served as an important
paradigm in the second quarter of 20th century. Roots of the concept lie in German
ierm 'Landschafe', which emerged in the writings of Otto Schluter. Its French equivalent
is "Paysage. "Landschaft means "a piece of land with certain physical and human
attributes". The term 'Landscape' was accepted by many of Sauer's followers as the
basic term in geography. Sauer has provided the detailed exposition of 'Landscape
The views of Carl
Concept' in his book entitled "The Morphology of Landscape" (1925).
Sauer, related to this concept may be summarized as: Geography is a comparative
in an essential
study of the landscapes that comprise the earth's surface; Description
Man's activities, as such,
part of geography, and is equal in importance explanation;
to
but rather those material features,
are not of prime importance to the geographers
of the natural environment give character to
resulting from man's activities; Features
an area, independent of human and
cultural influence; The humán occupation and
and associations of phenomena;
use of the rnatural area results in various forms, patterns
in terms of historical antecedecents,
and Cultural forms and patterns are explainable
in American geography to chorological
racial characteristics, etc.11 The real shift Richard
the basic paradigm for geographical work came only after
perspective as
of Minnesota (1924-40) and the
(1899-1992), who taught at the University
F1artshorne there emerged the monumental work of
of Wisconsin (1940-1970). In 1939,
nversity that synthesized what had been thought
and
lartshorne, The Nature of Geography This book presented an authoritative
written concerning the nature of geography.
and had soon become essential reading
Ccount of developments in modern geography, the concept of
1Or graduate students in every geography
department. From then on,
enshrined as themainstream of
concept
science became
geography as a chorological until late 1950s". In 1959 he published Perspective
the discipline, and it continued to be so
the benefit of 20 years' further thought
and
which provided
07
the Nature of Geography, on the 50th anniversary
of the former work, the
retlection by the author. In 1989,
Re lections on Richard Hartshorne's
ASSOciation of American Geographers published
160 GECOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

The Nature of Geography. The American School of Geography was influential evern after
the Second World War, the time by all the major modern schools of geographical
thought had come to a decline. The most notable writer of this phase was Thomas
Kuhn (1922-1996) who wrote extensively on the history of science and developed
several important notions in the philosophy of science. Kuhn is most famous for his
book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) in which he presented the idea that
science does not evolve gradually towards truth, but instead undergoes periodic
revolutions which he calls "paradigm shifts." The enormous impact of Kuhn's work
can be measured in the revolution it brought about even in the vocabulary of the
history of science: besides "paradigm shifts," Kuhn raised the word "paradigm" itself
from a term used in certain forms of linguistics to its current broader meaning, coined
the term "normal science" to refer to the relatively routine, day-to-day work of scientists
working within a paradigm, and was largely responsible for the use of the term
"scientific revolutions" in the plural, taking place at widely different periods of time
and in different disciplines, as opposed to a single "Scientific Revolution" in the late
Renaissance.
Thus, looking back, various American scholars, from M.F. Faury to Thomas Kuhn
enriched geography in several ways. In general, the writings of scholars in the early
19th century (Faury, Agassiz, Guyot, Forry, Loomis, etc.) showed an inclination
towards physical geography. In the late 19th century thisphysical bias continued, but
there also emerged a deterministic tilt, particularly in the works of Davis, Semple and
Huntington. Thereafter, .e. since the beginning of 20th century, the American
Geography has been shaped by chorological perspective, a trend in consonance with
the German and French Schools of
Geographical Thought. The American scholars
continued to dominate the
geographical scene even after Second World War. More
recently, the tilt of their work was seen more on defining the nature of geography as a
science and explaining its course of evolution
(Hartshorne, Kuhn). The fields of
Climatology and Physiography have been immensely contributed by the American
scholars. Besides, the theory of "Cycle of Erosion' and the 'Concept of Landscape' also go
to their credit.

Climatology
Maury, Forry, Coffin and William Ferrel contributed to
climatology
Maury established the tradition of climatic studies in U.S.A. in general. M.F.
He was the one to
the first map of the floor of North
Atlantic Ocean. He is also credited with hispProdu
generalized model of atmospheric circulation prepared in 1850.
Samuel Forry prepared one of the earliest Following Maury
maps of U.S.A. showing the distribution or
temperature by making use of isotherms. J.H. Coffin
Northern Hemispherein 1854. In 1875, the completed a wind-map or
world and explained the laws of map was extended to include the whole
mathematical atmospheric circulation. William Ferrel
provided
a
explanation
of the way moving bodies
behave rotating
was the first
explanation
on the
subject.
on a
sphere. His
 PERIOD 161
MODERN
CHAPTER 5

Physiography
The American school was physically biased since beginning and certain scholaid
Powell, Agassiz, Guyot, Gilbert and Davis were verv prominent in the field. Powel
and liDert set torth new paradigms in physical geography. John Wesley Powell, wno
was also an explorer, developed the concept of 'Base-Level'. G.K. Gilbert, on the other
hand, gave the concept of 'Grade'; i.e. equilibrium reached between slope, volume or
water, velocity of flow and load of detritus. Davis, in his "Cycle ofErosion",incorporare
both these concepts. Agassiz and Guyot further enriched physical geography. Botn
worked towards the development of the concept of Universal glaciation, and studiea
landforms.
glaciers and the effects of glacial actions in producing distinctive kinds of
Geomorphic Cycle of Erosion

According to Davis the cycle begins with the uplift of mountains. Rivers and streams
begin to create V-shaped valleys among the mountains (youthful stage). During tus
able to
first stage, the relief is steepest and most irregular. Over time, the streams are

carve wider valleys (maturity stage) and then begin to meander, leaving only gently
lowest elevation
rolling hills (old stage). Finally, all that is left is a flat plain at the
possible (the base level). Davis called this plain a "peneplain". Then, "rejuvenation"
occurs and there is another uplift of mountains and the cycle continues. Davis' theory
was quite revolutionary and outstanding at its time and helped to modernize physical
the real world is not
geography and create the field of geomorphology. Although
erosion occurs during the uplift process,
quite as orderly as Davis' cycles and certainly other scientists
Davis' message was communicated quite well to through the excellent
Davis claimed
sketches and illustrations that were included in Davis' publications.
landforms' is a 'model, in common
that the study of larndforms in terms of "the cycle of
of forms can be fitted. It directs attention to
parlance, into which an endless variety of diverting attention to the invisible
the visible facts of present landscapes, instead
which investigations belong, as Davis often
conditions and processes of past time,
emphasized, to the field of geology.Past
Davis
pleaded repeatedly for the 'explanatory
description of existing landforms'. geological conditions, he argued, should be
in order to reach the geographical
telescoped to a minimum of meaningful explanation,
of landforms, and regarded even this, for
goal which, he argued, is an understanding the surface varieties of relief (Dickinson,
the geographer, as a means of memorizing
like Penck, Alfred Hettner and Passarge have
1976, p. 196). The German scholars
their criticisms are directed to different parts of his
criticized the work of Davis. But
itself.
theoretical explanation and not the complete theory

Concept of Landscape
must find its entire expression in the landscape' on
Sauer considered that geography
the basis of the significant reality of chorological
relations.
The facts of geography, he
associations in area create this "landscape'. He reiects
maintains, are place facts. Their to designate such terrestrial
the terms 'region' and 'area' and adopts "landscape
162 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of forms
associations.Thus, landscape' is an area made up of a distinct association
pattern
(physical and cultural). The geographers should understand its origin, growth,
the features of
both (1)
(design) and functions. The design of a landscape includes
natural area; and (2) the forms superimposed over it by the activities of man, converting
it into cultural landscape (or 'Kulturlandschaft' as identified by the Germans). Originally
and later it turns into cultural landscape
or
the landscape' is a natural landscape, and workplace of
human habitat. Thus, a later stage is the creation
landscape at a are related to its:
human beings. Various elements of this cultural landscape
use and workshops); and
(1) Habitation (type and grouping); (2) Production (land
of human beings with their habitat
(3) Communication (mobility). The relationships also a succession of
by theirgroup habits and cultural habits. There is
areconditioned
Primitive-to-Ancient-to-Medieval-
these landscapes with a succession of cultures (e.g.
be defined in terms of both: its time
to-Modern). Hence, the idea of landscape may framework). It is a
relations and its space relations (i.e. in its spatial-temporal
continuous process of development or dissolution
and replacement. The landscape,
is the assembly of natural
therefore, changes continuously. The natural landscape
Sauer claimed,
features of an area that are relevant to human occupancy. Geography,
natural landscape, however
therefore, is 'distinctly anthropocentric'. The study of
habitat. The landscape is studied
defined, is directed to understanding its significance as
in terms of the process of human activity in time and
in area. The landscape elements

are studied in terms of their form, function

and pattern. These are interpreted in terms
of cultural
of the way in which they are associated in area as the spatial impact
considered landscape as an individual unit of area, i.e.
processes. In addition, Sauer
geographical unit of study. The various forms, which characterize this landscape,
therefore, may be identified, its structure can be recognized and its origin and growth
functions can also be understood. Thus, Sauer represented geography as a science
that finds its entrifield in the concept of landscape. Geographer systematically observes
and records both the natural and cultural features, describes them in their associations
and patterns, and seeks to explain the growth and development of the cultural
panorama in its natural setting. He does not limit his study to search for relationships
between man and earth. Rather, he shifts the emphasis from a study of relationships
to a study of the material features, natural and cultural, within an area. The
characteristics', 'associations' and 'patterns' of these surface forms, together with the
bonds of relationships that connect them, are his chief lines of investigation. The region
thus studied is viewed as a functioning organism composed of natural and cultural
groups. Since, it is the observable material features that give chorographic individuality
to any area on our planet, the chorographer does not directly include man's activities
among his primary objects of study. When such activities express themselves in material
forms, which can be observed and recorded, they (the forms) are then a part of the
landscape, and as such open to geographic analysis. If the material features of an area
are the primary facts with which a geographer deals, then all of those other facts
used to explain and interpret the observable, areal scene may be classed as 'secondary.
Thus, the geographic analysis is both 'deseriptive' and explanatory' of the man-made
landscape. There are no restrictions as to what these secondary facts may be. In spite
 PERIOD 163
MODERN
CHAPTER5

of its popularity Sauer's Landscape Concept was a short-lived concept. Because, Io

clear-cut definition was provided for it. It was often confused with that of Kegional
Concept that continued to exist as an important paradigm in geography 1ate
To conclude, the American School of Geographical Thought, during the modert
its aevelopment, was primarily guided and dominated by the thinking the
of
phase ofits
phase ot
Scholars like W.M. Davis, Ellen Semple, Carl Sauer, Huntington, Barrows and
Hartshorne. Four phases of change in the school may clearly be identified, viz. (1) prior
to Davis in the third quarter of 19th century, when physical bias dominated the scene;
and beginning
(ii) the time of Davis and his associates towards the close of 19th century slant in
of 20th century when along with physical there emerged a deterministic
20th century
geographical studies; (ii) the period of Carl Sauer in the second quarter of
when there developed an anthropocentric and chorological shift, a change parallel
to

other modern schools of thought; and (iv) the period after Second World War
when

attempts were made to assess the nature of geography in general. A heap ot literature
les glaciers ("Study on
supports these developments including, for instance, Etudes
sur
and its Endemic
Glaciers") (Agassiz, 1840); "The Climate of the United States
American History and
Influences" and "Meteorology" (Samuel Forry, 1842 and 1843);
The Geography of the
Its Geographic Conditions, Influences of Geographic Environment and
The Climatic Factor
Mediterranean Region (Ellen Churchil Semple, 1903, 1911 and 1931);
Climatic Changes (1922), Principles
(1914), Civilization and Climate (1915, rev. ed. 1924),
ofHuman Geography (1934) and Mainsprings of Civilization (1945) (Ellsworth Huntington);
as Human Ecology' (Harlan Barrows, 1923);
'Morphology of Landscape' (Carl
Geography and Perspective on the Nature of Geography
Sauer, 1925); The Nature of Geography
Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Thomas Kuhn,
(Hartshorne, 1939, 1959); and The
1962).

BRITISH SCHOOL

geography in Great
Britain took place much later as
The development of professional
the extension of knowledge
France and America. lInterestingly,
compared to Germany, continued to
and research appeared to have
of earth's surface through explorations and British Geographical Societies. A largge
of British geographers
be a major concern
dealt with reports of
published in British geographical periodicals
part of the papers much of dependence
unknown parts of the earth. Too
exploration of the still relatively
and expeditions in the 19th century prevented
on reports of voyages, explorations and protessional outlook. The
the subject an organized
individual attempts to give as a discipline
therefore, could not contribute to geography
British scholars themselves,
of modern period. t was
in
the early 20th century that
as such in its initial stage Such a beginning was made
as academic discipline.
geography started taking shape an and Cambridge. In the
of Great Britain, Oxford
in the two oldest universities (established in 1830) took specia!
meanwhile, the Royal Geographical Society
of
London
of geography. Thereafter, geography began getting
matured
initiative in the promotion the British school had alreadv
status gradually. However,
in its n e w academic discipline second halt of 19th century. It was through the writings
during the ings
come into picture
164 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of Charles Darwin, a naturalist, who achieved lasting fame by proposing the scientific

theory of natural selection and evolutionary change in species. theory was proved
This
not only a cornerstone in biology but also revolutionalized various other related fields,
numerous scholars in the British
ncluding geography. After Darwin, there emerged
School. More recently, the British school is known to have become very instrumental
in bringing the quantitative and theoretical revolution in geography.

Contribution
of British school included, for
Besides Charles Darwin, the other prominent scholars
Patrick Geddes, Halford J. Mackinder
instance, Herbert Spensor, David Livingstonc,
Andrew J. Herbertson, Griffith Taylor, Sir Dudley Stamp, O.H.K. Spate and David

Harvey. Most of these scholars were fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and
their interests have been variegated, ranging from urban, social, political, historical,
land use planning. Charles Darwin (1809
regional and physical geography and also
1882) was born to a wealthy society doctor Robert Darwin Shropshire, England.
in In
his father
1825, after spending the summer as an apprentice doctor, helping with
medicine. However,
treating the poor, Darwin went to Edinburgh University to study
his revulsion at the brutality of surgery led him to neglect his medical studies. He
became active in student societies for naturalists. He became an avid pupil of Robert
Edmond Grant", who pioneered development of theories concerning evolution by
acquired characteristics. Darwin took part in Grane's investigations of the life cycle of
marine animals and discovered evidences for homolosy, the radical theory that all
animals have similar organs and differ only in complexity. Channellizing all his
thoughts and observations on the subject, Darwin wrote his most famous book entitled
On the OriginofSpecies by Meansof Natural Selection (abbreviated to The Origin of Species).
It was published in 1859 and established evolution by common descent as the dominant
scientific explanation of diversification in nature. On the basis of this work, Darwin
was made a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Darwin's Theory that evolution
occurred through natural selection changed the thinking of countless fields of study
from biolo8y to anthropology. Evolution by natural selection proved to be a significant
blow to notions of divine creation and intelligent design prevalent in 19th century
science. The British philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was
another major figure in the intellectual life of 19th century. Spencer was the author of
several works,for example, as Synthetic Philosophy, First Principles (1862), The Principles
ofBiology (2 vols, 1864-67), The Principles ofSociology (3 vols, 1876-96), and The Principles
of Ethics (2 vols, 1879-93) etc. Spencer was one of the principal proponents o
evolutionary theory and his reputation rivalled that of Charles Darwin. He was initially
best known for developing and applying
evolutionary theory to philosopny
psychology and the study of society-what he called his "synthetic philosophy
Although he wrote mostly about political theory in his works, he is widely described
as the father of Social Darwinism.Spencer often analyzed human societies as evolving
systems, and coined the term "survival of the fittest". He contributed to a wide range
of subjects, including ethics, metaphysics, religion, politics, rhetoric, biology ana
 CHAPTER 5 MODERN PERIOD 165

psychology. The Scottish biologist and botanist, Patrick Geddes (1854-1932) was known
as an innovative thinker in
the fields of urban planning and education.
responsible for introducing the concept of "region" ie was
to architecture and planning
Geddes shared the belief that social
processes and spatial form are related. Therefore,
by changing the spatial form it was possible to change the social structure as well.
This was
particularly important in the late 19th and early 20th century when
industrialization was dramatically altering the conditions of life. A junior
of Geddes was Halford J. Mackinder
(1861-1947). contemporary
He wrote on the relationship o
history and geography and on the historical
Additionally, he was working on the development geography
of the British Empire.
of a so-called "synthetic
which included many
sub-disciplines geography
ranging from
humanities. In a paper entitled "The Scope and Methods ofphysical geograpny to ue
for the Royal Geographical Geography" that he Wrote
Society, Mackinder outlined his ideas of a "New
Geography". He defined geography as "the science of distributions". It was his
conviction that physical and human
geography
consequently drew the conclusion that history
formed one subject, and he
and geography can never be studied
separately. Mackinder is widely known for his Heartland Theory, in which he suggests
that there was a pivotal area "in the closed
heart-land of Euro-Asia" which was most
likely to become the seat of world power. His theory was a model based on world
history and geographical facts. Mackinder defined a "world island" that consisted of
the two continents Eurasia and Africa. The British scholar
promoting concept
the of
regional geography was Andrew J. Herbertson (1865-1915). His most famous work
Was "The Major Natural
Regions: An Essay in Systematic Geography" published in
Geographical Journal in 1905. The central theme in Herbertson's work was the promotion
of concept of regional
development. Herbertson's views on regional geography, as in
essencenatural entities, were most famously relayed through his best known
paper
on Natural
RegionsGriffith Taylor (1880-1963) was born with geography in his blood.
Hewas considered to be the authority on the Antarctic and Australia. He retired from
the University of Toronto with the rank of Emeritus Professor. But, his retirement
from the University does not signal his retirement from the discipline. He continued
to be a prolific writer and publisher. Griffith Taylor is believed to have developed the
view of "Neo-Determinism' in 1951.
One of the influential scholars of the first half of 20th century was Sir Dudley
Stamp(1898-1966). He wrote a number of papers on the geology of Britain, Belgium
and Northeast France. He undertook a number of official and semi-official
appointments in various organizations. The contributions from Stamp were more
towards geography than geology, his original field of interest. Throughout his career,
a succession of awards, national and international, also testified to the growing width
and depth of Stamp's influence. A number of Universities (Clarke, Edinbera, Stockholm
and Warsaw) awarded him with the degree of 'Honorary Doctorate'. In recognition of
his contribution, Dudley Stamp was conferred with the title of 'Sir' and became "Sir
Dudley Stamp'. After First World War (1914-18) it was realized that each unit of land
in
Britain should be used judiciously, With the purpose of national
planning, Stamp
commited himself to the task of conducting a systematic survey of the wholecountry
166 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Land Use Survey Mar.

based on a single scheme of land use classification. These
1930s. These maps w
present a picture of actual use of the land of Britain in Nere
supplemented publication
by but drawing
the of complete
a series of county monographs, each
based on the map on historical, economic, climatic, reliet and soil data a
as
aids to the interpretation of the map and understanding of the agricultural geograph
of the time. The complete serics of this litérature with land use maps constitutes
ot the country. Stamp distilled
quite remarkable addition to the geographical literature
the essence of the county reports into a book entitled "The Land of Britain: Its Use d
Misuse" (1947). The book demonstrates the trend of Stamp's thinking, based on the
record of how the land was in fact being used, but concerned progressiyely with how
it should be used. This Land Use Survey laid the genesis of Stamp's conviction of the
necessity for physical planning. It may be noted that this was the first official recognition
that the concept of regional planning is a geographical concept and that the trained
skill of the geographer is essential research component if the areal assessments on
which plans must be founded are to be adequate. These Land Use Surveys of Stamo
served as the basis for the reconstruction of Britain after Second World War. The British
scholar, who tried to strengthen the role of geography as a discipline, was O.H.K.
Spate (1911-2000). He was a geographer best known for his role in promoting
geography as a discipline in various countries. Another geographer and leading social
theorist of international standing from British school is David Harvey (b. 1935). He is
the world's most cited academic geographer and the author of many books and essays
that have been prominent in the development of modern geography as a discipline.
His work has also contributed to broader social and political debate, particularly in
the development of urban studies which, he argues, must draw on geography and the
study of space. His career has seen him move through three areas of geographical
enquiry, but he is best known for 35 years of commitment to Marxian theory, historical
geographical materialism and critical geography, later. By the mid-1960s he followed
trends in the social sciences to employ quantitative methods, contributing tospatial
science and positivist
landmark text
theory. David Harvey's Explanation in Geography (1969) was a
in themethodology and philosophy of geography, applying principles
drawn from the philosophy of science in general to the field of geographical knowledge.
The work of David Harvey was historical in nature,
emerging froma regional-historical
tradition of inquiry widely used at Cambridge and in Britain at that time.
Thus, the the philosophers from British School made notable contributions in the
fields of historical, regional and theoretical geography. The theory of Evolution, the
Heartland Theory and the concept of Neo-Determinism are the other contributions to
geography from the School.

Theory of Evolution by means of Natural Selection

For thousands of years many philosophers had argued that life must have been
create
by a supernatural being (creator/God) due to the incredible complexity of Nature (u
particular, we humans and our minds). It is remarkable that Charles Darwin was a
to explain our existence by means of Evolution from Natural Selection-which is very
 CHAPTER 5 MODERN PERIOD 167

obvious once understood. Darwin's theory of evolution is based on five key

observations and interences drawn from. them. The great biologist Ernst Mayr nas
summarized these observations and inferences as follows: First, species have great
fertility. They make more offspring
than cangrow to adulthood. Second, populations
remain roughiy the same size, with modest fluctuations. Third, food resources are
limited, but are relatively constant most of the
time. From these three observationsit
may be inferred that in such an environment there wil1 be a struggle for survival
among individuals. Fourth, in sexually reproducing species, gernerally no two
individuals are identical. Variation is rampant. And fifth, much of this variation i
heritable. From this it may be inferred: In a world of stable populations where each
individual must struggle to survive, those with the "best" characteristics will be more
likely to survive, and those desirable traits will be passed to their offspring. These
advantageous characteristics are inherited by following generations, becoming
dominant among the population through time. This is natural selection. It may be further
inferred that natural selection, if carried far enough, makes changes in a population,
eventually leading to new species. These observations have been amply demonstrated
in biology, and even fossils demonstrate the veracity of these observations. Darwin's
Theory of Evolution may be summarized as: (i) Variation: there is variation in every
population, (i) Competition: organisms compete for limited resources; (ii) Offspring
organisms produce more offspring than can survive; (iv) Genetics: organisms pass
genetic traits on to their offspring; and (v) Natural Selection: those organisms with the
most beneficial traitsare more
likely survive
to and
reproduce. Darwin imagined
all life is descended from an original species from ancient times. All organic beings
that

that have ever lived on this earth have descended from some primordial form, into
which life was first breathed. There is grandeur in this view of life that, whilst this
planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a
beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being
evolved.

Mackinder's Heartland Theory

Sir Halford John Mackinder wrote a paper in 1904 called "The Geographical Pivot of
History." Mackinder's paper suggested that the control of Eastern Europe was vitalto
control of the world. Mackinder's Heartland (also known as the Pivot Area) is the
core area of Eurasia, and the World-Island is all of Eurasia (both Europe and Asia).
The basic notions of Mackinder's doctrine involve considering the geography of the
Earth as being divided into two sections, the 'World Island' which comprised Eurasia
the Americas, British Isles, and Oceania.
and Africa, and the Periphery', which included
Not only was the Periphery noticeably smaller than the World Island, it necessarily

required transport function

much sea to at the
technological level of the World Island,
which contained sufficient natural resources for a developed economy. Also, the
industrial centres of the Periphery were necessarily located in widelyeeparated
locations. The World Island could send its navy to destroy each one of them in turn. It
could locate its own industries in a region turther inland than the Periphery could, so
168 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

them, and would facing well-storb ed

be a
would have a longer struggle reaching
they termed the Heartland. It essential
industrial bastion. This region Mackinder The Heartland contained
ially
comprised Ukraine, Western Russia, and Mitteleuropa. he
natural resources. Mackinder's notion
other of
grain reserves of Ukraine, and many "Who rules East Europe commandsi
in his saying
geopolitics can be summed up commands the
World-Island. Who rulee
Heartland. Who rules the Heartland
the
doctrine was influential during the Woria
His
World-Island commands the world."
later Russia each made territorial strides
Wars and the Cold War, for Germany and
toward the Heartland.

Neo-Determinism
of controversies, especially related to the study
Geography has witnessed a long phase the beginning of the modern period. The
of man and environment relationship, since
These doctrines were
major of these controversies was determinism and possibilism.
raised and supported respectively by the German and French schools of thought.
Determinism is a name employed by writers to denote the philosophical theory that
holds-in opposition to the doctrine of free will-that all man's actions are invariably
determined by nature. Possibilism, on the contrary, suggested that nature does not
determine man's actions; instead, it offers a number of possibilities and man is free to
make a choice depending on the level of his cultural advancement. This makes man
his activities and not nature as the starting point in geographical studies. Griffith
and
Taylor, on the other hand, maintained that the role of nature was far from crudely
deterministic. Instead, he considered the environment as a strong force in human affairs
that man can modify but cannot escape. If technologically superior, then man can
alter the physical surroundings as per his requirements; but if he is technologically
backward, then he is left with no other choice than to make adjustment with the nature.
The human agency, through the use of the technology, can modify the force of nature
but it cannot escape it. This view gained popularity as Neo-Determinism, i.e. the
philosophy of determinism in new form. It is also known as Stop-and-Go Determinism.

SOVIET SCHOOL
The Soviet School of geography is believed to have evolved during the Age ot
Discovery. But, the major impetus came after the establishment of 'Imperial
Geographical Society in 1845. Thereafter geography made tremendous strides in Russia
as in all over the European and American countries in the
late 19th and early 20u
century. Many faculties, institutions and departments of geography were established
during this period. The important events that have shaped the
geography in Russia are: (1) Establishment of Imperial Geographical development
Society' in 18 o
(ii) The Great Russian Revolution of 1917 and the resultant political instabilities; and
(ii) The disintegration of U.S.S.R. into several independent nations in 1991. This make
the years 1845, 1917 and 1991 as the important divides in the
history of evolution o
geographical thought in Soviet Russia. Accordingly, the various phases of development
 MODERN PERIOD 169
CHAPTER5

into which the discussion is organised may be identified as: (1) the Classical Fnase
(< 1845); (2) the Pre-Revolutionary Phase (1845-1917); and (3) the Post-Revolutionary
Phase (1917-1991). Although the roots of disciplinelie in Classical Phase, the maximum
growth took place during Pre-Revolutionary Phase.

Classical Phase (« 1845)

The geographical tradition marks it's beginning in Unified Russia before 1845. The
important developments of this phase include: () Eastward expansion of the Russian
1682-
territory, particularly under the regime of Peter the Great, who ruled during
1725; (ü) The official level beginning of map-makingactivitiesin 1719 with the technica
under
assistance from French cartographers; the first Cartographic Office being started
the direction of Ivan Kirilov, who was also the first Russian appointed as the head or
in the RuSsian
this office; and (ii) The establishment of Department of Geography
who
Academy of Sciences in Moscow in 1758 under the leadership of Lomonosov,
was also one of the founder members of the Moscow State University. The vast expanse

of the Russian empire was the most potent factor in development geography
of as an
for accurate
institutionalized disciplinel6, Peter the Great appreciated the need
information to facilitate the eastward march of empire.
State supported
geographical
the vast uninhabited stretches
expeditions were sent to the east and the north explore
to
to prepare maps of the explored
of territory; and generous funding was provided
activities were placed under the
regions.In 1719, all official Russian map-making of the
Russian to be appointed as the head
direction of Ivan Kirilov, the first which was
the preparation of an Atlas of Russia
Cartographic office. He supervised he took technical assis tance of
French
published in 1734. n the preparation of the atlas, who
Lomonosov (1711-1765),
Russian encyclopaedist M.V.
cartographers. The Great insisted that the
members of the Moscow State University,
was one of the founding
collection of information about the
parties be asked to make systematic
exploring conditions of the economy. In 1758,
character of land, the population and the
physical head of the world's first officially
named Department
Lomonosov was appointed the
of Sciences. The recognition of
in the Russian Academy
of Geography, which was sciences gave considerable academic
in the Russian Academy of
geography department of scientific learning.
Under the patronage of
a useful field
prestige to geography as
of Geography launched
several schemes of regional
the Academy, the Department of Geography in the
Establishment of the Department
of data. of modern
surveys and mapping before the birth of the founders
in 1758, much
Russian Academy of Sciences the tradition of geography in
classical geography,
Humboldt and Ritter, proved thatin Germany." But the impact
developed in Russia rather than
an organized way first that of German. This
was not as strong as
of the contemporary Russian geography contacts did develop
barrier. However, some
was primarily due to the language Auton Friedrich Busching
Schools. It through the
was works of
between these two scholar, who had a protound
ettect
on the
Russian geographic

Russian geography had already developed

(1724-1793), the German
the beginning of 19th century as the basis
heritage. By first was an emphasis on regions
characteristics: the
two distinguishing
170 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

for
organizing geographical work, and the belief that regions are concrete entities that
canbe objectively defined; Second was the continued use of geography to includea
wide variety of fields. This was sharply contrasted to the contemporary trend
in
Germany where classical geography was torn apart intó physical and human, eack
establishing its separate existernce. In Russia, the classical tradition or geography as a
field of study dealing with the physical environment of the earth and its human
inhabitants had continued. Unlike in Germany where the deaths of Humboldt and
Ritter in 1859 were marked by a break in the continuity of scientific geographical
study, in Russia the developments continued unabated. For this reason, in the case of
Russian geography, it is difficult to pick upany single scholar as the "grand old man
of Russian geography"3 Thus, the beginning of geography in Russia was made
with
empirical approach. These developments provided a conceptual framework for further
growth of our discipline with a positive outlook. And atter 1845, when there came up
the Imperial Geographical Society', the progress was more steady and widespread
all over the region.
Pre-Revolutionary Phase (1845-1917)
The earlier part of this phase coincides with the
period of Environmental Determinism
in Germany; the middle part with that of Davisian School in
America; and the later
part with that of Rise of Possibilism in France. Although the professional contacts
with the Western Schools of Thought had
already developed during 19th century,
Soviet School was the least influenced.
It shaped itself in a different way. While classical
geography was
undergoing analysis in Germany as each academic discipline sought
to establish its separate existence, in Russia the
tendency was for scholars with diverse
interests to come together as
geographers. In 1840 this created need for some kind of
institution to provide a forum for the
preserntation and discussion of different kinds ot
studies dealing with the physical world and its human
habitants. To formalize the
structure of geography, the
in 1845. The great
Imperial Geographical Society was founded by Arsenyev
professionalization came in Russian geography after the
establishment of Society. This society
promoted what has been
geographical sciences' including geography, with its sister collectively
called as
meteoroloEY, hydrology, anthropology, archaeology, etc.). The disciplines (geology
Tsar, Peter the Great, also contemporary Russian
recognized the vital importance of having accurate
geographical information about the virgin land islands of Siberia across the Urals
Under his royal patronage several
The German scholar Alexander von expeditions to Siberia and Far East were organizea.
Humboldt was entrusted
explore the virgin lands across Ural Mountain. He explored thebylands
the of
Russian
SiberiaTsar to
as tar
as the borders of China. He
visited the shores of
expedition, Humboldt observed
Caspian Sea. In the course ot nis
that the temperatures varied at
accordance with the distance from ocean. The Russian the same latitude "
Tsar was so much
by Humboldt that he agreed to set up weather stations where influenceu
recorded. By 1935 the Russian network of related data could De
recording stations extended all the way
from St. Petersburg to an island off the Alaskan
mainland. On the basis of the weather
 MODERN PERIOD 171
CHAPTER 5

data collected, Humboldt deduced 'the concept of Continentality'. This heritage that
Humboldt founded, had a profound effect on the contemporary Russian geography,
and empirical studies of areal phenomena with the positivist approach formed an
inevitable symbiosis tor the conceptual framework.
Most ot Kussian geographers of the pre-revolutionary period seemed to have had
direct or indirect contact with the professional German geographers. Some of them
studied in the German universities, and were pupils of Ritter, Richthofen and Ratzel.
But the impact of German geographical ideas had produced quite different results in
Russia. Russian geographers ot the pre-revolutionary period always believed in the
mechanical explanation rather than in teleological explanation, where the phenomena
and observation were understood as outcomes of prime causes. The Pre-revolutionary
Russian geography was largely centred on the works of Petre Petrovich Semenov,
Alexander Ivanovitch Voikov, V.V. Dokuchaiev, D.N. Anuchin and Peter Kropotkin.
They formed the true heritage of the Russian Geography that continued its existence
even after the October Revolution of 1917. Petre Petrovich Semenov (1827-1914) is
often regarded as the 'grandfather' of Pre-revolutionary Russian geography who acted
as a bridge between the scholars of classical period, such as Lomonosov, Busching
a distinct
and Arsenyev, and the scholars of modern period. Semenov is credited with
humanistic approach in the contemporary Russian geography that emphasized
questions of social inequality. He developed a 'welfare paradigm' to social relevance
Ivanovitch Voikov, V.V.
in geography that stressed the quality of life. Alexander
followers of Semenov who
Dokuchaiev and D.N. Anuchin were three outstanding
The first two are
left their distinct imprints on the contemporary methodologies.
and Anuchin tried to establish
credited with innovative studies of the climate and soils,
and drew up the curricula for the primary
geography as a major university subject the
and secondary schools. Besides, as regards pre-1917 phase in the development of
Peter Kropotkin, who became influential because of
geography in Russia, there was and his concept of 'mutual aid'. A.IL Voeikov
his concept of geography as social ecology,
was essentially a physical
geographer. His area of interest covered
(1842-1916)
environmental problems. Voeikov founded the Main
climatology, agriculture and 1849 and it is the oldest meteorological
research
in
Geophysical Observatory (MGO) earth's heat and water balances and is credited
institution in Russia. He studied the directed to the
His studies of climatology were
with the expertise in snow-science. foundation of systematic agro-climatic
He laid down the
improvement of agriculture. method as expounded by Carl
elaboration of the comparative
geography through of RuSsian agriculture led him to compare
Ritter. His concern with the improvenent Russia. It was because of his
to those of European
the farm practices in places similar in Georgia, cotton in
first introduced tea-plantations
Suggestions that the Russians book "The Climate of the World' was
wheat in Ukraine. His
Turkistan (Turkmania) and Relation
'Distribution of Population on the Earth in
published in 1884, and a monograph was in 1906. Both of these
works were later
Activities'
to Natural Conditions and Hunan
V.V. Dokuchaiev (1846-1903) was the first professor of
translated into German. in 1885. He also specialized in physical
geography in Russia, appointed at St. Petersburg soil science, including the
work is in the lield ot
geography. Dokuchaiev's
pioneering
172 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

study of soil formation processes and soil layers or horizons. His soil studies followed
systematic approach. He observed that different kinds of soil could be identified by
looking closely at the layers or horizons, which differed because of differences in the
by
SOil-torming processes. According to Dokuchaiev, the soil "reflects the extraordinar.
complex interaction of climate, slope, plants and animals with the parent material
derived from the underlying geological formations". A soil that has been exposed to
all these conditions for a long time would more closely retlect the complex of climate
and vegetation than it would the parent material. His generalizations were quite
different from those of German and French soil-scientists who conceived of the soil as
a reflection of the underlying geological formations. The generalization of Doduchaiev
was essentially based on empirically observed arrangement of climatic zones that could
produce observations soil differences over a large tract of plain. Dokuchaiev, like his
predecessor, Voikov, also atternpted to adopt a holistic approach to explain the very
concept of man as a major agent of change on the surface of earth. Undoubtedly,
Dokuchaiev was one of the leading professional geographers of Russia and deserved
major place among the world's leading geographers of his time because of his
contributions to systematic soil studies. Since all of his works were written in Russian,
his major ideas could produce little impact on West European geographers. It was
only through the translation of his works into German and French after his death that
he came to be known beyond the national frontier as one of the founders of applied
soil geography. Peter Alexeyevich Kropotkin (1842-1921) was one of Russia's foremost
anarchists and one of the first advocates of what he called "anarchist communism".
He left behind many books, pamphlets and articles, the most prominent being his
works The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops, and his principal
scientific offering, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. He was also a contributor to 1911
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Kropotkin was writing during the period when social
Darwinism was in ascendancy, and no intellectual could escape the impact of
evolutionary theories. Kropotkin's view of nature was based on three premises, namely
nature is organic (i.e. holistic); it is historic; and it is spontaneous. His originality lay
in the manner in which he interpreted the organic (holistic) characteristics of nature,
especially in relation to man's place in the web of nature. This theme was the key idea
d the central focus of his theory of, and his book on Mutual Aid. He
that both cooperation and competition are demonstrated
present in nature simultaneously, as also
in the case of human communities. In course of
developing his of concept
Aid among organisms and human groups, Kropotkin laid foundation for a radical
"Mutunl
theory of social ecology. He viewed nature and social groups as organic wholes so thar
the action of one part affected all the
parts. He considered social groups as being8
subject to many of the same processes as are found in organic nature. Thus, during
Pre-Revolutionary Phase geography in Soviet World was propagated as a discipline
at academic and administrative levels both.
a steady
During this phase, geography witnesseu
in
progress an indigenous manner, with its basic branches (Regional, Human
Social, Physical and Economic) being well established. Although, the
contribution was made to physical geography, the foundation was also
maximum
strongly laiu
for the humanistic and welfare geography during this period. The fields of
Cartography
 MODERN PERIOD 173
CHAPTER5

and regional geography were the other areas of contribution by the scholars of pre
revolutionary phase. However, this development was interrupted by the rise and
spread of communist philosophies after the "Great Russian Revolution'",

Post-Revolutionary Phase (1917-1991)

The communist thinking dominated the Russian Society after the Great Revolution or
1917, following the principles of the Russian and German
philosophers
like Leruy
Marx and Engels. Vladimir lyich, popularly known as Lenin (1870-1924), was a
Communist revolutionary of Russia, the leader of the Bolshevik party, the first Premer
of the Soviet Union, and the main theorist of what has come to be called Leninism.
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) was a 19th century German political philosopher, wno
developed communist theory alongside his better-known collaborator, Karl Marx.
Along with Engels, Marx took part in the political and philosophical struggle of his
times, and co-authored the Communist Manifesto. Karl Marx (1818-1883) was an
immensely influential German philosopher, political economist, and socialist
revolutionary. While Marx addressed a wide range of issues, he is most famous for
his analysis of history in terms of class struggles. Karl Marx held that society could
not be transformed from the capitalist mode of production to the communist mode of
production all at once, but required a state transitional period. Socialism, on the other
socio-
hand, refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a
economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social
socialist
control. For Karl Marx, who helped establish and define the modern
and labour as a
movement, socialism implied the abolition of markets, capital,
commodity. Marx and regarded themselves as, "socialists". For Marxists,
Engels
characterizedby ownership
state of the
socialism is viewed as a transitional stage
means of production. They saw this stage in history as a transition between capitalism
For Marx, a communist society describes
and communism, the final stage of history.
thus the end of class warfare. According to
the absence of differing social classes and
the state would then "wither away,"
Marx, once private property had been abolished, communism. Lenin is known
and humanity would move on to a higher stage society,
of

as an Economic Determinant'. For

him geography could serve the necessary foundation
on which the design of a new kind
of economy had to be based. Under his leadership,
in post-revolutionary phase in Russia.
applied aspect of geography became very strong
product of geographical study was the
According to him, the most important which the segments of new economy could be
identification of rational regions within
the Soviets seemed interested in 'economic
constructed. Thus, in the 1920s,
regionalization' of the USSR. in the first half of the 20th century were
As far as the philosophical developments ideology
the Russian
to that in France and Germany. But,
Concerned, they were parallel Determinism.Instead, the stress was on Human
of
was not in favour of the doctrine
the dichotomy of physical versus
economic bias. In other words,
studies, and with an
economic geography was quite
strong. And bconomic geography emerged as an
economic regionalization was
The contuinued empnasis on
important branch of study.
174 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

one of the distinctive aspects of geography in the Soviet Union immediately after 1917
The State Planning Commission (GOSPLAN)® was established in 1921 to prepare the
regional plans. The GOSPLAN divided Soviet Union in 21 regions and proceeded toa
0a
detailed study of each of them. In this the geographers played an important role along
with the economists and engineers. Moreover, the geographers also helped in th
selection of industrial location and resource development. Various industrial regione
were also planned, eg. Ural-Kuznetsk and Dnieper Basin Industrial Regions. In 1950s
onwards, the focus of geographical studies was tound specitically on Resource
Planning. This increased the importance of physical geography. Because, the study of
considered baseless without physical geography
economic or resource geography was
This was evident in the following developments:

(1) Soviet geographers developed the sound theoretical principles of forecasting

and a typology of climatic phenomena based on dynamic methodology;
2) They studied the radiation budget and moisture cycle, and their role in the
formation of climates
(3) They worked on the theory of water budget, the relationship between surface
water and soil water;
(4) Soviet geographers developed the theory of glacial processes, based on the
study of heat and mass exchange in various types of glaciers;
(5) Geomorphologists studied the crustal movements and developed the morpho-
structural approach to geomorphology;
6) Soil-Scientists identified many soil types; and
(7) The students of Bio-geography gave emphasis on ecological approaches.

By 1960s, however, the dichotomy between Economic and Physical Geography

got resolved. The Soviet scholars started believing in Unified Geography. Till 1990s,
Soviet geographers have been concentrating on the management of natural resources.
Their efforts were directed towards solving the related regional problems and the
management of environment. The Soviet leaders, like Leonid Brezhnev, were interested
in seeking answers to the
questions
related to the man's interactions with the natural
environment and encouraged studies,
which
this direction. They promoted the research
contained practical recommendations in
based on the study of
in Soviet Society and its development trends
productive economic forces. The issues related to environment
society and industrial economy were largely stressed upon the writings of
nature. Most recently, i.e. before geographical
disintegration in 1990s, the geographical science in
the Soviet Union manifested considerable interest in the
concept of Territorial Industrial
Complexes (TIC). The Territorial Industrial Complex is the concept of
organization of the large industrial units. Moreover, the Soviet geographers planned
were
concentrating on environmental problems. They were trying to find out new methods
for consolidating harmonious relationships between
in which the Soviet scientists
society and nature. Another sphere
doing
were constructive research
was the study of the
theoretical foundation of recreational geography and the establishment and
development of recreational zones near large towns. Thus, since very beginning
 CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD 175

Geography has been

put in the academy of sciences in Soviet Union.
remained, more or less, a well understood Geograp
and methodology. The
discipline throughout in terms of its conternt
dichotomies remained for a very short
resolved. The Russians, therefore, provided a very sound period and were s n
base to geographical tninkg
Soviet geographers were highly conscious about
man-environment
always emphasized on the applied aspect of geographical studies.relationships. Ihey
The regional and
economic geography were the most sought after fields of
Russia. Since the Russians geographical study in Soviet
adopted a
practicalpoor
more
approach, the
theoreca a
philosophical aspect of geography always remained here.
In general, the modern schools of geographical thought gave the discipline ot
geography a number of viewpoints. For instance, to the Germans and Americans we
owe the Philosophy of Determinism. The roots of Possiblistic thinking lie in the French
School. For the introduction of the concepts of
Landscape, the Cycle of the Theory
the credit goes to American School; whereas, the British contributed Erosion, aga of
Evolution and Heartland Theory and the viewpoint of Neo-Determinism.
To conclude, the Classical Phase of development of geography witnessed the
emergence of various robust schools of thought one after the other. The Ancient and
Medieval Schools (Greek, Roman, Indian, Chinese and Arab) laid the foundations of
the discipline; whereas the Modern Schools (German, French, American, British and
Soviet) developed its structure in the form we are familiar today. The studies on the
fields, like Philosophy, Astronomy, Astrology, Mathematics, Algebra, Geometry,
Cosmology, Physics, Meteorology, Geology, Chemistry, History, Historiography,
Cartography, Botany, Political Science, Medicine, Engineering, Literature and Poetr.
lie at the base of geographic development in its initial stage. Later, the discipline has
flourished into a form with numerous branches practically covering all the aspects of
knowledge, whether related to physical, biotic or human. No discipline covers such
a

vast arena of knowledge as geography does. However, along with the accumulation
and analysis of vast amount of knowledge, the emergence of various dualistic
with its Classical Phase. One distinct
tendencies in geography is also associated
various classical schools of thought
development that was observed commonly among the mid-20th century,
particularly German, French and American) geography by
in
showed a tilt towards the adoption and dominance of chorological (regional) approach
certain modern schools, especially American
ingeneral.However, the developments in
Second World War. In fact, the American and
and British, continued even after the instrumental in the post-modern
British Schools of thought have been very
In general, the fields of physical, regional,
development of geographical thought. theoretical geography attracted the scholarly
human, political, colonial, historical and
concern during modern phase
of development. Besides, the philosophy of
and
viz. deterministic, possibilistic ecological,
environmentalism with its three variants,
8ot completely rooted in this period.

DUALISM
The dualistic tendencies have always been part of geographical studies since very
176 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

beginning. But, they became more conspicuous during the modern period. The maior
controversies in geography have been related to its subject matter, approach, and
method. Respectively, they are: Systematic versus Regional; Physical versus Human:
and Idiographic versus Nomothetic.

Systematic versus Regional

The studies in geography have always been conducted in either of the ways, viz. to
study all the aspects in one region (chorological); or to study one aspect in detail
throughout all the regions (systematic). The chorological or regional approach deals
with study of all the elements within an area, specifically demarcated tor this purpose.
Another parallel approach is systematic or topical; it leads to a series of studies focused
on the character, distribution, process and behaviour of one element or phenomenon
throughout the world, or the surface of earth, breaking it into different areal units for
this purpose. The confusion, as what should be the correct approach to geographical
studies, has overshadowed the development in geographical thought for a long time,
and particularly up to the middle of 20th century. The Systematic versus Regional
dualism' became evident particularly after the classic work of Bernard Varenius (1622-
1650), a German scholar. He divided Geography into two: () General Geography and
(i) Specific Geography. According to him 'General Geography' studies the earth in
general, describing its variousphenomena. Such a study provides the discipline with
general laws and theories. 'Special Geography', on the other hand, is the study of
individual regions, countries or areas. However, Varenius also clarified that the laws
of General Geography can always be used in explaining and understanding Special
Geography that provides concrete examples or case studies to the General Geography.
On the other hand, the systematic studies may also lead to regionalization, and the
so formed, e.g. agricultural, climatic or industrial regions and so
on.
study
of regions
But the ideas of Varenius were not conceived the way he intended to. They were

misinterpreted, leading to adivision into 'Systematic' and Regional' geography. The

terms like 'General' and 'Specific' were caught by various geographers later and the
when
dichotomy between the two widened to the extent that there had been periods versus
there existed double dualism in geography, i.e. "Systematic and Physical'
"Regional and Human". One such time was that of Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant
substituted the word 'physical' for 'general, and classified all thee general or systematie
studies under 'physical'. It was under his influence that the geographers in the late
18th century concentrated on systematic or general studies at the expense of regional
or specific studies. But, during the 19th century the interest of some of geographers,
like Ritter and Ratzel, shifted towards human aspects. Then the so-called humat
geographers emphasized the concept of region. They considered any law or
generalization to be empty and unpredictable without its application to regional or
specific geography. Therefore, they gave more emphasis on the regional studies, and
conceived general studies as only the honourable occupation of the people without
some practical or empirical base. The development of geography during the first hal
the 20th century has been marked by an increasing interest in regional
geograpny
 177
CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD

The climax Was witnessed in the views of Richard Hartshorne (1899-1992) and Alfred
Hettner (185-1942), when the concept of geography as a chorological science was
ocated by
advocated by full force. This led to the development of concept of geography as a
science of real differentiation'. The idea of region was further strengthened by its
usage in ditterent forms, e.g. 'Paysage' in France (Blache), 'Landschaft in Germany
(Otto Schluter) and LAndscape' in America (Carl Sauer). Moreover, this was a period
when the pOssibilistic' thinking was at its peak. At this climax phase, this argument
took the form of the old hen and egg story'. One group believed that the core of
geography was regional; whereas the others believed that systematic geography was
really indispensable. The compromise could reach only by the middle of the z0tn
century, i.e. in the "Ecological Approach' to geography. The dualism between
systematic and regional approaches came to be accepted less and less with time. Various
arguments were put forward for this. Firstly, the earth's shell is filled with a mulipicity
of heterogeneous phenomena of varying nature. At the same time the surface is also
divided into a number of areas or places distinguished from each other in terms of
some measurable aspects (natural or man-made). Thus, the totality of the phenomena
at any given place is not a single integration but rather a complex of inter-related

segments. The geographer's task is to break down this complex whole

into some
understandable forms. This can be done in either of ways: systematically (analytically)
or synthetically (by aggregating). Secondly, the purpose of learning has two aspects,
entire world
viz.(i) the basic human interest, i.e. the need to know the facts about the
we live in, and (1) the intellectual concern, ie. to comprehend or explain these facts,
in terms of their
which one really observes around him, and then to understand them
therefore,
inter-relationships. In the former case, the field is more widespread and, their intense
for knowing about
the general facts may be known, as there is no scope
second case, the field is small and, therefore,
relationships with other elements. In the
a number of inter-related elements may
be studied together. Thus, in an essential
is the first step preceding the second (or
form, the former (or systematic) approach
we generally proceed from general to specific
or
regional) approach. As a norm also, concern.
from basic to intellectual or scholarly Thirdly, the structure (anatomy) of the
can be compared with the
human anatomy, i.e. the
complex of elements of our earth can be studied in terms of the
structure of human body. Various relationships
arteries, etc. (the general parts of the body).
Or the
categories, like bones, muscles, anatomists with respect to arms, legs, feet,
same elements may also be studied by
Each of these specific parts has some parts in
chest, abdomen, etc. (the specific parts).
common or the general parts link
all the specific parts of the human body. The same
all studies in geography either analyze the
holds true for the earth's surface. Thus,
at macro level, or they study
areal variations in terms of individual phenomenon
within a relatively smaller unit of study.
interconnections of phenomena in integration
dualism between the 'systematic' and 'regional'
As such there is no dichotomy or
but rather a gradational range along a continuum,
approaches to geographic study, over the world to those that
ie. from those that analyze the elementary complexes
within smaller areas. The former approach is
analyze their complex integrations The geographical studies require the use of
systematic' and the latter is 'regional.
178 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

both approaches of area study. Because the systematic geography attempts to formulat
the rules and laws, which may later be applied to regional studies. On the other hand
the regional geography serves as the basis for explanation. It
also provides
data
analysis to the systematic studies. Thus, it is appropriate to say that the systematic
for
and regional approaches are complementary to each other.

Physical versus Human

The relation between the world of man and the non-human world is ot prime concern
in geography. Since, the earlier times, the human and the non-human aspects have
contributed to the content of geography. The dichotomy is what aspect is more
important to study in geography, physical or human. Physical Geography covers the
planet, from climate to landforms to hazards and disasters to the distribution of plants
and animals, and much more.
The main purpose of Physical Geography is to explain the spatial characteristics
of various phenomena associa ted with the Earth's hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere,
and lithosphere. Human Geography, on the other hand, is a branch of geography that
focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the
environment, with particular reference to the causes and consequences of spatial
distribution of human activity on the Earth's surface. It encompasses demographic,
political, cultural, social, and economic aspects of man. However, while the major
focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of Earth, it is hardly possible
to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which
human activities are being played out. Originally, the controversy between man and
physical (nature) was external to geography. It appears to have entered into discipline
first with the writings of German scholars, and was later supported by the rise of
natural sciences and Darwinism. The important sources of problem may, therefore
e
identified (1) The works German scholars; (2) Environmentalism (Determinism
as: and of
and Possibilism); (3) Systematic Regional Dualism.
versus Physical' is the oldest
and the most honoured term in geography. It is particularly with the writings of
German scholars like Kant and Humboldt that the physical
aspect of geographical
studies got greater emphasis than human. Kant clearly stated that
'Physical Geography
is the base of all geographical studies and categorically separated it from its of
branches. He considered "Physical
Geography' as the only systematic part ot
tne
discipline. Humboldt conceived man as the part of nature, dependent upon nature
minus-man, which existed before man and which could exist independent of man. tle
believed that the natural laws govern human beings as well. Since, man was
conceive
as product of nature, it was advocated that the study of man-nature relationshups
the
should begin with nature. Moreover, the knowledge in the natural sciences was
more
complete than the social sciences, and the former were on a firm footing comparatively
And in geography, it was physical geography that was considered as the basic to all
studies. The German scholars, particularly, have given this kind of
understanding
Humboldt, for instance, considered physical geography' as the science of laws
u
physics. His'Physical Geography' was directly comparable to the 'General Geography
 MODERN PERIOD
179
CHAPTER 5

or the 'Systematic Geography' of Varenius. Carl Ritter, a contemporary of Humbola

r hand, had an
on the other
anthropocentric approach
to
geographical studies. Ritter
conceived Earth as the home of man, as human body is for thesoul. According to him
the physical surroundings get meaning only with reference to human beings. They
are required to be knovwn only in relation to human beings. Because it is the man who
interacts with the physical world. The emphasis of geographical studies shifted fromn
physical to human in the beginning of 20th century and continued to be so up to the
Second World War. The French school of thought, led by Paul Vidal de la Blache,
dominated geographical thinking of this period." He developed human geography as
an entity, incorporating into it the historical and chorological perspective. His
"Principles de Geographie Humaine" is regarded as a classic by geographers. According
to him, the historical evolution of each phenomenon in human geography is followed
by a study of its present setting, localization and correlation. He analysed the principles
of terrestrial unity, concept of milieu and the significance of environmental factors in
relation to man. The dichotomy between 'physical' and 'human' deepened with the
coming up of the 'environmentalism', particularly after the publication of the theory
of Charles Darwin. After the publication of the Organic Theory of Darwin, the paradigm
of environmentalism gained popularity among professional geographers. In this
paradigm, the distinction between human and physical (natural) was fundamental. t
was because of the split of the concept into two streams, viz. Determinism and
Possibilism. The scholars like Ratzel, Ellen Semple and Davis exaggerated the role of
nature in human affairs. On the other hand, the writings of Blache, Sauer, Hettner,
on the role of
Huntington and Hartshorne did just the opposite, i.e. overemphasis
man in comparison to nature, considering him the most superior of all the organisms,
versus 'human'
and as the major decision-making element in the world. The 'physical'
dichotomy has also been strengthened by themore 'systematic versus 'regional dualism',
as the systematic approach was considered compatible with physical studies
the 'physical' versus
and the regional with human. Like 'systematic versus 'regiornal',
Both man and nature
human' dualism has also been criticized on various grounds.
are intrinsic to the study of particular
character of areas. Both exist in such a close
To consider them different from each
union that, at times, they cannot be separated.
is so complex that nowhere such a
other is a direct disregard to the reality, which
distinction occurs. It is just a matter of degree or relative importance that what aspect
in the background. In the study of diverse
IS more emphasized and what remains
eatures in interrelation, the invisible aspects are generally overlooked. These
For instance, in the case of landslides in
invisible' aspects may be physical or human.
be overlooked. Further,
atornily region, the human cause (deforestation) may generally
a clear-cut dichotomy between the two a sharp separation is required. But, this
cannot be established, as the study of one leads to the other automatically. For example,
the study of 'population distribution' ultimately culminates on the factors responsible
as terrain, water availability, climate, soil type, etc. Or the study of physical is
incomplete without relating it to man, i.e. in terms of his impact (as habitation,
deforestation, mining, agriculture, etc.). There is only one landscape, i.e. 'geographical
landscape', and the distinction between the physical or natural' and 'human or cultural
180 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

As far as the formulati.

is purely theoretical, and does not exist in reality.
are not the domains of nh
of
laws and theories is concerned, they
generalizations,
are equally possible in human sha
sciences only in the present day context; they
as well. Since geography,
udies
on this basis
Thus, the distinction cannot be created in which they aref n
examine phenomena in the actual complexes ound
particular, must
natural and human phenomen
it is impossible for it, in practice,
to separate henomena.
modern geographers are agreed that geography
cannot
adapt itself to the convenitional
studies; not only does geographyy as a whole tf
division between natural and social
it be divided into two halves, natural and htiman.
into neither group, but neither can
The separation of things natural
from things human is possible only
ole only in
in theory
theory, in
it is found that even after the laborious researchn
reality they are interwoven. Thus, the teatures of earth resultin
by
has not been possible to separate
many able scholars it
exclusive of nature. Even the minor landforms. mic
exclusive of man and from that
are affected by the human culture. On tho
climates, soils and wild vegetation-all
other hand, every material work of man, whether a house, plantation, a farm or a
settlement-all represent a composite of natural and cultural elements. Moreover, the
in the modern period. Earlier this meant the
meaning of physical" has also changed
non-human world', i.e. including organic life (tlora and fauna as well). Now, it means

purely 'inorganic world'. For the organic world (minus man) the term 'biotic' is used.
In fact, the matter of importance in geographical studies is not the emphasis on human
or physical aspects but the 'cause and effect relationship' between the two. Sometimes
the cause 1s human and at others, the physical. This earth's surtace is a living whole,
and it cannot be bisected into something purely dead and something purelyalive.
Indeed, such a dualism exists only in the minds of people. Moreover, since now we
have also abandoned the concept of 'environmentalism', with the dichotomy between
Determinism' and Possibilism' and Systematic' and Regional' being resolved, the
Physical versus Human Dualism' too does not carry relevance in geographical st
Idiographic versus Nomothetic
Of all the problems of current concern in the thinking of geographers, the most
disturbing appears to be the question whether geography 'like other sciences can
develop 'the knowledge of principles, laws, and general truths-and thus lay clai
to the name of science-or whether its function is merely to describe innumerable
unique areas. The ldiographic versus Nomothetic dichotomy is related to which ot the
22
above two concerns, unique or general, represents the ultimate purpose of geography
it
In other words, concerns
itself the
to method of obtaining and organizing informaton
in geography. Here the dualism is between that aspect of science that canbe expresset
universals and that which is concerned with the individual attribute of objet
Nomothetic means 'stating laws,whereas ldiographic means 'pertaining to the stuu
of individual cases or events', The idiographic method deals with
discrete tact
events. As far as geography is concerned, the contrast between that aspect of scienr
that can be expressed in univérsals and that, which is concerned with the individul
phenomenon, received the particular attention at the turn of 19th century. This was
 CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD 181

the attempts of two German philosophers, Windelband

1936). Nomothetic" and idiographic' are terms used by (1848-1915) and Rickert (1863-
Windelband and Heinrich John Rickert to describe twoKantian philosophers Wilhelm
distinct methods
knowledge, each one corresponding to a different intellectual of acquiring
tendency, and to a
different branch oft academe. Nomothetic is based on what Kant described as a
to generalize, and is
typical
for the natural sciences. It tendency
describes the effort to derive
laws that explain objective
phenomena in general.
based on what Kant described as a tendency to Idiographic, on the other hand, is
It describes the effort to understand the
specify, and is typical for the humanunes.
meaning of contingent, unique, and often
subjectivee phenomena. Besides in geography, the two terms have also been used in
philosophy, psychology, sociology, anthropology and law with
Windleband and Rickert classified the different branches of sciencediffering meanings.
on the above
distinguishing between "nomothetic" or law-making sciences, and "idiographic" basis,
sciences, those concerned with the unique. In a way this seemed to conform to the
conventional division between the natural sciences and the social sciences. In the earlier
writings of scholars, particularly after 1900, geography has emerged as an "integrating
science, ie. completely diferent from other sciences and studying all the physical
and human elements in an area. Because of this kind of growth, geography developed
a unique methodology, termed as 'idiographic', i.e. studying different areas with their
Own individual significance. The proponents of this particular methodology argued
that every area or region on the surface of the earth is a unique combination of various
elements. This unique combination provides that area a unique outlook. Therefore,
there is only one Alps, Himalayas, Amazon, Germany, London, New York, Paris, and
so on. They all appear to have their own individual significance. To cite another
example, Africa and North America both have a system of lakes, but as a system of
connected fresh water lakes the Great Lakes of North America have no counterpart in
the world. Thus, geography began with the description of the earth's surface and it
cases in the situation. Then, for a
has always shown a great concern for individual
long time, the bond of geography history (and human culture) dominated
with
also strengthened the belief of geographers in the
geographical thinking. This The most important supporter of this kind
uniqueness of areas or areal combinations. known as the 'Father of
of thinking was Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804), popularly
Kant's philosophy and writings are responsible to a
Exceptionalism' in Geography.
of unique cases in geography. Therefore, his
8reat extent to promote the study in Geography'. Because, his
known by the name of "Exceptionalism
philosophy is
was not considered scientific and he appears
methodology to the study of geographyor thought in his
the trend development of geographic
TO have profoundly changed
this view, geography 1s ditterent trom
all other sciences or
imes. According methodologically unique. Therefore, it deserves a name of its own.
to
disciplines and is not only for geography
but also for history. Some of
Kant laid a n exceptionalist claim made 'idiography' a
namely Ritter, Fiettner, 1artshorrne, etc.
n e later geographers, studies. Kant wrote that the history and
method of geographical the disei
very important of the whole
world of perception of m a n . Both ciplines
BEOgraphy are two parts according to
the time and the other in terms of space
ce.
one
are based on descriptions,
182 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

after the other in time

which fall
one

i.e. reporting the

events which have taken
(phenomena),
History is narrative,
of events Kant in
the statement made by
other hand, is the study
Geography, on the point taken from in the classor
in space. The major limit placed
place side by side method is. that
there is n o
sciences). IF there is no
the support of the
idiographic systematic
studies (as in must be defined and
in geographical
number of objects then the discipline
content of geography, 1.e. idiographic. It is the
limit to the factual method of study,
termns of its
distinctive or specific combinations
recognized in a r e a s or of elements in unique
e l e m e n t s . Kant argued
or specific about the
description of unique generalizations of what
with developing then the descriptions
in an area, rather a r e unique,
If locations reterring to general
that the locations
are unique.
not be accomplished by
locations could method. The idiographic
existed at those unique of the idiographic
the employment There were many
laws. Rather, it requires of the 20th century.
in the earlier part reaction to
view w a s very strong activities and a strong
professional
view generated great similarities between historv
supporters. The constructed false
deterministic thinking.
These supporters
Alfred Hettner
(1859-1941), the German
to
instance, according of no two or
and geography. For is like each other, so is geography
historical event or period fields explain the unique.
scholar, as no is alike. Thus, both the
m o r e phenomena
or areas or regions idiographic method of
were raised against
various objections
Since 1950s onwards F.K. Schaefer, for instance, pointed
out
The American scholar,
study in geography. the result of
According to him, this immaturity
was
immature.
that Kant's views were
before Newton's scientific laws put forward.
were

the fact that they were expressed not acceptable to him.

between geography and history as proposed was
The similarity though there are not really
too much. For example,
The concept of uniqueness proved chemical
that completely
are
alike in all minute details as shape, colour,
two stones
Galileo's law of falling bodies
holds equally for both/The
composition, etc. yet surface of the
method of study suggests considering everything on the
idiographic without knowing the importance or significance
ot
this is taken
earth. If as a practice
be lost under the heap of useless and insignificant
the study, then geographers would Thus, the idiographic method
had
will
factsand details and course of
it become unfruitful) however, was
adversely affected the geographic thought. Kantian influence,
trend is to simplity
adisaster, since it led to Exceptionalism in geography. The modern
the complexity and predict for the future. Since, there exists a heap of informatio0
one cannot deal with this information without following a general approach.(Theprine
concern of geographers in the present times is to form generalizations and establisn
aws and theories. The idiographic technique cannot help in this process. On tne
of this argument, the idiographic method has been repeatedly criticized
contemporary period.)Then, the essential point is that the uniqueness does not precuu
similarity. From these similarities the relationships can be formed to provide the basis
for scientific generalizations. To cite an example, although the moon, an apple and a

ballare unique in themselves with no formal similarities, yet they share certain commo
attributes. In a trivial descriptive terms, they each have an inside and outside, and are
round; whereas Newton recognized a major functional similarity when he proposed
his laws of gravitation. The 'Nomothetic' method emphasizes the task to search for
 PERIOD183
MODERN
CHAPTER 5

imilarities and especially the functional similarities. Different cities, for example,
may
culture,
notbe
b the same or similar in terms of size, pattern, structure, hape, density,
Sucn
etc., but most of are sSimilar, at least, in terms of their non-agriculture function.
such an
ceneralizations or laws may not be true and applicable to the entire world (as and to0a
attempt is rarely possible), but they are true and applicable to a large extent
majority. The patterns produced by the individual facts and events in geography are
spatial. This implies that geographers must describe and explain the manner in whicn
the phenomena combine to fill an area or are distributed over space. Humboldt, the
father of scientific geography, stressed that geography must pay attention to the spatial
arrangement or the Phenomena on the earth's surface, and not to the individual
characteristics of the phenomena themselves. This is sufficient to call geography aa

scentific discipline and not the unique. It is agreed that logically everything15une
can be elicited
But similarities can be found among unique things. General statements
from these. These general statements after testing may be expressed as formal laws.
In spite of the difficulties involved, geography has been able to develop general
Nomothetic method i
principles of the relationships among the variable phenomena. be kind of
is,therefore, the key to the study of geography. There cannot and any Nomothetic.
compromise between thetwoabsolute opposite methods, Idiographic
the individuals and not
The geographers' task is to study the general character of
most complete presentation
their uniqueness. The geographers' task is to seek for the should
if not all,
possible. His method of study should be such that aofmajority, universalaspects
truths some
be brought under investigation. In this process seeking
not explained or described.
individual cases may be left out, which are
controversies have
Thus, except 'Nomothetic 'idiographic the other two
versus
obstacles in the development in
been proved useless and are responsible for posing
other two controversies could not generate
the development of the discipline. The
and the geographers have freed themselves
demands and, therefore, are now discarded
and energ
them to waste their valuable time
from such pseudo-issues, which forced come out of
same time geographers have also
in debating over useless issues. At the
dualism of Idiographic and Nomothetic. The
the disputative situation regarding the
versus regional' and physical versus
other two controversies, namely 'systematic
the of the scholars and not the dichotomy in
viewpoints
human' are just differences in
the true sense.

NOTES

1. Dikshit, 1997, 65.

2. Dikshit, 1997, 67.

3. Pearcy, 1957, p. 22.

4. Dickinson, 1969, 68.
5. 'Geopolitiks' is the method of political
analysis, popular in Central Europe during the first
the role played by geography in international
half of the 20th century, that emphasized
relations.
184 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

6. Dikshit. (1997), 74.

Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, 1870-71, was the conflict between Fran
and imperialism.
ance
Prussia that
signaled the rise of German military power
8. and
The Chicago School (sometimes described as the Ecological School) refers to the fir
in urban sociola.
1920s and 1930s specialising
major body of works emerging during the
and the research into the urban environment by
combining theory and ethnogrank
While involving scholars at several Chica
fieldwork in Chicago, now applied elsewhere. 80
interchangeably to refer to the Universitr
area universities, the term is often used bf
of the most prestigious.
of the oldest and one
Chicago's Sociology Department-one
9. Dickinson, (1976), 324.
10. Dikshit,(1997), 107.
11. Martin, Geoffrey J. (1994), 480-492.
12. Dikshit, (1997), 110.
the Plinian society for student naturalists which
13. Robert Edmond Grant was a stalwart of
Darwin joined in the autumn of 1826 while starting his second year of medical studies at
Grant's keenest student and assisted him with
Edinburgh University. Darwin became
Grant's knowledge and theories.
collecting specimens as well as learning from
14. Social Darwinism in the most basic form is the idea that biological ideas can be extended
and applied to the social realm. It has been applied to the claim that Charles Darwin's
"survival of the fittest" can be used to
theory of evolution by natural selection or by
understand the evolution of society: just as competition between individual organisms
drives biological evolutionary change (speciation), competition between individuals or
groups in human societies drives social evolution.
15. Dikshit, (1997), 246.
16. Dikshit, 1997, 94.
17. Adhikari, (1992), 169.
18. Dikshit, 1997, 95.
19. The Russian Revolution took place in October 1917, affecting the course of world history
for many decades. The revolution was widely regarded as a reaction to the strains that
had been placed upon Tsarist Russia (headed by an autocratic Emperor or Tsar) as a
result of the Great War (First World War). The revolution overthrew the Russian Provisional
Government, which led to the Russian Civil War from 1918-1920, followed by the creation
of the Soviet Union in 1922.
20.
CosplanorState Planning Committee(Russian: Tocua1, Russian pronunciation: lg' plan])
was the committee responsible for economic planning in the Soviet Union. The word
"Gosplan" is an abbreviation for Gosudarstvenniy Komitet po Planirovaniyu (Russian:,
TocynapeTBeHA KOMITeT no nsaapoBaH1o, State Committee for Planning). One of
its main duties was the creation of Five-Year Plans.
21. Adhikari, 1992, 138.
22. Hartshorne, 1959, 148.
 CHAPTER5 MODERN PERIOD 185

REFERENCES

Adhikari, S.(1992) Fundamentals of

Geographical Thought, Chaitanya Publishing House,
Allahabad, India.
Dickinson, Robert E. (1969), The Makers of Modern
Dickinson, R.E. (1976), Regional Concept: The AngloGeography, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
American Leaders, Routledge and Kegan Paul,
London.

Dikshit, R.D., (1997), Geographical Thought: A

Hartshorne, R. (1959) Perspective on the NatureContextual History of ldeas, Prentice Hall of India.
Martin, Geoffrey J. (1994) "Richard Hartshorne,of Geography, Rand McNally & Co., Chicago
Geographers, Volume 84, Issue 3, 1899-1992", Annals of the Association of America
pp. 480-492.
Pearcy, E. (1957) World Political
Rana, L. (2008), Geographical
Geography, Crowell Company, New York.
Company, New Delhi.
Thought: A Systematic Record of Evolution, Concept Publishing
SECTION-II
PARADIGMS
CHAPTER-6

Paradigmatic Shifts

matrices,
proceeds within a framework of some conceptual
Any discipline always and methodologies
called paradigms'. Paradigms focus the philosophical perspectives theoretical feedback for
continue to provide the
that have been in vogue and which of
technique or method that is capable
new researches. Any model, idea, concept,
c o n c e r n in a particular
time period may be called a 'paradigm'.
generating scholarly an American
coined by Thomas S. Kuhn (1922-1996),
The term (paradigm was about the growth and
a very important theory
Historian of Science, while postulating
of science and developed
He wrote extensively on the history
development science.
of Kuhn is famous for his book
notions in the philosophy of science.
several important he presented the idea that science
Revolutions" (1962) in which
"The Structure of Scientific revolutions
truth, but instead undergoes periodic
does not evolve gradually towards students of geography as
Kuhn became as familiar to
which he callparadigm shifts.
"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions",
Hartshorne or Humboldt.
In his classic book,
entire constellation of beliefs,
values, techniques, and so
he defined 'paradigm' as 'the to Kuhn, science is not a
on shared by the members
of a given community. According builds upon the results
whereeach generation automatically
well-regulated activity in a normal steady
No scientific discipline progresses
achieved by earlier workers. tension in which peaceful periods
of
of varying
manner. This growth is process
a
crisis. He further defined 'paradigm'
as

steady growth are separated by periods of that for a time provide model problems
scientific achievements
"universally recognized tells researcherk what
of practitionersThe paradigm
andsolutions to a community which methods/ they should use in this connection. A
Sthey shonid be lookingfor and a large following
and if it has a clearly defined
viewpoint becomes aparadignm ifit
has development
base. In order to elucidate this process of
theoretical and methodological Science? Kuhn
a model
that he termed as theParadigm of
of science, Kuhn prepared science consists of: Pre-Paradigm
that development ot
in his postulates advocated
MOdef kehn
190 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT
Phase with Revolution'
'Crisis
Phase', 'Paradigm
Phase-1',
Paradigm
Pnase-3, on
and so on
Professionalization
Phase', Revolution',
'Crisis Phase with
Paradigm Phase-2',
(Fig.6.1).

Time

FIGURE 6.1 Paradigm of Science

like
scientific knowledge progresses and develops
a
According to Kuhn, the slow
and abrupt rise, followed with smooth and
plateau. There are sudden upheavals conflicts between
i.e. the pre-paradigm period, is marked by
progress. The first phase, of
which
several distinct schools, grow around individual scientists. This period is full
communication between various schools of thought. But none of these
schools considers
the other. There exists a low level of specialization in
itself to be more 'scientific' than
the discipline. From the pre-paradigm phase the scientific development marches and
enters into the professionalization phase. Professionalization takes place when one of
the conflicting schools of thought begins to dominate the others and thus a clear answer
to the question is given.A particular school of thought may become dominant because
it develops new methods or puts questions that come to be regarded as more interesting
or significant. New researches are thereby attracted and the research makes progress.
The third phase is the paradigm phase-1. It is characterized by a dominating school ot
thought, which has, often in quite a short space of time, displaced otthers. A paradigm
is established which leads to concentrated research within a clearly distinguishable
problem area, an activity described as 'normal science'. After 'normal science' phase
 PARADIGMATIC SHIFTS 191
CHAPTER 6

there occurs
stagnation in research, which leads to chaos and turmoil. This eriod
been termed as the crisis phase (temporary dark phase) in the nas
knowledge. This crisis phase with revolution is the starting pointdevelopment sCIent
of
for the paradigm
which in turn is followed
with 'crisis phase' and phuse-4
of crisis, to again 'paradigm phase'. ThiS
sequen
revolution and
paradigm continues throughout the history of science
helps in the
advancement and decline of and
of 'normal science' also disciplines.
does not last indefinitely. A
In this dynamic world, the perio
or later
replaced by a 'crisis phase'. This period of 'normal science is sooner
accumulated which cannot be solved because more and more
occurs
within the probiemis die
framework of the ruling paradigm.
Thecrisis phase is characterized by a
theoretieal-thinking reassessment offormerobservational
and free speculationSThis involves data/n
and a basic philosophical debates
through-going discussion of methodological questions. The
of the crisis phase,
owing to the termination point
point of the next acceptance of a new paradigm, becomes the
revolutionary phase. This involves a break in the continuity ofinaugural
with a through-going reconstruction of the theoretical structure of research,
research field rather
than a steady development and
accumulation of knowledge. The
the truth itself and the scientiste's understanding ot
This simple evolutionary framework is,perception of the world can take on a new
diversion.
however,
certain disciplines, especially in the social sciences disrupted by
(e.g.
the
possibility that
paradigm sciences. In a multiple-paradigm science, many geography), to be multiple-

for hegemony in the field. paradigms are competing

PARADIGM OF GEOGRAPHY
The history of development of geographical thought is also not a story of continuous
progress. The periods of intellectual progress have been interrupted by the periods of
stability or regression. In the light of Kuhn's Model one can discuss the evolution of
paradigms in geography through various stages in succession. Accordingly, six
Paradigmatic Phases interrupted by six Crisis Phases may be identified during the
whole course of development in geography till the contemporary times (Figure 6.2).
However, the paradigmatic shifts in the discipline have been relatively faster in its
modern period than earlier.

Pre-Paradigm Phase: Scholarly Observations of the Eastern and the Western

Civilizations (Ancient Period)
in a way, enquiries of geographical nature had begun since the man first originated
Over this surface of the earth. Man's preliminary observations
and reactions towards
science can claim a longer
nature were of geographical type. As such, no other
far as the literary evidences are concerned,
genealogy than geography. However, as this time that some scholars in
they date back to about 5th Century B.C. It duringthe world around. Although, the
is
the West and the Orient had made observations of
the West,
of the first paradigmatic phase in geography are associated with
Deginnings of the Indians and the Chinese, were
the civilizations in the east, particularly those
 192 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

'
88abas

Time A.D. 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200130014001500 160017001800 1900 2000

Ancient Medieval Moden Period

FIGURE 6.2 The Paradigmatic Shifts in Geographic Development

Pre-Paradigm Phase: Scholarly observations of the Eastern and Western Civilizations

(Ancient Period)
Professionalization Phase: Concentration of Geographical Research in the West
(Ancient Period)
PP-1: Paradigm Phase-1: Period of Greeks and Romans (up to 500 A.D.)
CP-1: Crisis Phase-1: Dark Age in Europe (500-1100 A.D.)
PP-2: Paradigm Phase-2: Rise of Arab School of Thought (800-1450 A.D.)
CP-2: Crisis Phase-2: Age of Discovery (1450-1650)
PP-3: Paradigm Phase-3: Dominance of German School of Thought (1650-1859)
CP-3: Crisis Phase-3: Emergence of Dualistic Tendencies in Geography (late 19th
Century)
PP-4: Paradigm Phase-4: Rise of Determinism (late 19th
century-1920s)
CP-4: Crisis Phase-4: Criticism to Determinism and Paradignmatic Shift to Human
from Physical (Early 20th Century)
PP-5: Paradigm Phase-5: Dominance of French School of Thought and Rise oft
Possibilism (1930s-W.w.Il)
CP-5: Crisis Phase-5: Quantitative Revolution
(1940-1970)
PP-6: Paradigm Phase-6: Rise of Behavioural and
2000)
Humanistic Approaches (1970
CP-6: Crisis Phase-6: Methodological Revolution (Computer Based) in the 21st
century
also making efforts to gain knowledge of the human habitat and of man's spread over
the earth. The studies of geographical nature began in India with the dawn of
civilization in the ancient times. The Indian contribution to Indian
from astronomers and astrophysicists like geography came largelyY
Bhaskaracharya, Varahmihira, Aryabhatta
 193
CHAPTER6 PARADIGMATIC SHIFTS
A.D. 476), etc. The views of these scholars are available on the study of the Universe,
the Earth and the Indian Subcontinent. The ancient Indian literature deals with many
problems pertaining to cosmology, cosmogony and cosmography. The theory of
Philosophical Origin ot the Universe is very close the presently accepted theory
Nebular Origin. In the Rigveda, there is a description of various heavenly bodies
including the Sun, the Moon, different planets and constellations. Observations about
the earth are related to its origin, sphericity, eclipses, size and dimensions, latitudes
longitudes and local time, cardinal points, earthquakes and volcanoes, atmosphere
and seasons, and physical divisions of this planet. The estimates of Aryabhatta
regarding the earth's volume, circumference and mass are nearly correct and reliable.
Geographical knowledge about the Indian Subcontinent is associated with its physical
identification, people and culture, and relief and drainage. China was another major
centre of learning in the ancient world. There are certain fascinating parallels in the
The
concepts and methods of study with that of Indian and European civilizations. and
most importantcontributions of Chinese scholars go to the fields of mathematical
practical geography, physical geography, human and regional geography, and the
accounts of travels and explorations.The Chinese mathematics had developed the
Decimal System, which was introduced to the Arab world in about A.D. 800 from the
Indians. The Chinese were expert in map-making on the latitudinal-longitudinal grid,
earlier than in Greece or Rome. Also
and this art is believed to have developed much
since they are known to
commendable are their observations on weather and climate,
back several centuries before Christ.
have prepared a number of weather reports dating
These reports are now preserved in the
National Archives. The discovery of the rest of
of the history of geography that is often
the world by Chinese travellers is an aspect
with time the West became the centre of
overlooked in western writings. However,
research.
Continuously increasing scholarly
Concentration of Geographical Research
in the West
Professionalization Phase:
(Ancient Period)
took place in Western Asia (present Turkey,
Towards West the earliest developments cultural groups, namely
and Europe, and various
Lebanon, Syria and Israel), Egypt Phoenicíans, E8yptians, Greeks and Romans were
Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, writings to Homer, a
credit the beginning of geographical
involved. The geographers the Pre-Greek civilizations
the earliest known map was made by
Greek scholar, but had already collected
about 2700 B.C. The scholars of Babylon
particularly Sumerians) planets, and theyeffect developed
had
number of data on the motions
of
the stars and on human
a large of the celestial bodies hada
fundamental

theconcept that the position

activities.
Greeks and Romans (up to 500 A.D)
Paradigm Phase-1: Period of
viz.
activities, exploration,
Geography, as a discipline, has grown
out three related information.
ofthe The first two
of collected
mapping and charting and speculation
 194 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

actvihes were common among all the ancient civilizations, but the Greeks were the
Est to scientifically examine the geographical information collected up to their period
Thus, the first amazing period of intellectual ferment that becamne the part of the written
tradition of the Western World was that of Grceks and the Romans. They are credited
to have begun, both, the 'mathematical' and literary traditions in geography in true
sense. Besides 'geography', a number of other terms, like cartography, chorography
topography', frigid', torrid', temperate', 'parallels','meridians','delta', etc., which
are part of present geographical dictionary, were given by the Greek and Roman
scholars.

Crisis Phase with Revolution-1: Dark Ages in Europe (500-1100 A.D.)

There was a long period of decline during the Early Middle Ages, when geographic
horizons closed in due to theocratic slant in human thinking and writings. The wide
ranging Greek and Phoenician explorers and the Greek geographical concepts were
largely forgotten, except among theArabicscholars. Observations piled up in Christian
monasteries, but the intellectual climate was not favourable for the formation of new
interpretations. In Europe, this period is known as Dark Ages. During this period,
geography made a little progress as the organized body of knowledge. The quest for
scientific learning stopped and there began a phase of regression. The approach to the
science, including geography, became theocratic. The image of the world was moulded
to fit the Biblical references. This kind of thinking had an adverse impact on the art of
map-making, which got distorted. The tradition of making fairly accurate maps, as
started by the Greeks and Romans,got lost. Instead, there emerged maps, which were
purely fancy andunscientific. Theidealmap of this period was 'orbis-terrarum (T-in-0)
Maps (Fig. 4.1). This type of cartography was in practice for a long time. These maps
were made beautiful andextremely decorative, but they were very far from reality.
The earlier concepts of sphericity and the nearly correct distances of places, latituies
and longitudes were ignored. When Europe was plunged into Dark Ages, the Arab
School of Thought was rising to prominence in medieval times.

Paradigim Phase-2: Rise of Arab School of Thought (800-1450 A.D.)

There was rise of Islam
in Arab in 7th century and the nev t of learning in the
medieval period spread through the world of Islam. The
vast expanse of the Muslim
Empire facilitated the coming together of intellectual and scientific traditions of various
civilizations, particularly Greek and Indian. The Arabian of Palestine,
Persia and Bactria, where Greek culture still flourished, gave to the Muslims theSyria,
conquest rich
fruit of Greek learning. Their contacts with the Indians helped to diffuse the system or
numerals from India to the West, and this system was called 'Hindsa' in Arabic
language. In the Muslim universities from Persia to Spain, the scholars studied the
Greek and the Indian heritage again. Baghdad was the centre of intellectual world,
and the other important centres of
learning spreading throughout the Arabian Empire
included Jerusalem, Cairo, Toledo, Istanbul, Damascus and
Shiraj. Climatolog8
 CHAPTER6 PARADIGMATICSHIFTS 195
mathematical and practical geography, and regionai and
the important areas of Arab historical geography became
in the times of Arabs in the
contribution, Thus, the renaissance movement had begun
medieval
study of Greeks revived much of the
period. Starting the 8th century the renewed
in
inauiry was not revived. Ihe renaissanceforgotten learning. But the classical spirit of
more concerned with preserving the remained primarily a
religious movement,
knowledge
scientific investigation. Nevertheless. the of the past than
expanding it through
and it was from their hand that the Arabs did keep the Greek learning alive,
lose. The Arab scholars and travellers
Europe received it, as the Dark Ages drew to a
later led to the onset of the presented a new
outlook of the world, which
Age Discovery. The
of
main link between the ancient civilizations and Arab civilization, in fact, became the
the modern
world. Arab Empire started
disintegrating after A.D. 1400 and the Arab period culminated
and Explorations. in the Age of
Discoveries

Crisis Phase with Revolution-2: Age of

Discovery (1450-1750 A.D.)
Largely inspired by the writings of Arab scholars, the
in the late 15th Great Age of Discovery began
century, and the geographic horizons were
pushed back. The
and correction of old maps, anddiscovery
of new lands, improvements in
cartography
scientific and technological inventions various
characterized
this age. Later, various
geographical societies were constituted to finance explorations and promote research
in the discipline. With the
improvements in the art of
navigation and the
use of
magnetic
compass the travels became very popular. Great explorers
discovered the world that was unexplored earlier. emerged in the scene and
Geography was enriched by an
immense collection of facts and information about the world. Ptolemy's maps were
restudied and the missing details were filled in and the
the first time, there appeared the discrepancies removed. For
complete and accurate world
Mercator's projection was devised (1569) and the new maps were prepared on globes.
maps and
it. As a
result of the developments like the establishment of the heliocentric
concept of the
universe; numerous astronomical observations by Nicholus Copernicus a Polish
scholar) about the planets, moons and stars; the presentation of Laws of Gravitation
by Isaac Newton; and the invention of Printing Machine in Europe, there came a
scientific revolution not only in materialistic terms but also in the ideas and thinking
of man. All the disciplines, along with geography, were benefited. The dependence of
geography increased on the other disciplines. The ground became ripe so that
geography could move from consolidation to splitting and specialization. This brought
in wo fundamental innovations to shake the world of scholarship. First, the battle to
establish the principles of what we call 'academic freedom' began; and Second was
the 'separation' of the academic world into distinct fields, each devoted to the study
ot a
specific group of related processes, and regulated its
own paradigm based its
on
Own theoretical structure. There emerged lot of scope for scientific investigations and
8eneralizations began in geography. The renaissance period marks the end ot recession
phase in geographic development and a return to more scholarty research in the
discipline. Post-Arab period was not only an age of discoveries; it was also a transitional
196 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

phase from the medieval to the modern, i.e. from the old to the new. The
subsequent
period saw the emergence of first two modern schools of thought in geography,
German and French, viz,,
one after the other.

Paradigm Phase-3: Dominance of German School of Thought (1650-1859)

Iheknowledge of geography was not organized in the late medieval and the early
modern period, In the absence of an appropriate methodology, it was no more than
encyclopaedic compilations of places and their descriptions. The principles behind
spatial arrangement of phenomena, their causal connections and inter-relationships
that could give geography a true scientific status were yet to be established. The
credit for this goes to the German scholars. The Greeks laid the foundations and the
Germans built the structure of geography. For the next 200 years
after the Age of
Discovery geography was purely a German science. Lot of research was carried on
towards defining geography and deciding upon its methodology (approach, scope,
content, method of study). Ultimately, the place of geography was seen established
among the scientific disciplines. The initial impetus to the German School of Thought
camefrom the works of Bernard Varenius (1622-1650) who brought together
contemporary knowledge of astronomy and cartography and subjected the different
theories of his day to sound critical analysis. He gave the first modern literature on
geography in the form of "Geographia Generalis' published in 1650 itself. Through
this he tried to provide a scientific
methodology to geography by advocating two
approaches for its study, viz. General (systematic) and Special (regional). Since,
Varenius died a premature death, Humboldt
and Ritter, popularly known as the
fathers of modern geography, ultimately handled the t¡sk, respectivelyi n the form
of anaturalscientist and a human geographer, in the
years to come. In the meanwhile,
writings of Emmanuel Kant (1724-1794) guided the research in Germany. Emmanuel
Kant, an armchair geographer, was an outstanding example
professional
philosopher of the Western Thought. He considerably modified the
of a
scientific
structure of geography as
proposed by Bernard Varenius. He laid an exceptionalist
claim not only for geography, but also for history. Therefore, he has been labelled as
the father of exceptionalism' in
geography by F.K. Schaefer, a 20th century American
scholar. Schaefer considered Kant a poor and immature geographer. However, in
spite of all the criticisms put forward against Kantian philosophy, the basic tradition
of the field of geography has persisted in his
writings, ie. geography is a description
of the whole earth, where the earth is understood to mean
the surface of the earth
and the dwelling place of the man'. The
exposition of
geography 'chorology
as by
Alfred Hettner and Richard Hartshorne in the late 19th and early 20th century had
closely followed the Kantian philosophy. Hartshorne's "Nature of Geography" (1939)
also followed the line of thought first formalized by Kant. Through his book, it became
the dominant concept of geography as a field of learning in the mid 20th century.
On the other hand, Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter revived the tradition
of Bernard Varenius. In his best-known work, Cosmos, Humboldt regarded man as
 CHAPTER6 PARADIGMATIC SHIFTS 197

an integral and constituent part of the nature. Through this work,

Humboldt was able to make geography "an original science" rather thana particularly,
of facts from the physical and biological sciences. Two main collection
philosophies,
Natural Philosophy and the Moral Philosophy, dominated the minds of the
viz.
the
in the first-half of the 19th century. Natural
scholars
philosophy was related to the physical
world while the latter to man's inner world and opposed the former. But Humboldt
garded both of these in harmony and shared the concept that envisaged the earth
as a whole, an organic whole, of all parts of which
being mutually interdependent-
an idea which runs right through his Cosmos.
Humboldt followed systematic
approach and his scientific procedure was empirical and inductive contrasting to
theoretical and deductive (as that of Kant). Humboldt included man and his works
in the concept ot nature and natural areas, but he did not consider man as a primary
determinant. Humboldt recognized geography in the form ofa scientific discipline.
Carl Ritter's work was not only contemporary but also complementary to that of
Humboldt. He exercised profound influence on geography by adopting a different
methodology. Unlike Humboldt, Ritter was an anthropogeographer who had an
inclinationtowards human and regional geography. Since Ritter was deeply a
religious man, he gaveteleological interpretations to man-nature relationships. He
thought that divine has created the earth as a school of man and looked upon it as
home of man. Ritter did identify geography as an empirical and descriptive science,
but he himself was and armchair scholar. Accordingto him, geography deals with
local conditions and embraces the attributes of a place in the form of topographical,
formal and material characteristics. These three attributes constitute the basic content
of his most important work, Die-Erdkunde, based on regional descriptions of the
earth covering largely Asia, Africa and Europe. Like Cosmos of Humboldt, Ritter's
Die-Erdkunde is also a professional work-aproductof his lifetime reading, selection,
interpretation and organization of a mass of available data. This work was written
with a distinct theme, i.e. comparative and inter-relationships. On the basis of this
he proved that geography also has a' right to be distinctively considered as a science
with the same dignity as the other sciences. Ritter claimed that the central principle
of geography is "the relation of all phenomena and forms of nature to the human
race, examined and organized within the framework of the unique geographical
man on the earth's surface'. Through
his Erdkunde, Ritter
associations of land and
made a rhetorical claim for geography as the science of the earth. He believed 'the
earth to be an organism made, even in its smallest details, with divine intent, to fit
the needs of the man to perfection; as the body is made for the soul, so is the physical
of Ritter in
globe made for mankind.' One has to overlook teleological approach
order to discover a treasure of geographic insights in his works. His plan of study,
terrestrial phenomena, became the
based on the concept of regional associations of
model for geographical presentations and had far-reaching influences. The classical
with the death of both Humboldt and Ritter
period of modern geography terminated
in the year 1859.
 198 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Crisis Phase-3: Emergence of Dualistic Tendencies in Geography (late 19th

Century)
The followers of Humboldt and Ritter exaggerated certain aspects of views of each of
the founders. The geographers in the last decades of the 19th century clang to a dualisi
on the one hand
concept of geography, i.e. the study of the earth as a natural body
and as the dwelling place of man on the other. This gave birth to two dichotomies, viz
systematic versus regional' and 'physical versus human. And, very soon the discipline
ntered a phase of double-dualism, i.e. 'systematic-physical versus regional-human
Thus, geography bifurcated in two main directions, and its position as a branch o
was thereby brought into serious question.
And, the geographers all.
knowledge
Around the world remained busy, at least up to Second World War, in seeking to
establish the status of geography as an independent discipline, distinct in its concepts
and procedures from other disciplines. Because, the foundations of geography as
secured by Humboldt and Ritter did not provide a clearly unified field and, therefore.
differences in the opinions and viewpoints persisted for a long time in the discipline.
The emphasis of research shifted fast from one viewpoint to the other. Ritter's followers
tended to emphasize the "historical and human' aspects even more than he himself
did. However, soon interest was deflected from Erdkunde and Ritterian philosophy
was criticized. It was focused on systematic studies in a manner reminiscent of
Humboldt, though there was no revival of Humbolde's broad interest in all aspects
neither of physical geography nor of his idealistic stressing of the unity of nature. The
increased interest was on physical or natural geography and the systematic studies in
their new guise were highly specialized, and prosecuted by scientists who tended to
be geomorphologists and climatologists. The systematic studies happily accepted in
geography were, particularly, in the fields of geomorphology (Peschel, Frobel, Davis,
and Penck), climatology (Buchan, Loomes, Koeppen, and Thornwait), plant geography
(Haberlandt, Grisebach, and Warming) and oceanography. This was a time when
'systematic' and 'physical' became synonymous' and the study of landforms emerged
as the dominant and most attractive part of geography. This attracted the researchers
not only from Germany but also from outside, especially U.S.A. The development
that started after 1859 culminated in the works of W.M. Davis (1850-1934). In
comparison, Human Geography lagged behind. Because, some geographers wanted
to make geography a preserve of pure science. Since human behaviour did not appear
to be subject to general laws, they proposed to exclude man entirely from the field or
geography. This had a tremendous influence on geographic thought and it led to
long phase of controversies. These dichotomies overshadowed the discipline for about
hundred years. The important doctrines emerging during this period were those or
Determinism and Possibilism.

Paradigm Phase-4: Rise of Determinism (late 19th Century-1920s)

For one period of time, i.e. late 19th and early 20th century, physical geography
dominated the scene. The maximum contribution came from geologists (Gilbert, Powell
 PARADIGMATIC SHIFTS 199
CHAPTER6

Agassiz and Davis). The emphasis was on morphological research and landtorm
studies. At tthis
point of time Ratzel corrected the prevailing tendency to overstress
the physical aspects ot geography and established a more balanced viewpoint. Inaee
his work served to tix interest still more firmly on systematic studies, and regional
ohy continued
geography to receive scant attention. The
year
1859 marked not only the
death of Humboldt and Ritter but also the publication of Charles Darwin's "On the
Origin of Species". Darwin's ideas on adaptation to the environment and on evolution
stimulated social scientists to reappraise old concepts. New observations in the
biological sphere seemed to provide the key to scientific understandings of differences
in cultural levels and economic activities. Among geographers it was, above all,
Freidrich Ratzel who explored the influences of physical environment on mankind. In
Anthropogeographie (Volumes I and II, 1882 and 1891) and Political Geography (1897),
his major contributions, Ratzel treated human geography systematically and fromn
Darwinian's point of view. He stressed "man is a creature of his envirorment in much
the same way as Darwin had demonstrated adaptation and survival of the fittest in
the animal world." Accordingly, he attempted to show how the distribution of man
on the level
on the earth had been more or less controlled by natural forces depending
of his cultural advancement. However, his second volume of Anthropogeographie
of
showed a different spirit, where the emphasis was on distribution and density
population, forms of settlements, migrations, and diffusion of cultural traits. For the
environmental influences
explanation of these features Ratzel did not merely resort to the end product
but equally, or more so, historical-cultural factors. Ratzel saw man as
of evolution, in which the mainspring was the natural selection of types according to
tint
theircapacity to adjust physical
themselves to the deterministic
environment. A

thus coloured most of his writings. Ratzel's impact

on American geographers was
the interpretation of his ideas by Ellen Churchill Semple, his
quite strong, owing to
Ratzel
Political Geography, the other contribution,
American pupil. Through his he had
the old topic along the lines conformable with the principles
reshaped In this work, he tried to make a comparative
enunciated in his Anthropogeographie. surface'. The
'the political state' and 'the earth's
investigation of the relation between the organic theory society,
state and
of i.e.
revolutionary biology led Ratzel adopt
to
of humanity and a piece of earth.
the Concept of state as an Organism', piece
a

Criticism to Determinism and Paradigmatic

Crisis Phase with Revolution-4:
20th Century)
Shift to Human from Physical (Early
widespread in
of determinism had become particularly
By 1900, the philosophy of Allen Churchill
in U.S.A. through the works
Germany. The thinking also percolated determinism. But, from the
Ratzel anda staunch supporter of
emple, a pupil of this doctrine came under attack. The
chief fault in the
beginning of the 20th century
determinists was found in their
over-simplication of the
assumption of the extreme accused of being 'too-
Their generalizations were
man-environment relationships. and cause-and-relationships.
by caretul investigations
without being backed
Sweeping, the role of physical environment in human
affairs.
The determinists over-emphasized
 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT
Man was seen only as a passive element of the environment. Such works ot man wer
Overlooked for which environmental forces alone give no satisfactory explanatiom
on
Spate, for example, stressed that "environment taken by itself and without man is
Sa
meaningless phrase. Equally important is his indication ot the need to consider the
he
psycho-physiological influence of the geographical environment vin sOcial structura
Geographical environment is oniy one of the factors of territorial differentiation and it
acts through society and cultural tradition." Hartshorne put similar argument forward
He rejected determinism purely on the grounds that the latter separated nature and
man, and this he found disruptive to the fundamental unity of the field, contradictine
the concept of geography as an integrating science. However, the school of determinism
m
did not die out completely. The central theme.survived and continued to persist in the
form of 'Neo-Determinism' or 'Stop-Go-Determinism. This philosophy grew stronger
particularly around Second World War period. Supporters of this new school of
determinism basicaliy believed in determinism but not as rigidly as the earlier
determinists. Where some of the early determinants were apt to make unsound
generalizations, the neo determinants were more careful, to seek and record, wherever
possible, a true sequence from cause to effect. They were aware that man might be
subjected to many surrounding influences that are not purely physical ones. Where
the neo-determinists differed most radically from the 'possibilists', they didnot allow
that man has complete freedom to choose, but rather that he narrows downalternative
courses of action in his mind, and, in selecting one alternative rather than another, is,
influenced (consciously or subconsciously) by his general environment. They were
more careful and believed in theoretical and empirical examination of facts

Paradigm Phase-5: Dominance of French School of Thought and Rise of

Possibilism (1930s-Second World War)
Second quarter of the 20th century was devoted to research in human and regional
geography. This stream of geography was reinstalled and over-emphasized particularly
after the First World War, when a sociological trend was put forward through the
writings of Vidal de la Blache, Lucien Febvre and Jeans Bruhnes in France and Isaiah
Bowman and Carl Sauer in United States. Blache developed the concept that
environment contains a number of possibilities, and their utilization is dependent
almost entirely on human selection. Thisconceptgave rise to the school of Possibilism
According possibilists
to
it is man who is the primary architect of his environment. It
depends on the choices he makes among the numerous possibilities offered by the
environment, In order to use these possibilities he makes two types of adjustments
with the environment, i.e. in the form of adaptation and modification. For the
possibilists, the works of man, not the earth, are the starting point and the most
important is the íreedom of man to choose There are no necessities, but everywhere
possibilities and man as a master of these possibilities is the judge of their use. In spite
of the fact that man has numerous possibilities in a given physical setting, he cannot
go against the directions laid by the physical environment. On this_ground, the
possibilistic approach was also criticised, and the possibilism, to0, did not hold ro
 201
CHAPTER6 PARADIGMATIC SHIFTS

many years. Lhus, the man-environment debate continued in geography for aboua
century after
century atter the death of Humboldt and Ritter. The controversy could resolve only
with a compromise being reached in the Ecological School of Thought followed Dy
Ouantitative Revolutionthe ecological approach no longer accepted the snarp
distinction between man and the external biophysical surroundings. It considered man
not as the same creature everywhere and at all times, but diverse in outlook and
Capability, depending on the society to which he belongs. And each society perceives
andinterprets its biophysical setting through the selective prism of its culture. Thus,
nature and culture are interwoven and complementary parts of a whole rather than
opposing forces.

Crisis Phase with Revolution-5: Quantitative Revolution (1940-1970)

In the first half of the 20th century the ideas of Hartshorne dominated geographic
thinking and were practiced by various scholars. In 1950s they came under attack.
New generation of geographers felt that geography was not truly scientific in its
approach. Laws and generalizations were largely restricted to natural sciences (physical
geography) and human geography was generally devoid of such practice. The most
severe statement of the view that geographers should seek for laws and theories came
from F.K. Schaefer, who attacked the views of Hartshorne in a paper entitled
"Exceptionalism in Geography:a methodological examination" (1953). Schaeter's paper
brought a theoretical and methodological revolution in geography. And geography
underwent radical transformation of spirit and purpose, best described as
a
Quantitative Revolution'. The mechanisticapproach of environmentalism, which
nomothetic and
dominated much of the 19th century, was soon replaced by a more
scientific approach. By 1970s, the revolution was over and a wide range of geographers,
techrniques could be usefully applied
including Hartshorne, accepted that quantitative
best use of such techniques was made in
to the geographical problems. Thereafter, the
The earliest signs of this
the study of uniformities in locational patternsin geography.
the works of Gregory,
British Geography, particularly through
brought by
change were

Haggett and Chorley.

and Humanistic Approaches (1970-2000)
Paradigm Phase-6: Rise ofBehavioural
in research through increased use of
During 1970s, when the need for precision
the controversy
Statistical-mathematical techniques had been commonly accepted, and
scale tilting in favour
systematic regional geography resolved, with the
egarding versus
as independent and equally
useful componernts
ot the former, but both being accepted
about quantitative revolution
had also greatly receded.
of the discipline, the euphoria
to feel disillusioned with the quantitative models
NOw, many workers had begun human geographers of the positivist orientation,
since
Deing developed and used by situations. Consequently, geography again witnessed a
they failed torelate to real-life understanding of
began to feel that a deeper
paradigmatic shift, as many geographers
man-environment interaction could be
achieved if geographers paid greater attention
202 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

have of the environment to

decision-makers
study of the mental images that the leads to action. The
tothe since it is the perceived reality
that
which their decisions relate or perceived reality
than on
on subjective
realization that decisions may be based towards derivation
of theories of
led to attempts
objective realityit
as exists in nature
with why certain
activities take place
that concerned more
theories led to a shift to
Spatial behaviour; This shift in focus inevitably
produce.
rather than what patterns they behaviouralism was
to replace the simplistic
sciences. The objective
of
with a new theory
thebehavioural
mechanistic conceptions of
man-environment relationships
mediated by
and whose actions are
in space as thinking beings
that views human actors of which people acquire,
the mental processes, by means to terns
cognitive processes (i.e. on studying
how people c o m e
knowledge). The focus
was
organize and use
behaviouralist rejected the assumption that
social milieu. The systematic
with their physical and reasoned thoughts involving
based a sequence of with the full
decisions are always upon concerned
behaviouralist was
The
evaluation of all available options. self-conscious deliberation
in the
sub-conscious impulse
to the
spectrum from the
process of decision-making
21st Century
Revolution (Computer Based) in
Crisis Phase-6: Methodological
with another revolutionary phase.
The 21st geography is again marked
century in has entered a
introduction of computer technology, geography
With the widespread revolution. In 1950s, such a change has been brought by the
new methodological
and now it is computer revolution, along with the use of the
Quantitative Revolution, as the seience of
sensing and GIS. Today, we know geography
techniques of remote
but one dealing withnumerous
distribution'. It is not merely an academic subject
spatial the word Geography' is originally derived from the
practical applications. Though of the earth. The modern
Greek 'geographikos', meaning a description
ancient as a field of
extends far beyond describing the earth. Geography
geographer's scope relations of things and events.
is related to significance of locations and spatial
learning inter-connected and inter-dependent parts
of
This implies study of systems of areally the
is a person who asks questions about
diverse origin. A geographer, therefore, deals
and spatial succession. He
significance of locations, distance, direction, spread and other derivations ot
with problems of accessibility, innovation, diffusion, density
the creation ot
relative location. The geographer's ambit includes spatial analysis,
theoretical models involving extensive use of mathematics, as an essential component
A geographer is interested in the earth, its produce and in people and their activitnes.
He has mathematical ability and an ability to understand concepts besides the basie
drawing skills. A geographer's work calls for patience and meticulousness to handie
detailed tasks and analyze data. The revolutionary advances have been made in data

collection and datainterpretation with the use of

computers, remotesensing and Gb
techniques. Use of these techniques has brought a methodological revolution in the
sciences and geography is not unaffected. Computers, remote sensing, GIS and related
fields are opening up new avenues for geographers. It is, in fact, he field of the future
With the use of these modern techniques there may be collected and interpreted a
 CHAPTER6 PARADIGMATIC SHIFTS 203
variety of information about the
earth's surface. Since
concerned variable data on the earth'sgeographers
with are directiy
analyzing the
open up vast areas tor analysis and research. surface, this is gong to
Modern geography is a spatial science
increasingly focusing on the study of spatial aspects of social
and thus being pre-eminently humanistic and economic
phenomena,
in geography is now
retlected in the (anthropocentric). The humanistic tradition
David Livingstone (1992), Derek
scholarly texts, eg. by David Stoddart (1986),
Doet (1999). Gregory (1994), Richard Peet (1998), and Marcus
To conclude, formal definitions of the
field of
each stage of its growth, since ancient to geography have been attempted at
contemporary times. For example, some
geographers like Hartshorne, projected geography
accurate, orderly and rational description of the earth's
as a
discipline concerned to provide
emphasis on the surface. Others have laid
inter-relations of man and environment. greater
see the stress Then there scholars who
are
on a morelimited range of
problems
arrangements. However, none of the above definitions hasconcerning locational and spatial
geographers, but these definitions have some common groundreally satisfied all the
may, at least, identify few important themes
for explanation. We
through
(1) Geography shares with the earth sciences a common
the various attempts at
definition
which is not abstract space; (2) At the same base, i.e. the earth' surface,
time, geography concerned with the
is
earth as the environment of man, an environment that
not only influences man and his
activities, but also is influenced or modified man;
by (3) Geography focuses on man's
spatial organization and his ecological (balanced) relationships to his environment,
through the use of its various
resources and space; (4)
changing nature of various phenomena of the earth; andGeography
is sensitive to the
(5) Geography is a dynamic
discipline and not the static one. These basic themes have shaped and profoundly
influenced the natuure, scope and content of
geography. Largely based on these themes
various such viewpoints in geography may be defined which have
persisted through
times till today, although changing their forms from time to time. Such basic themes or
viewpoints that continued to survive and shape the growth, nature, content and scope
of any discipline, have been called as 'paradigms'. The persisting paradigms in
geography with their exemplars are summarized as follows: (1) Paradigm of Area-
Study (Regional): Areal-differentiation, landscape/landschaft/ paysage, chorological
viewpoint, regional concept; (2) Paradigm of Man-Environment Relationship:
Determinism, possibilism, ecological, behavioural approaches, radical and humanistic
approaches; and (3) Paradigm of Space: Spatial distribution, spatial organization.

REFERENCES
Husain, M. (1988), Evolution of Geographical Thought, Second Revised Edition, Rawat Publications
Jaipur.
Kana, L. (2008), Geographical Thought: A Systematic Record of Ezolution, Concept Publishing
Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
CHAPTER-7

Major Paradigms

Beginning with the Greek and Roman period, through the definition of geography
being as the description of the earth's surface, Ritter's regional concept, Humboldt's
systematic geography, Darwin environmentalism to the present nomothetic,
quantitative and more recent environmental perception approaches applied to
geography-we find three major themes (paradigms) have ben continuously applied
in geographic research. They are Environmentalism, Regional and Spatial.

ENVIRONMENTALISM

People, place and time maybe thought of three basic elements out of which geography
is fashioned. The relationship of man with nature and the resultant pattern or
description over space in a particular time is the core of all geographical studies. Human
beings have claimed their contribution using natural resources. With the help of
technology, human beings moved
from stage of
the necessity to a stage of freedom.
They have put their imprints everywhere and created new possibilites in collaboration
with nature. Thus, we now find naturalized human beings and humanized nature;
and the emvironmentalism studies this interactive relationship. This relationship, in
the history of geographical thought, has been viewed in three ways, viz. Determinism
Possibilism; and Ecological Viewpoint. The proponents of 'Determinism' regarded
environment to be superior than man; the believers of Possibilism' gave man all powers
to choose anything better for his living, at his own will and apparent freedom; whereas
the 'Ecological Viewpoint gave equal weightage to both man and environment, one
affecting the other in a reciprocal manner. Much of the geographical work since the
mid 19th century, however, has either explicitly or implicitly taken its inspiration
from biology, and in particular from Charles. Darwin established a sphere of scientitic
enquiry free from a priori theological ideas, and freed natural science from the argument
 CHAPTER7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 205

of natural theology (science of God). And finally, and

in this he was alone, DarWin
established man's place in nature, and in doing he made man a fit object for the
so
scientific study. Modern geography is inconceivable without these general advances.
Darwinism ultimately paved the way for determinism.
Determinism

Determinism is one of the oldest schools of

determinism rose to prominence in the latethought. philosophy of environmental
The
19th and early 20th
taken up as a central theme by the century when it was
the
discipline of geography. The view
Second World War in one form or the other. persisted up
to
the view that environment controls the Supporters of the determinism favour
patterns of man's behaviour, so that all his
actions, his settlements, his modes of life are
controlled,
surroundings. They believed that nature is superior directly to man.
or
indirectly, by his
determinists, man is a passive agent on which the According to the
determining his attitudes and the process of his physical factors are acting and

deterministic school of thought is that the history,decision-making.

culture, living
The essence of the

development ot a soCial group are exclusively or largely governed style and the stage ot
factors of the environment. The origin of deterministic by the physical
when the Greeks and Roman scholars made first thinking goes
back to antiquity,

features and character traits of various attempts to explain the physical

people and their culture with reference to the
influence of natural conditions. Hippocrates (born in 460
his work "on Airs, Waters and Places", commented on
B.C.), for instance, discussing
the easy going life of Asians
endowed by nature with very favourable physical
environment, thus making them
inactive, relaxed and slackened. In comparing life of Asians with those of
who live in relatively harsh physical environment, he found the Europeans,
latter as hard working.
Aristotle repeated the same generalization about the national character and
added
the political element. Similarly, Strabo, in his
geographical accounts established a close
relationship between the shape, relief, climate and space and the rise and strength of
Roman Empire. The geographical determinism continued to reflect the writings. of
Arab Scholars in the medieval period as well. The Arab Scholars divided the habitable
world into 7 'terrestrial zones' (Kishwars) and highlighted the physical and cultural
characteristics of races and nations living in these zones. Al-Battani, Al-Masudi,
Al-Idrisi, Ibn-Khaldun, etc. attempted to correlate the environment with human activity
and their mode of life. Al- Masudi, for example, asserted that the land where water is
abundant, the people are gay and humorous, while people of dry and arid lands are
1ort tempered. The nomads who live in open air are marked by strength and
resolution, wisdom and physical fitness. Determinism was also strongly observed i
the work of Emmanuel Kant (1724-1794), who stated that the people of New Holland
(the Dutch/Northern Brazil) have a half closed eyes and cannot see to any distance
without bending their heads back until they touch their backs. This is due to
nnumerable filies that are always flying in the eyes. Kant further stressed that all the
inhabitants of hot lands are exceptionally lazy and timid. Timidity engenders
Superstition and in lands ruled by kings leads to slavery. In support of his hypothesis
206 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of influence of climate, he stated that animals and men that migrate to other countries
are gradually affected by their environment. For example, the brown squirrels tha
migrate to Siberia turn gray and the colour of white cows in winters turns greyish
Humboldt and Ritter, on the other hand, looked on this 'man-environment relationshin
more scientifically, i.e. 'cause and effect relationship'. Therefore, the development of
astronomy in Arab, they attributed to the physical environmentopen
skies and desert
lands where astronomical observations are easier to be made. The philosophy of
determinism, in turn, was greatly influenced by the high profile of evolutionary biology
of Charles Darwin (1809-1882), the English natural scientist. After the publication of
the theory of Darwin?, a change was seen in the development of deterministic viewpoint
as well. Because, the pre-Darwinian views on Determinism were found relatively more
modest in comparison to that in post-Darwinian period, when they attained more
extreme form. And the scholars started talking about 'environmental control' instead
of 'environmental influence'. Darwin achieved lasting fame by convincing the scientific
that this could be
community of the occurrence of evolution and proposingnow theory
the
is considered the central
explained through natural selection. This theory
evidence for evolution by natural
explanatory paradigm in biology. Darwin compiled
selection for about 20 years and published his theory in 1859 in the form of On the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The The maximum influence
Struggle for Life (usually abbreviated to The Origin of Species). of Darwin's 'Theory. The
of deterministic thinking was exercised after the popularity
scientific developments in geography that followed Darwin were deeply influenced

by the role of nature on organisms, including man. This role of nature was deeply
studied in human affairs. In other words, it was tried to prove that man's houses,
communications, agriculture, his physiographic characteristics, nature, attitudes
capacities, general way of life and beliefs all are determined by the nature or

environment (particularly including climate, relief, soil and vegetation). Gradually,

the term environmental influence' was replaced by the 'environmental control', ie.
the environment does not simply influence but determines. The observations of various
scholars caused them to conclude that 'man's immediate surroundings have a decisive
(deterministic) effect not only on his occupations, dwellings and the materials he uses
in everyday life, but also on his personal traits, his general character, and even his
all or
religiousbeliefs. "They found environment to be superior to man and mastering
his actions. Such generalizations were called 'extreme' and not as theresultof cause
i effect relationship between man and environment. Thus, there emerged extrem
form of determinism in the late 19th century. Such assumptions or explanations were
generally based on incomplete evidence or research. The scientific milieu in the latter
halfof the 19th and the early 20th centuries was dominated by Darwin's idea, deductive
Fitting
approaches and an acceptance of the Newtonian cause and effect relationships.
well into this intellectual environment, the theme of environmental determinism was
prevailing view not only in Germany but also in American geography. atze
supplemented 'classical geographical determinism with the elements of 'Social
Darwinism" and developed a 'theory of the state as an organism' that owed its life to
more territory. In the opinion ot
the earth, which was ever striving to seize more and
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 207
Ratzel "similar locations lead to similar mode of life".
Isles and Japan and asserted tnat both these countriesHe cited the example of British
nrovide natural defence against the invaders. have insular locations, which
Consequently, the people of these
countries are making rapid prOgress. Ratzel, a follower
Survival of the fittest and saw man as the end of Darwin, believed in 'the
in which he mainspring was the product of the evolution, an evolution
natural
ho adiust themselves to the physical selection of types
according to their capacity
environment.
features and location ot a place im relation to He was convinced that the physical
the course of history, the mountains and plains closely influence
mode of life of the people and
his deterministic approach he
gave
the stage of
development. in
weightage
more
topographic features. At the beginning of the 20th to location in relation to
narticularly widespread in the United States, wherecentury' environmentalism' became
its leading
Churchill Semple (1863-1932) and Elsworth proponents were Ellen
philosophy determinism she wrote two books,
of Huntington (1876-1947). Based on the
Geographic Conditions in 1905 and "lnfluences of namely "American History and its
According to Semple, there are four ways in which Geographic Environment" in 1911.
the environment can
man and they are: (1) influence the
Physiological Influences (On the features, stature and
appearance of the human beings); (2) physical
Psychological Influences (On the level of thinking,
beliefs, knowledge of the human beings); (3) Influences on the
the occupation, culture, traditions of the Economy Society (On
and
people);
(On the mode of living: sedentary or practicing
and (4) Influences on the Human
Mobility
wrote the monumental book "The transhumance). Elsworth Huntington
Principles of Human
protagonist of Environmental Determinism. He explainedGeography"
in 1945, was a
more in terms of 'Climatic
Determinism'. Huntington assessed the role of climate on man at
three levels, viz.
Global, Regional and Personal. The basic philosophy of
Huntington was that the
supreme achievements of civilization in any region were always bound
up with a
particular type of climate and variation in climate led to pulsations' in the history of
culture. He associated with the climatic
cycles the 'Golden Age' in ancient Greece, the
Renaissance in Western Europe, and cyclical fluctuations in iron
production
price of shares. Huntington divided the world in the 'mild' and 'harsh'
the
cr
climatic zones
and established that the ancient civilizations
(Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese and
Indus) flourished in the fertile river valleys of mild climates. He also established the
nypothesis of invasion and tribal warfare. The great outpouring of nomadic people
from Central Asia which led to
Mongol Conquest
of Turan, Turkistan,
China and
India and the raids in Eastern Europe in the 13th century could be explained by the
dying of pastures on which the nomads were dependent. According to Huntington
ne reugion and racial character are the products of climate. A temperature of about
20C with variable atmospheric conditions is good for the high mental and physical
efficiencies. Such a climatic condition is found in the countries of North-West Europe.
Huntington has attributed the advancement of Europeans in the field of science and
technology to climatic conditions. The under-development of Tropics, he explained,
S owing to the humid, hot, oppressive weather that makes the people lethargic, lazy,
inefficient and timid. The subsequent geographers like H.J. Mackinder, Chislomn,
Davies, Bowman, Robert Mill, Geddes, Herbertson, Taylor, etc. interpreted the progress
208 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of societies with a deterministic approach. Many of the scholars made it vividly clear
the climate influences the physical properties of soil that uitimately deternines
tnat
the cropping patterns, dietary habits, physique and attitudes of human societies. In
under attack as its claims were
the 1920s and 1930s, environnmental determinismoften destructively
came

1ound to be hopelessly inadequate at best, and wrong Ihe chief

in the assumptions of the extreme

environmentalists lay in over-Simplification
Tauits the study of man-environment
in the approach dealing with the issues related to
affected by physical conditions.
relationship. Man is undoubtedly profoundly
and has almost certainly contribuled
to
does strongly affect the nomad,
Environment But assertions of the kind quoted above
the nature of religious beliefs of such peoples.
backed by careful investigations that
are too sweeping, and were not, in the main,
modern environmentalists employ in their search
for a sequence from cause and effect.
extreme opinions of a school
of determinism
The examples above represent the more
the ideas of the early exponents
which has few followers today, and which went beyond
of the late 20th century, it appeared
of environmental control. From the perspective
that the determinists over-emphasized the
role of environment in human affairs. This
does not imply that environmental influence is inconsequential or that the human
influence. Rather, it suggests that the physical
geographer should not study such an human culture and rarely the
environment is of the many
only one affecting
forces
sole determinant of human behaviour and beliefs. The crude determinism was a one-
cause-and-effect relationships. As a result,
sided approach, as there was a lack of
Determinism started fading away in the beginning of the 20th century. Particularly
after Second World War, the philosophy of determinism was attacked vigorously.
and other countries
Many geographers in the USA, France, Britain, Canada the environmentalists in
were

drawing attention to the one-sided approach adopted by of nature's active roe

their interpretation of historical reality to their exa8geration
at
and the fact that they only acknowledge man as capable of passive attempts
alone
adaptation. Works of man reveal many facts for which environmental forces the
give no satisfactory explanation. The natural environments may be modified by
technological improvements in order to make the inhospitable and harsh physical
situations worthy of human occupancy. O.H.K. Spate (1952) criticized the fanatic
approach of environmental determinists. He, for example, stressed "environment taken
by itself is a meaningless phrase. Without man environment does not exist. Equaly
important is his indication of the need to consider the psycho-physiological influence
of the geographical environment via the social structure. In the final analysis Spate
concluded that geographical environment is only one of the factors of territorial
differentiation and it acts through society. Cultural tradition has a certain autonomuus
influence." Hartshorne also put similar arguments forward. He rejected
environmentalism purely on the grounds that it separated nature and man and thus
was 'disruptive of fundamental unity of the field'; and contradicted the concept ot
geography as an integrated science. As a consequence of the above criticism of the
doctrine of crude Determinism faded away in the second quarter of the 20th century,
but after few decades it revived in a new form known as 'Neo-Determinism'. In the
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 209

meanwhile there enmerged the doctrine of "Possibilism" in France as an antithesis to

"Determinism".

Neo-Determinism

In spite of its vigorous criticism the School of Determinism did not die away completely,
its central theme continued to survive in the form of Neo-Determinism. Where s
of the early environments were apt to make unsound generalizations, the modern
determinists were more careful, to seek and record, wherever possible, a true sequence
from cause to effect. They were aware that man may be subjected to many surrounding
influences that are not purely geographical ones. Sometimes, geographical influences
are not strong, nor their effects obvious, but to the environmentalists these geographical
influences are always present as part of the general environment which determines
man's course of action. The modern determinists differed radically from the
'possibilists' in their view on the nature of human 'choice'. They did not allow that
man has complete freedom to choOse, but rather, that he narrows down alternative
courses of action in his mind, and, in selecting one alternative rather than another is,
he is consciously or subconsciously influenced by some part of his general environment.
The supporters of this new school of determinism basically believed in determinism
but not to the extent as earlier determinists did. They did not use unsound
generalizations; they believed in cause and effect relationships between man and
nature; they were more careful, and applied theoretical and empirical examination of
the facts with the help of modern techniques. Griffith Taylor used theterm Stop-Go
Determinism' for Neo-Determinism. Taylor maintained that it may be that the well
endowed parts of the world offer a number of different possibilities for making a
land is to0
living; but in most of the earth's land area, nature speaks out clearly-"this
or too cold, or too wet, or too rugged". He wrote that the
settlers who fail to heed
dry,
this nature-given limitation must face disaster. According to Taylor, the role of nature
was far from crudely deterministic, but the environment was nevertheless a powerful
of
force in human action which man could ameliorate but not escape. It is like the case
the traffic
the flow of traffic busy road. The traffic policeman cannot wish away
on a
the traffic through the
that must necessarily flow. All that he does is to regulate
human agency through the use of technology
temporary stop-go-method. Similarly, the role of human is
can modify the force of nature but it cannot escape it. The agency
similar to that of the traffic regulator".

Possibilism
forward by French School of
After the First World War the sociologist trend, put
of different societies and their history,
Thought to explain the stage of development in the early 20th
was termed as 'Possibilism'. The possibilistic thinking grew stronger
scientific innovations. Several developments proved
century due to technological and those who entered the
the man's conquest over nature. The geographers, particularly
to stress this
field after training in history, instead of natural science, have tended
210 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

freedom of man to choose. For them the pattern of human activity on the earth's surface
is the result of the initiative and mobility of man operating within a frame of natural
forces. Without denying the limits every environment sets to man's ambition, they
these limits." The philosophy of
emphasize the scope of man's action rather than
Possibilism is closely linked with the writings of
Lucien Febvre, Vidal de la Blache
in U.S.A.The essence
and Bruhnes in
Jean and Isaiah Bowman and Carl Sauer
France,
relationship his
between man and
of the possibilistic approach to the problem of
as: "Nature does not
drive along particular
man a
environment can be summed up which man is free to select". For the
road, but it offers a number of opportunities from
influence are the starting points,
possibilists "the work of man, not the earth and its There are no necessities, but
the most important being the freedom of man to choose".
these possibilities is the judge of their
everywhere possibilities; and man as master of
use. This by reversal that it involves put man in the first place,
man andno
longer the
earth, nor the influence of climate, not the determinant conditions of localities.
free himself from
However, the Possibilities have never claimed that man can entirely
all environmental influences. The debate between determinism and Possibilism
continued for more than half a century. According to the determinists 'similar
surroundings should generate similar life styles or cultural groups'. But this is not the
reality. Because the nature of man's response to the environment depends to a large
extent on the particular state of cultural advancement and the extent to which he is
mentally and technically equipped. For man, the natural surroundings hold inherent
possibilities, out of which some may be chosen by man to be developed and the others
may be ignored. Thus, human choice plays an important role in the study of 'man-
nature' relationships. This is the basic theme of Possibilism. Possibilism does not deny
the influence of environment, but studies man-environment relationship from human
point of view. Man has a selective power. He is free to make choices. The possibilists
do agree that this selective power has greater scope of choices if the environment is
favourable. But when the natural conditions are not favourable or man is not aware ot
technological developments, human choices are also limited. For example, for the
mountain fold of Borneo (or anywhere else), the choice may be between an effort to
overcome local hardships or to migrate. The belief is that every region possesses a
combination of environmental features that offer a number of
man may or may not take the opportunities, of which
advantage. It is usually the lack of "know-how thar
prevents people from fully exploiting the possibilities of any
soils of the Northern Territories region. For example, tne
of Ghana (Africa) have been little utilized as yet thougn
many areas are basically fertile, and even though there is
to the south. It has taken the modern over-population in Ashanti,
disc plough and the advice of soil
open up the possibilities of considerable settlenment for the
scientists to
them a livelihood that can be native peoples, and allow
based upon crops grown locally on these soils. Yetin
Denmark, the Government deliberately altered the form of
land use,
producing country, naturally suited to the production of wheat, into a turning grain
a
land of highiy
organized dairy production; their option, prompted by the
from the New World,
apparently competition of cheap grain
indicating
several possible ways of exploiting the land.
that they had chosen to
adopt one of the
According to possibilists it is man who is
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 211
the
e primary architect his culture. It depends on the choices he
of
possibilities offered by theenvironment. In order to make makes among the
eman makes two kinds of adjustments, viz. use of
of the
ti possibilities of
asic concept of Possibilism does not exclude Adaptation and Modification. The
the nature
rather it gives more importance to totally from its definition;
human choice.
an his needs, tastes and capacities. Ihat nature The human choice, in turn, depends
is the base of
admitted even by the possibilsts. vidal de la human activities is well
Blache,
"Geographie Universelle and Kegional Geography of France" through his important works as
concept of 'Possibilism'. By this he meant that in formally put forward the
group of people lives, there is
a
given environment, in which a
no necessity that the people should be
certain way, there is only poSSibility that they influenced in a
ways, depending upon their cultural may react in a number of
different
founder modern French Geography. He
of heritage. Vidal de la Blache is
also known as the
to environmental determinism. consistently expressed
man's behaviour. It only offers
According to him the nature does outright opposition
not directly dictate
opportunities and human society makes a choice. This
choice is not free and arbitrary one, but it is
social patterns of the group and their level of guided and restrained by the mental and
In other words, man conceives the nature technology and cultural advancement.
of his habitat
Central to Vidal>'s work were the through the prism of his culture.
"ife-styles' (genres de vie) that develop in the different
geographical environments. In his opinion, the life-styles are the products and reflection
of a civilization; representing the
integrated result of physical, historical and social
influences surrounding man's relation to milieu in
the differences among groups in the same or similar particular place. He tried to explain
these differences are not due to the dictates of the environments, and stressed that
the variations in physical environment but owing to
attitudes, values, habits, etc. Variations in attitudes and habits create
numerous possibilities for the human communities.
The possibilists emphasize that it is
impossible to explain the difference in human
society and the history of that society without reference to the influence of environment;
and they hold that man himself brings his influence to bear on that environment and
changes it. After Vidal, possibilism continued to grow and spread on both sides of the
Atlantic. In France, Jean Bruhnes, the pupil of Vidal de la Blache himself, was a strong
supporter of possibilism. Outside France as well, the possibilistic ideas were accepted
by a large number of geographers and anthropologists. Carl Sauer, from the American
School, asserted that geographer's role is to investigate and understand the nature of
the transition from the natural to the cultural landscape. From such an exercise the
geographer would identify the major changes that have occurred in an area as a result
ofoccupancy by successíon of human groups. Its importance is often greater in regions
where it has been acclimatized than in those where it originated and domesticated.
For example, wheat does not have the largest yields in regions where it was first
domesticated (Southwest Asia). Cultivation of rice is now done largely in USA, Canada,
Australia and India, the places where it diffused later. Isaiah Bowman, another
American Scholar, also held the similar views. According to him, men can never entirely
rid themselves whatever they do, of the hold their environment has on them. Taking
this into consideration they utilize their geographical circumstances more or less
212 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

completely oftheir geographical possibilities. But here or elsewhere there is no actio

necessity. 1The limits set by nature by man's action vary from one historical period
to another. ln marginal environments, such as the hot and cold deserts, and at low
stages of culture man's choices may be extremely restricted. In the more favourabilo
low
areas of the warm and cool temperate zones, and in periods when man's techniques
are highly
developed, the possibilities are more numerous. But however many skills
man acquires, he can never free himself entirely from nature's control. This
s
emphasized over and over again by Possibilists. Bowman asserted: "While the physical
laws to which mankind responds are available in their application and degree of effect
yet this is also true that all men everywhere are affected to some degree by physical
conditions."
In spite of the fact that man has numerous possibilities in a given setting, he cannot
go against the directions laid by the physical environment. On this ground, the
POssibilists approach has been criticized by many of the contemporary thinkers.
Therefore, like Determinism,the Possibilism also did not hoBld for many years. Griffith
Taylor (1951), while criticizing Possibilism stressed that society as a whole should
make the choices, and since an advisory role is
assigned to geographer, his function
"is not that of interpreting Nature's
plan". Taylor was largely right when he wrote
that the task of geography is to
study the natural environment and its effect on man,
and not all problems is connected to man or the 'cultural
Possibilism does
landscape'. Moreover,
not study geographical environment and it promotes
encourage of
over-anthropocentricism in geography. Geographical determinism, at least, obliges
the geographer to turn attention to nature; and if the
question is asked as to whois
setting out to destroy geography, thern the blame should be placed above all at the
possibilists' door.

Ecological Viewpoint
Man's relation tothe natural environment is one of
intricate and perpetual association
historically, culturaly and biologically. The very
conception of the natural
is moulded by human
history and culture. The natural environment environment
is not to be
understood as a causal factor but rather as an
condition of human life. The all-pervading and all-enveloping
of the world with all its history of the world with all its
complexity and the culture
constituent varieties belong
world and its only the environment of
regions-as living things, including man, are
in
this
environment. The natural environment conditioned by their
life, history, and culture; and,
can be
understood by only in terms of naturad
hunian
understood fully only in theconversely,
natural
the human life,
history, and culture can be
environment may have analytical value, environment.
but only as
Separate studies of natura
the indivisible
totality. Human life and environment areabstractions made in full view or
aspect their being, biologically and
of intimately interwoven in every
Both nature and man are intrinsic to culturally, from the beginning of life on
such intimate union that
the particular eartnin
character of areas, and indeed
they cannot be
relationship that geography has faced separated
two
from each other. It is also in
of its most this
difficult methodological
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 213

problems, of the dualism between man and environment, and that between human
and physical geography. The ecological viewpoint has been used to overcome these
problems. it provides alternative approach to a central theme in
an

enauiry, that of the relationship ot man and environment in area. geographical

In man and
nvironment studies, the ecological approach is the latest approach cutting through
the themes of both 'determinism andpossibilism'. Neither of these two
could provide the discipline an analytical tool of sufficient power to leadconcepts
to new
insights. Only in the 19605 did the geographic profession become alive to the
methodological potentialities of the ecology and the ecosystem concept." Acording
to the ecological approach the man and environment are equally important. The
ecological approach is the most scierntitic approach and at the same time most
commonly accepted by human geographers. With the adoption of ecological viewpoint,
geographers got rid themselves of naive determinism and misinterpretation in both
physical and human geography. The ecological concepts provided a research method
that geography so badly lacked' The concept of 'Ecosystem' lies at the base of the
philosophy of Ecological Viewpoint. Ecology is the scientific study of the relations
that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment.
For the study of human geography, it only suggests the man and environment relations,
and does not allow anyone to be supreme power over the other to exert its influence
It describes the cause and effect interplay between cultural and physical environment.
Man and nature are acting and reacting together. As a human science, there are many
practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland management, natural
resource management (agriculture, forestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology),
community health, economics, basic and applied science and social interaction (human
ecology).
Ecosystems sustain every life-supporting function on the planet, including climate
regulation, water filtration, soil formation (pedogenesis), food, fibers, medicines,
erosion control and many other natural features of scientific, historical or spiritual
value. The scope of ecology covers a wide array of interacting levels of organization
spanning micro-level (e.g, cells) to planetary scale (eg, ecosphere) phernomena. The
term ecosystem was formally proposed by Arthur George Tansley, the plant ecologist
in 1935. Tansley was an English botanist who was a pioneer in the science of ecology
It was proposed as a general term for both the biome ('the whole complex of
organisms-both animals and plants-naturally living together as a sociological unit)
and its habitat.10 All the parts of such an ecosystem--organic or inorganic, biome and
habitat-are regarded as interacting factors that are in equilibrium. It is through their
interactions that the whole system is maintained. Tansley's ecosystem concept
effectively broadens the scope of ecology, which is no longer purelyof biological
in

content. An ecosystem is a functioning interacting system composed

one or more

both physical and biological. It is

ving organisms and their effective environment,
the self-regulating association of living plants and animals and their non-ling physical
recommend it
environmnent." The ecosystem system concept has four properties that
are: (1) The ecosystem is monistic, i.e. it brings
geographical investigation. They worlds within a single framework, within
together environment, man, plant and animal
214 GEGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

which the interaction between the components can

be analyzed. The ecosystem concent
for geographical analysis of man
being functional in design, offers a sound principle Since the ecosystem concent
environmetal interaction in specific areas and regions.
environment in a single interacting system
combines both physical and the biological
it helps toresolve the age-old problem of dualism
in
geograpny-that between physical
and human geograph
the physical environment)
geography (focused on the study of and its spatial consequences): (2
(concerned with the study of human organization and comprehensible
or less orderly, rational
The ecosystem is structured in a more
structure is recognized,i
for geography, is that once the
way. The essential fact here,
studied, in sharp contrast to the
transcendental properties of
may be investigated and
or organic wholes; (3) The ecosystem is a
the earth, and its regions as organisms
throughput
continuous of matter and energy. In
functioning system involving
not only the framework of the communication
geographic terms, the system involves Once the framework has been
net, but also the goods and people flowing through
it.
and interchanges between
defined, it may be possible to quantify the interactions
the whole complex may be
component parts, and at least in simple ecosystems
'General System, and the
quantitatively defined; and (4) The ecosystems are a type of
ecosystem processes the attributes of the general system. In general system terms, the
and obeying the laws of
ecosystem is an open system tending towards a steady state
heat and other
open-system thermodynamics (the science of the relations between
forms of energy). Many of the properties of such systems have been implicitly
recognized. For example, the idea of climax in vegetation, of maturity in soils, and of
grade in geomorphology. Ecosystems may be conceptualized at different levels of
complexity; e-g. from a single farm unit to the national system of agriculture in any
country. Accordingly, with the adoption of the concept of ecosystem, geographical
systems may be examined at a series of levels or scales, beginning with the framework
level (such as settlement hierarchies or a transportation network), to simple information
systems focused on the analysis of the mechanisms of supply and demand, to the stil
more complex levels of social organization. Ecosystems are hierarchical systems that
are organized into a graded series of regularly interacting and semi-independent parts
(eg, species) that aggregate into higher orders of complex integrated wholes (e.g,
communities). In the last few years it has began to be applied by geographers both as
a research tool and as a methodological instrument offering an alternative to that of
Kant and Hettner. It links geography with the mainstream of modern scientific thought
in systems analysis and related disciplines, and
opens up as yet unexplored possibilnte
in the application to geography of the whole field of information
theory an
communication techniques. In the ecosystem concept, the ecology makes its
profound and powerful contribution to geography. In the period immediately folowing
most
Second World War, many changes took place in geography and it was
largely throug
the American School. The single, overriding change that characterized this
the shift away from the physically biased geography to a more human-oriented
phase wa
tocus
This shift became a very significant one in trying to to balance both the physical and
human aspects of the discipline. This reorientation in geography involved a few
main
ideas. The first of these was the idea of geography as 'human ecology'. The idea or
 CHAPTER7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 215

ecology in geography Was Proposed in 1923 by Harlan Barrows, a

Human ecologyleading
an
hum.
ber of the faculty of the University of Chicago. is the
g0. iuman ecology is the
interdisciplinary investigatior into the ecology of our species. "Human ecology may
efined: (1) from a bio-ecological stanapoint as the study of man as the
t in plant and animal communities and ecological
systems; (2)
candpoint as simply another anmal atrecting and being affected bybio-ecological
from a
S nment; and (3) as a human being, his physical
somehow different from animal life in
general,
feberacting with physical and modined environments in a distinctive and creative
A triy interdisciplinary human ecology will most likely address
way.
Human ecology is the sub-discipline of ecology that focuses on uress itself to all three."12
three."12
is an interdiscipliinary and transdisciplinary study of thehumans. More broadly,
humans and their natural, social, and built environments.
relationship between
hut a human science as well. Herbert
Ecology is not just biological,
spencerhas an
important place in the history of
human ecology. Spencer was intluenced by and reciprocated his influence onto the
works of Charles Darwin. Herbert Spencer coined the phrase survival the
Was an early founder of sociology where he
of fittest. He
developed the idea of
society as an
organism, and he created an early precedent for the
was the subsequent aim and link between
socio-ecological approach that
sociology and human ecology. Human
ecology is the discipline that enquires the patterns and process of interaction of humans
with their environments. Human values, wealth,
life-styles, resource use, and waste,
etc. must affect and be affected by the physical and biotic environments along urban
rural gradients. The nature of these interactions is a legitimate ecological research
topic and one of increasing importance.

REGIONAL CONCEPT

Like 'environmentalism' the 'region' is also one of the important paradigms in

geography (Whittlesey, 1954). The aim of geography is to study the world, in which
we live. Clearly, the world is so complex that is cannot be studied meaningfully at
once and as a whole together. This is true of the human as well as the physical world.
So vast is the range of human activities-economic, political, social-and so immense
the variety of distributior and patterns of man and man's works over the globe that
areal sub-division is a matter of necessity. The ar al sub-divisions can best be achieved
by dividing the world into regions.

Definition
A number of definitions are available for 'region'. A region, broadly speaking, is a
part of the earth's surface which is distinguished in some defined ways from the
surrounding area. The word 'region', means an uninterrupted area possessing some
kind of homogeneity within its more or less well-defined limuts. A region, simpiy
stated, is an area of any size throughout which accordant areal relationships between
phenomena exists. But it is different from area, which is universaly used to mean a
geometric portion of earth's surface, with no implications of homogeneity and cohesion.
216 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

The common characteristics of a region and an area are that both possess some scale

(dimensions), contents (features), location and

more or less clear boundaries. The region
has two more characteristics in addition and they are homogeneity
and organization

Concepts of a Region

Region as a Part of Reality or Mental Construct

the two most difficult ones are: (1) whether the
Among the many ideas about a region, whether they are mental constructs.
regions are the facts of the earth's surface, (ii)earth's
or

If the regions are considered as the facts of

the surface, then they really exist
A region, then, becomes a concrete unit of study. It actually exists. To discover the

regions and to study them becomes the ultimategoal of the regional geo8raphers. In
become the end purpose of the
other words, the discovery and description of regions
is taken as a mental construct,
regional geography. On the other hand, if the region construct-to
then it is not a reality. It is simply an idea, a mental study the world
distribution. Then it becomes just a means to come to an end (and not the end itself), a
means to serve some purpose of study. Any segment or the portion of the earth's
surface is a region, if it is homogeneous in terms of such an areal grouping. Its
homogeneity is determined by the criteria, formulated for the purpose of sorting from
the whole range of earth phenomena, the items required to express or a particular
either self-determined
grouping areally cohesive. So defined, a region is not an object,
or nature-given. It is an intellectual concept, an entity for the purpose of thought,
created by the selection of certain features that are relevant to the areal interest, and
by the disregard of all features that are considered to be irrelevant. As far as the origin
of these viewpoints is considered, the roots of the first concept lie in Germany, and for
the second in France. The concept of region as a concrete unit of study, as an organism,
date back to Ritter. Ritter and his followers regarded the earth as a whole, an organism
and described its constituents as individuals or organs. Till the early 20th century, this
concept dominated the geographical thought. The region, accordingly, has been
referred to as a definite individual unit that has form, shape and structure like an
organism or concrete unit of study. The face of the earth was considered to be the
mosaic of individual regions, in this manner. The geographer's task, therefore, was to
discover, identify, define and describe them. But, in early 20th century, there emerged
angther group of scholars who did not favour this idea. Major criticism to the first
notion came from the French School. According to this school, although areal
differentiation is a naively given fact, it is not true for the regional division of the
earth. Because they are not static units. Rather, a region is more or less an arbitrarily
chosen fragment of the earth. Its form, limits and characteristics would change with
the change in criteria and purpose. Therefore,
there cannot be a
common or uniro
method of regionalization. Regions do not exist in reality but are mental constructions
that are later outlined as end products over the surface of the earth. One can regionalize
the world depending on the purpose of studyphysical, cultural, social, economic
political and so on. Similarly, the analogy of region with an organism is mislead1ng
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 217

and ambiguous. Because, in an organic growth, all the individual parts develop from
a common origin (point); they are nourished from a common food supply; and have a
common directive agency. External elements introduced to any part are either expelled
or immediately recognized as foreign bodies. But we do not find anything comparable
to this when an area of the earth is designated as a region. The area identified as a
region is homogeneous only with respect to the criterion adopted. For instance, a
nation (political unit) is homogeneous in terms of the type of poitical control over its
territory and not jurisdiction or in terms of its physical, climatic or society point of
view. Moreover, the final and ultimate division of earth into various regions is also
impossible. Because regions are not static, not even the physical divisions. One time
regionalization is valid only from a particular point of view and also to serve a particular
theme or purpose of study. Thus, regions are just the mental constructs and arbitrary
divisions of the earth's surface, and regionalization is not the objective reality.

Region as a Classificatory Device

All individuals have a number of properties. In classifying, one property that is
possessed by all the individuals is selected for the grouping process and this property
is called the differentiating characteristic'.On the basis of this characteristic, individuals
can be grouped into a number of classes'. These classes, all being on the same level,
are called 'a category'. If this initial grouping is unrewarding, the classes of the first
order may themselves be grouped into a second set of classes on the basis of second
differentiating characteristic. The process may again be repeated and so 'hierarchy of
classes' is formed. Thus, there are two levels of classification. One classifies single
region into various individuals, and secondly, where various regions are the individual
themselves to become a part of still larger system-according to their size and
importance-the hierarchy. In classification we begin with a number of individuals
and group them together on the basis of similarity. The reverse procedure is the logical
division of entire whole into smaller and smaller constituent parts. This division may
be carried further to form the hierarchy of reverse ordercategories, classes, and
individuals. The former process of classification in this case is the 'Synthetic
Regionalization' and latter one is 'Analytical Regionalization'. The synthetic
is that
regionalization is the method of aggregation and the analytical regionalisation
ofsub-division. Unstead, for instance, has described his regions by synthetic approach,
while Herbertson's method was analytical. In 'Synthetic Regionalization' one begins
with a number of individuals, and groups them together on the basis of similarity. On
the other hand, 'Analytical Regionalization', as a reverse procedure, is the logical
division of entire universe into smaller and smaller constituent units. It is a method of
sub-division, as followed by Ritter, Herbertson, Koeppen, Thornthwait, etc. Synthetic
world
regionalization is normally restricted to relatively small areas, while conversely
classifications are invariably as a result of sub-division. This leads to a system of

hierarchy in either of the ways. A region is, thus, an individual unit and at the same
time is also a classificatory device. For instance, a Nation, a State, a District, a Tehsil
and a Village-all are individual units in themselves. It is also possible at the same
218 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

time, to divide each of these administrative regions into various sub-parts, like a State
into Districts, a District into Tehsils, a Tehsil into Villages, and a Village into houses.
Region as an Individual or a Hierarchical Unit

Besides being an individual unit of study a region also shares some characteristics
with a greater whole. Though, there is a
tendency to keep the regions similar in size at
any given level, the region may be of any size according to the intensity of the study
The ideas of size, form and function can be combined to
give ranks of regions that
change steadily in all these respects. At each higher rank the region is larger and more
complicated. The notion that the ranks of the region increase in size and complexity,
first came from Passarge and others in Germany. The Gegend was taken as the smallest
unit, usually with uniform relief-which was combined with others to form
Landschafsted. In turn several of these units were combined to make up the larger
region-Landschaft. At this stage the climate ditterences were sufficiently marked to
be taken into consideration. Next in order was Landsteil-which,
by combination with
others, ultimately formed the most complex regionthe Land (may be assumed as
the whole country or a major division of it). Still another
system, as devised by Unstead,
begins with site, leading to stow, tract, section, province and ultimately the continent.13
The basic idea common to these
systems is that the amount of generalization increases
with every higher order of the region. Whether one starts from a lower limit
upwards, or from a larger unit dissecting downwards, the ultimate product is the
working
region of varying ranks. Further, the ranks of the regions are not fixed. They change
according to the change in their form, function and size. Every region is a part of some
system of hierarchy. Either of the approaches (Synthetic or Analytical) one follows in
classifying regions, the end product is some form of hierarchy of regions. If one
considers region as a hierarchical unit, then the inter-links can be
better understood
and explained. The concept of "Macro', "Meso' and Micro'
region also be explained,
can
otherwise it is vague; it can be understood only in relative terms. At
each level of the
above example, the political unit is an individual
unit, and at the same time, it is also
the part of some hierarchical order.
as 'Micro', 'Meso' or 'Macro'.
Depending on its
hierarchy, a region can be labelled
Thus, besides being an individual unit of study, the
region also shares some characteristics with a greater whole (linkages). However, the
larger the region, the more complex is it in terms of its features and characteristics.
The rank of the region increases with its
ranks of the regions are not fixed.
increasing size and complexity. Further,
the
They change according to the change in their torm
function and size. This change is much more
rapid in the functional regions
than in
the formal regions.

Region asa Paradigm, Model, or Generalization

It means, the regions once formed may be used to explain the other areas with
similar
content features; or the criteria used once to delimit a region may be tested in other
areas possessing more or less the similar characteristic features. In other words, the
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 219

regions once established may repeat themselves in different parts of the world. The
study of one well-demarcated region is applicable to other areas. A model, simply
argued, can be a theory, or a law, or a hypothesis, a paradigm or a well structured
idea. There are four ways in which the
regions regional regarded
be
models or paradigms: (1) The regions are the best systems
or can as
abstractions or the best
approximations of the reality, i.e. the regions represent reality in sinplified form;
(2) The regions are isomorphic' systems'; (3) The regions are controlled models; and
(4) Analytical regionalization is a form of model building in general. The reality is so
complex that it is impossible to reproduce all its features, all its functional relationships,
or the entire web of
interdependences. To represent the reality in words, or symbols,
or statistics one always simplifies or generalizes. In this process of simplifying or
generalization, the measure of success lies in the significance of the properties, which
one chooses to represent the reality. For example, a map for the tourist would be
significant if it shows roads, towns, and relief-the things most relevant to tourists'
purpose-other details of the regions are irrelevant in this context though things exist
reality. Hence, considerations along these lines suggest that all regional systems
are models, because they are based on selection of general, common, relevant
significant features, and not on all the possible properties of the objects regionalized.
The regions, therefore, are the best approximations of the reality-climatic regions,
agricultural regions, etc. However, this reality is not totality. The regions show
similarity among diverse features or forms. Whatever limits are drawn for a region
they may be called isomorphic lines-within which uniformity exists among features
in terms of criteria. Thus, the law of the known field could be applied to an unknowr
field. In this manner, it is argued that all regions are models. To understand the various
process of the complex whole, it is necessary to look at only one at one time, and
ignore the others. For example, to explain the climatic differentiation of the world, the
significant process is the general circulation of the atmosphere. But the simplicity of
this process is disturbed by certain irregularly distributed mountains, shape of
continents, etc. Thus, to demonstrate how climatic regions result it is a common practice
to construct a hypothetical continent, lacking all other features. The climatic regions
or the model regions. The deviations from
marked on it-are the hypothetical regions world patterns in the same
the model regions may be explained with the help of real
Context. Such regional models have been devised to show their impact on other
or soil
on the development of vegetation regions
processes, like the impact of climate The construction of
regions, or on human beingsbeen(as determinists believed), and so on.

Such regional models has developed much more elaborately in the field of
economic geography. The most popular
of such models is that constructed by von
been modified by a number of later workers-
Thunen (though the original model has
on the basis of changed conditions of
the region). His model is based largely on a
soil characteristics, wages
number of assumptions or hypotheses, like unitorm climate,
of transport. The only varíable is the distance from the market (that lies in
and means
example is that of Christaller's Central Place Theory.
the centre of the region). Another a limited number of
Thus, these regional models are generated by considering only
others. In this way, the regions are controlled models.
processes and ignoring the
220 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Earlier the distinction is made between two methods of arriving at regional systenms
synthetic regionalization and analytical regionalization. The latter process is considered
here for further analysis. In the process of arriving at Analytical Kegions-ie. by
dividing the complex into its sub-parts-a typology of the phenomena is created. A
typology is an assumed or hypothetical classification or theoretical classification-i.e.
It is yet to
not based on observation or experience (as in the case of synthetic regions).
be tested in the real field. The regions, thus formed serve as models (or basis) of
explanation in the real field. Having created such types or classes, it is assumed that
any part of the area would fit into one of these classes or types. Such a process is not
followed in synthetic regionalization. Admittedly the properties have to be selected
before the regions are established, or there is reasoning in advance is involved in the
process. Hence, it is justified that analytical regionalization is a form of model building.

Attributes of a Region
Certain important attributes of regions have been mentioned by Derwent Whittlesey,
which include Criteria, Categories, Core and Periphery, Boundary and Regional
Consciousness.4

Criteria
cohesion. It
The region is an area in which accordant relations produce some form of
criteria.
is defined by specific criteria and is homogeneous only in terms of these
Criterion is the basis on which any region is delimited. The uniformity, homogeneity,
organization or interrelationships that are talked about for any region
are actually in
effective
relation to this criterion or basis on which it has been identified. An
regionalization can be undertaken only on the basis of selection of meaningful criteria.
Such criteria may be formulated a priori or a posteriori of observation. The criteria by
which a regions are identified not only determine the outer limits (boundaries of
the
also determine the amount of variation within a region (i.e. in
the
region), they
characteristic features e.g. population density regions). The criteria are so selected
in the best possiblemanner. The region, which has
that they.represent the reality
some form of cohesion or interrelationships among features, is defined by specific
infinite
criteria and is homogeneous only in terms of these criteria. One can really have
regional patterns brought forth by the application of different criteria. But these patterns
must be meaningful and significant. Effective regional study is founded on the selection
actual
of meaningful criteria. Such criteria are sometimes formulated in advance of
used in
field observations and sometimes after the field study. The criteria previously
other areas or related to other problems should be introduced only after testing

Categories
from relatively simple
There are many different categories of regions. The regions range
delineations of single features, such as slope categories, to highly complex areas
als0
content of the human occupance of earth-space. Regions
embracing the entire
 CHAPTER7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 221

differ according to the nature of their internal cohesion and structure. In general, the
various categories of a region may be identified on two bases, viz.: (A) In terms of
Number of Features; and (8) n terms of Internal Cohesion and Structure.
In terms of Number of Features: In considering the classes of regions, it is useful to
ink of them as ranged, in three basic types: (i) those defined in terms of single features;
(i) those defined in terms ot multiple features; and (ii) those defined in terms which
approach the totality of the human occupancy of areas (compages). The single feature
regions delineate an individual phenomenon that is examined in relation to other
phenomena in the search tor accordant relationships. The geographers who prefer the
topical emphasis in their approach to regional study favour the construction of regions
ofthis type. For example, the regions like Population Density Region, Slope region, or
Wheat Producing Belt of a Country are the examples of single feature region delineated
on the basis of one single phenomenon. Such regions are difficult to be divisible further,
as theyhave small range of variations permitted by the criterion. The Multiple Featured
Regions, on the other hand, are delineated on the basis of a combination or association
of two or more features. Sometimes they may be constructed through matching single
feature regions; or they may be sufficiently distinctive and cohesive to be observed
and mapped directly in the field. Such regions fall into three sub-types: (1) Association
of intimately connected features which are highly cohesive and produced by one kind
of process, e-g. Climatic Region, defined as interplay of temperature, moisture, winds,
etc.; or types of agricultural land use, defined by the association of crop and livestock;
or Soil region, defined in terms of slope, soil and drainage; (2) Association of features
less intimately connected and produced by different kinds of processes, e-g. an
Economic Region, defined by the mode of handling a particular association of crops
and livestock; and (3) Association of features only very loosely connected, e.g. a Cultural
region, formed as a result of various economic, social, political and religious criteria.
Numerous geographers postulate the existence of a region that is assumedtoapproach
totality of the combined physical, biotic and societalcontent of area. This kind of region
been termed as 'compage'. In its literal meaning the term 'compage' is an adaptation
nas
from the Latin compage, formed by 'com' meaning 'together plus page meaning "to
tasten or to fix' and the word as such means joining together structure', etc. Thus, in
its strictest form it is a system of many parts united;a whole formed by the juncture of
parts; a framework of joined parts, a complex structure, a solid or firm structure. This
type of region is differentiated in terms of the entire content of human occupance of
an area. Such a region is an association of inter-related natural and societal features.
Like all regions of one category, the compage is uniquely located. It embraces a
combination of elements found nowhere else. Strictly constructed, therefore, it has 1
counterparts. Hence, no standard list of criteria or of items to be observed is adopted

as universally applicable for the purpose of differentiating compages. The selection of

made on the basis of
phenomena to be observed, classified, and mapped should be
relevance to the particular compage under investigation. The common method used
So often in German regional studies, e.g., has been to start with geologic past of the
Tegion, progressing through the physical and biotic features to the societal aspects of
the area. But sometimes even this approach fails to illustrate the unique character of a
222 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

region. To simplify the problem, a list is made of various possible criteria for the stud
of compages and it inciudes: All material features of the landscape; All methods
making a living; and Other aspects of social life. The features covered are: struchur
reliet, drainage, climate, soil, vegetation, wild fauna, gathering, hunting, fishing,
mining forestry, manufacturing or industry, transport, settlement, population, religion
politics, social organization and sociai life. Then there is practical problem of procedure
as yet unsolved, i.e. how to observe, record and analyse all these features of a compage
It, therefore, involves the use of teams of scholars, each member responsible for the
treatment of a rather narrow range of topics. Such teams also require cooperation of
scholars from other disciplines than geography. But this is very rarely possible.
Theoretically, the compage should represent the entire content of the area, i.e. all the
features should be taken care by the criteria. But, this is a task hard to beaccomplished
Therefore, compage is a theoretical concept not practical, as a single criterion cannot
represent all the content features of an area. Thus, apparently, the idea of a 'total'
region appears simple, but in practice it is really very difficult to find such a structure.
Therefore, many modern geographers and others have attacked this omnivorous study
of spatial totality, and have stated it as undiscriminating, futile and even dangerous.
In terms of Internal Cohesion and Structure: The Regional analysis draws the
attention to the contrast between the region as an area throughout which there is
substantial unity or uniformity of characteristicsand the kind of region which has no
such
uniformity,rather constitutes the sphere of activity
it of a certain group of people,
e.g. urban field. Regions that are defined by uniformity of characteristics or
homogeneity of content are termed as formal, and those that are defined by coherence
(interrelationships, connections) of parts asfunctional.
The Formal Region is also known
as a 'uniform or 'homogeneous' region. It is homogeneous within the limits set by
criteria and in terms of association of features as defined by the criteria, as is the case
with, for example, a Cultural Region, Political Region or Agricultural Region. Various
characteristics of a Formal Region include: (1) A formal region is a part of clear-cut or
well-defined hierarchy; (2) It occupies a fixed position in the hierarchy; (3) There is
overlapping of boundaries; and cach successive higher order region consists or
no
aggregation of regions at immediate lower order. The uniform regions are
mogeneous within the limits set by criteria and in terms of the association ob
But there is always a certain range of characteristics permitted by the criteria teatures
and
there are irrelevant differences that are
disregarded. For formal region, whatever state
about one part of it is true of any other part; it is the largest area over whicn d
generalization remains valid. This is simple enough with single teatured reg
like limestone region, larming region or a
grazing land and so on. But with multiteatue
regions it is very rare that each leature remains completely uniform throughout. 1nu
the uniform region is homogeneous in terms of the features contained, but it aiso
includes a certain range of intensity permitted by the criteria. The Functional
on the other hand is also
Keg
called a "Nodal' region. Such a region is heterogeneous
terms of their content features, e-g. the metropolitan region and an economic
reE
The uniting or binding factors are
inter-connections, lines of movement and
It is always known by a pattern of circulation, expressed by movement of peopie
functions
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 223
goods, ideas, telephone lines, newspaper circulation, etc. The tie with the node or
nucleus weakens as one moves away from it. The
with respect to its internal
functional region is homogeneous
organization and not the content features. This structure
includes a focus or foci, and lines of circulation
(movement) tie thesurroundirng area
to example, an area of newspaper circulation is a nodal or functional
this. For
Nodal regions of like character may lie region.
adjacent to each other or nodal regions of
different character may surround them.
Internally the nodal or functional regions are
heterogeneous, i.e. marked by the diversity of functions and features. Circulation
including the movement of people and goods, is the primary attribute. The
interdependence of various parts or features is more important than their similarty
or
homogeneity. Marked diversity of functions and features is the major characteristic.
Unlike uniform regions, the functional regions are of different order
(levels) and may
overlap. The theoretical regions in Central Place Theory of Christaller, or the various
functional regions identified in the National Capital Region (NCR) Plan of Delhi
be cited as examples here. The focus or foci of nodal region serve as the centre of
may
organization. Moreover, the same centre may serve as focus of two or more functional
regions. For example, New Delhi in the National Capital Region is the national capital,
a transport centre, a
point of convergence at a point across the river, besides being
administrative centre it also serves as a commercial centre. Thus, for a student of
functional regions, the essential unit of study is not the homogeneous area, but it is
the complex of different areas which function together as a whole. The functional
region, therefore, is essentially diverse. It is also a classic example of unity in diversity.
The uniform features of a homogeneous region may just be together by chance, but
the parts of a functional region work together and are to a degree dependent on each
other.

Core and Periphery

are the most
Every type of region has a core and a periphery. The core and periphery
characteristics find
dynamic parts of a region. Core is an area of the region where its
their most intense expression and their clearest manifestation. Although the whole
region homogeneous in terms of the
is criteria by which it is defined, the peripheral
core by increased intermingling of other
parts of it are distinguished from the
an
of the regional character is best
characteristics. Hernce, the selection and presentation
area. This core may or may not be the
accomplished by exposition of the core
uniform regions the core is the place of an ideal
geographical centre of the region. In
in a single teatured linguistic (uniform) region,
expression of the criteria. For example, is found. The peripheral areas show
the core is that part where a single mother tongue
with other languages until the limits of the
an increasing proportion of intermingling
reached. In nodal regions, on the other hand, the
region, as defined by the criteria is
of the entire area and is the part most closely
core is the most representative portion
detectable here. However, here also it should be
tied to the focus. Thus, it is easily
core and the focus are
not synonymous, even though the focus ordinarily
noted that the
nodal regions may closely resemble one another,
lies wihin the core. The cores of adjacent
 224 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

and not uniformity. Thus, core

the
the
is
Decause the distinguishing feature is nodalityuniform nodal. The marginal area of a
epitome of the regional character, whether
or
is the part of this penphery.
region is referred to as its periphery. The regional boundary

Boundary
and separates it from the other.
There
are three
boundary defines region
the limit of a and they are: Lines of
context of a region,
of boundaries identified in the Distribution. The Lines
types and area of Discontinuous
Discontinuity; Lines of Continuity;
regions, political
that differ in kind, e.g. linguistic
of Discottinuity separate regions observable in some cases,
are sharp and also easily
cultural regions, etc. They
regions, relief or soil types (formal regions).
the boundary between different vegetation, or functional regions,
as are abrupt. In nodal
Generally, the boundary lines of discontinuity
attraction of the adjacent foci
becomes nil or the
such boundaries are drawn where the character. The
are of very different
minimum. Boundary lines drawn in continuity
divisions between different kinds of features,
as
Lines of Continuity do not represent difference is
the sides of such a boundary. The
the same kind of feature exists on both
features of the regions. Generally, such
in degree or intensity of the component
some feature, eg. contours (determining
boundaries are the isarithm or isopleths of
areas); or
of varying heights leading into mountains, plateaus, plain
regions The boundaries formed by areas
demographic regions based on density of population. lines. Instead, they are
on the other hand, are not simple
of discontinuous distribution, devoid of any particular type of
zones (as no man's land, buffer zones). They may be
human activity.

Regional Consciousness
The term 'consciousness' means 'a sense of awareness or belongingness towards

something. Accordingly, the regional consciousness is a kind of awareness towards

the region one is associated with (spatially or mentally). It should not be taken
synonymous with regionalism' as the latter is the extreme form of it, overlaid with
special meanings serving the non-geographic interests James and Jones, 1954, 51). In
general, the regional consciousness rises by sharing a common space; whereas the
regionalism takes shape by sharing common feelings, culture, religion, traits, etc. The
regional consciousness usually applies to uninterrupted space. The most obvious
occurrence of regional consciousness is in political, cultural or urban regions. Taken
in healthy
a sense,
the region concerned.
regional consciousness leads to the stability and
the prosperity
of

Regional Classification
Whether, the regions are concrete unit of study or not, it is
division is necessary to understand this justified that regional
complex world of reality. There may be many
different bases for regional divisions, each more or less
suitable for different
geographical purposes. But, there is no universally valid division, which does justice
 CHAPTER7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 225

to all phenomena; one can only secure a division with great possible advantages, and
the least possible disadvantages. In the process of regionalization, one geographical
fact may be observed at a series ot places, or various geographical facts at the same
place. The former leads to the study of spatial distribution, and latter to the study of
icational inventories. The former involves studies of spatial variations, and the later
implies the areal ditterentiation in its holistic sense. The former method leads to
functional regions and the latter to formal generally. A regional system, thus, may be
a series of hierarchical places with similar characteristics, or an area with functionally
related diverse features. Then, the regional classification may be arrived at inductively
(aggregation) or deductively (sub-division). To achieve the goal of regional presentation
the method (chosen from any of the above) requires a well-defined purpose, recognition
of various attitudes and conceptions to choose the area and the skill in the use of the
techniques. The ultimate aim of regional geography is to study the entire world.
However, in most respects, the world is much too large and complicated to be readily
comprehended all at once. Some distinction, some delimitation is necessary. The world
can be classified into the Natural, Cultural, Political and Economic Regions in general.
Each one of these regions is discussed in detail with an emphasis on its various
attributes, particularly criteria, categories, boundaries, etc. Here the world level
regionalization is followed, in which the nation (country) forms the lowest order unit.

Natural Regions
A "natural" region in its simplest form means a considerably large portion of earth,
and natural
homogeneous in its natural aspects, i.e. similar at least in relief, climate,
the kind of human activities
vegetation. Within a number of similar natural regions
as defined, varies in
developed are also believed to be the similar. The natural region,
its size and the smaller regions may be aggregated to form one larger natural region.
The concept of natural regions was developed around 1900
with reference to the division
Herbertson in Britain in 1905.15 This
of the world into systems of major entities by A.J.
at a worldwide classification of
division is based on a system of generic regions aiming to describe
homogeneous natural entities. Herbertson
used the term "natural region"
"inherent and not arbitrarily imposed". He defined
physical environments that were as a framework for the evaluation of
the region strictly on a natural (or physical basis)
and of climate
According to Herbertson, the facts of configuration
numan occupancy.
of vegetation, and even of man, may also be
are of first importance, but the distributiorn
natural regions include:
examined. As such, the various criteria to distinguish
ot population. On the
configuration; (ii) climate; (ii) vegetation; and (iv) density
) divided the world into six natural regions,
viz.
basis of the above criteria, Herbertson Hot
Warm Temperate Regions, Tropical or
Regions, Cool Temperate Regions,
Folar Mountains and Equatorial Lowlands.
Regions, Lofty Tropical or Sub-Tropical with rapidity and became an important
Herbertson's ideas about natural regions spread
divisions were the thermal belts of the world
based on
part of teaching. The primeastronomical terms; and these are defined as: (1) Polar: with
maintaining the Aristotle's
no month with a temperature over 10° C (50° F); (2) Cool Temperate: roughly between
 226 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

latitudes 40 and Polar circles north and south: (3) Warm Temperate: appro
between 30° and 40° north and south; and (4) Hot Belt: with temperatures over 20
(68° F). The sub-divisions of each of these belts are based mainly on rainfall and part
on relief and vegetation. Herbertson's regions are almost identical with the later
Classifications of climates with V.C. Finch and G. Trewartha in America (that in tun
are based on Koeppen's classification), and of Siegfried Passarge in Germany. The
concept of Natural Regions is one of the fundamental concepts of Regional Geography
The Natural Regionis an area delineated on the basis of the physical attributes of land
and within which the homogeneity is maintained with respect to these attributes
According to Herbertson, differentiation in terms of natural phenomena is inherentin
the nature, and geographer's task is to identifysuch natural ditterences on the basis of
which are devised natural regions. Generic or Systematic natural regions as developed
by A.J. Herbertson are single feature regions-like relief region, vegetation region and
so en-at the lower levels of hierarchy; while higher order Natural Kegionike Polar,
Cool Temperate, Warm Temperate, Tropical or Equatorial-are multi-teatured, or the
result of the combination of various elements serving as criteria. Natural regions are
generally the formal regions. However, the various attributes of Natural Regions may
be identified as: (1) The most significant criteria used in the delimitation of natural
regions are configuration and climate and these, in turn, are substantiated by soil,
vegetationand human and economic activities; (2) Both single-featured and mult
featured natural regions may be distinguished; for instance, a slope-region at the lowest
order is a single feature region, while a Mediterranean or Equatorial region may be
multi-featured; (3) In natural regions we seldom talk about core areas, unless it is a
lake region (as of North America), or a River Basin. But, it has more or less clear-cut
boundaries-which in the case of natural regions may be dissociating oceans, coastlines,
mountain chains, inhabitable deserts or river-lines. In most of the cases these boundaries
are lines of
discontinuity (e.g. coastlines) or zones of discontinuous distribution (as
mountain ranges); (4) Like other regions, Natural regions also develop well-marked
ierarchical orders. For instance, in their ascending order
tows or chores-tracts-realms-Biomes; (5) The
they form--slope regions
systematic natural
Herbertson) serve as Models or Paradigms of analysis. Because these regionsregions
(as «
ae devised in such a generic
way that they repeat themselves or have counter parts with similar
characteristics, like Congo Basin and North Brazil as
Sahara as Tropical deserts, or Tibet-Pamirs and PlateausEquatorial regions, or Thar and
of Bolivia and Peninsular South
America as Lofty Tropical
Highlands or Plateaus. The generalizations found for one
are also true for the other in the same
category.
Cultural Regions
About seven billion people inhabit the limited
space on this earth, and they live their
lives in thousands of different ways. Their racíal
sources and ancestors vary.
religious beliefs are not the same. Their languages are ine
build their houses in different In their
mutually unintelligible. They
and in countless other
ways. technologies, their systems education
of
ways the societies of the world reveal their contrasts and
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 227

differences. Societies, large and small, all occupy a part of the earth's surface-ard
have, in some special way, exploited their particular physical resources al
environments. They have in the process, developed ana
different kinds of spatial
organization. cultural regional concept we focus on these spatial aspects ot
In
cultures. A culture, then, is the way of life of a human
things, all kinds of behaviour they have learnt population, all their ways of doing
and transmitted to successive
generation." Language, religion, architecture, music-even food
taboos form partef a culture. Culture consists of preferences and
Dolitics); institutions (legal, educational, people's beliefs and values (religion,
equipment). It is expressed in the ways peoplegovernment) technology (skills,
and
communicate,
and exploit their resources; and most important for
in the way they
perceive
organize that part of the earth's surface that is theirs. Thegeographersof
is the way they
onthe surface is called the 'cultural composite human imprints
landscape', a term that came
geography in 1920s. Carl Sauer defined it as-"the forms superimposed ongeneral
into use in

landscape by the activities of man". He stressed that such forms result from physical
the
cultural
processes prevailing Over a long time period, so that successive generations contribute
to their development. Sometimes, these successive
groups are not of the same race or
culture. The study of culture landscapes and culture regions involves so
many factors
and criteria that it is best carried on a manageable scale. The larger the area, the
is the complexity of detail, and the more difficult do the
greater
inevitably necessary
generalizations become. Still there can be no question about it; the world as a whole
remains divided into a number of huge Cultural Realms (12 in total), even today in
our age of mobility and interaction. Each one of these is a formal cultural region in
which there is clearly a homogeneous culturalidentity on a wide variety of levels.
They are: South-West Asian and North African Realm (Islamic/Arab world); Europe;
Indian Subcontinent; Chinese Realm (oldest of the civilization, communist society);
South-East Asia (Buddhist faith predominates); Black Africa (a primitive culture);
Middle and South America (also called Latin America); North America (most urbanized
culture); Australia (an isolated realm); Soviet Union (now disintegrated politically,
but cultural characteristics remain more or less the same); Japanese Realm (a Buddhist
land away from the mainland); and The Pacific World (including thousands of islands
befween Australia and Americas, a complex culture). The major criterion used in the
delimitation of a cultural region is thelife style (genre de vie) of the resident population.
The cultural regions are multifeatured. The boundaries of a cultural region are more
or less sharp, and are lines of discontinuity. The core of a cultural region is not easily
detectable in comparison to political or economic regions. The concept of hierarchy
carries less meaning in the case of cultural regions. However, the attribute that is most
s4gnificant in the case of cultural regions is regional consciousness.

Political Regions
Among the criteria used to distinguish homogeneous areas on the earth, the one
most

widely used is that of political authority or power. Political authority-organized in a

system of independent, sovereign states, each with unique characteristics-is a
228 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

dominating force in determining how the people live and make use of their resoure
The regional concept examines the political area as a geographic or spatial entie urces
The foundations of such a study were laid at the end of the 19th century (1897) throtLL
the work--Politische Geographie-by Freidrich Ratzel, the Gertman geographer. A ugh
A
political region may be defined as a portion of the earth's surtace, throughout which
common type or types of political behaviour takes place. The behaviour most frequen
cited in the delimitation of political region is that of political power over territory h
a particular government. In terms of political control the land surtace of the woriddis
divided into many political regions, ranging in level of organizaion from nationa
units down to countries, townships and villages. States are part of a hierarchy o
most important level in this
politically organized areas, and are unquestionably the
hierarchy. Above them are international organizations. The political area may take
two forms-the formal political organization and the functional political organization
one at the same time. However, the regional concept strictly concerns itself to the
spatial aspects of political groupings formally established. The State or Nation serves
as the best example of an individual political region. Political uniformity implies that
with respect to the operation of all government functions all parts ot the region are
alike. The present day world political pattern is the result of 4 basic trends, viz. (i) The
break-up of empires and the establishment of indeperndent states; (1) The expansion
of Communist Control; (ii) The Union or Division of existing political units; and (iv) The
political partitioning of previously unclaimed areas. A State (Nation) is the fundamental
unit as a political region and has at least six essential elements to be considered in
detail viz. ()A clearly defined Territory; (i) A substantial Population; (ii) Certain
Organization; (iv) A measure of Power; (v) Frontier and Boundary; and (vi) The core
and capital. The world political pattern has been a complex and constantly changing
phenomena-which reacts to a great variety of forces, and which in turn influences
other forces and phenomena, both political and non-political in nature. Geographers
have long recognized the need for studies of organized political areas at ranks above
that of the Individual Sovereign State. The most common of such associations
instance,an Empire composed of one independent state and its dependent areas, like
are, tor
Russian Empire or Chinese Empire; the Commonwealth of Nations; a variety of Leagues
of independent states, each
organized for specific and limited purposes; as, for exampe
Arab League, NATO (The North Atlantic
SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization), Council of Europe
Treaty Organization), CENTO, Benelux, etc., and the LeaSe
of Nations-which began in 1919 and has been resumed since 1945 as United
Apart from all these forms of international organizations is the one related to Natiorb
Foreign Policy with respect to the Communist States in Amerie
the present day Europe and Asia. According
political states can be grouped under three
today: The Western Bloc, The Communist Bloc, and The political forces in the
w
of a political region, at national or Neutral Bloc. Various attridu
criterion used in the delimitation of international level may be discussed. The
the political region is the nu
and the resultant type of political conu
political organization. Political regions are
be considered either formal or functional multi-featured, anu "
instance, they are formal at state or national depending on the level of hierarchy.
rm s
level, as they are
homogeneous te in
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 229

of control or power, while

at an
international level (above) or district level
may be considered functional. The boundaries of a political region are very(below), they
difficuit to
draw, as it is not easy to come to a common
agreement. But wherever they have been
drawn they are more stable than in the case of natural or
economic cultural regions.
or
Either type of boundary is the characteristic feature of the
of discontinuity (among Western and Neutral political regions, uke e s
states); lines of continuity (among
Communist states); or zones ot discontinuous
distribution (as a number of bufter
and no-man-lands among nations). Every political has developed arounda
zones
region
nucleus, and possesses at least one or more core areas
federal. depending on its organization
unitary or The political regions form a clear-cut hierarchy at least theoretically.
In its ascending order, for instance, political
regions may be identified as-locality,
district, province, nation or country, leagues or groups of nations (organizations) and
ultimately UNO (United Nations Organization). The regional consciousness is the
most evident in political regions. The synthetic regionalization (by aggregation) is the
more popular approach to arrive at the political regions. The individual state or naton
is the best expression of a political region. Though, the nation may be further
subdivided into its sub-regions, or various individual nations may be grouped to torm
a larger region, it is only at nation-level we find the best expression of the various
attributes of a political region-like homogeneity, criteria, boundaries, cores, regional
consciousness, etc. Finally, the political regions, once demarcated, are more concrete
and at the same time all inclusive and heterogeneous. Therefore, they may also be
compared with 'compages-the total regions. The only uniting force
among the
multitude of features-economic, physical, social and cultural-is the political power.
in their nature. The analysis of
Theretore, political regions are more or
less unique essential
at state (nation) level or at international level forms an
political regions-either
part in the study of regions as such. Ihe political regions consider human aspects
more than the physical (though
the latter are also important). The discovery and
the end purpOse, rather it is a means to assess
of the political regions is not
description organization and power
the present and future problems related to territory, people,
of the political region.

Economic Regions
of which is the
consists of a mosaic of 'regions'-each
The world of economic reality geared to a single
set of inter-related processes-all of which are
1Ocation of a complex identification of the
of production. The idea of economic region is useful
in
the
Ype of economuc activittes.
in this
Seen perspective,
areas that are devoted to particular types demarcated on the basis of
economic region may be
defined as a spatial entitythe resources available and is
an activity or activities
in relation to
dominant economic and functional view of
to that'. Then, there is uniform
homogeneous in respect concerned with 'what-is-where' (static
Uniform economic regions are
economic regions. the organizational regions, i.e.
view is concerned with
the functional based on one major mode
View), whereas economic regionalization is
Uniform
potential consumption, which is
what-connects-to-what'.
or
ot production, such as agriculture, manufacturing
230 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

referred to as the level of living of a society. Uniform associations r

usually
based on a single factor or a variety of interrelated multiple factors.A single factor
association has a single criterion, such as the production of wheat. A multiple factor
association means the co-variance of a number of inter-related single factors-like
agricultural system, industrial system, and so on. Organized or functional economic

regions, on the other hand, enbrace both market-oriented activities, such as retail or

all production or productive wholesale activities; and productive-oriernted activities,

such as fresh milk for nearby market. The functional regions are concernedwith market
areas served through central places. Among the several regions with which the man
has close economic relationships 'the state' is the most important. States, as such are
mainly concerned with promoting their economies and protecting them from
disruption. The state may, therefore, be viewed as an administrative (political) as well
as economic region. The two major characteristics of the state may be viewed in terms
of external (or spatial) elements of location, size, shape and boundaries; and the internal
elements including the cultural and physical qualities of the inhabitants. The various
elements that make up the state are common enough, but they vary in their quality
andcombination from country to country. Depending on the quality and combination
of all these external and internal elements, a country assumes a particular economic
character-which represents in average the total national character. Therefore, a nation
forms an ideal unit of economic regionalization. Just like the political regionalization,
conomic regionalization may be achieved at a level higher thana nation, by using
the four eriteria: (1) The Per Capita Income; (2) The Occupational Distribution of the
Working Population; (3) The Age-Structure of the Population; and (4) The Geographic
Distribution of Population. On the basis of these criteria, it is possible to make a four-
fold division of the type of economies: (1) Highly Developed Economies: or predominantly
industrial-commercial economies, supporting only 8 per cent of the world population;
or the economic aristocrats of the world with a large industrial-commercial base.
(2) Semi-Developed Economies: or the mixed industrial-agricultural economies
about 12 per cent of the world population; still supporting
developing. (3) Less-Developed Economies:
or
predominantly agricultural economies. These economies are very widespread and
support about 45 per cent of the world population. (4) Planned Economies: which are
essentially of either type *2' oe 3, but have major characteristics of '1'. In addition,
these have other special
features of their own that they are best considered as a separate
category. The planned economies at present include about 30 per cent of the world
population. As far as various Attributes of economic regions are concerned, the criteria
used in the delineation of world economic regions are
per capita income, occupational
structure, age-structure and the distribution of population. Along with these may t
considered a whole host of other elements of economic significance to study the
economic identity of individual states-like location, size and shape or territory,
boundaries, numbers and cultural attributes of population. The single-featured economic
regions are very difficult to construct, as the economy is the result of the combination
of a number of features. Thus, economic regions are always multi-featured and
heterogeneous. Homogeneity is super-imposed. They are more complex than as
suggested by the regional framework. Consequently, the homogeneity of economic
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 231

regions is functional and rarely formal. Even the so-called

orindustrial-are basically functional, through the linesuniform regions-agricultural
of communication, exchange
and flow of money, people and products. In
simple words, economic regions are the
best expressions of functional nodal character of
or
regions. The boundaries of the
Economic regions coincidemore or less with
political regions, but core areas may
distinctively be identified. As stated, the economic core areas are of two orders. First
order core areas are the primary or extensive
productive areas-as agricultural fields,
mining regions, forested areas, etc. The second order core areas, on the other hand,
are small but densely occupied
administrative, political or urban centres with
specialized and secondary economic activities as manufacturing. One can say about
political consciousness, but it is really absurd concept for the economic regions. Because,
for instance, the dwellers of under-developed regions are
consciously tied to more-developed regions and aspire for always consciously
the same.
or sub-
Two levels of
hierarchy are well marked in economic regions-national level and world level. At
lower levels the economic regions become highly ineffective, as it is an
integrateda
system on multitude of elements. Economic regions are highly dynamic witnessing
rapid change through time with the change in the economic status of individual nations
that form them. Most of the present theories and models of economic
development
are based on more developed regions of the world. Thus, they to some extent, serve as
models to the under-developed world. Alternative is provided by the Planned
Economies. But, recently, with the intensive studies of the under-developed or
developing nations, we find a break from this trend. The latter now believe more on
indigenous theories based on their own historical economic development and
combination of physical and human resources within their own limits, and the socio-
cultural set-up of their nations.

SPATIAL ANALYSIS
The concept of geography as a science of space has been exceedingly important in the
history of geographic thought. Space and spatial organization have been important
of scholars in ancient times. This space in geography is territorial
and not
cOncerns
abstract or astronomical. The concept of territorial space is the basic organizing concept
location and distribution is a hallmark
ot geography. Certainly, a central concern for the oldest tradition in
of geographical studies. The Spatial paradigm belongs to
to describe and explain the distribution of
8eography that emphasizes the needfundamental
on the earth's surface. The question in geography is 'where?.
phenomena
The terms like site, situation, location, position, distribution, patterns, arrangements,
of this fundamentalquestion. Geography is
etc.-all pertain to space and emerge out
of the discipline on the concepts of
essentially a spatial science. A heavy dependencefact.
8eometry and mathematics strongly proves this
expanded
and with
The usage and meaning of 'space' have changed, improved
me. The descriptions pertaining to physical space have been one of man's important
kind of geographic thought is first
Concerns for a long time. But the evidence of this
232 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

was the first

scholar to devise
evident in Greek and Chinese literature. Eratosthenes
to provide framework for
crude locative grid system with latitudes and longitudes Besides this, he
construction and to answer where questions with great
accuracy.
map advancement in the
was the first to measure accurately the size
of the earth. Later
the circle into 360 degrees. Ptolemy
aPplied this
same direction helped dividing
in
locations and preparing
division to the terrestrial globe; which enabled describing
With minor
representation-latitude and longitude.
maps with two-dimensional
and some of the map-projections
modifications we still use Ptolemaic locative system
increased further due to increased
he invented. The need and practice of mapping the end of
of the Roman Empire. Towards
mobility and travels during the expansion
Roman period, the geographers began ask:
to
the Greek period or the beginning of the
the Chinese geography was
what is where' instead of 'where'. In the Far East,
science in the ancient period. By 2nd and
3rd centuries,
developing into a sound spatial
the Chinese started using rectangular grid system and graduated
geographers had
accurate. After the death of
scale to construct their maps, which were extremely
locations in the
about 155 A.D.) a decline was observed in the accuracy of
Ptolemy (i.e. were the collapse of
world maps until 14th century in Medieval Europe. The causes
Middle
Roman Empire and the increased faith in Christainity. Thus, in the European
scientific and mathematical
Ages-Theology (the science of religion) replaced the
methods of ordering the world. The collapse of Roman Empire was followed by
a
decrease in mobility, which adversely affected the developments in geography as well.
The answers sought to 'where' questions, were by modern standards-the most
erroneous, as they were based on "T-in-0' maps. As Europeans became increasingly
immobile, the geographical theory and practice were not tested against experience.
Answers sought were more theological than scientific. Therefore, not much progress
was made in this direction. But, in Medieval Muslim World (8th-14th century) need
for accurate knowledge about locations was continuously felt by the Arabs. The reasons
were three fold: (1) Vast expanse of Muslim Empire; (2) Promotion of travels due to
religious requirement (pilgrimage); and (3) Increased commercial links with the rest
of the world. The great extent of Muslim empire in the 7th and 8th centuries was the
prime reason for the need for accurate knowledge about locations and places. All of
Ptolemy's spatial works were translated into Arabic. Besides, commerce and interest
in other places promoted travels.
The religious requirement of Hajj (or Pilgrimage to Mecca) also anticipated
travelling at least once during lifetime. -Biruni and Ibn-Batuta emerged as two
famous travellers during this period and their writings contained valuable record of
information about places. But, the spatial viewpoint in Muslim geography was not
more than encyclopaedic description of places, or travel accounts (itineraries). Thus,
the objective standard of Medieval Muslim geography was no better than that of
Medieval Europe. Fixing locations of individual places was the first order geographical
business in the ancient and medieval times. In other words, queries related to absolute
location of places were more prominent betore the Age of Discovery. But, afterwards,
the concentration directed towards understanding and study of the relative importance
of locations as well. The reasons were: (1) Completion of world map and
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 233

aueries to be made towards absolute space; and (2) The Age of Discovery was also the
age of commerce; therefore, the questions of minimizing time and cost in travelling
were important. The rediscovery and translation of Ptolemaic literature, advances
maritime technology and voyages of explorations, and the subsequent broadening of in
the geographical horizons combined to produce a Golden Age (i.e. 1450-1800A.D.).
This revived interest in locations that again became fundamental to human
activity.
With the discovery of new places, the existing maps and atlases were revised,
in 16th and 17th centuries. As the Age of
especially
Exploration was also the Age of Commerce,
the question of relative importance of locations also emerged. This was to minimize
time, cost and distance in travelling. Thus, by the end of the 18th
century
of absolute locations became less important as the world maps problems
had been
the
filled
completely and geographers began to explore the questions pertaining to relative space.
Now, the questions pertaining to absolute location of places became completely
outmoded. Geography up to 1800 was primarily a locative enterprise. Fixing locations
of individual places was the first order business and this had been finished
largely by
the time of Humboldt and Ritter. Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) and Carl Ritter
(1779-1859) were the ones who firmly established the methodology of geography and
its place among the modern sciences. Between 1800 and 1950, classifying places on the
basis of their contents and characteristics and dealing with groups of places became
the major concern of the discipline. Thus, the interest shifted from individual locations
to regionalization and inter-relationships among places. Imposing order on the chaos
of all possible places by segregating them into sets has become a practice. And in the
more recent times the greater emphasis is laid on the geographical questions which
evoke hypothesis, laws and theories. Thus, considerable changes took place towards
the spatial view in the modern period. The major ones included: (1) The scholars started
dealing with groups of places (or regions) instead of individual locations or places. In
other words, interest shifted from individual locations to regionalization and inter-
relationships among places. There began attempts to classity places on the basis o
their contents and characteristics; (2) The enquiries started revolving around the
questions like "Why what is where?"; and (3) A need was felt to formulate laws and
theories in geography to explain various distributional patterns.
The shift to relative spatial context is still in progress presently and is the most
fundamental change in the history of geography. The measures of distance and
locations have also changed accordingly. Up to the middle of the 20th century such
measures have been primarily the unchanging (or absolute) units of miles, kilometres,
and so forth. But now the geographers talk about new kinds of spaces, which are
Stretchable or shrinkable; for instance, a distance to be measured in terms of travel
ume (as 'two-hour journey' or 'ten-minutes-drive'). It has opened up an almost infinite
it has become difficult to list
umber of new worlds to explore and map. In fact, very
ask
h e possible questions one canwhat
in the context of
relative space today. The
Combinations of, e.g. where, when, and whyquestions-which can be devised-
are almost infinite. The answers to 'where'
merous; and to which they can be applied themselves; rather,
and 'what is where' are not the end in one they constitute the
requires by answering the 'why' and
Preuminary enquiries towards explanations
234 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

how' questions. At the same time a change in subject matter of the discipline is also
witnessed. Increasingly, geographers view themselves as social rather than physica
Scientists. In the present context, 'what is where' is more related to SOcio-cultural aspects
than to the physical environment. It is why the problems of data collection are more
complex today than in the past.

Concepts of Space
The concept of space in spatial viewpoint has several manitestations in geography,
expressed in terms of: Location and Place; Absolute and Relative Location, Site and
Situation; Distribution; and Pattern. Where', as a point of reference is fundamental to
geographic thought. The terms like Location'. "Position', 'Situation', 'site,
distribution', 'arrangement', etc.-all is frequently used by geographers in reference
to the placing of things on the earth's surface. But before going on further discussion,
a leardistinction may be sought at least among space, location and place. The spaceis
the basic organizing concept of the geographer, and it refers to the surface of the
earth. It should not be confused with the astronomical space as in ISRO or NASA
(Indian Space Research Organization or National Aeronautical and Space
Administration). The location is a particular position on the surface of the earth.
However, unless it is identified with some phenomenon, feature, object or place on
the surface of the earth, the meaning of location remains abstract like space. The location
identified with some occurrence would become a place. Thus,
place is an area or space
confined to an identifiable location on which we load certain values. For
example, the
position of "20°59' North and 86°56' East" is just a location in the graticule-until it is
recognized with the position of Mount Everest-the highest point on the earth's
surface. The information pertaining to location may be either
both. The location, in turn, may be of two types, viz. absolute andphysical
or human or
relative. The absolute
location is a position in relation toa conventional
grid system designedsolely for locative
purposes. It is distinct, physical, real, empirical and generally immobile. The latitudes
and longitudes are the most common means to describe absolute locations. The absolute
location is fixed with respect to an abstract network of X and Y coordinates, but
identified with some particular places on the
sense that once a locational
space. Such locations are absolute in the
over time, and there is no
description of this kind has been
adopted it does not change
overlapping. The relative
position with respect to other locations over space.location,
on the other hand, is a
Relative location can also be
expressed values other than usual distance units. We could describe the distances
in
between Delhi and Mumbai in terms of train fare or
the cost of a plane-ticket. There
are large number of
ways of describing distance and location ina relative context, bu
in the absolute context we are restricted to
miles, kilometres, or degrees of latitudes and customary and unchanging units such as
relative location of two places may change longitudes measure distance. The
to
radically, even
remain constant. An example would be Delhi and Mumbaithough absolute locations
more than 2 months
again, which were about
apart little more than a century ago, and which are now only
about 2 hours apart by an aircraft.
Today geographers are primarily concerned with
 235
CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS

relative locations of the phenomena. The relative distance is the basis of relative
since spaces are detined by distances along the dimensions. By choosing different space,
distance measures, we can change space between two points. The shortest distance
between two points may be either a straight line or a curved line or the like.
to explain human spatial behaviour are an increasingly important concern Attempts
or
geographers, and such attempts will be more successful if they are studied in relative
spatial contexts. People shipping goods or taking trips between towns A, B and C, tor
instance, are not as much concerned with absolute distance as they are with
accessibility, cost and travel time in covering that distance. The absolute and relative
locations when identified with some physical occurrence or characteristics of the surface
of the earth may also be called 'site and 'situation' respectively. To be more
precise,
site is the locationof a given place with its local internal features or resources. For
example, the site of Delhi is across the river Yamuna. But, the situation is the site in
relation or interaction with other sites. Taking the same example, the situation of Delhi
is at the confluence of mountains, plains and plateaus.
The features like houses, hotels, hospitals, trees, factories, shops, offices, fields,
roads, railways, etc. all are elements of locatiorn or the individual occurrences over
space. Each of these occurrences is an identified phenomenon of a specified magnitude
(i.e. having shape, size and form). For example, a house is an occurrence that can be
identified by location and with a magnitude indicated by its floor area, number of
bedrooms, or value. Several houses of similar magnitude at different locations
constitute a distribution. Thus, the 'distributior' would mean the frequency with which
each of these elements occurs over the space in relation to each other. In other words,
distribution is the assembly of various occurrences related to each other. For example,
of several houses makesa settlement, i.e.
a house is an occurrence, and aninassemblage features the study of distributions rather
distribution of houses. Research geography
a single occurrence are
than individual occurrences. Explanations based upon
A wide range of factors could
unreliable because they do not reveal the causal process.
less important factors tend to cancel each
influence a single occurrence, whereas the nature of
other out when many
i.e. distribution, are studied. The
occurrences,
be causally associated and what research
distribution suggests which processes might
Distributions are of three types, viz. Discrete,
strategy might be appropriate.Discrete distributions consist
of just an assemblage of
Continuous, and Contingent. For instance,
different occurrences without any kind of interrelationships.
seeking
etc. when represented separately for an
nouses, factories, gas stations, parks, roads, continuous distribution exists when
The
area constitute discrete distribution.
are continuous over an area
For instance, temperatures
Ccurrences are dependent. air circulation. However, contingent
a distribution
Decause they aredependent upon terms of either area or
of distribution is expressed in
Occurs when the 'magnitude' production areas in terms of yields per acre;
or
me. The distribution of agricultural distance travelled per hour are
or sex ratio, or
Population distribution by density discrete and continuous.
of
distributions. In the
case

examples of contingent elements or occurrences is more important than their

distributions, the nature of
 236 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

magnitude, volume, quantity or value. Further, the contingent distributions are more
dynamic and change very fast in comparison to the other two types.
Spatial indicates that an occurrence occupies a portion of the earth's surface. When
geographers talk about distributions, however, they are usually interested in the
frequency with which things occur in terrestrial space. Often the two relevant variables
are latitude and longitude. Just as the X and Y axes determine locations in a scatter
diagram by giving each location a numerical space, latitude and longitude, i.e. define
terrestrial space. In the same way as the distribution of points on the scatter diagram
is a starting point for further analysis, a distribution of phernomena in terrestrial space
the pointto begin with for geographical analysis. The distributions that geographers
study are primarily two-dimensional'. But, they can also be observed in three-
dimensional terrestrial space, e.g. "latitude, longitude and elevation' produce a
distribution in three-dimensional space. To cite an example, due to the vertical
of cities in the last several decades, human
growth
geographers have also become
aware of the third dimension. Areal variations, in terms of spatial differences in
increasingly
Ocurrence and density, are characteristic of almost all distributions in terrestrial space.
Or the distributions vary in pattern and intensity from place to place. There would be
no
geography if all things were truly ubiquitous, i.e. available
everywhere
same or
over the surface of the earth. Spatial distributions and the
processes that generate
them are observable at several scales, some of which are
within the geographers
purview and some of which are not. In size, the geographical scale of analysis and
observation is bouund on the lower end by the
space immediately around observer,
and on the upper end by the size of the earth.
Geographers as such are neither
immediately concerned with very small spaces (or micro-spaces), e.g. of atomic physics;
nor do they study distribution in the very extensive spaces, as of the 'astronomers'
(the macro spaces). In practice they avoid both the extremes and concern
distributions observable at the local and terrestrial scales. mainly with
The pattern, on the other hand,
simply means 'a design'. Once the nature and
magnitude of distributions have been established, the emphasis shifts to the pattern
of distribution. 'Pattern' is the
causal processes. Four types of
recurring association of occurrences that may indicate
patterns have been recognized, viz. Static, Dynamic,
Network, and Normative. 'The Static Pattern is the
particular time, for example, the distribution ofpattern
of distribution
represented
metropolitan area. Measures of location arrangement and shopping centres or hospitals
in
a
for magnitude
specific time points. In the case of Dynamic Pattern, the distribution be derived
can

occurring at different time periods, for example, the displays change

population growth patterns (as defined population distribution patterns,
Network Pattern, the nodes and the links by the Demographic Transition Theory). In
between nodes define the
transportation system, for instance, the terms as circular, hexagonal, pattern. In a
are used to describe stellar and linear
transportation
other hand, are theoretical
network patterns. The Normative
Patterns, on the
patterns and they may or may not be the part of reality.
Such patterns are based on certain norms. The
the basis of the theories as spatial patterns formed and studied on
propounded by Christaller, Von Thunen, Burgess, Hoyt,
Ullman and Harris, etc. may serve as
examples here. However, the reality
be may
 237
CHAPTER7 MAJOR PARADIGMS

different from that which is represented by such models. Or it can be obtained only
with the imposition of certain norms (assumptions or constraints).

Concepts of Spatial Organization

Geography is the study of the location and arrangement of phenomena on the surface
of the earth and the processes that generate these distributions. Traditionally, both
physical and human processes were studied. But the work of Fielding (1974)
emphasizes human processes; he considers physical elements only in terms of man's
perception and use of these elements. Man's behavioural processes also generate spatial
distributions. Attempts to analyse spatial distribution in terms of behavioural processes
necessitates the separate discussion of each process. The regional descriptions
dominated geography until the mid-20th century. Contemporary geography
emphasizes the regularity in spatial organization and attermpts to develop modelis
that can explain how human behaviour may account for these distribution patterns
The regularities in spatial distribution result from man's attempts to use the land
efficiently. The interrelated concepts of agglomeration, distance and accessibility,
utility, interaction and satisfaction help to understand these regularities in spatial
organisation". These concepts seldom operate independently. In the
The Concept of Agglomeration is the concept of Clustering. present world,
the people, industries and various other human activities tend to cluster or agglomerate
This is to take the advantage of c o
at certain locations over the surface of the earth.
industrial,
existence. The tendency to cluster similar activities is apparent agricultural
in
for instance, 70 per cent of the
and population distribution. In the United States,
cent of the land area. At the world scale, the
population resides on less than 2 per whereas most of the
are virtually uninhabited,
polar zones and some of the deserts continents.
is clustered along the margins and in the fertile valleys of the
population the clustering of homes in rural townships,
and
The agglomeration of people in cities, and social
centres improves economic efficiency
the association of shops in shopping from
of the spatial distributions that result
satisfaction. There are n u m e r o u s examples and iron
of various activities. To cite few more, steel-making plants
agglomeration Agglomeration is also
common foci for agglomeration.
ore and coal fields are the
services the customers
For specialized goods and
illustrated by c o n s u m e r behaviour. local shopping
while for their day requirement a
like to visit central places of the city,
centre or market is sufficient. the
of Distance and its corollary Accessibility are fundamental to
The Concept elements. Evidence of
organization of physical and human
understanding of spatial behaviour. Since many
social and psychological
their effect is apparent in economic, and services, distance
to exchange goods
human activities involve men coming together Where distance impedes
affect behaviour in n u m e r o u s ways.
and accessibility to minimize its effect. Roads, rails
communication system
interaction, man devises of this process. The locations of
are manifestations
and telecommunication facilities determined
mill, and mine-are primarily
various production activities-farm, factory, (products).
the of obtaining inputs (material and labour) and marketing outputs
by costs
 238 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

n retail and service

activities, for instance, the minimization of distance helns
maximize patronage. Consumers prefer locations where several
activities are
agglomerated, and operators prefer locations that maximize accessibility to customer.
But not all the enterprises are ers.
willing to pay the highest price for the most accessibla
locations. Similarly, the consumers are not always willing to travel
their every requirement. In various models,
long distances f
the
explaining distributionof urban areas
agricultural land uses, industries, or uses within a city (Christaller, Von Thunen, Weher
etc., the concept of distance and accessibility has been used. In urban areas, for
instance
nce,
most accessible locations also the areas of very high land rent. It is
are
why, the land
es in
metropolitan areas decline with distance away trom the
city centre.The
CBD is the most accessible location. Therefore, all the
specialized functions and services
are located here. Even in rural
landscape the association between land values and
accessibility apparent;
is agricultural
land adjacent to the city, e.g., is used
more
intensively. Ideally greater the distance poor the accessibility.
But in the contemporary
world, the reverse may hold true. Because, today, and particularly
after the
Revolution in the 20th century, the Automobile
accessibility
is measured not in terms of
distance, but in terms of time, money and efforts involved in absolute
The perception of distance is another covering that distance.
aspect related to this concept.
distance is not the same as the man's Geographical
perception of distance, which is referred to
Psychological distance. Psychological distance also affects man's use of earth surface.as
Man arranges cognitive space
(mental space)
mental map carried by individuals affects the differently
from physical
space. The
way in which they react to proposed
changes, whether these be proposed environmental changes or
The Concept of
Utility is related to the value or usefulness personal migrations
and intangible goods, like farm goods
It is applicable to both of and services.
or affection; and
tangible products, education,
may be measured in monetary or
farmers seek to maximize non-monetary units. Utility is what
or what industrialists
through choosinga particular crop and livestock association;
seek to maximize by
or what the home owner choosing low-cost locations for factories,
seeks to maximize when he chooses
neighbourhood at an acceptable distance from the location ofhis residence in a certain
relatives. Thus, the utility of a
good, service or location mayemployment,
schools or
and identical amount of the same differ between people,
good, service or location be valued
differently.
related to exchange, may
The Concept of Interaction is
organizations of various phenomena are also based on the interactions, etc. The spaia
exchange of interactions. This concept is evident in concept of interactions or
micro to macro. It every level of spatial organization,
explains why the core areas of a
city or any other settlement are
more
developed than others, i.e. of greatest interaction with
and ideas. In fact, this
concept of organization has been activities, people, goods
Therefore, the human civilizations were the important sincebeginning
river valley civilizations. Or even
the organic (or human) life earlier,
originated in the contact
zones of air-land-water
The concept of interaction is evident
at every level of (biosphere).
from the behaviour of individual spatial organization, ranging
social bonds between individuals. It is
or
among large political entities. Interaction creates
non-verbal messages, exchange of through interaction in the form of verbal and
goods, favours, and
friendships-that the objectives
 CHAPTER7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 239
of nations, cultures, tamilies and communities are
these groups, shared objectives, values, and established and developed. Within
attitudes
hehaviour. They restrict the individual choices to thoseprovide that
norms for individual
and thereby influence the patterns and are socially acceptable
behaviour. arrangements that result from human
Lastly, there is the Concept of Satisfaction. Man is usually
level of achievement rather than by the satisfied by a reasonable
optimum maximum, as there is rno limit to
aspirations. Satisfaction is a psychological
or

perception of the opportunities and resourcesconcept because it refers not only to man's
the level of their utilization. A location cannotprovided by his technology, but also too
requirement. Man has to make choice out of manysatisfy every aspect of human
alternatives. For example, in
searching for a location for a house-man has to make choices
out of
market, employment, relatives, etc. Any location can school-facility,
level of satisfaction, and not a give a reasonable or optimum
complete satisfaction.

NOTES

1. Davies, 1972, pp. 52-68.

2. Darwin's Theory of Evolution: Scientists at the
of fossils, and they were
beginning of the 1800s knew of some kinds
very aware of homologous and vestigial structures. Many
scientists suspected that some kind of evolution had
them. However, they had no
given rise to living things around
unifying theory to explain how evolution might have
occurred. Two scientists, namely Jean Lamarck and Charles Darwin, led the
way in the
search for a mechanism of evolution. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1774-1829), the French
scientist, was the one to make the first systematic presentation of evolution in 1809.
Lamarck described a mechanism by which he believed evolution could occur. This
mechanism was known as "the inheritance of acquired characteristics." Since Lamarck
presented no experimental evidence or observation and his theory fell out of scientific
favour. The next significant idea came from the British scientist Charles Darwin. From a
young age Darwin disliked school and preferred observing birds and collecting insects
to study. He was sent to medical school in Scotland when he was 16. Young Darwin
found medicine "intolerably dull." He was much more interested in attending natural
history lectures. Seeing that Darwin lacked enthusiasm for becoming a doctor, his father
suggested him to study for the clergy. Darwin was agreeable to the idea and enrolled in
the university at Cambridge, England, in 1827. Here, Darwin found that his friendship
with John S. Henslow, Professor of Botany, made life in Cambridge extremely worthwhile.
Henslow encouraged Darwin in his studies of natural history. In 1831 Henslow
recommended that Darwin be chosen for the position of naturalist on the ship the HMS
Beagle. Darwin's job as ship naturalist was to collect specimens, make observations, and
keep careful records of anything he observed that he thought significant. During the
Beagle's five-year trip, Darwin trekked hundreds of miles, observed thousands of species
of organisms and collected many different types of fosils. On the long sea voyages he
used his time to catalog his specimens and write his notes. When Darwin returned to
England in October 1836, he sent many specimens to experts for study. A bird specialist,
240 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

(ornithologist) studied Darwin's bird collections from the Galapagos Islands, located about
1,000 km west of South America. He
reported that Darwin had
separate species of finches (a kind of small bird). The similarities ofcollected similar
13 but
the Galapagos finches
led Darwin to infer that the finches shared a
common ancestor. The similarities between
the fossil manmmals Darwin collected and modern mammals led him to believe that species
change over time. In 1837 Darwin began his first notebook on evolution. For several
years Darwin filled his notebooks with facts that could be used to support the theory of
evolution. Comparing homologous structures, vestigial organs, and embryological
development of living species gave him additional evidence of evolution.
3. 'Social Darwinism', term coined in the late 19th century to describe the idea that humans,
like animals and plants, compete in a struggle for existence in which 'natural selection'
results in "survival of the fittest." Social Darwinists base their beliefs on theories of
evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. The term social Darwinist is
applied loosely to anyone who interprets human society primarily in terms of biology,
struggle, competition, or 'natural law'.
4. Taylor, (1951).
5. Dikshit, 1997, 246.
6. Tatham, 1951.
7. Hartshorne, 1959, 65-80.
8. Dikshit, 1997, 238.
9. Eyre, 1964; Stoddart, 1972.
10. Tansley, 1946, 206.
11. Christopher, 1994, 586.
12. Foster, J. (2003). 63-74.
13. Unstead, 1933.
14. James and Jones, 1954, 19-68.
15. Herbertson, 1905.
16. De Blij and Muller (1971).
17. Pounds, 1972.
18. Roepke, 1967.
19. Fielding, 1974, 3-51.

REFERENCES
Christopher, R.W. (1994) Geosystems: An mtroduction of Physical Geograplhy, Macmillan College
Pub. Co., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Davies, W.K.D. (1972) Conceptual Revolution in Geograply, Rowman and Littlefield, NewJersey.
De Bli, H.J. and P.O. Muller (1971) Geographyr: Regions and Concepts, John Wiley and SonsInc.
New York, pp. 1-18.
Dikshit, R.D., (1997), Geographical Thought: A Contertual History of ldeas, Prentice Hall of India.
Eyre, S.R. (1964), "Determinism and Ecological Approach to Geography", Geography, Vol. ,
No. 49, pp. 369-376.
Fielding, G.J. (1974), Geographay as a Social Science, Oxford University Press, Harper and Row
Publishers, New York.
 CHAPTER 7 MAJOR PARADIGMS 241

(2003). "Between economics and ecology: Some historical and

Foster, J.
considerations for modelers of natural capital". Environmental philosophical
Hartshorne, R., (1959) Perspective on the Nature of Monitoring and Assessment, 86.

Herbertson, AJ. (1905), "The Major Natural Regions: Geography, Rand McNally and Co., Chicago
An Essay in Systematic
Grography,Pp.300-310. Geography"
James, P.E. and C.F. Jones (1954), "The Regional
Geography: Inventory and Prospects, Syracuse Concept
and the Regional Method", Anericn
University Press, Syracuse, pp. 19-68.
Johnston, RJ. (2004), Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American
6th Ed., Edward Arnold, London.
Human Geograpl1y Since 1943,
Pounds, N.JG. (1972) Political Geography, Ed. 2, McGraw
Hili, New York.
Rana, L. (2008), Geographical Thought: A
Company, New Delhi.
Systematic Record of Evolution, Concept Publishing
Roepke, HG. (1967) Readings in Economic Geography, Wiley, New York, pp. 17-37.
Stoddart, D.R. (1972) "Darwin's Impact on Geography" and
Approach" in W.K.D. Davies, op. cit., pp. 52-68 and 301-311. "Geography and the Ecological
Tansley, A.G. (1946), Introduction to Plant Ecology, Allen and Unwin, London.
Tatham, G. (1951) "Environmentalism and Possibilism", in Taylor, G. (Ed.) Geography in the
Twentieth Century, Methuen, London, pp. 128-162.
Taylor, G. (1951), Geography in the Twentieth Century, Butlar &Tanner Ltd., London.
Unstead, J.F. et al. (1933), "Classification of Regions of the World", Geography, Vol. 22, pp. 253-
282.
Whittlesey, D. (1954), "The regional concept and the regional method", in P.E. James & C.F.
Jones (Eds.), op. cit., pp. 19-69.
 SECTION-IV
CONTEMPORARY TRADITION
CHAPTER-8

Quantitative Revolution

In the history of geography, the Quantitative Revolution was one of the four major
turning-points. The quantitative revolution occurred during the 1950s and 1960s and
marked a rapid change in the method behind geographical research, from regional
geography into a spatial science. The main claim for the quantitative revolution is that
it led to a shift from a descriptive (idiographic) geography to an empirical law-making
(nomothetic) geography. The quantitative revolution had occurred earlier in economics
and psychology and contemporaneously in political science and other social sciences
and to a lesser extent in history. The greatest impact of the quantitative revolution
was not the revolution itself but the effects that came afterwards in a form of the
spread of positivist (post-positivist) thinking and counter-positivistresponses

SCHAEFER-HARTSHORNE DEBATE
The philosophy and methodology of geography were apparently debated most
earnestly in the writings of two American scholars, namely Richard Hartshorne (1899-
1992) and Fred K. Schaefer (1904-1953) during the mid-20th century: Schaefer was
originally an economist, and later he joined the group of geographers at the University
of Iowa. Schaefer is considered as one of the pioneers of quantitative revolution.
Hartshorne was another American scholar, at the University of Wisconsin. He is known
or his two important publications, viz. Nature of Geography and Perspectives on the
Nature of Geography published in the years 1939 and 1959 respectively. In Nature of
Geography, he strongly advocated for chorological (regional) approach in geography
dting that: "Geography is an integrative discipline to which society has assigned
sponsibility for the study of areas. It is expected to satisty human curiosity about
now much of what is where, and why it is there, in an organized manner that will
tacilitate comprehension and retention. The discipline deals with an enormous range
246 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of phenomena and must provide a congenial home for many different kinds of
practitioners. Systematic geography generates theories to facilitate an understandino
of regions, and regional geography is the proving ground where theories are tested
empirically. The idea of the region provides the essential unifying theme that integrates
the diverse sub-disciplines of geography. The highest form of the geographer's art is
the production of evocative descriptions that facilitate an understanding and an
appreciation of regions." But, Schaefer, well-known for his article "Exceptionalism in
geography: A Methodological Examination", was in great disagreement with the views
of Hartshorne. Schaefer's article, published in 1953 in Annals ofAssociation of Americam
Geographers, was not only reciprocation to Hartshorne's chorological viewpoint; it was
also a call for scientific approach to geography based upon the search for geographical
laws (the ultimate form of a scientific generalization). Schaefer died betore his article
even appeared in print, and so he was never able to elaborate his argument, nor defend
himself from Hartshorne's subsequent attack in 1959. But the article became a rallying
point for the younger generation who were intent on reinventing the discipline as a
science, or spatial science as it was later called. Schaefer's paper was the first to challenge
Hartshorne's presentation and also interpretation of the works of Hettner and others
who had tremendous support fór chorological viewpoint in geography. This paper
was published 14 years after Hartshorne's Nature of Geography. His intent was to criticize
the 'exceptionalist' claims made for regional geography, and to present the case tor
geography adopting the philosophy and methods of the positivist school of science.
Once again, as stated by Johnston, geography's identity and methodology were called
into question. The exchanges between Richard Hartshorne and F. K. Schaefer provided
fuel for continued questioning in the nature of geography. To understand each point
of view, an explanation of ideologies of both must be given, Hartshorne, according to
Johnston, described geography as: ".a science that interprets the realities of areal
differentiation of world as they are found, not only in terms of the differences in certain
things from place to place, but also in terms of the total combination of phenomena in
each place, different from those at every other place." Hartshorne tried to prove
the nature of geography is regional and its evolution can be historically traced. This
was the paradgmaccepted by ge0graphers until contested by Schaefer, up to the
mid-20th century. Schaefer's view of geography, as indicated by Johnston, was that
"...geography has to be conceived as the science concerned with the formulation
laws governing the spatial distribution of features on the surface of the earth and
these spatial arrangements of phenomena, not the phenomena themselves, should be
the subject of geographers' search for law-like statements." These debates
regardin8
geography's nature, in the post Second World War period, helped evolve its specu
areas of focus. Now, not only was geography a science concerned with regional interest
but contained laws that enabled definition of its methodology. However, with this
evolution came continued debate regarding the significance between two main
geographic concerns: idiographic-chorological and nomothetic-systematic
perspectives. Dissatistaction developed with chorolo8ical or regional approaches. Ine
new generation of geographers was increasingly drawn to the systenmatic studies. MMain
reason was that the chorological viewpoint was promoting the concept of uniquenes
 CHAPTER 8 QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION 247
of areas, neglecting theory and generalizations. The
sterile in geography and was not chorological paradigm had become
yielding laws and theories. This
disappointment with the state of affairs in contemporary pent up feeling of
voice in the forceful paper by Schaefer. Basically, geography of 1950s had found
without the formulation of laws a science Schaefer favoured the view that
cannot be recognized. Schaefer
the exceptionalist claim made for criticized
a strong case for the
geography as a
chorological science, and put forward
discipline to adopt the philosophy and
DOsitivismtGeography is concerned with the methodology of scientific
spatial
not the phenomena themselves. Geographical laws arearrangement of phenomena and
the 'pattern laws', as contrasted
to the process laws of other social
science disciplines. Schaefer's
challenge to the concept of geography as projected and paper posed a
"Nature of Geography" (1939). Hartshorne's popularized by Hartshorne's
second book "Perspectives on the Nature
Geography" (1959) was written as a reaction to Schaefer's allegations. This book was ofa
supplement to his previous book. Hartshorne, in his second book,
ranging review on the nature of subject, including discussions on presented
a wide-
and clarifications
about many points of criticism
regarding the concept of geography as areal
differentiation. Although Hartshorne stuck to essentially the chorological viewpoint
in his second book as well, he redefined, clarified
many of the
concepts. The essential difference between the positions taken bypreviously
stated
Hartshorne and
Schaefer was that Hartshorne's was a positive view of geography, i.e. geography is
what geographers have made it. Schaefer's view, on the other
hand, was a normative
one, i.e. what geography should be irrespective of what it had been. The fact, however,
that since Hartshorne's view was fast losing ground,
was
geographers in increasing
numbers had, by the end of 1950s, turned round to Schaefer's view of geography as a
spatial (locational) science. For this they used methods of other systematic sciences
and were increasingly concerned with quantification and development of theory, so
thatby the time Hartshorne's "Perspectives on the Nature of Geography" had appeared
in 1959, the Quantitative Revolution had reached its zenith. The net outcome of
Schaefer-Hartshorne Debate was that geography, by the end of the 1950s had come
increasingly to be viewed as a science requiring the use of the scientific method so
that like other sciences, it could also develop laws and theories relevant to its field of
study. This brought about a distinctive shift in emphasis from 'regional' to 'systematic'
studies. This meant that geography thereafter began increasingly to be viewed in a
nomothetic perspective, ie. it required developing the habit of seeking the general in
the particular. This also involved a shift from 'areal' to locational' studies; from
'absolute' to 'relative' locations; and from 'areal differentiation' to spatial interaction

QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION: BEGINNINGS AND END

AS a consequence of a long methodological debate upon its scope and content an
apparently new perspective has been opened up under the impact of so-called
Quantitative Revolution during the mid-20th century. The quantitative revolution
occurred during the 1950s and 1960s and markeda rapid change in the method behind
geographical research, from regional geography into a spatial science.* In the early
248 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT
for geographical research
sense that the
existing paradigm political processes
sOCial, and
1950s, there was a growing economic,

in explaining how
physical, generated by them are
Was not adequate related, or outcomes
how
t h e o r e t i c a l approach to
ecologically
are spatialy organized, A more
abstract,
time and place. method of inquiry. The
evidence for a given the analytical
evolving that are logically
research has emerged, ot generalizations
geographical
led to the development defined events
embodied in
method of inquiry
a small set of closely
analytical
aspects of G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s may
take the form of
valid about the spatial settings.
natural and
cultural on its scientific fit
wide range of and the research is judged
models, or theories,
geography become a
tested hypotheses, approach had helped
as an idiographic field
of the analytical
and its validity. Adoption of the discipline
conception
the 1950s through 1970s
science, and the
more law-giving
acceptable. The changes during
of study has
become less but mathematics as a tool
mathematics into geography,
introduction of
were not the and formal mathematical
and for statistical methodology
for explicit purposes increased use of computerized
Quantitative Revolution
led to an research. The
modelling. The multivariate analysis, in
geographical
statistical techniques, inparticular that improved
of mathematical techniques
methods reflected an array revolution include:
newly adopted the quantitative
of the techniques that epitomized and models,
precision. Some basic mathematical equations
inferential statistics;
descriptive statistics; stochastic models using concepts
of probability,
such as gravity model of social physics; Thünen's and
and deterministic models, e.g. Von
such as spatial diffusion processes;
The common factor, linking
the above techniques, was a
Weber's location models.
numbers over words, plus a belief
that numerical work had a superior
preference for
tended to present it as
scientific pedigree. Proponents of quantitative geography
Burton, for instance, described
the Quantitative
bringing science to geography. and purpose of geography"' By
Revolution as "a radical transformation of the spirit
the use of numerical techniques of some
this he meant a newfound enthusiasm for
of Earth surface patterns. The quantitative
kind, directed towards elucidating the details
science. The revolutionaries
revolution was geography's attempt to redefine itself as a
declared that the purpose of geography was to test general laws about the spatial
from natural
arrangement of phenomena. They adopted the philosophy positivism
of
sciences and turned to mathematics-especially statistics-as a way of proving
hypotheses. The mathematical and statistical methods were introduced to attain
a
desired level of objectivity for the search of laws and theories. All these efforts were
devoted to the fundamental conception of geography as a spatial science. Although
this movement is over now, it did lead to mathematization of much of our discipline,
with an attendant emphasis on the construction and testing of theoretical models. The
Quantitative Revolution did lead to a shift from an ideographic to nomothetie
geography.
For
longin history, geography has been haracterized by much physical, cultural
and economic descriptive analysis, developing what we now call regional geography.
The pinnacle ofregional geography occurred during the mid-20th century tollowing
Richard Hartshorne's The Nature of Geography (1939). Debate raged predominantly
where regional geography was the major philosophical school. All of these events
 CHAPTER8 QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION 249

presented a great threat to geography's position as an academic subject and thus

geographers began seeking new methods to counter critique. Under the banner of the
scientific method, the Quantitative Revolution began. Four main criticisms were raise
against Regional geography. Firstly, it was over descriptive following a purely
inventory tormat for the physical and social features at a specific site. Secondly, it was
almost purely moulded for education purposes. Regions aren't really geographical
entities; they are just convenient for descriptive purposes. Thirdly, it failed to actually
describe why the patterns were the way they were, thus providing no real geographical
understanding. Fourthly and most importantly, regional geography was considered
unscientific. The Quantitative Revolution began not only as a response to regional
geography paradigm, but also as a result of the 1950s crisis. During the late 1940s and
early 1950s a series of events nearly led to the downfall of geography as an academic
subject. This is known as the 1950s crisis in geography. The crisis occurred for several
reasons as: the closing of many geography departments and courses in universities,
e-g. the abolition of the geography programme at Harvard University in 1948; the
continued division between Human and Physical Geography; geography being seen
as overly descriptive and unscientific and the claim that there was no explanation of
why processes or phenomena occurred within the regional framework; geography
was seen as exclusively educational and there were few if any applications of
contemporary geography; and continuing question of what geography is-science,
art, humanity or social science. Then, during the Second World War technology became
very influential in our society. This culminated in the Quantitative Revolution, during
which science and mathematics enjoyed unrivalled importance. Nomothetic aspects
of geography heightened inimportanceand quantitative methodsand techniques were
applied to virtually all investigation and experimentation. The revolution in geography
has come largely as a result of the impact of work by non-geographers, a process
shared by many other disciplines, where an established order has been overthrown
to transform first
by a rapid conversion to a mathematical approach. It has expanded
thephysical and then the biological sciences. It is now strongly represented in most of
includin8 geography. Physicists and mathematicians began
the
the social sciences
the
movement that led to the revolution in geography. However, in geography,
of neo-determinism.
Quantitative Revolution is contemporaneous with the appearance in
its antecedents can be traced far back,
the quantitative revolution
Although
the late 1940s. It reached its culmination in 1960s
geography has b gun actually in
and is over now.
physical geography,
first used in
geography, the quantitative techniquesA.N.
were
In
studies. Strahler, the prominent physical
and they entered later in human of quantitative techniques to
immense scope of application
geographer, saw an
"Davisian Geomorphology was
in the late 19th century itself when
geomorphology to physical geography and
Popular.Strahler criticized the traditional approaches
in physical studies, especially
the of quantitative techniques
use
emphasized on
and various other hill and valley
forms. According
including rate of erosion, soil creep, scientific study of geomorphological process, the
toStrahler, instead of advancing the
(late 19th and early 20th century) made splendid
Contemporary geographers
250 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

contribution to descriptive and regional geomorphology. The possible reason tor this
was considered to be the confusion or fear regarding the use of statistical techniques
in geography, ie. related to the loss of descriptive quality and a fear of gaining fase
impression of objectivity. In spite of this, in 1950s and 1960sseveralgeomorphologists
started using quantitative methods and the practice spreaded gradually. They were,
far as the field of
for instance, Strahler, Chorley, Dury, Mackay, Wolman, etc. As
climatology is concerned, there has been a little argument about the widespread
application of quantitative techniques to it. This branch of geography embraces the
most apparently manageable and quantifiable continuum that geo8raphers have been

concerned to study. The scholars like Koeppen, Bryson

Thornthwaite, Mather, Hare,
and others have been applying quantitative techniques to climatic studies with great
effect. By far the greatest struggle for the acceptance of quantitative methods has been
in human geography. It is because of the prevalent notion that the human behaviour
IS unpredictable. It is here that the revolution runs up against the notion of freewill

and the unpredictability of human behaviour.

that showed
Among all the modern schools of thought, it was the British geography
the earliest signs of change during the quantitative revolution. Initially, it was through
the publication of S. Gregory's book "Statistical Methods and the Geographers" in 1963.
This was followed in 1965 by "Frontiers in Geographical Teaching" by P. Hagget and R.J.
Chorley and was the first of the whole series of books they have written or edited
about the search for laws in geography. Also in 1965 Hagget's book "Locational Analysis
m Human Geography" attempted to provide a theoretical framework for the study of
regularities in human behaviour. In 1967 another book edited by Hagget and Chorley:
"Models in Geography" attempted to review the entire theoretical framework which
geographers had used to study locational patterns.
However, within two to three decades of the beginning of Quantitative Revolution,
the overwhelming focus on statistical modelling itself eventually became responsible
for the undoing of this revolution. Many geographers became increasingly concerned
that these techniques simply put a highly sophisticated technical gloss on the approach
to study that was barren of theory. Other critics argued that it removed the 'human
dimension' from a discipline that always prided itself on studying the human and
natural world alike. As the 1970s dawned, the Quantitative Revolution came under
direct challenge. The mood changed with a significant number of geographers
beginning to question the wisdom and even the morality of this quantitative turn.
Meanwhile, the opposition to the Quantitative Revolution came in several ways
(i) There were those who thought that the whole idea was a bad one and that
quantification would mislead geography in a wrong and fruitless direction; if such
critics are still among us they have not made themselves heard for some time; (i) There
were traditional scholars like Dudley Stamp' who argued that geographers had spent
too long perfecting their tools (maps, cartograms and other diagrammatie
representations) and should get on improving these tools further rather going tor
something new like quantification; (ii) A third kind of opposition holds thatstatistica
techniques are suitable for some kind of geography; but not all geography, because
there are certain things that cannot be measured; a variant of this argument is that thne
 CHAPTER 8 QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION 251
ariables
vari with which
geography is
concerned are too numerous and
statistical analysis, (1V) Another class of complex Tor
techniques are suitable and their application objection is that although
quantitative
nevertheless being incorrectly applied; ends geographic
to
are problems is desirable, they
analysis has failed on occasion to
are confused with means; quantitative
discoveries of distinguish the significant from trivial; the
very novel; and so on; and (v) A final alleged
the
quantifiers are not
kind or
criticism to note is that
quantification all right, but the quantifiers are not;
is
nerky, suffer from over-enthusiasm, they are
these criticisms have vaulting ambition, or just
plain arrogance. That
a
grain of truth cannot be denied, but to the valid, correct use ot
quantitative methods they are irrelevant.

THE IMPACT

As far as the consequences of Quantitative Revolution

are concerned, the effects were
two fold, viz. spread of positivist
thinking and the emergence of
responses. The counter-positivist response from human geography was created in a counter-positivist
form of behavioural, radical and humanistic geography. Dissatisfaction with
idiographic geography lies at the root of the quantitative revolution. The
development
of theoretical, model-building geography has been the
major consequence of the
quantitative revolution. The emergence of geography as an abstract, theoretical science
appears to have been the most overriding development in geographic research during
the 1960s. Attention, since then, has focused on the spatial organization of economic,
social, physical, political and urban processes, and on the outeomes generated by these
processes at given times and in particular places. Special attention has been placed on
the spatial aspects of social processes. Problems related to environmental perception
and control have also been researched. Accompanying these developments has been
a widespread acceptance of the need for more geographically oriented quantitative
methods for use in model building. The Quantitative Revolution has greatly influenced
the practice of Physical and Human geographers alike, as well as vastly improving
Continued progress has been made in the
discipline.
of the
the credibility
scientific
observation and handling of data related to geographic problems. The Quantitative
Kevolution pioneered statistical and mathematical methodologies to improve
technology began
New used, to be
geographers' understanding of complex processes. the Earth's atmosphere to
ucn as remote sensing and satelliteofimagery Thebeyond ot quantitative revolution
from

nprove the precision and analysis mapping. fusion

ana new technology has given birth to a new field of study, called geomatics". The
creation and application of GIS and
&reater use of computers in geography and the
of the developments in geomatics. These new
emote sensing, in fact, is the result to assess complex models
EVelopments have allowed
0n a full-scale model
geographers for the first time
and over space and time. The development of geomatics led to
of the human and environments
natural
5Ography being reunited as the complexities
models. Further, advances also led to a greater
ud be assessed on n e w computable within geography. Eventually, the quantitative
Oe of spatial statistics and modellingon the fields of physical, economic and urban
Volution had its greatest impacts
252 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

methods lies in the role tha

and statistical within
however tentatively,
mathematical
true value of
geography. The of ideas
established,
is inextricabl
the testing and verifying (1963) 'quantification
they play in to Burton using modes
methods are especially heiptul
framework. According
a theoretical
The quantitative otten mathematical
in
i n t e r t w i n e d with theory'. of theory,
formal presentation a relationships embodied
in geography.
A model is the of enabling the
c o n s t r u c t e d for the specific
purpose
precise tools to test
torm, and is techniques provide
tested. The quantitative for making precise
in the theory to be however, be
used etfectively

theories and analyse

data. They could,
revolution, the geographers
attempted to use their
quantitative solve them by the direct
predictions. Prior to problems and then to
formulate geographical number ot geographers translate
experiences to Now an increasing
examination of empirical
evidence.
the equation until they
terms and then manipulate
mathematical solution into geographical
their problems into then re-translate this

obtain a mathematical
solution. They into m a t h e m a t i c a l terms has
to convert problems
The capacity to formulate them more
language or
statement.
difficult problems,
to tackle for more based conclusions
enabled geographers much more soundly
with the use of staistics,
precisely, and to obtain,
than was the case in
pre-revolution phase. one of the greatest periods
Quantitative Revolution has been called
To conclude, the The quantitative
in the whole history of the discipline.
intellectual achievement
the theory. The
of for the development of
techniques provide
most appropriate methods in the development
era lasted as long as
its methods proved to be aiding
quantitative to be scientific has need
follows that branch of geography claiming
of theory. It any that has need for theory
and any branch of geography
for the development of theory, is the
techniques. The development and testing of theory
has need for quantitative and new and verifiable
obtain new and verifiable knowledge
only way to
do not discourage
understanding. However, the efforts towards quantification
to find out whether
study. First task of geographer always
is
view of
qualitative etc. represent any relationships,
different geographical elements, phenomena, place,
use of quantitative
Later comes the
differences, or any other type of connections.
of relationships or inter-connections.
methods, i.e. in analysis, to measure the degree
The geographers are not going to explore irrelevant relationships.

NOTES

1. Livingstone, 1992.
2. Dikshit, R.D. (1997), 118-121.
3. Johnston, 1979, 50-8.
s
4. Scientific or Logical Positivism is a philosophy that combines positivism-which sta
that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge-with a version of a prorisi
the notion that some proposilional knowledge can be had without, or "prior
experience. Logical positivism denied the soundness of metaphysics and traditiota
philosophy, and affirmed that statements about metaphysics, religion and ethics a
devoid of cognitive meaning; only statements about mathematics, logic and natut
 CHAPTER8 QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION 253
sriences have a definite meaning. Logical positivism originated in the Vienna Circle in the
1920s, where Rudolt Carnap, Otto Neurath, and others divided meaningful
into those which are analytic (true a priori), and those statements
which are synthetic (verified by
sensory experience, a posteriori). Logical positivism refuted synthetic a
an evident criticism to Kantian philosophy. priori knowledge:
5. 'Quantitative revolution', Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia.
6. Burton, 1963.
7. Davies, 1972.
8. Sir Laurence Dudley Stamp (1898-1966), was professor of Geography at Rangoon and
London, and one of the internationally best known British geographers of the 20th
century.
He specialised in the study of geology and geography and taught at the Universities of
Rangoon (1923-26) and London (l1926-45). From 1936 to 1944 he directed the compilation
and publication of the report of the Land Utilisation Survey of Britain. He worked on
many official enquiries into the use of land and planning
9. Geomatics is the modern scientific term referring to the integrated approach to
measurement, analysis, and management of the discription and location of Earth-based
data. These data come from many sources,including earth-orbitting satellites, air and
sea-borne sensors and ground based instruments. Geomatics has applications in all
disciplines which depend on spatial data, including forestry, environmental studies,
planning, engineering, navigation, geology and geophysics. It is fundamental to all the
areas of study which use spatially related data, such as Surveying, Remote Sensing and
Photogrammetry, Cartography, GIS, Property or Cadastral Studies and Global Positioning.

REFERENCES

Canadian
Burton, I. (1963), "The Quantitative Revolution and Theoretical Geography", The
Geographer, Vol. 7, pp. 151-162.
Davies, W.K.D. (1972) Conceptual Revolutiom in Geography, Rowman and Littlefield, New Jersey.
Prentice Hall of India.
Dikshit, R.D. (1997), Geographical Thought: A Contextual History of ldeas,
Edward Arnold, London.
Harvey, David (1969), Explanation in Geography, Htuman Geography Since 1945,
Johnston, R.J. (2004), Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American
6th Edition, Edward Arnold, London.
Tradition: Episodes in the History of a Contested
Livingstone, David N. (1992), The Geographical
Enterprise, Blackwell Publishers.
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedin.
CHAPTER-9

Laws, Theories and Models

Few would deny the fact that the last few decades have been one of the greatest periods
of intellectual change in the trends of geographic development. Much of these changes,
the questioning of the
past approaches, looking at old problems with new eyes, have
been of a methodological nature involving, in virtually every instance, the substitution
of quantitative approaches to problems formerly treated in descriptive ways.
Throughout its history geography has been characterized by an unceasing

methodological debate upon its scope and content. Today an apparently new
perspective has been opened under the impact of s0-called quantitative revolution.
Statistical methods have been introduced to attain a desired level of objectivity, and
search for laws and theories and proceed apace. All are devoted to the fundamental
conception of geography as a science. These laws and theories cover the general
behaviour of the empirical events or objects with which the science is concerned, and
thereby enable the geographers to connect togetiher the knowledge of the separately
known events and to make reliable predictions of events as yet known. Of all the
problems of contemporary concern in the thinking of geographers, the most disturbing
has been the question whether geography 'like the science' could develop the
knowledge of principles, laws and general truths, or its function has been merely to
describe the innumerable unique things. Geography has not always been considered
as a scientific discipline. But, various scholars, like Humboldt, Ritter, Davis and Blache
have all evoked the necessity of considering its scientific nature. This demanded troni
geographers to search for similarities, and especially functional similarities among
unique things. With this understanding, therefore, a rapprochement with modern
science has taken place at an accelerating pace within the last few
decades. It has been
realized that social and human phenomena can also be
regarded as
along with the physical. The work of Hartshorne (1939, 1959) may begeneralizations,
considered as
the last in the chain of traditional writers in
geography. The Concepts of Geography
 CHAPTER9 LAWS, THEORIES AND MODELS 255
elucidated by Hartshorne and accepted by
many practicing geographers
come under attack from the
early 1950s onwards. Many began to
should attempt to discover laws to began to feel that geographers
the earth's surtace, as much eftortexplain
the regular distribution of phenomena on
had went into the
Basically a growing number of geographers felt that whiledescription of unique areas
be progressively relined and made regionai description could
any closer to understanding
why
more
sophisticated
certain areas had a
it
was not
carrying geography
most extreme statement of the view particular character. One of the
that geographers should seek for laws which
govern the location of
phenomena on the earth's
American scholar, who attacked the surface, came from
F.K. Schaefer, an
views of Hartshorne in a
"Exceptionalism in Geography: paper entitled
Schaefer attempted to answer the Methodological
A
Examination", published in 1953.
make progress. question of why geography seemed to be
failing to
Geographers in his view had concentrated on describing particular
places or regions when they should have been
building a cumulative
earth's surface, whether natural or body theory
to explairn why features on the up of
located where they were. Another factor that man-made, were
ideas was the spread of encouraged spread of Schaefer's
the
quantification.
aware that mathematics and statistics
A growing number of
geographers became
could be applied to
geographical problems. These
provide tools to test theories and analyze data. They could, however, only be used
effectively if they were supported by carefully constructed theories, which made precise
predictions, and which could then be tested. The process of intellectual change led
geographers to concentrate less and less on describing the differences between
particular areas or places and more and more on the study of uniformities and the
production of theories about the spacing of phenomena on the earth's surface. This
change led the current geographical thinking to a stage where considerable emphasis
is being placed on discovery and formulation of laws and theories. This
is a logical
outcome of continued search for scientific explanation of the spatial relations of
phenomena. Instead of concentrating on the question of how and where phenomena
arelocated and arranged, the emphasis is now directed toward the
general question
why the facts are as alleged. Since geography counts itself among the sciences, then
such an emphasis on 'nomothetic approach" is in right direction. The recent
presentation of Hagget and Bunge (1965 and 1966) are also indicative of this trend
clearly, and many more examples could be cited. Generally speaking, there are two
alternative routes or methods to be followed in establishing a scientific explanation
The first is by 'induction-proceeding from numerous particular instances to universal
statements; and the second that of 'deduction'-proceeding from some a priori' universal
premise to statements about particular sets of events. The laws, theories, models and
systems analysis provide important tools of explanation in geography.
The quest for explanation is a quest tor a theory. The development of theory is at
the heart of all explanations. Undoubtedly, the observations and descriptions cannot
be theory free. To state a fact entirely divorced from theoretical interpretations is not
justified. Theories represent generalizations, used for explanations. They can make
precise predictions. The quantitative techniques can be used effectively if they are
supported by carefully constructed theories. Since, methodological debates for a long
 256 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

even till today the

time hampered the process
of theory-building in geography, in 1950s brought
facts. Schaefer's arguments
discipline is short in theories
and long on
them to break away
from the
geographers and helped move a step
great motivation among and of objects and to
classification
traditional geography of distribution Awareness towards theory-building
distributions.
to explain and predict the 20th century
further
number of works, particularly in the
there before, but a
formulation of laws and theories
was already a the use and
have played great role in encouraging order within chaos' and
studies that there is 'some hidden
in geography2. These prove
be induced empirically,
task is to search for this order. This order may
the geographers' instances to
observations; proceeding for n u m e r o u s particular
ie. based on personal or deduced theoretically,
i.e.
universal statements; moving
from particular to general;
sets of
to statements about particular
from some a priori universal premise
proceeding latter case, the
from general to particular. In the
events or phenomena, i.e. proceeding whereas in the former
established theory (a priori),
explanations are based on already
i.e. formulation of a new or original theory (a
the explanations arrive at some theory, for explanation and are
However, the theories in either of ways are used
posteriori). of a law or of generalization is
the highest order gerneralizations. The great advantage
class to the whole
that it allows us to predict from what is known about a part of a

been examined. In other words, a law allows

class, even though the whole class has not
an extension of knowledge beyond what has actually been observed.

LAWS
is the framework within
Law is a system of rules; a rule of being or of conduct. Theory
which one seeks explanation and by constitution, laws should form the part of theory.
A law is seen as a universal statement of unrestricted range, i.e. unrestricted in its
application over time andspace. The numerous analyses by logicians and philosophers
suggest that two criteria are of major significance in identifying laws. The first is the
iversality of the statement. The second is the relationship of a statement to the
surrounding statements and in particular the way in which one statement fits into a
whole collection of statements which themselves form a scientific theory. A scientific
law may be interpreted most rigidly as a generalization that is empirically universally
true, and one that is also an integral part of a theoretical system in which we have
supreme confidence. A substantial part of scientific explanation is concerned with
establishing how laws are related to a surrounding structure of theory. In other words,
it is impossible to determine whether a statement is or is not a law simply by reference
to the truth or falsity of the generalization it contains. Consider, for instance, the
statement that 'towns of similar size and function are found at similar distances apart'.
Although, we may have reservations about regarding this as a law (the notions of
similarity and function are too inexplicit tor example) we certainly regard it as being
more law-like than a statement that 'all towns contain collections of buildings.' The
significant difference between statements is not basically a function of either empirical
status or universality. It is simply that the first statement has some place within the
structure ofcentral place theory that, however crudely it has been formulated, hasa
 CHAPTER 9 LAWS, THEORIES AND MODELS 257

putati
deductive tructure in the
formulations of Christaller and
Pucond statement has no theoretical
the second stat
structure of
Losch, whereas
is in any
case triviallytrue. Accordingly, explanations surrounding it and
ent is is not aa law is the
a
major criterion
in determining whether a
statement or
relationship of that statement to the a
constitutes a
that
theory. system
statements

ferent types of laws

At least five differ
y. of

may be formulated by geographers, such

GCross-Section; (i) Equilibrium; () Historical;, (iv) as
rosS-section law states the functional connectionDevelopmental; and (v) Statistical"
vAriables have at the same time. it we regard a between the values that several
number of "states"-each state system as consisting of an infinite
representing
ene neriod-then a cross-section law is one the condition of
the system of
given a

The cross-section law is found in relating to the

specific state of a
system.
geography in the
attempts at forming such laws can be found in the form "where A there B". Crude
example of an attempt to tormulate a crosS-sectionworks of the
law can be
environmen talists. An
work of Christaller: "Wherever there occurs an urban paraphrased from the
urban functions B associated with it".
place of size A, then there will be
Whereas, a cross-section law states a functional
connection that exists under some given circumstances, an
some change will occur if the connection the equilibrium law states that
equilibrium formula states is not
obtained. These laws are also static and, in a sense, they are not
what will occur if certain conditions are fulfilled, but do notimperfect-i.e., they state
what will occur if the
conditions are not fulfilled. An example of the scheme of ansay
and Y, then if there is to be equilibrium, X Y. This equilibrium law is: If X
=
type of law is exemplified by the law
of the lever in physics and by the
demand-supply relationships economics. It appears
in geography in research on interaction between
in
places, and it has also been used in
defining trade areas, hinterlands, and so on. For the most part the 'equilibrium' situation
has been used to define boundaries where the attractive force of one centre
that of another centre.
equals
Commonly such lines of
inditterence, or market-supply
boundaries, are defined empirically. Both laws discussed so far are static laws. The
general format of a dynamic law is somewhat different from the schemes already
shown. Reduced to its simplest elements, the dynamic law states that, if a systemn
exemplifies at a certain time a certain character, certain other character a (and
conversely). That is, at a time t a system has the character 'a', then it will have at
some later time ' t the character b'. Conversely, if a system at time "has the character
of 'b' then it must have had 'a' at a specified earlier time 't. The classic example of
this was the early attempt to formulate a five-stage law of demographic transition
law allows the construction of
(the so called demographic 'cycle). The Historical
a

Schema the
for laws that provide the future not from present alone but from the present
in conjunction with some information about the past. The historical law is the name of
a certain type of generalization which is based not so much on the fact that instances
on which it is structured lie in the past, but rather that the law conforms to a certain

Schema with respect to time. For example, given states of a system, A, B and C, then
the schema for the historical law is: 1f 'B' now and A earlier,
then 'C" later. Examples of
to fit this framework are numerous in geography.
dies which may be interpreted and in tinme-oriented
The most obvious examples occur in studies of population growth,
 258 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

studies between physical features (e.g. slope of land), occupancy types (crop types),
and cultural and technological attributes of populations. Reconstructions of the
time, and some migration
changing locations of economic and social activities through
which may contain a number of
studies, have provided a mass of empirical evidence,
historical laws. Often it is difficult to distinguish between historical and developmental

laws, since both involve temporal change.

The essential difference is found in the
the 'if B now and A earlier then C later' form of
schema the laws follow. As opposed to
the historical law which may use past and present information to predict the future, a

developmental law takes the form: Tf B now then A

earlier and
successively C and D
later'. This is the four stage developmental law anchored at the second stage. Freely
at a certain time the character
translated, this states that if a system of a certain kind has
earlier time have had the character A
B, then it will under normal conditions at some
and at some later time will successively have the characters C and D. Particular
can be found where
examples of attempts to formulate generalizations of this type
longitudinal development is stressed, as Rostow's stages of economic growth, the law
of demographic transition, and the diffusion process. A statistical law, on the other
hand, states that if each member of a class of objects has the character A, then a certain
proportion P (O < P<1) ofthe objects have the character S. If such a class has N
members, then N, = (P.N). For example, given N = 100 and P = 0.5, then in a certain
number of K classes (in which each member exemplifies A), each of the K classes
should have N, = 50. Yet we do not expect successive samples from the population to
yield N, is exactly equal to 50. In general we consider the law confirmed if the N,s
cluster or scatter around 50 in the a certain fashion. The antecedents of such laws
invariably contain a probability law to the effect that the frequency of a certain character
in successive samples from a large population converges towards a certain number in
a random manner. Attempts to generalize from sample studies or small scale studies
to large populations or universe or phenomena are a common part of the statistical
procedure. This constitutes an attempt to extend the result of the sample study to a
more general level of knowledge. Thus it is possible to build on the results of a local
study (such as Hagerstand's studies of international migration in Sweden) to produce
a more comprehensive statement.

THEORY

A theory is defined as "a system of ideas explaining something"; or "a system of ideas
based on general principles independent of the facts or phenomena to be explained":
or "a scientific statement or a group of scientific statements". In order to understand
the meaning of theory, the difference between a 'simple' and a 'scientific statement
needs to be made clear. Consider, these two statements, for instance: (1) Delhi lies
across the river Yamuna; and (2) One finds the big cities generally located across the
rivers in the world. Of these two, the former is a 'simple statement' and the latter a
'scientific statement', because the scientific statements are based on generalizations,
derived from a number of simple statements (facts). After searching out some
relationship/order, we state it or express it in the form of scientific statements. The
 CHAPTER 9 LAWs,
THEORIES AND MODELS 259
west arder statements are
Joof explanation. Thus, 'gthe eneralizations' followed by 'laws' and 'theories' at
niversal statements. Theytheories are the
state some highest order scientific statements higher
delopment.
If the torm rule of or
s But in the case ofof exXplanation is empirically action, behaviour, process or
this situation, the theorytheoretically deduced explanations inductive, it generates original
fore the theory is tested and already exists; only its the process is
reversed.
verified testing or
verification
hypothesis'. The difference between this situation, it is stated in required.
in real world is
natter of confirmation. Atter term and the
scientific
the form
generalization. confirmation it becomes a law is simply a
The scientific theory has a generalized statement or
and Text. The terms, statements
formal structure, which
and rules constitute basically includes its Calculus
words that form the specific the calculus of a
vocabulary of
building block of a theory. There are two theory are its 'terms'. These
a theory. Various
terms are the
Terms'. The 'axioms are the types of 'terms', viz. 'Axioms' and Derived
e.g. point or "line in
primitive terms that are basic,
geometry; and 'river, original and not derived,
'Toad', etc. in geography. The derived 'plain', 'settlement',
as they may have terms, on the other hand, need 'market', 'desert',
further definition,
several connotations.
The terms like 'distance, They are formed from the primitive terms.
'network', 'region', 'space', 'long', 'short', high', '1low',
'down', etc. fall in this category. 'up',
They are required to be defined and
some given context. Their explained within
references. The original andmeaning
would change or vary in different
contexts or
derived terms combine
the scientific sentences. together to make 'statements',
Again, there are two types of statements, viz. 'Axiomatic' and
Derivative'. The axiomatic statements
lies across the river
are
primitive statements.
Yamuna' or "Thar Desert lies on the western example: 'Delhi
For
Ihe derivative statements are margin of Indian Subcontinent'.
derived from axiomatic statements, and the
at times, are
sought from an existing theory. For example: "The important explanations,
cities of the
world lie across
major rivers' or "The western margins of continents are deserts'. n additionn
to the primitive terms and axiomatic statements scientific theories also
possess certain
Rules or Laws that govern the formulation of the derivative sentences. Five types of
laws have already been discussed in the
previous section. The axioms, statements and
ues (laws) make up the 'Calculus' of a theory. But a theory is useful in empirical
ience only if it is given some interpretation with reference to empirical phenomena.
nus in Euclidean geometry, for instance, primitive terms such as point' and 'line'
nay be interpreted by 'dots' and 'pencil lines'. By elaborating a formal structure we
ensure the logical truth of the propositions contained in the theory. These propositions
are linked to empirical phenomena by a set of interpretativesentences-called a Text'.
Ext of a its scope, i.e. where and how the theory should be
theory tells about
of a theory performs wo
Pped and also its limitations in explanation. Thus, the textirom
#Ortant functions, viz. (1) It provides
a
translation completely abstract
of empirical observation. Without such a
etical language to the language the theory. Or it identifies
anslation no possibility of empirical support for
slation there is no possiDIuy s Y of
particular class world phenomenon.
of real world phenomenon. For example.
example, in
abstract symbol with a
abstract symbol a parVnd represent the real world phenomenon
the real world phenomenon of
or
X' and "Y' represent
relation-regression model
260 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

'floods') variables respectively; and

Independent (e.g. 'rainfall') and Dependent (eg. to identify the domain of
Another important function of the text of a theory is
(2) This domain may simply
be defined
and to which theory can be applied.
objects events
its simplest torm is the field
co-ordinates. Domain, in
a
set of spatial and temporal that the theory adequately
It is the section, aspects, reality
of application of theory.
covers, including its
limitations application.
in
text states how and under
abstract set of relata; the
The theory itself is simply an
to actual events. The
abstract system may be applied
what circumstances such an number of terms within it that
varies according to the
extent of domain of the theory matter. A theory
translation in terms of a specific subject
have to be given specific
a
To a greateror
domain is useless for prediction.
without a text and a well-defined can be absolutely
with appropriate texts. No text
lesser degree theories are provided accounts for
of a text for theoretical structures
perfect, but undoubtedly the provisiona with a complete calculus and text is a
their greater predictive success. Thus, theory
in social sciences like geography, are
Formal Theory. But most theories, particularly
that it is comparatively rare for theories in
incomplete. It has already been suggested
in a completely formal manner. In
either the natural or social sciences to be stated
information is not available for such
cases this may simply be because sufficient

a formal statement to be made. This raises, therefore,

the problem of how theories are
and what criteria we
in fact stated, how far such theories can be partially formalized,
need to employ in distinguishing speculative fantasies from scientific theory. In fact,
in a continuum of theoretical formulations, at the one end of which lies the pure formal
statement. Thus,
theory and the at the other end lies the purely verbal speculative
there is a whole range of theories in-between. Here, an attempt is made for a brief
classification of theoretical structures according to their degree of formulation, ie.
based on the degree of precision, and the extent to which the theories are structurally
complete or incomplete.5
There are four main types and these range from completely formal Type-I theories,
through the Type-II theories and Type-III theories which involve pre-supposition and
quasi-deduction respectively, to the more nebulous Type-IV theories, which scarcely
conform in any respect to the standards of scientific theory. Type-I are Deductively
Complete Theories:Such theories possess completely formal structures. Their axioms
are fuly specified. All steps in the deductive elaboration are fully stated. For example,
a textbook in Euclidian Geometry exhibits this kind of structure. The probability
theories and the theorems in geometry fall in this category. They are perfect, but do
not have empirical content, as it is not actually required. In other words, they have
perfect calculus, but the text is missing. Type-II are Theories with Systematic
Presupposition: They involve the reference to another set of theories. Such theories
may or may not be deductively complete. These have two sub-types: Elliptical
Formulations and Common Sense Presupposition. The Elliptical Formulations are deducea
completely, but proof is not given. Proof of deduction lies in ellipses, i.e in dark; whereas
in Common Sense Presuppositions the deductive part of theory is missing, because it
is technically difficult to give a deduct and prove. Otherwise, the theories
appear
complete. Such theories appear so sound that the need to look for original source s
 CHAPTER 9 LAWS, THEORIES AND MODELS 261

rarely felt. Type-Ill is Quasi-Deductive Theories: They may be

theories. Because the primitive terms of the regarded as incomplete
do not conform to
theory, the deductive elaborations of it,
the standards of formal theory. The terms or theorems have not
been derived properly and completely; and have been substituted in various
Accordingly, three
sub-types may be distinguished: (1) Inductive torms.
the systematization:
theory substituted by assumptions; (2) Incomplete Deductive Elaboration: where
Le.

certain steps have been left out, because

they appear too complicated for explicit
deductive procedures to be employed; (3) Theories with Relative Primitives. In this case
the theories do not make use
original primitive terms or axioms; instead use only
of
derived (parallel) terms or theorems. Lastly, Type-IV theories, on the other
Non-Formal Theories: They may be regarded as statements made with hand, aretheoretical
intensions, but for which no theoretical language has been
developed.system
explanations, ranging in sophistication from carefully thought-out They are verbal
of linked
statements to the kind of 'explanation sketch'. Historians
frequently use such theories.
They are also called as Verbal Explanations, where systematic explanation is given
but without any calculus or text; or Pseudo-theories/ Speculative statements, where
no systematic relative statements are made. The discipline having Type-I theories is
considered as the most advanced. In geography, the theory building has reached, at
the maximum, at Type-I level. However, the most common in
geography are 1ype
In practice, geographical theory varies a great deal in its degree of formulation
Given the nature of geographic concepts the development of formal theory in
geography appears to be a very restricted possibility. For the most part we must at
best rest content with varying degrees of partial formulation. In the most cases the
systematic pre-supposition or the quasi-deduction involved are not of the harmless'
variety in which a full proof or full theory is available but not stated.
An explicitly developed scientific theory requires a number of axiomatic statements
from which the theorems can be derived. To achieve this empirical status these
axiomatic statements (containing primitive terms) require translation to either
observable classes of events or to theoretical concepts from which the behaviour of
observable classes of events can be derived. The concepts that correspond to the axioms
of the theory are called its basic postulates. Geographers have in the past developed
and to justify the way in which
concepts' and 'principles' to facilitate explanations
they organize a particular set of facts. Such concepts may ultimately act as the basic
has not been developed from them.
postulates for theory. In most cases explicit theory
In some instances particularly in location theory, geometric analysis, and in analysis
have been more explicitly developed and
in physical geography-the basic postulates Such concepts and
function more in accordance with standard scientific theory.
principles (or the postulates) those have been
used or may be used by geographers in
into two, viz.: Derivative Concepts and Indigenous
be classified
theory building can
Concepts. of some theoretical
The of derivative concepts involves the "consumption"
use
structure from another discipline. A
number of such concepts have entered in
geography from other disciplines, "Economic psychology,
as economícs, sociology, geometry,
physics, chemistry, biology,etc. (1) Concepts' have frequently been used
262 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

as the foundation for geographic theory. Economics has been the most successful of
the social sciences in developing formal theory (even if the empirical status of that
theory is open to doubt). Many of the postulates and theorems of economics have
been absorbed into geographic theory. In particular, the location theory, which has
been "especially concerned with the development of the theoretical-deductive method
in geography", can be related to economic postulates. Out of many such cases, Central
Place Theory by Christaller has been described as the "one relatively well-developed
laws. The
of theoretical economic geography, using economic geographical
Dranch
fundamental spatial conceptthe range of a good' is basically derived from economics

Similarly, Losch (1954) treated the location of settlement as part of the general location
problem and, grounding his analysis firmly on 'Chamberliman Economic Theory,
theories of Christaller.
gave a morepowerful theoretical foundation for the settlement
Dacey (1965) has provided a geometric version of a probabilistic central-place system.
The articulation of a theoretical structure in this may again be traced back to the basic
economic postulation. All the above examples are just few out of many to demornstrate
how geographical theory may be derived from the basic postulates of economics.
(2) Psychological and sociological postulates have also been introduced in the
construction of geo8raphical theory. Human geographers (e.8. Bruhnes, Sauer
Wolpert) have long recognized that geographical patterns are the end-product 'of a
large number of individual decisions made at different times for often very different
reasons' and that it was necessary to employ some psychological notions in explaining
those patterns. Traditional notions regarding the importance of individual and group
behaviour in the creation of geographic patterns can be sharpened by reterence to the
psychological literature. Psychological postulates, particularly behavioural ones, have
been employed directly by geographers with profit. The use of sociological postulates
in human geography is equally as widespread as that of psychological. For instance,
the concepts of fertility, mortality, migration, etc. all have a deep grounding in
sociology. (3) The relationship between geography and geometry is of special relevance
As a branch of mathematics, Geometry provides an abstract language for discussing
sets of relationships. Geography maps many of its problems into this abstract language.
The various forms of geometry appear to be a peculiarly appropriate language for
theorizing about spatial relationships, about morphometry, and about spatial pattern.
From this language we may derive the 'morphological laws' that help to explain
geographical distributions. (4) Of all the derivative postulates, the physical postulates
are of tremendous significance to research in geography, and especially physical
geography. These postulated have been mainly derived from the sciences like physics,
chemistry and biology. Much of the studies on desert erosion, coastal erosion, glacial
erosion, make direct use of the basic postulates and known relationships of physics
Similarly, works meteorology
in are
related to the
postulates of physics, while work
on soil formation, weathering processes, and so on, refers to the concepts of chemistry
and biolo8y. In fact, any work on process in physical geography can be related, directly
or indirectly, to the postulates of the various physical sciences. The Davisian system
in geomorphology needs a special mention here.
There are plenty of 'concepts' and principles' developed by geographers that could
 CHAPTER 9 LAWS, THEORIES AND MODELS 263
Asnction as postulates tor theory. But few have been
Tn fact, we have not sufficient experience of developed in indigenous manner
indigenous postulates with any uncertainty.theory-construction
in geography to discss
But, on the basis of the limited experience
we possess in this direction, together with
some a priori notions regarding the
of geographical enquiry, some clues may be nature
provided as to the nature of
Such
indigenous postulates. One of such postulates, and the one that served as the central
Concept of geography for a long time is 'the concept of region'. This has been repeatedly
used to explain the areal differentiation of earth's surface and the human
Use
spatial
organization. Ihe region is not the only concept of this type. Some other concepts well
may form a set ot indigenous postulates for the development of geographic theory
These concepts are often related to what are often called 'spatial processes-or ra ther
sets of spatial relatiornships. These concepts have essentially to do with location',
'distance, pattern', and 'morphology'.

MODELS

The practical problem that follows theory-building is related to the presentation of

information. One significant and popular way is the employment of model building
in research
or analogue-theory in geography. The quest for models is a recurrent theme
and it has become very fashionable in geographic research.5 But there is
no consensus

a 'model', or as to its
of opinion among philosophers of science as to what is meant by
the term is reflected
function in scientific research. The general confusion surrounding
can be found. The meaning and
in geographic research where very different opinions
careful methodological investigation.
function of the term model thus require some
model building is concerned with simplification,
reduction,
However, in general, formulation, theory testing,
concretization, action, extension, globalization, theory
link generalizations with theories.
explanation, etc. The models used in a number of different ways.
In its
The term 'model' is conventionally
of reality in an idealized form. The process
form a 'model' is the representation
simplest idealization. The traditional reaction of
man
actually a process of
of model building is
has been to make for him a
complexity of the world around him
to the apparent the real
real world. The mind decomposes
and intellectual picture of the from a certain scale;
simplified The system is viewed
series of simplified systems. model is thus
world into a
or too global are
on no interest to us. A
details that are too microscopic supposedly significant
features of
a simplified structuring of reality that presents in
subjective approximations
form. Models are higny
elationships in a generalizedassociated observations or measurements, but as such
that theydo not include all in allowing fundamental aspects
incidental detail and
valuable in obscuring varying degrees of
Tney are
means that
models have
of reality to appear. This selectivity which they apply. The most successful
condition over
and limited range of a wide range of
condition in
probability a
of application and
probability often directly related to
nodels possess a high Indeed, the value of a model is
which they seem appropriate.
However, all models are constantly
in need of improvement as
ts level of abstraction.
264 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

new information or vistas of reality appear, and the more successfully the model was

likely it seems that such improvements

must involve
originally structured the more

the construction of a different model.7 Scientific models

are to
utilized accommodato
and relate the knowledge we have about different aspects of reality. Ihey are used to
reveal reality and more than this to serve as instruments tor explaining the past and

According
the future. to another viewpoint
present, and for predicting and controlling
a model is a skeletal representation of a theory.
This
implies thata theory may imply
more than one models but a model
cannot have many theories to be represented
order than the theories. Otherwise, there is
Thus, we can say that models are of lower
no distinction between theory and model. The only distinction is that theory is an
model may be regarded as a formalized
abstract and model is a concrete. Thus, a
expression of a theory. A 'model' is simplified
a structuring of reality that presents
in a generalized form. Models are
supposedly significant features or relationships include all associated observations
do not
highly subjective approximations they
as
and measurement, but as such they are valuable in obscuring incidental detail and in
fundamental aspects of reality to appear. This selectivity means
that models
allowing
have varying degrees of probability and limited range of conditions over which they

apply. The most successful models possess a high probability of application and a
wide range of conditions in which they seem appropriate. However, all models are
in need of improvement as new information appears. Models are different
constantly
from reality, as they are approximations of the reality. Therefore, they are called
analogous. The term 'true' or 'false' cannot be applied in the explanation of models.
Instead, the ones like 'appropriate', 'stimulating' or 'significant' should replace them.
The term model' is conveniently employed in a number of different ways. It is
used as a noun implying a representation, as an adjective implying a degree of
perfection, or as a verb implying to demonstrate or to show what something is like. In
fact, models possess all these properties. The most fundamental feature of models is
that their construction has involved a highly selective attitude to information, wherein
not only noise but less important signals have been eliminated to enable one to see
something of the heart of things. Models can be viewed as selective approximations,
which, by the elimination of incidental detail, allow some fundamental, relevant or
interesting aspects of the real world to appear in some, generalized form. Thus, models
can be thought of as selective pictures and a direct description of the logical
characteristics of our knowledge of the external world shows that each of these pictures
gives undue prominence to some features of our knowledge and obscures and distorts
the other features that rival pictures emphasize. Each of them directs such a bright
light on our part of the scene that it obscures other parts in a dark shadow. Onlyby
beingunfaithfulinsome respect can a model represent its original. Another important
model characteristic is that models are structured, in the sense that the selected aspects
of the "web of reality are exploited in terms of their connections. It is interesting that
what is often termed a model by logicians is called a 'structure' byeconometrician.
The model feature leads immediately to the suggestive nature of models, in that a
successful model contains suggestions for its own externsion and generalizations. This
implies, firstly, that the whole model structure has greater implications than a study
 CHAPTER 9 LAWS, THEORIES
AND MODELS 265
sieindividual parts might lead one to
be Hade about the real world from the suppose, and, secondly, that
predictions can
eneculative instruments, and aa promisinommodel.Odels
speculative instruments Models have
have thus
thus been
been termed
termed
and
andpromising
,
model as 'one with
to suggest
novel
hypothesis speculations in the primary fieldimplication rich enough
model is regarded as experimentally of
investigation'.A
bevond phenomena from which we suggesting
us beyond the
th fertile, further questions,
hunotheses. The 'intuitive grasp' of the began, and tempting us to taking
the key to the exploitation of a capacities and implications of a model formulate
is thus
suggestive character. Selectivity implies that models
are different from reality in that they
enough for manipulation and understanding
are
approximations of it. A model must be simple
total range of the implications it may have, yet by users, representing enough in the
its
the system under study. In another complex enough to represent accurately
sense, too, models
each has a circumscribed range of conditions represent compromises in that
within which it
has relevance. Because
models different from the real world
are
they are
models is an obvious example of the general aim of the analogies. The use of hardware
some fefeatures of the real world into a more
model builder to reformulate
familiar, simplified, accessible, observable,
easily formulated or controllable form, from which conclusions can be deduced, which,
in turn, can be reapplied to the real world. Application is a prerequisite for models in
the empirical sciences. Although some mathematical model builders disclaim
responsibility for the degree to which their idealization may represent the real world,
claiming that their responsibility is discharged completely and with honour if they
avoid internal error; most geographical model builders would
judge the nature of a
model almost entirely in terms of its reapplicability to the real world.
Once devised, the models are of tremendous utility for their users as Models
simplify the otherwise complex relationships of the phenomena in the real world;
Models represent the reality not only in simple but also in systematic/orderly manner.
In geography, models are taken as generalizations, as they encourage the role of
nomothetic approach in making observations; Models help in making prediction of
trends; and Models act like a bridge between the observational and theoretical levels.
Thus, the models may be used to connect theory and experience, experience with
imagination, theories with other theories, imaginative creations with formal theory
and so on. Based on the various properties and uses of a model, its nine functions may
be identified, viz. Acquisitive/Organizational, Psychological, Logical, Normative,
ystematic, Constructional, Selective, Interpretative and Cognitive.

(1) Acquisitive/Organizational: The modei provides a framework wherein the

information may be defined, collected, ordered and manipulated.
A model
be defined in its framework or provides
acquires the information that could
framework for certain kind of information.
defining
that facilitates
complex
(2) Psychological: A model acts as a psychological device
interactions to be more easily visualized,
i.e. a kind of picturing device. This
to be visualized and comprehended
function enables some group of phenomena because of
otherwise not be its magnitude and
more easily that could
266 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

complexity. A model helps to understand the reality in a simpler manner than

otherwise it would have been.
(3) Logical: A model explains the situation rationally, accounting for how a
particular phenomenon comes about, or how a particular relationship among
component parts works about.
(4) Normative: The model represents reality in an idealized torm, 1.e. with the help
of certan norms, conditions, assumptions, etc. The normaive function of a
model allows broad comparisons to be made, by comparing some less known

)
phenomena with more familiar ones.
5ystematic: A model functions like a system. The systematic tunction of model
stresses that the 'web of reality' should be viewed in terms of inter-locking
systems. This leads to the constructional function of the system.
6) Constructional: It means that a model forms stepping-stone to the building of
theories and laws. As a constructional device it helps in searching for

geographic theory or the extension of the existing theory.

(7) Selective: Model is a sel ctive approximation, allowing some fundamental,
relevant or interesting aspects of the real world to appear in some generalized
form.
(8) Interpretative: An important function of the model is to provide an interpretation
of the theory in the sense that every sentence occurring in the theory is a
meaningful statement.
(9) Cognitive: Finally, there is the cognitive function of model, promoting the
communication of scientific ideas.

Unfortunately, there is no common and firm classification for models. All are
suggested typologies. This is mainly because of a number of meanings and functions
of models, as understood by differently by different scholars. The term 'model' has
been used in such a wide variety of contexts that it is difficult to define even the broad
of
types usage without ambiguity. However, some general types include: A priori and
A posteriori Models; Descriptive and Normative Models; and Hardware and Soffware
Models. Two ways of the construction of a formal theory have been described. The
first route begins with empirical observation from which a number of regularies
behaviour may be extracted. To explain these regularities a theory is propoSed whic
may contain theoretical abstract concepts an eventually the theory may be given
axiomatic treatment and may be verified. This theory may then be represented Dy
some structured model, which can be used to facilitate deductions and simpliy
calculations. In this case the model developed in order to represent the theory5
posteriori'. On the other hand, the important form of the second route to theory
construction lies through giving interpretation to a completely abstract calculus in
this case the model used is 'a priori'. This distinction is based on the type of procedure
used in employing models in scientific explanations. In case the model is developedin
advance in order to represent a theory/explanation, it becomes a priori. In such
a

already
situation the function of the model is simply to represent something that is
model tor a
known, and the only arising question is that of the appropriateness of a
 CHAPTER9 LAWS, THEORIES AND MODELS 267

urpose and this can be fully defined

he process only if the appropriate
appropriate theory referred
theory isis referrea
i.e. ohe
when the
reversed, ie
e
to. But, when the proCess is reversed, observations
del is the end result, an ater or
theory pre
precede a model, the
product explanations, it is a posteriori. However,
of
wiori models are more common in
pric
geography. The
behavioural, i.e. they
hehavioural, 1.e. suggest how things exist in reality,'Descriptive' models are
whereas the 'Normative
models explain how they ought to be. The former are concerned
mod
with some stylistic
cription of
description realiy and the latter with what might be
of rea
ated conditions." Descriptive models can be 'static',expected to occuronunder certain
st
concentrating equilibrium
structural features, or dynamic, concentrating on processes and functions
time. Where, the time element is particularly stressed 'historical' modelsthrough
result.
Descriptive
models may be concerned with the
organization
of empirical information,
and be termed 'data, 'classificatory (taxonomic), or 'experimental design' models.
The Normative models, on the other hand, often involve the use of a more familiar
situation as a model for a less familiar one, either in a time (historical) or a spatial
sense, and have a strongly predictive connotation. The 'Hardware' models are based
on the use of some hard/concrete material, e.g. physical, planning or defence project
models. But, the non-physical, conceptual, symbolic or statistical models are
categorized as 'Software' models. Besides, this genéral categorization of models, some
specific typologies have also been presented by the scholars like Ackoff, Hagget and
Chorley in 1960s. Of these the attempts of Chorley are most elaborate. In fact, Chorley
devised two classifications. He regarded all models as being analogous of some kind,
and suggested his first classification in 1964. In the later presentation (1967) Chorley
revised and extended this classification system. This new classification incorporated
those have
all those types of models he discussed earlier and also included the ones
this classification is
been devised by his predecessors and fellow scholars. Hence,
It consists of three major categories of
relatively the most extensive and complete.
models with a number of sub-types10

1. Natural Analogue System Model

(a) Historical Analogue
(b) Spatial Analogue
2. Physical System Model
(a) Hardware Model
i) Scale (Iconic)
(ii) Analogue
(b) Mathematical Model
(i) Deterministic
(ii) Stochastic
C)Experimental Design model

3. General System Model

(a) Synthetic
(b) Partial
(c) Black Box
 268 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

The first group of models involves searching for analogous situations or events
at
ditterent times or in different places, and drawing some conclusions. The second
groun
of models corresponds to the more conventional notion of a model in the science
he third is a newer concept that treats the structure of a landscape as an assemblege
of interacting parts, and attempts to represent the processes as such.
TheNatural Analogue System Models are simplified models to be used as a basis
for further analysis and prediction by their transla tion into some similar natura
circumstances. The explanations are sought from the natural world phenomena. This
group of models involves searching for analogous situations or eents at different
times or in different places, and drawing conclusions. Accordingly, it has two maior
sub-types, viz. historical analogue and spatial analogue models. The Historical
Analogue Models represent analogous events at difterent times. An example of such
a procedure is Rostow's schematic representation of the economic growth process
that is derived from historical analysis and searching for analogies between different
countries at different times. The model of Demographic Transition
another
Theory serves
example. The Spatial Analogue models represent analogous situations at
different places. A number of examples are available: The shift of
highways being
compared with the shift of rivers (by Bunge); or The growth and shrinkage of ice-
crystals representing growth and shrinkage of market areas (by Christaller); or The
study of Natural Cycle of Erosion of a river based on Human Life Cycle (by Davis).
The group of Physical System Models
of a model in sciences. The relevant
corresponds to the more conventional notion
properties of real world are represented by the
same
properties in the model as well. They simply mean
picturing the real world
phenomena. Three sub-types have been identified, viz. Hardware, Mathematical and
Experimental Design. As the term suggests, the Hardware Models use some concrete
material, and may be scale models or simply analogue models. The Scale or
both the sub-types, kind of
Analogue,
means some
use the same material as in the real world
figurative representation. The Scale Models
In Ackoff's
phenomena, but with only change in scale.
classification such models have been designated as 'iconic'. Iconic or Scale
models are generally three-dimensional
models-made of same material but on
different scale. For example, the
globe is an iconic model of the earth. The Analogue
Models have real-world properties
represented by different
change in scale, the analogue models also involve a change properties." Besides, the
in the materials used in
building the model, e.g. an electric circuit being assumed as an
system. Ackoff (1962) calls them as 'Simulation Models'. The analogue
for trattic
Mathematical Models
represent reality by some symbolic system, such as a system of mathematical
or statistics. equations
They have also been called as Symbolic Models. The mathematical
can further be classed models
according to the degree of probability associated with their
prediction into 'Deterministic' and 'Stochastic'. The
model when used with certainty
of the effect becomes deterministic. In
this case, the outcome or results of the
are
pre-conceived or are more of less sure to come true. The laws of exercise
govern Stochastic model, and there is doubt about the exact
a probability strictiy
The Experimental Design Models, on the effect of a
given cause
other hand, involve some practical
 CHAPTER9 LAWS, THEORIES AND MODELS 269
ocedures, as in laboratory or in field. The
models used in defence or
the experimental design models. planning are
The third category of General System Models
imes treating the striucture of represents a newer concept or tne
geographical
narts and attempting to represent the landscape as an assemblage of interacting
process as such. Three sub-types, viz.
Partial and Black Box, are discussed here. Of these, the Synthetic Synthenc,
in synthesis) try to bring the reality and its System Models (i.e.
Synthesis, such models stimulate reality representation perfect harmony or
in
in a structured way, i.e. a
correspondence is expected between reality and the model used to pertect
Synthetic systems are artificially built to stimulate reality in a structuredrepresent
way and, as
Chorley points out, such models be
may similar
experimenta
to design models. The
partial systems are concerned with workable relationships and attempt to derive resuts
without complete knowledge of the internal workings of the
system, i.e. there may be
some chance ofcorrespondence between reality and its representation through the
selected model. The 'black box' approach, on the other hand, attempts to derive results
from a situation in which we have no knowledge of the internal workings of the system.
There are still more varied approaches to model-classification-demonstrating
the extraordinary breath, flexibility and potential of the model concept. Moreover,
certain types of disciplines are concerned with certain types of models (sometimes
almost exclusively). In fact, in practice it is a failure to develop a complete mutually
exclusive classification of models. To conclude, the concept of models poses
considerable methodological difficulty. There is a multiplicity of model types
performing a multiplicity of functions associated with a multiplicity of definitions.
Each particular model exhibits a different logical capacity for performing the function
the
required of it. In fact, nature, use, quality and significance of models-all
type,
depends on the types of theories to which they serve.

NOTES

1. Harvey, 1969, 32-36.

2. Rana, L. (2008), p. 317.
3. Braithwaite, 1960, 12.
4. Davies, 1972.
5. Harvey, 1969, 96-100.
6. Harvey, 1969, 141.
22.
7. Chorley and Hagget, 1967,
1967, 24.
8. Chorley and Haggett,
9. Chorley, 1964.
10. Harvey, 1969, 155.
11. Ackoff, 1962.
270 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

REFERENCES
Research Decisions, New York.
Optimising Applied
Ackoff, R.L (1962), Scientific Method:
Explanations, Harper
Torchbooks, New York.
Braithwaite, R.B. (1960), Scientific
Studies in Geography. C No. 1 (Second Edition)
Bunge, W. (1966), Theoretical Geography, Lund Annals of Association of American
Chorley, R.J. (1964), "Geography and Analogue Theory",
Geographers, Vol. 54, 127-37.
Models in Geography, Part IV, Mathuen and Co.
Chorley, R.J. and P. Hagget (1967), Integrated
Ltd., London.
Dacey, M.F. (1965), «"The Geometry of Central Place Theory", Geogrphical Annlr Series, B, 47
Pp. 111-124.
Davies, W.K.D. (1972), Conceptual Revolution in Geography, Rowman and Littlefield, New Jersey.
Haggett, P. (1965), Locational Analysis in Geography, London.
Hartshorne, R. (1939), The NatureofGeography: A Critical Suroeyof Current Thought in the Light of
the Past, Association of American Geographers, Lancaster.
Hartshorne, R. (1959), Perspective on the Nature of Geography, Rand McNally and Co., Chicago.
Harvey, D. (1969), Explanation in Geography, Arnold Publishers, New Delhi.
Rana, L. (2008), Geographical Thought: A Systematic Record of Evolution, Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
CHAPTER-10

Systems' Analysis

There is nothing very new about the

concept of the system as such. Newton wrote on
the solar system, economists have written on
economic systems, biologists on
systems, plant and human ecologists have used living
system's
have certainly made considerable use of the notion of a concept and geographers
systemever since the discipline
originated. The thread connecting all these uses is the notion of a complex interrelated
whole. All-round us, we find every
phenomenon, every event and every feature
assigned to a system, e.g. economy is a system, politics is a system, nature is a system,
and even an individual human being is also a (biological) system in himself. Each part
of the system or each individual over the earth is
significant not only in terms of
functions it is performing independently, but also in terms of its relationships with
others; and unless and until these individuals are studied together cannot form a
system. Hence, it is within the framework of the systems that we are studying each
and every component of the world or the Earth. The system's approach can be
suggested as a method of comprehending the world as a whole. The modern emphasis
on system as an explicit item for analysis may be seen as apart of a general change in
emphasis from the study of very simple situations in which the interactions are few,
to situations in which there are interactions between very large numbers ot variables.
ne interest in these complex systems has grown very rapidly in the 20th century.
Given the multivariate nature of most geographic problems, it is hardly surprising8
framework for discussing problems.
these
systems analysis provides an appealing has developed
geography, the awareness towards the use surface of system's approach
(world) is made of different
Ecause of the realization that: Firstly, the besides having an individualupsignificance,
earth's
pes of areas, regions, or places; and these,Ritter (in his Erdkunde) and Humboldt (in his
SOare part of a 'whole' as conceived by inter-related with each
or sub-parts are not only
mos) and Secondly, these partssub-systems of their own.
uier, they also form independent
272 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

DEFINITION
"A system is a functioning whole with various sub-systems interlnked with each
other". The 'system', contrary to chaos, is the name of an order. In other words, it is
the way, sequence in which various components are organized into a whole, into a
totality. There is a whole range of systems from microscopic to micro, meso and
macro. Systems analysis treats both the phenomena and the concepts used to organize
phenomena. There exists some kind of organization, interaction, inter-dependence
and integration of parts within the system. It assumes the existence of some structure
that constitutes an organized whole. It is the way in which the parts are connected
and interact with each other that makes it a system. Various characteristics of a System
may be summarized as: (1) A system has an order of or sequence of functions;
Gi) Although each part of a system plays an individual role in the system's operation,
nopart is entirely independent of others; (ii) A change in the operation of one part
will
have significant repercussions throughout
the
system; (iv) Systems are generally
open-ended, accordingly, a system has some inputs and some outputs (Figure 10.1);
)The system is not a juxtaposition of various elements; it is rather a functioning
whole; (vi) There is always some stimulus (driving force) behind the functioning of a
system; (vi) Systems are generally at balance or at equilibrium; Malfunctioning of
one part disturbs the balance of whole system; and (vii) Within macro systems there
are micro
systems (the sub-systems). A system is not merely the assemblage of various
components; rather it is the functioning of those components together and
independently as well. The 'whole' is greater than the parts. Any little change leads to
various corresponding changes in the whole
system. For instance, continuous flow of
smoke and gases from the factories and mills have
greatly increased the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; and this increase has disturbed the
of CO, already present in the ecological balance
atmosphere.
amount of rainfall, increase in the
As a result there is decrease in the total
temperature, etc., which in turn affects the crop
production.
Essential Features of a System
The essential features of a
system define its basic functional characteristics in terms of
its environment, behaviour, state of existence, information and
interrelated?. organisation. All are

The Environment of a System

The environment of a system is the whole of
which the system is only a
example, the economy constitutes the environment of a firm; part. For
or a farm
environment in the biosphere. The changes in this system has its
environment bring about direct
changes in the values of the elements contained in the
system
Environment changes from system to system, even of the same under examination.
the time more considered here, rather it is the manner time, because it is not
or
way in which the elements
 CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS' ANALYSIS 273
combined and
functioning together. This flexible approach
aronment in systems analysis is particularly useful to approach to the concept
enre to clarify the usual meaning of
concept of
ot
upen Vstem interacts with the the terms geography. It is useful at
trs
environment. 'open' and'closed' systems. 1
It
lated from its environment, but means then an open system
is not
isolat

em.on
system,
exchanges
other hand, operates without
on the othe
materials or
energies with it. A closed
ueen the open and closed systems ban beany kind of exchange.
betwe
nange. The main difference
difference
heating system of illustrated by the example of a domestic
the
not-air variety. Sucha system consists, in essential, ofa number
of ducts (tubes), gratings (arrangement of bars), fans and filters, all linked to a furnace
hv the flow of air. As separated unconnected elements
have different meaning than as a connected whole. Since (the ducts, furnaces and so on)
enters the system in
the form of gas tor the rurnace and leaves it as warmed energy
air, the energy transterence
oCcurs across the limits of the system. A closed
can change only as a result of innate
system/has energy transference; it
no
(inborn) elements.
The Behaviour of a System

When we speak of the "behaviour' of some system we are

simply referring to flows,
stimuli, and responses, inputs and outpus, and the likes. We can examine both
the
internal behaviour of some system or its transactions with the environment. A study
of the internal behaviour accounts for a study of functional 'laws' that connect
behaviour in various parts of the system. Most analyses of behaviour tend to
concentrate on the latteraspect. For instance, a system has one or more of its elements
related to some aspect of the environment, and the environment undergoes a change
Then, at least one element in the whole system is affected and the effects are transmitted
throughout the system until all connected elements in the system are affected. This
constitutes a simple stimulus-response, or input-output system without feedback to
environment (Fig. 10.1).

Stimulus- System Response

(Input) (Output)

FIGURE 10.1 Behaviour of a System

is described by its flows that connect

h other words, the behaviour of a system
The simplest example of this is
the inputs (stimulus) with the outputs (responses).
economics, in which a vector of final demands
provided by input-output analysis of is related toa vector of
eg.derived from imports, home consumption, or however)
a l outputs in various sectors in the economy.

The State of a
System
be thought of as the values which the variables
general the state of a system may point of time. Now it is possible for the
4 K on within the system at any particular
274 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

variables to take on a large number of values, so that the term 'state' is often used in.
na
more restricted sense to refer any well defined condition or property that can be
to differentiate between the transi
recognized if it occurs again. It is, therefore, useful
or transitional states and the various types of equilibrium states, which have distinctit
properties. Equilibrium' refers to a system that maintains some kind of balance instead
of being in a 'transient' or ever-changing state. Homeostasis' implies that the balanco
Is at a fixed point or level. A 'steady state' is an equilibrium that does not depend on a
fixed point or level. Morphogenesis, is the process that leads to changes in a system's

form, structure, or state, so that it comes to exist

ata new and more complex level of
kinds or categories of equilibrium, viz.
equilibrium. Normally, we can recognize two
stable and dynamic. The stable equilibrium includes both homeostasis and steady states,
as defined above. In a homeostatic social system there is always activity, but it does
not alter (change) the balance between the systems' components. A social system that
was in a steady state would equally stable, but it would also change in an orderly
way. Dynamic equilibrium refers to the process by which a sight disturbance engenders
constant change throughout the system. If feedback is present this kind of change can
go on indefinitely, at least in theory.

Organization and Information in System

The twin concepts of organization and information are exceedingly important in systems
analysis. The concept of 'organization' can best be examined by way of an example.
Consider a system, containing 'n' elements, that behaves in such a way that if we
know the value of one element in the system we can predict the values of all the
others. Such a system is highly organized. Consider a similar system in which even
though we know the values of '1-n' elements, we still cannot predict the value of the
'nth' element. Such a system is disorganized. Information' may be regarded as 'the
measure of the amount of organization' in the system. The term 'entrophy' and
negentrophy' are closely related to the organization and information in the system
Entrophy (a measure of unavailable energy) is often referred to as a measure of disorder
or disorganization. Basically, it is an expression for the degree to which energy has
been unable to perform the work. As such, it is closely linked to the second law of
thermodynamics (the science of heat as a mechanical agent). It states "systems can
only proceed to a state of increased disorder". Negative entrophy or Negerntrophy, on
the other hand, is a measure of order. For an organism, keeping alive is a matter of
being able to extract negentrophy from the environment. Maximum entrophy, the
state towards which all organisms move, is death..These
two concepts are best
illustrated by an inanimate example. If we put sugar in coffee, there will be an increase
entrophy, since the sugar crystals, which would otherwise have held their shapes
indefinitely, will dissolve. If we heat the coffee, entrophy will increase further, since
the increase in heat motion will dissolve the
sugar faster. Any closed system tends to
increase its entrophy in this way, and will finally approach the inert (inactive) state or
maximum entrophy. An open system, n the other hand, can
maintain
level of entrophy, by interacting with its ernvironment. As a result, it will
a fairly low
tend to develop
 CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS' ANALYSIS 275
reCOmplex structure. It is
duing socio-economic systemsuseful to think of
because it makesentrophy and negentrophy
Whereas, entrophy brings
disorder, us ask how organized theywhen
are.
entrophy. social system,
negentrophy. In .a information is thought toto bring
bring order
order or
entrophy is entrophy
maximized, then, as we say, means not
knowing
ving what to expect; orif
anything can happen. expect; r
Derfectly negentropic system there would be
ppen. At the
other extreme
the other extreme,
d we would be absolutely certain about the maximum circulation
irculation of information,
information,
behaviour of the system.
Structure of a System

Structure of a system refers to the

arrangement of
This structure is composed essentially of the component parts (elements) in it
elements.
'elements' and the links' between
Element:It is the basic unit of a
system. The definition of an element depends on
the scale at which we conceive of the
system. The international monetary system, e g
may be conceptualized as containing countries as elements;
an economy may be thought of as being made
up of firms
and organizations; organizations themselves may be thought
of as systems made up of departments; a department may
be viewed as a system made up of individual people; each
person may be regarded as a biological system, and so on. In
FIGURE 10.2: Hierarchy of
substantive terms, therefore, we face the problem that nt
systems may be embedded in systems, and that what we
choose to regard as an element at one level of analysis may itself constitute a system at
a lower level of analysis. The only way for the problem to be solved is to simply group
elements into a hierarchy' of 'classes' with each higher-order class forming an element
in a higher order system (Fig. 10.2).
Links: The relationships or links within the elements provide the other component
of relationships can be defined
the structure of a system. Generally, the five forms
in
Figs. 10.3 (a, b, c, d and e)].
Also known as 'Series' it is the
relationship,
) Cause and Effect Relationship:
of elements connected by an irreversible link.
simplest and is the characteristicrate of soil erosion but soil erosion apparently
For example, rainfall affects the
has no effect on rainfall. structures in that both a,
similar to multiple-effect
() Parallel Relationship: It is for both the sets
other element 'a,. In other words,
and a, are affected by some
or stimulus to function. Taking the same
common cause
of elements there is erosion on the
raintall is the cause of soil
case, the
example as in the previous runoff in the streams.
and also of the increased introduced into
slopes
null is a kind of
link that has newly been
1) Feedback Relationship: It one element influences
situation in which
It describes a level of
analytic structures.
if crop-production of a
year is
not up to the desired
itself. For instance, feedback to the stimulus, i.e. to improve
will be a kind of
production, then there
276 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

FIGURE 10.3ta): Cause and Effect Relationship FIGURE 10.3(b): Parallel Relationship

FIGURE 10.3c: Feedback Relationship FIGURE 10.3(dd: Simple Compound Relationship

FIGURE 10.3(e): Complex Compound

Relationship

the ways and means of

production. Then the whole system of the crop-
production will either modify itself or will be discarded. Feedback in a system
is essentially a way
whereby the output is used to control its working so that
it may achieve its desired
goal. It is a self-steering mechanism.
(iv) Simple Compound Relationship: Where a set of is affected by
two ways, i.e. by feedback and also because of the components
influences from other set ot
components, working simultaneously. The present Indian Society can be an
example cited here, because today it is not only changing and modifying its
norms and values by discarding certain old ones but also
adopting certain
characteristics of the western society. It is all for the betterment of human
beings.
 CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS' ANALYSIS 277
/Complex Compound Relationship: Where
from all sides and within each there are influences and
and every
each other. In this system, there are changes
component, modifying and influencing
within each and every influences and changes from all
sides and
Our environment, component-modifying and
influencing
cited as an exampleconsisting
of each other.
here. Such physical and cultural environment,
systems are very difficult to be may be
All the above five
types of links form a
interpreted.
kind of
elements in various ways. 'wiring system' connecting the

TYPES OF SYSTEM

There various ways in which we

are
could
between open and closed systems; betweenclassify systems. We would differentiate
man-made
on. Rather than to
attempt an exhaustive classification ofand natural systems; and so
been concentrated upon those
types of systems which havesystems, the attention has
regarding the analysis of complex something new to tell us
interactions.
systems, which express traditional modes of Those systems, such as 'simple action
systems framework are, therefore, be ignored.analysis,
Most
such as cause and effect, in a
that is new in
has to do with systems analysis
systems which are homeostatic,
particularly with self-regulatory,
systems that incorporate some form of feedback. adaptive, and
(i) Homeostatic System: It is the that
environment in the face of the randomsystem maintains a constant
external fluctuations. Such operating
alteration in the environmental conditions and exhibit systems resist any
or
a
gradual return to equilibrium
steady-state behaviour after such an alteration. The displacement of a spring,
will be followed by a series of oscillations until e.g
eventually the spring returns toba
stationary state. Human body itself is a homeostatic system, i.e. it maintains its
equilibriumat about 98.2 degrees Fahrenheit. Generally, the homeostatic systems refer
to
open-systems' analysis, and are associated with the important concept of steady-
state-a concept which has a
great significance in the study of fluvial and other
geomorphologic processes.
i) Adaptive System: It is similar to homeostatic system in many respects, but
possesses some special characteristics. An adaptive system is one for which there exists
for each
possible input a set of one or more preferred states, or preferred outputs. The
adaptive character of the system means that if the system is not initially in a preferred
state, the system will so act as to alter its state until one of the preferred ones is achieved.
The study of such systems provides a mode of approach to systems that are usually
TOghout of as 'goal-seeking'. Such systemsclearly rely upon feedback mechanisms
Or some kind in order to achieve the preferred state. Example here can be taken of the
wneat-production'. Suppose a nation has set the goal for the production of wheat
during certain plan year. If the required figures are not achieved in that yea, in the
next year more
sophisticated and advanced techniques will be used and something
more will be done in order to increase the production of the wheat up to the desired
level, i.e. there is a kind of feedback to the system.
278 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

(ii) Dynamic System: It may be regarded as a separate class of systems. Both

homeostatic and adaptive systems show a change of state over time as they move towards
or preferred state. In a truly dynamic system, however, feedback operates to
steady
keep the state of the system changing through a sequence of unrepeated states usually
termed as the 'trajectory' or line of behaviour' of the system. Feedback may, e.g. cause
new preferred states to be identified. Economic growth models, such as the circulation
and eumulative causation models may be regarded as dynamic systems.
(iv) Controlled System: In this kind ofsystem, the operator has some level of control
over the inputs. Such controlled systems are, of course, of great interest in systems
engineering and cybernetics (the study of communication and control mechanisms in
machines and living beings). Systems control theory provides a good deal of insight
into the behaviour of systems, and is not irrelevant to the application of geography to
substantive problems. Particularlyinthe field of planning government of both national
and local levels, controls some of the inputs into the economic systems and manipulates
(handles, manages) these in order to try and achieve some desired level of output.
Monetary or budgetary policy are thus used to stimulate house demand, while at the
local level the investment in roads, utilities, public housing and so on which is controlled
by local government, provides an important means for varying the inputs in order to
achieve certain goals (outputs).
In most situations we have control over certain inputs while others are impossible
or too expensive to manipulate. In seeking to maximum agricultural input, e.g. we
may be able to control water input by irrigation, but we must do so in a situation
where other aspects of the biosphere remain uncontrolled. Partial controlling systems
are thus of greai interest.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS IN GEOGRAPHY

During the last century the scientific knowledge has depended heavily upon the
analytic method. Basically, this method consists of isolating all the variables that
influence an object or event, determining the precise effect of each variable by means
of controlled experiments and producing the
general relationships between objects
and variables. Consequently, the mathematics has
developed as a language capable
not only of giving objectivity and precision to the various relationships, but also of
being used as a deductive tool in its own right.

Historical Aspect
Geography, throughout most of the last century has tended to lag behind in scientific
progress. Strenuous efforts are being made to catch up with the main body of science
by the wholesale adoption of analytic methodology. The application of formal
concepts, thus, has been a relatively recent feature of research in geography. systems
But, the
notion of a system is not, however, in any way new to geographic thought. It has a
long history as the concept of system in science as a whole. The history of systems
thinking in geography is very much bound up with the functional approach, with the
 CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS' ANALYSIS 279
ganismic analogy, with the concept ot regions as complex inter-related whole, with
the ecological approach in geography. It is possible to
hinking in the work of geographers such as Ritter, Vidalidentify
de la
elements of systems
Blache, Bruhnes, Sauer
and on. But
as in the rest ot science, the
concept of a system has tended to
remain in
the periphery ot geographic thought rather than at its
very core.

Changing Attitudes

Stoddart and Chorley (1965 and 1962), in

particular, have shown how certain ideas
that are currently important in terms of modern
scientific methodology, made an
appearance in the literature, but lay dormant for years until early
a more modern revival
occurred. During the last few decades the focus has changed to make the
the systems of much greater significance. The search for concept of
whole rather than on individual parts is, theretore, a generalizations based on the
science known as systems analysis. The broad framework complementary method of modern
of concepts lying behind it
is called General Systems Theory-the one of the methods
all systems, whether physical or human or combination of
employed by science. Since
both, consist of a set of
objects and the relationships binding these objects together into some organization, it
is not surprising that the approach is
especially useful in dealing with functional
aggregates. Indeed, now the main focus of the scientific
enquiry has moved away
from the study of objects or substances to the study of
relationships and organizations.
And, as all organizations are recognized as being particularly complex, systems analysis
proves to be a particularly appropriate framework of study in geography. By carefully
defining the structure, functioning and general process change in any situation, these
three major perspectives may be integrated into one system of study. Moreover, the
approach may also be said to be particularly relevant to those studies attempting to
bridge the gap between the natural and social sciences, the portion long claimed, but
rarely effectively occupied by geographers.
Hence, the objective of the systems approach is not to provide a unified substantive
theory-rather it is to provide a synthesis of the functional and structural relationships,
to emphasize the comparative study of systems and to point out the way to future
research into the existing gaps in our understanding. In this way the cross-fertilization
of scientific and the individual pieces of
disciplineswill be preserved knowledge thrown
up by purely analytical research will be inter-related, particularly those dealing with
e runctioning and organization of the whole system. At the very outset it must be

repeated that the systems approach is not a replacement for the analytuc methoa, t
is an additional line of modern scientific enquiry designated to break down the
t
Darniers between inter-disciplinary enquiries. It thus represents one of the major current
research frontiers in
geography
ABrief Review of the Works of the Geographers, applying Systems Approac
in their Study

ne works of various scholars, as Chorley (1962), Ackerman (1963), Berry (1964) and
280 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Stoddart (1965) have been pioneering in the application of

system s approach to
geographical pr. blems.
Chorley, in 1.3 paper "Geomorphology and General Systems Theory" represents
a great step forward in the development of modern scientific method in geographu
(Chorley, 1962). It was the first major paper devoted exclusively to a systems theme
and to the framework of General Systems Theory. Systems analysis draws upon these
ideas exclusively and illuminates many of the fundamental issues. Byinterpretingthe
Davisian cycle of erosion in systems terms, Chorley provides a valuable example of
these points and incidentally demonstrates that knowledge of these frameworks of
thought is as important to the interpretation of the theoretical-deductive system of
enquiry as to any empirical-deductive one. A major part of Chorley's paper is devoted
to the description of the differences between the
two major systematic trameworks
open' and'closed' systems-and the application of these ideasto geomorphology. In
a 'closed
system' definite and rigid boundaries occur through which no material or
energy can pass. The development of such systems leads to the eradication (entire
destruction) of the existing differences or gradients in the system, with the initial
conditions determining the final equilibrium form.
'Open systems', on the other hand,
are
systems which need an energy supply for their
and can maintain their organization within the mainternance and preservation;
geometry of their formby adjustments
within the geometry of the
system. Moreover, different initial conditions in such
systems may lead to similar end results.
Ackerman stressed, in one of his papers, "Where is the Research Frontier" in
1963,
the need for geographers to develop
Systems analysis. Systems, considered as one
of the most pervasive (vast) and characteristic
he
phenomena in nature, and they are
specially been created for geography as such. He has described two characteristics of
the system. The one is 'the flow of information within the
refers to any mechanism that holds together the system'. 'Information' here
interdependent, interacting of a
partsis the
system. As far as geography is concerned, the connectivity within its system
most
important characteristic. He has suggested eight processes which generate this
connectivity-four in physical and four in cultural. Among the cultural, they are:
demographic movement, organizational evolution, the resource converting techniques,
and the Space adjusting
techniques; and among the physical they are: dynamics ot
soil mantle, movement of water, climatic
processes, and biotic processes. The second
important characteristic, he mentioned, is 'the existence of sub-systems within the
system'. It is the functional sub-systems that are generally the significant ones.
Berry in his paper "Cities as Systems within System of Cities" not
the utility of the systems approach the study of urban areas but also
to
only demonstrates
vivid illustration of the direction in which modern provides a
scientific method is
1964). Berry attempts to provide a basis for the study of "Cities as moving (Berry,
System of Cities" by the use of the twin concept of Systems within
organization and information in
spatial form. The basic contention of the paper is that studies dealing with the
geography of urban areas have fallen into two main groups, one group
inductive generalizations, the other providing logical constructs. providg
Berry observed thar
if a sound urban-theory is ever going to develop these two lines of enquiry must De
 CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS' ANALYSIS 281
integrated. In this process of integration
eory and logical constructs will bethe inductive generalization will be translated
astly, Stoddare's article"GeOgraphy and quantified and tested in the real world.
ntribution to the concept ot systems in the Ecological Approach" is an additional
he ological approach not by empiricismgeography (Stoddart, 1965). Stoddart justifies
ned for a synthesis between (by the use of series of case
studies to show
nds. He shows that the search fororganisms and their habitat) but on methodological
e synthesis
Tarely achieved much success in this
is not new, but
geographers in particular
in qualitative way or on a regional basis,
a
direction, because results were either framed
while the true nature
elationships involved was obscured by naive (natural, of geographic
Stoddart has suggested ecology as the systems approach to pure) deterministic statements.
the geography should be studied in terms of man and geography. means that
It
these relationships can be considered within environment relationships and
the framework of
ecosystem is a functioning, interacting
system 'ecosystem'. An
and their effective environment, both composed of one or more
organisms
physical and biological. The
ecosystem may include its spatial relations; inventories of description of an
its physical features, its
habitats and ecological niches, its organisms, and its basic
reserves of matter and
its of circulation of
patterns matter and energy;
matter and energy; the nature of its income (or input) of
energy; and the behaviour or trend of its
entropy level.

CRITICISM
Systems analysis is extremely useful to economic geographers because it
a number of
key concepts, such as interactions and spatial relationships,encompasses
in terms of
processes within socio-economic systems. Nor is this the only advantage, it can also
encompass value-directed behaviour such as decision-making and goal-seeking.
Nevertheless, it is vulnerable to certain criticism, which, must therefore be discussed
here. It seems that the employment of systems concepts and systems analysis has not
yet achieved powerful operational status in geography. In part this must be attributed
to thecomplexity of systems analysis itself, which, if it is to be fully employed, involves
mathematical techniques beyond the reach of most geographers. The solution to this
difficulty is, of course, for the geographers to learn more mathematics, but this is perhaps
easier said than done. But there are other difficulties. Operationalising systems analysis
involves many evaluative judgements regarding the closure of the system and so on.
The greater our experience of some problem and the more information we possess, the
easier it is to make such evaluative
judgements with some degree ot contidence. Our
general lack of experience with systems analysis, together with the relative weak
development of theory, does not allow us to make such evaluations with any degree of
confidence, except in those cases where we can easily make assumptions regarding the
Structure and behaviour of some system. We are, in short, very much in the stage of
a priori model use in our attempts to apply systems concepts to geography.
One of the criticisms is that the systems approach tends to crowd out all the others.
Other criticism comes from those who believe systems analysts claim too much, both
scientifically and ideologically. On the other level, the concepts of entropy and
282 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

homeostasis have been called in question on the grounds that systems are not things
but abstractions from people's observed behaviour-abstractions that exist only in
the minds of the people who are concerned with it.
Another frequent objection is that the systems approach somehow carries with it
the assumption that all social systems either are or should be in a state cf equilibrium
Some analysts believe that this would be true of closed systems, and that nearly all
societies are open systems. The objection has somne force. Obviously, many societies
are from harmoniously integrated, social institutions, are changing radically
(completely), traditional types of political organization, marriage, economic production
and consumption are all breaking down. It is only too easy to assume that the
components of a system must be functionally related, i.e. related in such a way that

component somehow contributes to the stability of the system. such an approach

each
has been called the functional paradigm, its exponents are generally known as
functionalists.
Fortunately, it is not necessary to be functional in order to use the systems approach.
Any description of a system necessarily catches it at one point of time, and what seems
functional today may be a source of conflict tomorrow. Society is not static or stable in
a functionalistic sense; it is continually changing, and discloses few simple cause-effect
relationships. It may well be structured in some way, but not necessarily in any
particular way.
Systems' analysis has, undoubtedly, yielded insights into the structural
characteristics and the behaviour of complex interacting phenomena, and systems
concept, therefore, provides an appropriate conceptual framework for handling
substantive geographical problems. In conclusion it is worthwhile to stress that there
is no single path to scientific understanding. All scientists search for order in the real
world, whatever their disciplinary perspective is in organizing the search. Systenis
approach is found to be most fruitful source of ideas and concepts. In such
stances, this approach cannot be dispensed with lightly.

NOTES

1. Harvey, 1969, 447-455.

2. Harvey, op. cit., 455-459.
3. Harvey, op. cit., 467-480.
4. General Systems Theory (GST) is an
interdisciplinary practice that describes with
interacting components, applicable to biology. cybernetics, and other fields. systems
Karl Ludwig
von
Bertalanffy (1901-1972) was an Austrian-born biologist known as one of the founders
of GST.Bertalanffy proposed that the laws of thermodynamics applied to closed systems,
but not necessarily to "open systems," such as
living things. His mathematical model
an
organism's growth over time, published in 1934, is still in use today. GST attemptedot
to provide alternatives to conventional models of
organization. GST defined new
foundations and developments as a generalized theory of systems with applications to
numerous areas of study, emphasizing holism over reductionism, organism over
 CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS' ANALYSIS 283
mechanism. Bertalantty's contribuion to systems
onen systems. The theory is best known for his theory of
system theorist
n classical science and the second ofargued that traditional closed
on
law system models based
snect that many characteristics of thermodynamics were untenable. We may well
aws of physics are a consequence ofliving systems which are paradoxical in view
this lact. of the
other
other areas, the theorist developed only the
developed Although potential
the imnliea potential applications
applications exist
exist in
in
only
he social sciences, Bertalantty did believe implications for biology and cybernetics. In
thatgeneral systems
e.g theories that had been introduced into ne the field of socioloo concepts applicable,
psa were applicable,
apDroach
approach that included "the conca
concept general system, of
of sociology from modern systems
communication, etc." The theorist critiqued classical "atomistic" feedback, information,
svstems and ideation "such as 'social conceptions of social
physics' as was often
spirit." Bertalanffy recognized dilficulties with the
alsO attempted in a reductionist
to social science due to the application of a new general theory
complexity of the
intersections between natural sciences and
human social systems. However, the
theory still
sociology, to anthropology, economics, politicalencouraged for new developments from
science, and psychology
areas.Today, Bertalanffy's GST remains a bridge for among other
in the social sciences. interdisciplinary study of systems

REFERENCES

Ackerman, A.E. (1963), "Where is a Research Frontier", Annals

Geographers, Vol. 53, pp. 429-440. of Association of American
Berry, B.J.L (1964), "Cities as Systems within Systems of Cities", Pap. Regional Science
13,147-63.
Association,
Bertanlanffy, L. von. (1968), General System Theory: Foundation, Developments, Applications, George
Braziller, New York.
Chorley, R.J. (1962), Geomorphology and General Systems Theory, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington.
Harvey, D. (1969), Explanation in Geography, Arnold Publishers, New Delhi.
Stoddart, D.R. (1965), "Geography and the Ecological Approach", Geograplhy, 50, 252-251
CHAPTER-11

Behavioural Geography

Behavioural geography sought to counter the perceived tendency of quantitative

geography to deal with humanity as a statistical phenomenon. It flourished briefly
during 1970s and sought to provide a greater understanding of how people perceived
places and made locational decisions and sought to challenge mathematical models of
society, in particular the use of econometric techniques. But the lack of a sound
theoretical base left behavioural geography open to critique.' Geography in the first
half of the 20th century was primarily an
empirical science concentrating on the regional
accounts. Man was to follow the
He was considered an
tyrannical dictums of Nature and Act accordingly.
organism without any 'values' of his own in interplay with
Nature. Geography as a
1950s was
discipline severely suffered from theoretical vacuum. The
primarily period of theory building based on hypotshetico-deductive
a
method (pure reasoning) of
the researchers began
positivism, with quantitative techniques as a tool. By 1960s,
stressing that factors such as access of information, images or
environment, the stages of learning about stimulus
situations, attitudes towards place,
degree of risk aversion, place utility and revealed
undertaking space activity. Geographers started treating preferences were important in
a social being
essentially endowed with certain values which affect his man asvision
and subjective
consequential behaviour. Geographers, like other behavioural of reality
at the conclusions that the behaviour of scientists, arriveu
an individual is a
rather than the objective reality. The man's activities result of the perceived reality
to attendant environmental
were being examined as responses
conditions and his social-cultural
was so widely and fabric. The approe
rapidly propagated that it earned the
revolution. This subfield having phraseology of behavioura
behavioural geography. Behaviouralemerged is an geography has been calle
within
that examines human behaviour geography approach to human geograptu
using a disaggregate approach. Behavioural
geographers focus on the cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning,
decision
 285
CHAPTER11 BEHAVIOURAL GEOGRAPHY

making and behaviour.

Behavioural geography is that branch of human science, which
deals with the study of cognitive processes with its response to its environment, through
such as
hehaviourism. Behavioural geography draws from early behaviourist works
Tolman's concepts of "cogniive maps". More behaviourally oriented geographers
romaterialists and look at the role of basic learning processes and how they influence
the landscape paterns or even group identity. The cognitive processes include
environmental perception and cognition, wayfinding, the construction of cognitive
maps, place attachment, the development of atitudes about space and place, decisions
and behaviour based on knowledge of one's environs, and numerous other topics.
The approach adopted
in
behavioural ge0graphy is closely related to that of
Dsychology, but draws on research findings from a multitude of other disciplines
including economics, sociology, anthropology, transportation planning and many
others.
for
People-environment interaction has been the focus of geographical inquiry a

scholars have adopted a normative perspective and described the

long time. Some environmental while others
conditions;
behaviour that should result under specified
ignored people and have concentrated
on the geometry of landscape. This is most
School of Thought that came to dominate
clearly demonstrated in the Spatial Analysis
human geography in the 1960s
and which seeks to dissect the environment into nodes,
behavioural approaches, on the other hand, argue that
networks, and surfaces. The
none of these approaches
is satistactory and that understanding of people-environment
at both the psychological processes through
interaction is best achieved by looking
know the environment and the way in which these
which individual "actors" come to
other words, the central theme
the nature of resultant behaviour. In
processes influence should
that the focus of human geographical inquiry
of the behavioural approach is attention to
Although this perspective requires some
be on people as human beings. and to
adaptation of humans to their environments
be paid to the evolutionary how individuals derive
necessitates above all a close lok at
intellectual development, it and information
how they use public private
information from the environment, evaluate environmental
images, how they
channels, how they build up cognitive manifest in the form of
decisions, and how overt behaviour is
information in making Great attention
constrained in both time and space.
activity systems that are highlyresearchers in human geography to environmental
has been paid by behavioural environmental imagery.
to
cognition and, in particular,

Mental Processes
Man
Environment

Link
FIGURE 11.1 Man and Environment
in the late 20th
as a branch
of geography, hasB eemerged
h a v i o u r a l i s m is a general
Behavioural geography, behaviouralim.
expression of from the behavioural
century. It is the geographical social sciences in recent years
into the which looks at man-
movement that spreaded considered as an approach,
SCiences. In geography, it may be
 286 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

environmentrelationships with a new and sharp outlook. The aim of behaviouralism

1S to replace the
simplistic and mechanistic conception that previousiy characterized
man-environment theory, with new version that
of human
explicitly recognizes the complexities
behaviour, i.e. in a given set of environment, how human beings behave.
the
degree and the impact on space, i.e. how
they organize it or use it. The "behaviour
be
may defined as "a response to some stimulus". The behaviouralist
views the human
subjects of his studies as thinking beings, whose actions are mediated (inteivened) by
cognitive (mental) processes. In between the environmental influences and the man's
actions there are mental processes of various kinds, which govern his behaviour, ie.
how to react to a
given set of environmental elements. Because, within the same set of
clemients, the response of various human beings may not necessarily be the same or
similar.

START
Spatial Behaviour
(which afects)

Real world A Decision

(which provides) (which results in)
Search
(for more
Information)

Value System
Information
(that enters the mind via) (to produce)

Perceptual Filter An Image

Senses (Personality, Physiology. (of the real world
Language, Society. which interacts
Culture) with one's own)

Source: Huckle, J.(ed.) (1983) pp. 43-45.

FIGURE 11.2 The
Relationship among Perceplion, Cognitive lmages, Values and Behaviour
The behaviouralist is interested in the
in which people come to terms
their physical and social milieu. He is also way wit
interested in the factors that influence ne
interrelationships of thought and action of man. Moreover, in doing so, he in no
assumes that all human decisions are based wa
upon sequence of reasoned thought wi
systematic evaluation of all available options, i.e. all human actions
sequential all over. Because, human behaviour atnecessaruy
be systematic and may not
times is
 CHAPTER 11 BEHAVIOURAL
GEOGRAPHY 287
eodictable. Some responses are
und and systematic, i.e. made withmean, selfish, slavish, whereas others are more
planned ands
utmost care and
from sub-conscious us
impulse to
self-conscious forethought. The full spectrum,
behaviouralist.Seen
Sec
een in in this light,
light, behavioural
behavioural deliberation,
oouberation, is of
is of concern to the
conc
mmon name that part of geOgraphy thatgeography may be regarded
for as the
mostto
comn

man-environment:
relationships, where adopts the behaviouralist
approach
coitght primarily in cognitive process, explanations
which
of spatial patterns of behaviour
patterns behaviour
laborated as model for the study of theunderpinned that behaviour. This may
a

cognitive images, values and behaviour as shownrelationships

cog in the
between perception,
diagram in 11.2. Fig.
BEHAVIOURAL MOVEMENT
The developmental perspective on
in the second half of 20th people-environment interaction generally held sway
century in behavioural approaches in human
Though several geographers had, from time to time, drawn attention to the role and geography.
importance of perception in the study of human behaviour, and the
process of creating
landscapes (e.g. Sauer, Wright, White and Kirk), the work that proved
the starting of the movement towards behaviouralism as an 'alternative'rudimentary in
to the
normative approach to theory (then so much in circulation) was a
paper by Julian
Wolepart entitled "The Decision Process ina Spatial Context" published in the Annals
of Association of American Geographers in 1964. Julian Wolpert was a professor of
Geography,Public Affairs and Urban Planning at the Woodrow Wilson School of
Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, U.S.A. The paper was based
on his Ph.D. Thesis submitted at the University of Wisconsin, America. The
built around the results of a field study of agricultural land use in a part of Sweden.
The author compared the actual labour productivity of farmers with what could have
been achieved under optimizing decision-making by thefarmers as rational economic
than the expected level of
persons, and found that there was up to 40 per cent less
productivity. The lower than expected level of productivity, was explained as a result
of the farmers' lower aspiration level which was itself a reflection of their economic
and social environment, the context which motivated
them to act differently from the
theoretical economic man. Wolepert's various papers (1964,
1965, 1967 and 1970) on
had contributed to heralding the
the satisficing model of decision-making behaviour
the second half of 1960s, a
arrival of a new behavioural movement in geography. By
"Behavioural Geography' had begun to be
branch of geography, termed as
new behavioural thinking in geographical
dentified. So great was the excitement at the
had experienced yet another
that many were led to believe that geography
work
Tevolution-thebehavioural revolution.
revolution phase had
movement of the post-quantitative
Though the behavioural attention of the profession towards the
of Wolpert, the
Deen triggered by the writings
creation of spatial patterns
and by geographers
lorms studied before
Ie ot perception in the manner by at least two geographers
much Wolpert,
nad been drawn in a focused the American and British by origin
W.K. Kirk,
and they were J.K. Wright and
288 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

respectively. J.K. Wright, in his presidential address to the Association of American

Geographers at the 1946 annual conference, had emphasized that although man had
explored every area of the earth, there still lay a territory that remained almost
completely unexplored-terrae incognitae-the territory to be found in the minds of
men, the private world specific to particular individuals, but which could have features
shared by others belonging to the same social, cultural or occupational group. Wright
proposed a new branch of geography, which he named 'geosophy', to be devoted to
the examination of geographical ideas "both true and false, of all manner of people,
ie. a field of study concerned with subjective conceptions". Wright underlined that
acquisition of geographical knowledge is conditioned bya complex interplay of cultural
and physical factors, and "nearly every activity in which man engages...is to some
extent attected by the geographical knowledge at his disposal. These words could,
indeed have heralded a much earlier start of behavioural geography, but apparentily
owing to the lack of references to them in the works of later writers they failed to have
any significant impact.
A
new comprehensive attempt to introduce behavioural postulates in geography
was made by the British geographer W.K. Kirk (1951, 1963). He had presented one of
the first behavioural models to serve as an alternative to the environmental
concepts
of man-environment relationship. Kirk suggested that people act according to the
way they perceive their environment, and that the environment as perceived might
markedly differ from objective reality (i.e. the environment as exists). He maintained
that people's perception of the environment is
greatly influenced by their social and
cultural values. Thus, "Gestalt Psychology""
inspired the views of Kirk, so that he
distinguished between the Objective or phenomenal environment and the Behavioural
environment. Kirk maintained that since
geographers are concerned with decision-
making and the consequences of decision-making, they must pay attention to the role
of behavioural environment in their research.
Through the 1970s it had been generally asserted that geography was
a second revolution-the
behavioural revolution-which was experiencing
a major transformation in the expected bring about
to
a 'revolution' was at best
discipline but experience shows that
any expectation of
premature. Nevertheless, behavioural
geography did
represent a gradual emergence and consolidation of a set of
increase the scope of
geographical approaches that aimed to
explanation
the processes that underpin our real world. by seeking a fuller understanding ot
This certainly represents "a
milestone in geographical thought" (Gold,
1980).
significant
Achievements of Behavioural Movement

Following Gold (1980), the major achievements of behavioural movement in

may be listed as under: geograpny
1. It asserted the role of the individual in
allowed strong signs of wishing to reducegeography, which at that time had
human activities to
and spatial preferences and indifference curves. point patterns
 CHAPTER11 BEHAVIOURAL GEOGRAPHY 289
2It led to thorough reappraisal of the
mcthodological approaches to man-
environment relations. It countered the environmental
doctrines by recognizZing the true and neo-environmental
It acted as a
forum for complements of human behaviour.
new philosophies,
revived interest in the study of some older approaches, and methods, and it
and idiographic analysis of places. themes, such as cultural landscape,
4. It opened up new
Channels of dialogues and debate with other
and thereby, contributed to a trend disciplines,
toward cross-fertilization of ideas.
5. Lastly, researchers in behavioural
debate in social relevance of geography had contributed much to the
geographical research,
myth of value-freedom, by promoting interest in by helping to explode the
and by supporting the problems of social concern,
geographers' involvement in public policy issues.
PARADIGMS IN BEHAVIOURAL GEOGRAPHY
The impact of environment on man had echoed from the ancient to modern
and human behaviour was seen as a response to the environmental period
stimuli. Various
paradigms emerged one after the other in order to study this relationship. The
commonly held paradigm about human behaviour during the first half of 20th century
was a deterministic one. 'Environmental Determinism' as
such developed by Ratzel
(1882, 1891). Semple (1911) treated the man as a product of the earth's surface. This
school continued until mid-20th century (Huntington 1945; Taylor 1940) but it had
already reached its zenith by 1920s. A counter doctrine of 'Posssibilism' was put
forward by Blache, Bruhnes and Febvre (1926) who saw man as an active agent and
the environment as a permissive forum for his activities. Blache proclaimed that there
are "no necessities, but everywhere possibilities and man as a master, is the judge of
their use" A pragmatic thesis was initiated by Taylor (1951) who propounded Neo-
Determinism'. This thesis acknowledged the key role of environment but also provided
limited choice to man. He anticipated that failure to understand the nature given
limitations must face disaster. A neo-environmentalism: 'economic determinism' was
propagated in the spatial scientific approach in 1950s and early 1960s. This approach
has stemmed from the works of Christaller(1933); Losch (1940) and Isard (1956, 1960)
who treated man as an economic man and extended the range of economic analysis
by incorporating the space element. This economically oriented thesis treated
as an
the behaviour of a man as total subject of his economic environment. The shackles of
economic man and tyranny of space were broken in 1960s. The rapid development of
SCience and technology reduced the world to a village and a month to a minute. It was
a state of the 'recession of the physical environment which presented man as a
satisficier rather than an optimizer. Wolpart (1964) concluded that the satisficier concept
behavioural patternof the farmers than could be inferred from
Was more accurate of skill to employ these
the notion of economic Man. The information availability,
of values were found to be relevant in
intormation, personality variables and system
1969). Pocock (1978) developed a conceptual
decision-making process (Pred, 1967 andwhich
interaction shows how a perceiver interacts with
model of man-environment
 290 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

an environment to create a mental image of that environment. The intormation status

of the environment influences what the individuai comes to know about the real world
while the individual's physiological, psychological fabric determines how that
knowledge contributes to the development of an image. Although individual
formulation varies from author to author, this model is a characteristic of a large volume
of research. Man has been depicted as a thinking being whose behaviour with the
is mediated by mental processes and 'cognitive representation'
of the
environment
external environment. The model propounded by Pocock can alternatively by a simple
conventional paradigm about man-environment relationship (Fig. 11.3).
The complexity of human behaviour depends upon the different roles of man, i.e.
imbued with different mental environnments. Simons has presented four important
models of man, each eliciting a different behaviour in the same environmental stimulus:

1. Psychoanalytic Man: This model treats man as a non-rational adult whose

behaviour is largely determined by the resolution of psychological conflicts
experienced earlier in life. This model had its seminal impact in behavioural
thoughts in the early 20th century.
2. Computer Man: A man acts as a logical theorist, objectively screens and processes
information without inhibition and with reference to long and short term
memory stores. This model is opposed to the Psychoanalytical model.
3. Economic Man: An economic man as a consumer is dominated by the wish to
maximize utility and as an entrepreneur to maximize the profit. His behaviour
is totally influenced by objective economic factors of which he is aware and
therefore, predictable in given conditions. An economic man is always
considered as an optimizer.
Boumded Rational Man: This model is also called as a 'satisficing man' which is
usually committed to satisfying a course of action which is good enough in
terms of his aspiration level in a given situation but is not necessarily the best
from a purely economic point of view. The concept of as a satisficier rests on
essentially practical and realistic view of the likely alternatives. If the
outcome of his choice does not meet his aspirations, the next time when he is
faced with a similar situation he will presumably aim higher. Certainly he will
not satisfy for less than the previous solution. This model man
operates
intermediately between his respective psychological, behavioural and logical
roots.

The behavioural geography concentrates on how a man views the

environment,
extracts information and develops his cognitive representation and reflects the same
in the form of a response. Behavioural geography assumes that the human mind acts
as a black box' in a decision-making process. A black box is considered as a
place
where information processing system takes place. The black box is governed by value
system, learning, thinking, deciding and the whole range of motor responses. ít is the
mind which forms cognitive structures. Indeed, the black box can be characterized as
a hidden world.? This, of course, is a notion familiar to geographers who have long
 CHAPTER 11
BEHAVIOURAL GEOGRAPHY 291
i7ed that the terrae
rence behaviour to incognitae
recognized

influence behavi
inially
ntially what is be
a (unexplored/unknown
much greater
extent than actual space) in the mind may
being argued in this view is that it is not environmental stimuli.
ESe feel
how feel abo
we about what we see, that is so much what stimul
no man has the crucial to we see, but
words,
be more real than
peculiar aptitude of being ableunderstanding
to live
behaviour' In other
may
m reality itself.0 What the black by notions of reality which
behaviour involves not only stimuli box concept
spaionship responses but also emphasizes
and is that
ot re and feedback based on
The environmental information is cognitive and physiological complex process
a

the maintenance of a fundamental to survival, to processes.

h
sense well-being. In fact, it is central everyday
or
living and
needs. Understandings of the ramifications
needs. Understandings
and functions of
to the basic human
fundamental human benaviour, therefore, the first environmental system is
to
behaviouralism is that there are different levels of and foremost
onerates. The emphasis has been laid environments withinpostulate
which man
primarily on the
difference
environment' and the perceived environment'. The latter exists between the 'objective
it is the perceived
environment which within the former but
is actually
mediating behaviour of an a
meaningful determinant in
reality and
'perceived reality individual
are also
or a
group of a
people. The terms, 'objective
frequently used as substitutes as for 'objective
environment' and the 'perceived environment'
proposed a nested hierarchy of four environmentsrespectively.
(Fig. 11.3).
Sonnenfeld (1972) has

Geographical Environment

Operalional Environment

Perceptual Environment

Behavioural Environment
Individual
FIGURE 11.3 Levels of Environments within which Man operates

. Geographical Environment encompasses the whole external environment which

includes the totality of all physical facts that exist at a certain time.

Operational Environment is the functional portion ofgeographical environment.

It impinges on man as an individual or a large group and acts as a filter to
behaviour in some way or the other.
, Coming information and influences
Perceptual Environment is that part of the operational environment, of which
learningor and experience.
man is conscious either through physical sensitivity
A man has his own framework of information selection in terms of selective
292 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

exposure, selective perception and selective retention. Spatially this

environment is expressed by spatial perception and, generally in terms of
mental map of Reality (Gould, 1966, 3).
Behavioural Environment is that part of environment which 'elicits a behavioural
response towards which behaviour is directed, such as results in a conscious
utilization or transformation of environment'" This represents the totality of
facts which determine the behaviour of an individual at a certain moment
The core of the behavioural environment is the activity space which refers to
all those peoples, organizations or places with which man is in direct and
regular contact. This activity space is the most dominant component in the
behavioural environment.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF BEHAVIoURAL GEOGRAPHY

The 'Environmental Perception' and 'Mental Maps' are recognized as the basic concepts
of Behavioural Geography.

Environment Perception Behaviour

[image
Feed-Back

Figure 11.4 Environment and Behaviour Link

Environmental Perception
The concept relates to the way in which an individual perceives the environment (or
attains awareness and understanding of the environment); it is the process of evaluation
and storing information about the environment. It is the perception of the environment
thatconcerns the human geographers because decision makers base their judgement
on the environment they perceive. It is the total perception an individual has of his
surroundings, which creates mental maps. For instance, if someone has really to make
a choice to select his
place of dwelling, he would be assailed by images
of faraway
places, of different climates and different landscapes and by his personal feelings
towards cultures other than his own. He would also become very sensitive to the
affection of old friends, and the familiarity of his present surroundings. He would be
aware of the pull between "here' and 'there' as
places in which to live. Differences
between the attributes of "here' and 'there' have always been of great interest to
geographers, because it is precisely the differences between places that generate
movement of goods, people and information. Such movements produce complex
spatial patterns. The traffic jam in cities, crowds on summer time beaches, vast flows
of letters and electronic messages and the great networks of
pipelines that criss-crosSS
nation after nation. To analyse such complex patterns produced by man on the surface
of the earth, geographers are increasingly looking at the questions of 'relative
questions which consider places not in any absolute, old fashioned, latitude and
location
 CHAPTER 11 BEHAVIOURAL
GEOGRAPHY 293
anoitude sense, but in
terms or their
costs and times to
might exchange goods, money, people and
all other places with which
natterns are known as spatial interaction'. messages. In geographers' language
h the effect of distance on Geographers are
especially concerned
to movement-that
dividual relative his proposed destination. is the effect of the location of an
anvironmental perception looK at the ways in which Modern geographical studies of
nlaces and how these images influence people form images of other
many decisions-including to the
Decision-makers operating an environment, base their
in one to move.
as they perceive it, not as
it is. Ihe action, resulting from
decisions on the environment
is played out in a real environment. decision, on the other hand,
Environmental Perception' is the perception either of the whole
of specific selected elements within it, or even of environment, or
environmental perception is a property of the mind rather than 'space' in the abstract: essentially
mind. Thus the mind have may
a construct of that
the
perception of
advantages of seashore climate; but thesedrought, the administrative
system or
are
environment, selected by the individual in response to only elements in the perceived
and obvious facts of Environmental particular stimuli. The simple
Perception have
given some place in the methodology of cultural and long been recognized, and been
In geographical
methodology as a whole,
especially historical geography.
in our work came rather later. The
however, realization that this is
significant
room of Environmental
studies has been made due to the Perception in geographical
The Range and Limits of Personalanthropocentricthe
character of the discipline.
Knowledge of World: Whether we stay or move
about, our environment is subject to sudden and often drastic
we must be able to see change. In consequence,
things only they are, also as they might become. Our
not as but
private milieus are, therefore, flexible, plastic, and somewhat amorphous. We are
psychologically equipped for a wide range of environments, including some of those
that we create. As
individuals, we learn most rapidly about the world not by paying
close attention to a single variable, but
by superficially scanning a great variety of
things. Everyday perception tends to be selective, creative, temporary, inexact,
8eneralized and stereotyped, just because imprecise, partly erroneous impressions
apoutthe world in general often convey more thar exact details about a small segment
Ot. The observant are not necessarily most accurate: effective observation is never
averingly attentive. Changing perceptions are necessary to preserve mental
ertness and normal powers of thought. Essential perception of the world, in short,
nDraces every way of looking at it: conscious and unconscious, blurred and distinct,
Djective and subjective, inadvertent (unintentional) and deliberate (well considered),
uTeral and schematic. Perception itself is never unalloyed: sensing, thinking, feeling&
and
believing
are simultaneous, interdependent processes.
ypes of Environment perceived: Different kinds of environments around an
individual may be delimited (g 11.3). The environment immediately next
delimited (Fig.
evironment. Usually
to an
ndividual is the 'Local or "Behavioural' Environment. Usually these
these environments
environments
t e places of dwelling, e.g. the urban areas. Interest, here, has focused on the way
boundaries and neighbourhoods. It
h people perceive certain landmarks, routes,
have a good sense of
4 been noted that some people in a city always seemed to
GEORAPHICAL THOUGHT
orientation, while others are usually subject to confusion. Some people have informal,
imaginary maps in their heads centred upon locations of their homes. In local
environment an individual performs niost of his daily funciions. The Perceptual
Environment' is ummediately next to the Local Environnient, eg the recreational
centres. The environment in which man operates, the 'Operational Environment', is
created, eg. by the people working in neighbouring towns or cities, but dwelling in
rural areas. Then, ultimately, is the 'Geographical Environment', i.e. the one whose
only a fraction or a part has been so far perceived by the indivicual. The most important
ot all these environments remains the personal (behavioural) environment or the
Nsonal space, wlich no one likes to be violated by any other individual.
Uniueness of Private Environment: Despite their congruence with each other and
with the world as it is, private milieus do diverge markedly among people in different
cultures, for individuals within a social group, and for the same person as a child and
as adult, at various times and places. The life of each individual constitules an original
and irreversible perceptive experience. Each private worldview is unique, to begin
with, because each person inhabits a different milieu. The fact that no two human
beings can occupy the same point at the same time and that the world is never precisely
the same on successive occasions-means that the physical world is idiosyncratic for
each individual. Experience is not only unique; more significantly it is also self-centrecd.
Each private worldview is also unique because everyone chooses from and reacts to
the milieu in a different way. We elect to see certain aspects for the world to avoid
others. Moreover, because everything that we know about an object affects the way in
which it appears to the eye, no object is apt to seem quite the same to any two
percipients. Thus, in some respects each man's appraisal of an identical situation is
peculiarly his own. The private worldviews diverge from one another even within the
limits set by logical necessity, human physiology, and
group standards. In any society,
individuals of similar cultural background, who speak the same
and understand the world differenty. So what one thinks language, still pereceive
to him and his proclivities
depends on what is familiar
(inclinations).
The way a landscape looks depends on all the attendant
circumstances, for each
sense is affected by the others. Velvet looks soft, ice
sounds solid, and red feels war1n
because experience has conformed these
his characteristic sensory abilities,
impressions. The individual carries with him
intelligence, interests, and temperamental qualities,
and his responses are coloured and to some extent
determined by these inherent
individual qualities. People at home in the same
different modes of orientation.
environments, e.g. habitually select
Another reason why private worldviews are
information is inspired, edited, and distorted by irreducibly unique is that all
feeling. Coins look larger to the
children of the poor; the feast smells more tragrant to the hungry; and the mountains
loom higher to the lost. Had our
perceptions connection with our pleasures we
n0
would soon close our eyes on this world? We seldom
differentiate among people,
places, or things until we have a personal interest in them. One American town is
much alike another to an individual, unless one has a good motive for them
telling
apart. The most exhaustive study ot photographs and ethnological evidence does not
 CHAPTER 11 BEHAVIOURAL GEOGRAPHY 295
l o 1S
enat distinguish among ndividuais
to
of another
generated by strong feeling. Al!
rtainty generated
Chinese may look the same ease,
race with the
speed, and
the man-however foreign-with a Chinese to some, but not
wife.
Mental Maps
rsan's perception of the world is known as
ividual's own internal map of their known world.Mental Map. A mental map is an
a

internal representation of place based on

a
A Mental
Map can be defined as
The First type of Mental memory. There are two types of mental
r example, a trip to
Maps is that formed from our
Mouse, fun and sun
"Disneyworld' in Florida might conjurc personal experiences.
provided up images of Mickey
deals more with our perceptionthat the trip was a pleasant
of the attributes experience. This example
of
attention the direction of travel and the coastal place. Provided the tourist paio
to a

have a good perception as to the features,

relative location of Floridathey probabiy would also
So it is easy to see that our minds stored in their
our
very efficient at memory.
attribute information. A mere mention of a storing locational as well as
formation of a mental map by a person. place will not necessarily lead to the
reference in their minds from either pastOrdinarily, the person needs some frame of
course, Mental Maps are experience or knowledge of the place. Of
or bad.
capable of stirring
up emotions about a place whether
Unfortunately sometimes we have perceptions of places based on what we good
have heard or perhaps what our fears
about unfamiliar
type of Mental Maps is the one formed from references places dictates to us. The Second
to
can sometimes be maps we have seen. This
dangerous if maps are inaccurate. A concept person has of the
shape of the United States is an example of a mental map based ona the
it were not for maps we wold have no
idea of the shape of our
printed map.If
country.
maps we store in our minds are full of distortions. Generally,
can be said that the it
Mental maps not only provide a better visual
also shape our attitudes about conception of our surroundings but
that has been most
people and places. The aspect of behavioural analysis
enthusiastically adopted by geographers is the concept of mental
maps. The concept has been referred to as the 'geographies of human mind'. The
Seminal influence in this
regard came from a paper by Peter Gould (1966). Through
his work, he
argued that since locational decisions are guided by how the decision-
maker perceives the
quality of his environment, it is tor the a decision was
map out the mental image of the environment on thenecessary geographer
to
basis of which
tKEn. The theme was fully developed in the book entitled: "Mental Maps" by Gould
and White (1974).
Mental Map studies were part of the primary paradigms of man-environment
eiations in which man is depicted as thinking individual whose transactions with the
vironment are mediated by mental processes. Various concepts were used as
urrogates for the cognitive representations underlying the work on mental maps,
ut the one most commonly employed was 'the concept of image'. Over a period of
me, individuals develop the mental impressions (i.e. images) of the world through
e i r everyday contact with the environment. These images later guide the individua!
296 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

but thescales dominant

Imagesbe investigated at various
can
Discussion of the links between
behaviour.
or group
urban environment.
trend of enquiry has focus upon the research interest,
most prominent
behaviour has centred upon areas of
images and spatial
behaviour in urban areas
to natural hazards;
being the issues like: Response Intra-urban migtation.
and the role of neighbourhood preferences in

GEOGRAPHY
BEHAVIOURAL
SALIENT FEATURES OF
geographers adopted in
to man-environment relationship that many has five
The approach b e h a v i o u r a l i s m in geography
movement toward
the late 1970s as part of the
distinguishing features. They
are:

which people act

environmental perception upon
(1) First, it is argued that the the real world. Space, here,
from the true nature of
may well differ markedly
can be said to have
dual character.
real, observable, measurable, physical,
etc.).
environment, (i.e.
i) The objective studied by direct means
in nature and may be
It is the reality as exists
(observation).
environment (i.e. the mind). It can be studied
worid of
(ii)The behavioural decision-maker.
mearns. It is the reality
as perceived by the
indirect
only by behavioural geographer
focuses attention on the
Obviously, the
environment as perceived.
order to understand the human
behaviour, the meaning of
(2) Second, in
include both the physical environment
environment should be broadened to
the concept of physical environment
and the social environment. Earlier, only
man-environment relationships. The social
has been emphasized more in
environment includes the elements like
Human taste, Aspirations, Attitudes,
Over the years,
Culture, Available resources, and Socio-economic background.
has considered the ways in which physical
primarily
geographical analysis
environmental influences man, but it is clearly only one aspect of the matter
cover social
The concept of environment, therefore, needs to be widened to
environment as well. Because it is the social environment within
which an
individual lives, acts, thinks or behaves (Fig. 11.5). Thus, an individual shapes
and responds both the physical and social environment.
) Although the belhavioural geographers do recognize the importance of socia
environment, within this social environment their focus of study is even more
precise and sharp, i.e. on the individual, rather approaching the problem at
the level of social group. The 'operational environment' is the environnic
human beings live in, affecting them in some way or the other, whether or no
they are conscious of it. The 'perceptual environment' is the portion or ue
operationai environment of which human beings are aware. This awareness
may result directly from physical sensitivity to environmental stimuli o
indirectly from learning or experience. Although one can maintain that all
 CHAPTER 11 BEHAVIOURAL GEOGRAPHY 297

Physica! Environment

Social Environment

Individual
FIGURE 11.5 The Milieu of An Individual

individuals have their own perceptual environment, it is more important to

note that persons belonging to the same culture or sub-culture most
likely
share basiC ideas about and attitudes toward the environment. In other words,
the perceptual environment is the external world as culturally conceived. The
behavioural environment', on the other hand, is the environment for which
every individual is very conscious of. Thus, within the perceptual environment
one can focus more narrowly on the portion that draws out a behavioural
response or towards which behaviour is directed. This behavioural
environment receives much attention in current research in social science
disciplines (including geography). It is in this behavioural environment that
the man acts and interacts most closely. It is in this behavioural environment
that physical features acquire values and potentialities that attract or repel
human actions.
(4) One distinguishing feature of behavioural geography is its multi-disciplinary
outlook. An understanding of behavioural geography particularly depends
on the disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, ethnology (racial
geography), p'anning, etc. The multi-disciplinary outlook is notanew problem
for geography, a discipline that has always derived much of its methodological
more pressing now than
inspiration from other subjects, but it is probably so much wider.
ever before, as the range of disciplines
concerned is
that the focus of geographic
(5) The central theme of behavioural approach is
human beings. The behaviouralist views the
enquiry should be on people as whose actions are mediated
human subjects of his studies as thinking beings,
concentrates on how a man views the
thus
b cognitive processes. The field
environment, extracts information and develops his cognitive representation
The complexity of human
and reflects the in the form of a response.
same
different
different roles of man, i.e. imbued with
behaviour depends upon the
assumes that human mind acts
mental environments. Behavioural geography black box concept
as a 'black box' in a decision-making
process. What the
of relationship and feedback based on
emphasizes is that spatial process are different levels of
and physiological processes. There
cognitive
298 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

environments within which man operates. But, the emphasis has been laid
the perceived environment.
primarily on

SCOPE OF BEHAVIOURAL GEOGRAPHY

As the behavioural perspective in geography became generally accepted as a useful

analytical device,the scope of behavioural geography widened. Five dominant areas

of behavioural research in human geography have been identified. These are:

1. Studies of decision-making and choice of behaviour (e.g. locational choice,

route selection and patronage patterns);
2. Analysis of information flows (in relation to innovation-diffusion);
3. Models of learning (derived from theories in psychology);
4. Perception-research (focusing on hazard perception, image formation and
mental maps); and
5. Studies in voting behaviour (geography of elections).

To conclude, behavioural geography may be considered as an approach to study

man-environment relationships; and not as a viewpoint opposite to Determinism,
Possibilism or Ecological Approach. It has rather a sharper outlook. But, the lack of a
sound theoretical base left behavioural geography open to criticism.

NOTES

1. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia.

2. Gurjar, R.D. (2005).
3. Gestalt psychology (also Gestalt theory of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and
brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and
analog, with self-organizing tendencies. The classic Gestalt example is a soap bubble,
whose spherical shape (its Gestalt) is not defined
by a rigid template, or a mathematical
formula, but rather it emerges spontaneously by the parallel action of surface tension
acting at all points in the surface simultaneously. This is in contrast to the "atomistic"
principle of operation of the digital computer, where every computation is broken down
into a sequence of simple
steps, each of which is computed independently of the problem
as a whole. The Gestalt effect
refers to the form-forming
capability
particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and
of our senses,
whole forms instead of
just a collection of simple lines and curves.
4. Gold, J.R. (1980).
5. Gould, P.R. (1966).
6. Simon (1957, 287).
7. Walmsley et al., 1982, 3.
8. Wright, 1947.
9. Lowenthal, 1961.
 CHAPTER 11 BEHAVIOURAL
10. Watson, 1975.
GEOGRAPHY 299

11. English and Mayfield, 1972, 623.

REFERENCES

English, P.W. and R.C. Mayfield (1972),

Man, Space and
London. Environment, Oxford University Press,
Coid, 1.R. (1980), An Introduction to
Behavioural Geograplhy, Oxford
Gould, P.R. (1966), "On Mental
Maps", Michigan Inter-University University Press.
Geographers, Discussion Paper 9, reprinted in Downs, R.M. Community of Mathematical
pp. 182-220. and D. Stea (Eds.) (1973),
Gould, P.R. and R. White (1974), Mental
Maps, Hammondsworth: Penguin Books.
Gurjar, R.D. (2005), "Cognitive System and
in Geographical Research, H.S. Paradigms in Behavioural Geography", in Trends
Sharma, Department of
1-19 Geography, Rajasthan, Jaipur, pp.
Huckle, J. (ed.) (1983), Geographical Education:
Oxford, pp. 43-45. Reflection and Action, Oxford University Press,
Lowenthal, D. (1961), "Geography, Experience and
Epistemology", Annals of the Association of AmericanImaginations: Towards a
Geographers, Vol. 51, pp.Geographical
241-260.
Simon, H.A. (1957), Models of Man, Wiley, New York.
Sonnenfeld,J. (1972), "Geography, Perception and the behavioural Environment", in Man, Space
and Environment, Oxford University Press, London,
pp. 244-250.
Walmsley, D.J. and Lewis, G.J. (1982), Human Geography: Belhavioural Approaches, Longman,
London.
Watson, J.W. (1975), "Perception and Place", Geographical Journal, Volume 141, pp. 271-274.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia.
Wright, Johrn K. (1947). Terrae Incognitae: The Place of Imagination in Geography", Annals of
the Association of American Geographers, 37: 1-15.
CHAPTER-12

Marxist Geography

Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) German

was a
sociologist whose ideas played
significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement.
a

He published various books

during his lifetime, the most notable being The Communist
Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867-1894). The Communist
read work and this was jointly written with FriedrichManifesto
is Marx's most widely

German revolutionary socialist.' Karl Marx was born in Engels,

his friend and fellow
A
Trier, in the German Rhineland.
precocious school child, Marx studied law in Bonn and Berlin. Marx's theories about
society, economics and politicscollectively known as Marxism-hold that all societies
progress through the dialectic of class struggle: a conflict between an
which controls production and a lower class which ownership class
Heavily critical of the current socio-economic form ofproduces
the labour for goods
the "dictatorship of the society, capitalism, he called it
bourgeoisie", believing it to be run by the wealthy classes
purely for their own benefit, and predicted that, like previous socio-economic
it would systems,
inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction
and replacement by a new
system, socialism. He
would be governed by the working class in whatargued that under socialism society
he called
proletariat", the "workers state" or "workers' democracy". Hethe "dictatorship of the
believed that socialism
would, in its turn, eventually be
replaced
communism. Along with believing in the
by a
system of stateless, classless
society
Marx actively fought for the former's inevitability of socialism and communism,
implementation,
underprivileged people should carry out organisedarguing
and that both social theorists
capitalism and bring about socio-economic change. revolutionary action to topple
governments espousing Marxist concepts took power in a Revolutionary socialist
20th century, leading to the formation of variety of countries in the
such socialist states as the
1922 and the Soviet Union in
People's Republic of China in 1949. Many labour unions and worker s
parties worldwide were also influenced by Marxist ideas. Various
theoretical variants,
 CHAPTER 12 MARXIST GEOGRAPHY 301

such as Leninism, Stalinism, I rotskyism and Maoism, were developed. Marx is

typically
cited, with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of
modern social science. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures
in human history. In addition to his overtly philosophical early work, his later writings
have many points of contact with contermporary philosophical debates, especially in
the philosophy of history and thhe social sciences, and in morai and
political
Historical materialism-Marx's theory of history-is centred on the philosophy.
idea that forms ot
society rise and fall as they further and then impede the development of human
productive power. Marx sees the historicai process as proceeding through a necessary
series of modes of production, characterized by class struggle, culminating in
communism. The analysis of history and economics come together in Marx's
of the inevitable economic breakdown of prediction
capitalism,
The intellectual climate within which the
to be replaced by
communism
young Marx worked was dominated by
the influence of Hegel", and the reaction to
Hegel by a group known as the Young
Hegelians. The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of Marx cover a wide range
of topics, including much interesting material on private property and communism,
and on money, as well as developing Marx's critique of Hegel. However, the
manuscripts are best known for their account of alienated labour. Here, Marx famously
depicts the worker under capitalism as suffering from four types of alienated labour:
(1) from the product, which as soon as it is created is taken away from its producer;
(2) in productive activity (work) which is experienced as a torment; (3) from species-
being, tor humans produce blindly and not in accordance with their truly human
powers; and finally (4), from other human beings, where the relation of exchange
replaces the satisfaction of mutual need. Essentially he attempts to apply a Hegelian
deduction of categories to economics, trying to demonstrate that all the categories of
bourgeois economics-wages, rent, exchange, profit, etc-are ultimately derived from
an analysis of the concept of alienation. Consequently, each category of alienated labour
is supposed to be deductible from the previous one. Marx combines the insights of

both traditions to propose view in which human beings do indeed create-or at

a
least transform-the world they find themselves in, but this transformation happens
not in thought but through actual material activity; not through the imposition of
sublime concepts but through the sweat of their brow, with picks and shovels. This
historical version of materialism, which iranscends and thus rejects all existing
later theory of history. As per Marx's
philosophical thought, is the foundation of Marx's useful external object, produced for
Views on Economics, a commodity is defined as a
production are
exchange on a market. Thus two necessary can take commodity
conditions for
place, and a social divisionof
the existence of a market, in which exchangedifferent products, without which there
labour, in which different people produce
Marx's analysis labour power is the only
Would be no motivation for exchange. In
more value than it is worth,
and for this reason it is
Commodity which can produce their value on to the finished
known as variable capital. Other commodities simply pass
extra value. They are known as constant capital.
commodities, but do not create any
by the worker beyond that necessary
Profit, then, is the result of the labour performed the
to create the value of his or her wages.
This is surplus value theory of profit. It
 302 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

appears to tollow from this analysis that as industry becomes more mechanised, using
ore constant capital and less variable capital, the rate of profit ought to fall. For as a
Proportion less capital will be advanced on labour, and only labour can create value
Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human
nature,
which encompasses both human beings and material objects. Humans recognise
that they possess both actual and potential selves. For both Marx and Hegel, self-
development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this
recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders
its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended. Marx further argues that, by
moulding naturein desired ways, the subject takes the object as its own, and thus
permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, then, human nature
Gattungswesen, or species-being-exists as a function of human labour. Fundamental
to Marx's idea of
meaningful labour is the proposition that, in order for a subject to
come to terms with its alienated
object, it must first exert influence upon literal, material
objects in the subject's world.
Marx's thoughts on labour were related to the
relation in determining the
primacy he gave to the economic
society's past, present and future (economic determinism).
Accumulation of capital shapes the social Social
system.
conflict between opposing interests, driven, in the change, for Marx, was about
This became the background, by economic forces.
inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory. In his
evolutionary model of history, he argued that human history began with free,
productive and creative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend
most apparent under
capitalism. Marx noted that this was not an intentional process;
rather, no individual or even no state can
go against the forces of economy. The
organisation of society depends on means of production. Literally those
land, natural resources, and technology, things, like
for the production of material
necessary
and the relations of
production, in other words, the social relationships peoplegoods
into as they acquire and use the means enter
of production.
mode of production, and Marx Together these compose the
of production. distinguished historical eras in terms of distinct
modes

Marrism
Marxism is an economic and

inquiry that
socio-political worldview and method of socio-economic
centres upon a materialist
social change, and an interpretation of history, a dialectical view of
analysis and critique of the development of
was
pioneered in the early to mid-19th capitalism. Marxism
Marx and Friedrich century by two German philosophers, Karl
Engels.
of the working class, the
Marx addressed the matters of
alienation and exploitation
capitalist mode of production, and
historical
is famous for
analysing history in terms ot class strug8le, summarisedmaterialism.
his
He
Manifesto (1848): "The history of all hitherto Communist
struggles". His existing
ideas were iníluential in his time, and it society is the
history of class
successful Bolshevik October Revolution of 1917 in was
greatly expanded by the
was Marx's Imperial Russia. Friedrich Engels
co-developer of communist theory. Marx and
Engels met in 1844,
 CHAPTER 12 MARXIST GEOGRAPHY 303
5enwering that
they shared like
views of
ath, Friedrich Engels became the editorphilosophy
death, Friedrich
and socialism. After Karl Marx's
and translator of
eintellectually significant contributions to feminist Marx's writings.
s. Engels
arxism encompasses MarXian ecoomic theory and Marxist
feminism.
eavolutionary view ot social theory, sociological
a
theory and a
re change that has influenced
the world. The Marxian analysis begins with an political movements around
t its starting point the necessary economic analysis of material conditions, takingg
rovide for its material needs. 'The torm of activities required by human society to
economic
production, is understood to be the basis from which organization, or mode of
the
majority of other social
phenomena-including social relations,
political and legal systems,
ideology-arise (or
at the least by which they are
moralíty
and
greatly influenced). These social
relations form the
superstructure, for which the cconomic system forms the base. As
the forces of production, most notably technology, improve,
organization become inefficient and stifle further existing
forms of social
progress. These
themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of inefficiencies manifest
class struggle. Under the
capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between
the minority (the
bourgeoisie) who own the means of production, and the vast
(the proletariat) who produce goods and services. majority of the population
occurs because of the Taking the idea that social change
struggle
between different classes within
society who are under
contradiction against each other, the Marxist
analysis leads to the conclusion that
capitalism oppresses the proletariat, which leads to a proletarian revolution.
according to Marxist theory can no longer sustain the living standards of the Capitalism
due to its need to population
compensate for falling rates of profit by driving down wages,
social benefits and cutting
pursuing nmilitary aggression. The socialist system would succeed
capitalism as humanity's mode of production thfough workers' revolution. In a socialist
society private property in the means of production would be
CO-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base productionsuperseded by
on the creation
of private
profits, but would instead base production and economic activity on the
criteria of satisfying human needs-that is, production would be carried out directly
tor use.
Eventually, socialism would give way to a communist stage of history: a
classless, stateless system based on common ownership and free-access,
Superabundance and maximum freedom for individuals to develop their own capacities
and talents. As a political movement, Marxism advocates the creation of such a society.
A
Marxist understanding of history and of society has been adopted by academics
Tudying ina wide range of disciplines. The term 'Classical Marxism' is used to denote
i e theory propounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and it is based on the

Concepts of historical materialism, socialism and communism. Some variants of

vlarxism may be discussed as Trotskyism, Western Marxism, Structural Marxism,
utonomist Marxism, Marxist Hiumanism and Marxist Feminismn

Historical Materialism
Th
he historical materialist theory of history, also synonymous to "the economie
nterpretation of history" looks for the causes of societal development and change in
304 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

the collective ways humans use to make the means for living. The social features of a
society (social classes, political structures, ideologies) derive from economic activity;
"base and superstructure" is the metaphoric common term describing this historic
condition. Ihe base and superstructure metaphor explains that the totality of social
relations regarding "the social production of their existence", i.e. civil society forms a
sOCiety's economic base, from which rises a superstructure of political and legal
institutions, i.e. political society. A conflict between the development of material
productive forces and the relations of production provokes social revolutions, thus,
the resultant changes to the economic base will lead to the transformation of the
superstructure. This relationship is reflexive, the base determines the superstructure,
n the first instance, and remains the foundation of a form of social organization which
then can act again upon both parts of the base and superstructure, whose relationship
is dialectical, not literal. Marx considered that these socio-economic conflicts have
historically manifested themselves as distinct stages (one transitional) of development:
(1) Primitive Communism: as in co-operative tribal societies; (2) Slave Society:
a development of tribal progression to city-state; aristocracy is born; (3) Feudalism:
aristocrats are the ruling class;
merchants evolve into capitalists; (4) Capitalism:
capitalists are the ruling class, who create and employ the proletariat; (5) Socialisnm:
workers gain class consciousness, and via
proletarian revolution depose the capitalist
dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, replacing it in turn with dictatorship of the proletariat
through which the socialization of the means of production can be realized; and
(6) Communism: a classless and stateless society.

Socialism
Marxists believe that the transition from
of the
capitalism to socialism is an inevitable part
development of human society. Marxists believe that a socialist society is far
better for the majority of the
populace than its capitalist counterpart. The term
"socialism" could be used to describe two
fundamentally different ideologies
democratic socialism and Marxist-Leninist socialism. The Marxist-Leninists
work towards the workers' sought to
utopia in Marxist ideology by first creating a socialist
state, which historically had almost
other hand, democratic socialists
always been a single-party
dictatorship. On the
attempt to work towards an ideal state by social
reform and are often little different from social
democrats, with the democratic socialists
having a more leftist stance. The Marxist-Leninist form of
decline since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and government has been in
its satellite states.
countries have governments which describe themselves Very few
as socialist. As of
Vietnam, Nepal, Cuba, and the People's Republic of China had 2011, Laos,
which describe themselves as socialist in the Marxist governments in power
sense. On the
parties which describe themselves as socialist or democratic contrary, electoral
socialist are on the rise,
joined together by international
the Fourth International. Parties organizations
such as the Socialist
described as socialist are
International and
democracies of the developing world and serve as the currently dominant in the
opposition party in most European democracies. Eco-socíalism, ruling party or the main
and Green politics
with a strong leftist tinge, are on the rise in
European democracies.
 CHAPTER 12 MARXIST GEOGRAPHY 305

Communism

Communism is an ideology that seeks to establish a future

organization, based upon common ownership of the meansclassless,of
stateless social
production and the
absence of private property. It can be classified as a branch of the
movement. A number of states declared an allegiance to the broader socialist
and have been ruled by self-described Communist Parties, principles of Marxism
either as a single-party
state or a single list, wnich inciuaes tormally several
German Democratic Kepubic. Due to the dominance of the
parties, as was the case in the
their governments, these states are often called
Communist Party in
"communist states" by Western
nolitical scientists. However, they have described themselves as
reserving the term "communism" tor a future classless "socialist",
would no longer be necessary (on this understanding of society,
in which the state
communism, "communist
state" would be an oxymoron)-for instance, the USSR was the Union of
Soviet
Socialist Republics. Communist governments have historically been characterized
by state ownership of productive resources in a planned
economy and and land
campaigns of economic restructuring such as nationalization of industrysweeping
reform (often focusing on collective farming or state farms.) While
they promote
collective ownership of the means of production, Communist governments have
been characterized by a strong state apparatus in which decisions are made by the
ruling Communist Party.

Trotskyism
Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. Trotsky advocated
proletarian revolution as set out in his theory of " permanent revolution", and he argued

that in countries where the bourgeois democratic revolution had not triumphed already
(in other words, in places that had not yet implemented a capitalist democracy, such
as Russia before 1917), it was necessary that the proletariat make it permanent by
carrying out the tasks of the social revolution (the "socialist" or "communist"
revolution) at the same time, in an uninterrupted process. Trotsky believed that a new
socialist state would not be able to hold out against the pressures of a hostile capitalist
World unless socialist revolutions quickly took hold in other countries as well, especially
in the industrial powers with a developed proletariat. On the political spectrum of
are considered to be on the leit. They fervently support
Marxism, Trotskyists and advocate a
democracy, oppose political deals with the imperialist powers,
spreading of the revolution until it becomes global.

Western Marxism
of Marxist theoreticians
Western Marxism is a used to describe a wide variety
term
North America), in contrast
based in Western and Central Europe (and more recently
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia or
With philosophy in the Soviet Union, the
the People's Republic of China.
 306 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Structural Marxrism
Structural Marxism is an approach to Marxism based on
structuralism,
associated with the work of the French theorist Louis Althusser and his primarily
students. In
Althusser's theory, the structural order of the mode of
both from the actual, real
capitalist production is distinct
agents involved in its relations and from the ideological
forms in which those relations are
understood. Structural Marxism was influential in
France during the late 1960s and 1970s, and also came to influence
political theorists and sociologists outside of France during the 1970s. philosophers,

Autonomnist Marxism
Autonomism is a
applied to a variety of social movements around the world,
term
which emphasizes the
ability to organize in autonomous and horizontal networks, as
opposed to hierarchical structures such as unions or parties. Autonomist Marxists,
including Harry Cleaver, broaden the definition of the working-class to include salaried
and unpaid labour, such as skilled
professions and housework; it focuses on the
working class in advanced capitalist states as the primary force of
construct of capital. Modern autonomist theorists such as change in the
Antonio Negri and Michael
Hardt argue that network
power constructs are the most effective methods of
organization against the neoliberal regime of accumulation, and
predict a massive
shift in the dynamics of
capital into a 21st century Empire.
Marxist Feminism
Marxist feminism is a sub-type of feminist theory which focuses on the
capitalism as a way to liberate women. Marxist feminism states dismantling of
which gives rise to economic tiat private property,
inequality, dependence,
unhealthy social relations between men and women, ispolitical confusion
the root of women's
and ultimately
According to Marxist theory, in capitalist societies the individual is oppression.
relations; that is, people's capacities, needs and interests are shaped by class
the mode of production that seen to be determined
characterises the society they inhabit. Marxist by
see
gender inequality as determined ultimately by the feminists
Gender oppression is class
oppression capitalist mode of production.
and women's subordination
of class is seen as a form
oppression which is maintained (like racism) because it serves the interests of
capital the ruling class. Marxist feminists have extended traditional
and
Marxist
wage work in order to support their analysis
by looking at domestic labour as well as
Thus, Marxism is the philosophy, social position.
works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German theory
and political
practice
socialist philosopher. Marxism is
based on the
concerned with the ways in which the centraly
production of space,
implicated the reproduction of specific 'social formations'. It
in place and landscape is
capitalismS. The main concern of Marxism is uneven developed against
regional inequalities as a result of division and development, social justice and
environment, through surplus value. in Marxistexploitation labour resources and
of
philosophy, economic classes and
private property are the main cause of historical change. These two factors determine
 CHAPTER 12 MARXIST GEOGRAPHY 307
he man and environment
lhat determines life, but life
relatonsnP also. Marx writes: It is not consciousness
tnat (ideas)
determines ideas. It is not the ideas that change
worldrld but the development
of the
e Marx believed that society actual reality (space and place) which
in the factors of production developsandstages in accordance with the changes
ideas in the

cansciousness develops with (materials development

instruments of labour). In other words,
her of people. It emerges productiVity,
as a
increase in needs, and with
dynamic process because in increase in the
af our experience we transtorm ourselves. It transforming the bonds
1ohour, particularly the division between the develops specially with the division of
he kev to the understanding of the 'material' and
structure of social life 'mental' labour. Hence,
rmode of production of the material basis of that life and consciousness is the
and consciousness. A given society
or a Cultural landscape is
organized on the basis of
According to Marx, the several modes of
man and
environment production.
relationship changes with the change in the moderelationship
of
the man andor
space
the stage of nomads, mankind turned to
the
production. For example, from
of
stage settled living, hunting, fruit
gathering and sheep rearing gave way to domestication
came the urban culture and a rich of plants and animals.
Then
classes within human societies were
diversity vocations. For the first time economic
of

them formed the basis of their belief recognisable distinct, and the relationship between
systems, social hierarchy, codes of behaviour,
rules of punishment for crime and misconduct and institutionalised
the same, worship, recreation,
family arrangements for
obligations and ties, the
authority, etc. These constituted what is called the cultural apparatus of ruling
pattern of society. The division of people into economic landscape
and the cultural
classes had the effect of
initiating class struggle. Polarized class interests could only set class
Thus, there was a class of against class.
employees, another of employed. In familiar communist
terminology, this would be called exploiters versus exploited. Thus, according to the
Marxism, the key interaction between man and nature is labour. Man is
with a natural world that cannot be transcended
confronted
(surpassed), and must be
possessed) in order to survive. His mode of appropriation is labour. Marxism appropriated
refuses
to accept that the scientific laws of
society are eternal (which always existed and will
always exist). This view, here, contrasts sharply with the claim of positivists who assert
that scientific laws are universal and eternal in space and time. The essential difference
beiween Positivism and Marxism is that Positivism simply seeks to understand th
world whereas Marxism seeks to change it.

Marist Geograpl1y
Marxist Geography is a strand of critical geography that uses the theories and
philosophy of Marxism to examine the spatial relations of human geography. In Marxist
geography, the relations that geography has traditionally analyzed-natural
environment and spatial relations-are reviewed as outcomes of the mode of material
production. To understand geographical relations, on this view, the social structure
must also be examined. Marxist geography attempts to change the basic structure of
society. Marxist geography is radical in nature and its primary criticism of the positivist
 308 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

spatial science centred on the latter's methodologies, which failed to demonstrate or

account for the mechanisms of capitalism and exploitation that underliehuman spatial
arrangements. As such, early Marxist geographers were explicitly political in
advocating for social change and activism; they sought, through application of
geographical analysis of social problems, to alleviate poverty and exploitation in
capitalist societies. Marxist geography makes exegetical claims regarding how the
deep-seated structures of capitalism act as a determinant and a constraint to human
agency. Most of these ideas were developed in the early 1970s by dissatisfied
quantitative geographers; David Harvey is generally regarded as the primary trail-
blazer of the Marxist movement in human geography. In order to accomplish such
philosophical aims, these geographers rely heavily upon Marxist social and economic
theory, drawing on Marxian economics and the methods of historical materialism to
tease out the manner in which the means of production control human spatial
distribution in capitalist structures. Marx is also invoked to examine how spatial
relationships are affected by class. The emphasis is on structure and structural
mechanisms. This emphasis has yielded results but also criticism.
Marxist geography attempts to explain the world and also to change it. Marxism
human beings gradualy transforming themselves from stage to stage until they
reach social perfection, and this transformation is seen as an aim towards which
societies should be moving. This change is brought about by 'dialectical' processes-
conflict between opposing forces-bringing forth a new synthesis which again is
contradicted, and so on. The forces shaping society are seen as entities, which include
capital, labour, capitalism and other modes of production, the state, class, society, and
the market. Marxist geography highlights the dialectical relationships between social
processes and the natural environment and spatial relationships. It is concerned with
the modes of production which underlie the
superstructure of society. It sees spatial
and environmental problems, such as the destruction of habitats
or uneven
development, originating deep within the social formations of capitalism. It is aimed
at changing the fundamental
operations of social processes by changing the workings
of production. Marxist geography is the study of the inherent contradictions of
capitalism as they appear in the landscape and as they relate to each other. Examples
may be given of the changing structures and contradictions of
inherent contradiction in a capitalist state which seeks to capitalism. There is an
funded by taxation. Higher demand for raw materials generate better conditions
generates
output leads to more pollution and, in an environment where the higher
costs. More
strict controls on pollution, costs again rise. The result of
authorities require
these contradictions is the
movement by multinational firms from established industrial
environments to develop (despoil) and of new, politically regions in search of new
Marxist geography has been widely criticized: for thevirgin,
labour to hire (exploit).
ethnocentric and patriarchal1
nature of its assumptions, for the
passive role apportioned to individuals, who have
been turned into non-decision-makers, for its
and its neglect of environmental issues, and preoccupation with class and industry
by postmodernists, who reject overarching
meta-theory.
 CHAPTER 12 MARXIST GEOGRAPHY 309

NOTES
1. Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) was a
political theorist, philosopher, and German-English
father of Marxist
industrialist, social scientist, author,
2. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) was a German theory, alongside Karl Marx.
of German Idealism. His historicist and idealist philosopher, one of the creators
account of reality as a whole revolutionized
European philosophy and was an important precursor to Continental
Marxism. philosophy and
3. Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, was a
revolutionary and theorist. Russian Marxist
4. Husain, 1995, 380-86.
5. Capitalism generally refers to an economic
system in which the means of production are
mostly privately owned and operated for profit, and in which distribution,
and pricing of goods and services are determined in a production
largely free market. It is usually
considered to involve the right of individuals and groups of individuals
acting as "legal
persons" or corporations to trade capital goods, labour and money. Capitalism has
emerged as the Western world's dominant economic system since the decline of feudalism.
Since the Industrial Revolution, capitalism gradually
spread from Europe,
from Britain, across political and cultural frontiers. In the 19th and 20thparticularly
centuries,
capitalisn provided the main means of industrialization throughout much of the world

REFERENCES
Avineri, Shlomo (1968), The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge University
Press.
Craig J. Calhoun (2002), Classical Sociological Theory. Wiley-Blackwell.
Dikshit, RD. (1997), Geographical Thought: A Contertual History of ldeas, Prentice Hall of India,
PP. 165-168.
Harvey, M.E. and B.P. Holly (1989), Themes in Geographical Thought, Rawat Publications, Jaipur
and New Delhi.
Rawat Publications,
Husain, M. (1995), Evolution of Geographical Though1t, Third Revised Edition,
Jaipur
Jon Elster, (1986), An Introduction to Karl Marx. Cambridge, England.
"Karl Marx--Staníord Encyclopaedia of Philosophy".
Harper
New York: and Row.
McLellan, David (1973), Karl Marx: His life and Thought. MacMillan.
McLellan, David (2007), Marxism After Marx. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Oxford Dictionary of Geograplhy. Marxist Geography" in Modern Geographical
Peet, R. (1998), "Radical Geography, Marxism and
Thought, Blackwell, pp. 67-111.
Science: Marxist influences-Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
Social Critical Social Theory" in Postmodern Geographies,
Soja, E.W. (1997), "Marxist Geography and
Rawat Publications, pp. 43-75.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
after Marxism: The PhilosopBhy of Karl Marx. John Wiley and Sons.
Tom Rockmore (2002), MarxMarx: A Life. New York: Norton.
Wheen, Francis (2002), Karl
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
 CHAPTER-13

Feminist Geography

refers to the social differences

Gender is particularly important facet of identity that
a
We use the
between men and women rather than biological differences related
to sex.
term 'gender' to refer to socially created distinction between faminity and masculinity,
while the term 'sex' is used to refer to biological differences between men and women.
However, when we talk about the
geography of gender, we generally refer to feminist
geography. Feminism, as such, is a diverse collection of social theories, political
movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerned with the
experiences of women. Feminism aims at defining, establishing, and defending equal
political, economic, and social rights for women. In addition, feminism seeks to establish
equal opportunities for women in education and employment. A feminist is a "person
whose beliefs and behaviour are based on feminism." The feminists are especially
concerned with social, political and economic inequality between men and women;
whereas gendered identities of 'men' and 'women' are socially constructed. Feminists
differ over the sources of inequality, how to attain equality, and the extent to which
gender and sexual identities should be questioned and critiqued. In simple terms,
feminism is the belief in social, political and economic equality of the sexes and the
movement organised around this belief. One illustration of the feminst approach to
geography is to study gender differences in terms of personal access, mobility and
Safety, especially in respect to the design and use of urban space and open places such
as public parks and footpaths. The experience of walking alone through a city centre
late at night or Public Park even in daytime is likely to be different for males and
females and also for people of different ages, cultures and so on.

Historical Perspective

Depending on historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world
have had different causes and goals. The
history of the modern western feminist
 CHAPTER 13 FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY 311
novements is divided into three "waves".' Each
lhe feminist issues. The first wave wave dealt with different
comprised aspects of
19th and early 20th centuries, promoting women's suffrage movements of the
women's
was associated with the ideas and actions of the right to vote. The second wave
heginning in the 1960s. This wave campaigned for women's liberation movement
The third wave is a legal and social equality for women.
continuation
wave feminism, beginning
of, and a reaction
in the 1990s.
to, the perceived failures of second-
First-wave feminism was a period of
during the 19th and early z0tn century in the United activity
fac1sed on the promotion of equal contract, Kingdom and United States. It
fot women. Roots of the movemernt in US marriage, parenting and property rights
and UK include the Women's
movement of the early 1900s and the Women's Liberation Suffrage
movement of the 1960s and 1970s. The (or "Second Wave Feminist")
claimed would address the inadequaciesEqual Rights Amendment, which
of the Fourteenth proponents
and Amendment concerning
women citizenship,was
proposedin the US in 1923. In the
United States,
wave feminism is considered to have
ended with the passage of the first
Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), Nineteenth
vote in all states. The term first wave was granting women the right to
coined retroactively to
western movements after the term second-wave feminism categorize these
a newer feminist movement that focused
as much on
began to be used to describe

inequalities as political inequalities. The feminist movementfighting social and cultural

in the West evolved in
the 1980s with the rise of so-called Post-Feminism (also called
"Third-Wave" feminism),
which stresses that women have many rights that
go unrecognized, often by women
themselves, in everyday life, and in the American legal structure. Second-wave
feminists see women's cultural and
political inequalities as inextricably linked and
encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized
and as reflecting power structures. Second and third-wave feminism in China has
been characterized by a re-examination of women's roles during the communist
revolution and other reform movements, and new discussions about whether women's
equality has actually been fully achieved. In Latin America, revolutions brought
changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua, where feminist ideology
during the Sandinista Revolution aided women's quality of life but fell short of
achieving a social and ideological change. In the early 1990s in USA, third-wave
wave and to the
feminism began as a response to perceived failures of the second
backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave
feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deemns the second wave's essentialist
definitions of femininity, which, they argue, over-emphasize the experiences of upper
and
middle-class white women. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics"
for women, and
challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good
and sexuality. Feminist leaders
tend to use a post-structuralist interpretation of gender
Anzaldua, Chela Sandoval, Cherrie Moraga,
rooted in the second wave, such as Gloriaand to
AudreLorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, many other black feminists, sought
for consideration of race-related subjectivities.
negotiate a space within feminist thought that the teminist movement should
Since, the 1980s standpoint feminists have argued
issues in order to understand how gender
address global issues and culturally specific
 312 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

nequality interacts with racism, homophobia, classism and colonization in a "matrix

ot domination. " Third-wave feminism also contains internal debates between difference

teminists, who believe that there are important differences between the sexes, and
those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend
that gender roles are due to social conditioning. The term post-feminism is used to
aescribe a
range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s.
Feminist Theory
Feminist theory, which emerged from these feminist movements, aims to understand
the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience.
Feminist activists campaign for women's rights-such as in contract law, property,
and voting. Feminist campaigns have changed societies, particularly in the West.
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It
encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology,
economics, history and philosophy. Heminist theory aims to understand gender
inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality.While
providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory
also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests. Themes explored in
feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual
objectification), oppression and patriarchy-. Many overlapping feminist movements
and ideologies have developed over the years.
Some branches of feminism closely track the
political leanings of the larger society,
such as liberalism and conservatism, or focus on the environment. Liberal
feminism
seeks individualistic equality of men and women
without altering the structure of
through political and legal reform
society. Radical feminism considers the male-
controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's
total uprooting and reconstruction of oppression and the
society necessary. Conservative feminism is
as
conservative relative to the society in which it resides. Libertarian
of feminism conceives
people as self-owners and, therefore, as entitled to freedom from coercive
interference. Ecofeminists see men's control of
of women and destruction of the natural land as responsible for the oppression
environment. The materialist feminism
out of Western Marxist
Thought and have inspired a number of different grew
overlapping) movements, all of which are involved ina critique of capitalism and(but are
focused on ideology's relationship to women. Marxist
is the root cause of women's
feminism argues that capitalism
oppression, and that discrimination against women in
domestic life and employment is an effect of
capitalist
distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguingideologies. Socialist feminism
that women's liberation can
only be achieved by working to end both the econonic and cultural
sources of women's
oppression.
During much of its
history, feminist movements and
were led predominantly by middle-class white women from theoretical developments
Western Europe and North
America. However, women of other races have
trend accelerated in the 1960s with the civil
proposed alternative feminisms. This
rights movement in the United States and
 CHAPTER 13 FEMNIST GEOGRAPHY 313

the collapse
of European
of Eu colonialismin
Atrica, the
tne Caribbean, parts of Latin America,
Southeast Asia. Since, that time, women in
and
who are of
developing nations and former colonies
colour or various ethnicities or
hf colou
and who living in poverty have proposed
14onal feminisms. Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial
Western feminism marginalizec postcolonial women but did not
oppression and
ieless. Third-world feminism is turn them
closely related to post-coloniai feminism. passive
In the late 20th century various feminists
l constructed, and thatit IS impossible to began to argue that gender roles are
lures and histories. Post-structural feminismgeneralize women's experiences across
draws on the
stucturalism and deconstruction in order to argue that the philosophies of post-
concept of gender is created
sociall and culturally through discourse. Fost-modern feminists also
Social construction of gender and the discursive nature of
reality.
emphasize the
Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the
traditions,
and theologies of religions trom a teminist perspective. Some of practices, scriptures,
the goals of feminist
theology include increasing the role of women among the
authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and clergy about
and religious
language God,
determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images
of women in the religion's sacred texts. Christian feminism is a branch of feminist
theology which seeks interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality
to
of women and men, and that this interpretation is
necessary tor a complete
understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian
feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of sex, and are
involved in issues such as the ordination of women, male dominance and the balance
of parenting in Christian marriage, claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of women
compared to men, and the overall treatment of women in the church. Islamic feminists
advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded within an Islamic
framework. Advocates seek to the
highlight rooted teachings of equality in the
deeply
Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching
towards the
tnrough the Quran, Hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and inSharia (law) movement's
Creation of a more equal and just society. Although rooted Islam, the the
recognize
and
Pneers have also utilized secular and Western feminist discourses movement. Jewish
role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist and social status of
Ennism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal,
for experience
and to open up new opportunities religiOus
Onen within Judaism
and
leadership for Jewish womern.
between 'radical feminism'
and 'socialist
erally, the distinction is sought
women oppression
in patriarchal gender relations
feminism'.
fa . Linking the root cause
cause of
ot
won ist feminism attempts to link gender
feminism
radical feminism, whereas the socialist gender
Pol deT relations existing in
society as a whole.
D.ns to the wider framework of social that views women's oppression (or
feminism is branch of feminism
Cal a
which human relattonships in society
Paarchy) as the basic system of power upon rejecting standard gender roles
It seeks to challenge this arrangement by
And ged. characterize patriarchy as an unjust
ind male oppression. Most forms
male oppression. forms of feminism
wdl
sy'stem that is oppressive to women.
AsAs the teminist political theorist Carole
feminist and political & aroe
314 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Pateman writes: "The

patriarchal construction of the difference between masculinity
and femininity is the
political difference between freedom and subjection." In feminist
theory conceptof patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that
the
and exert male dominance reproduce
over women. The term 'Militant feminism' is a pejorative
term which is often associated, usually by detractors, with radical feminism.
radical feminism is seen Often,
by people other than adherents as a form of identity politics.
The term 'radical' in radical
feminism is used as 'an adjective meaning of or pertaining
to the root or
going to the root'. Radical feminists locate the root cause of women's
oppression in patriarchal gender relations. The root cause of the oppression of women
in society is traced to the
system of 'patriarchy', which functions in favour of male
domination over females. The radical feminism considers the subordination of women
by men as the primary inequality in human society. It is argued that the division of
labour between men and women had
procceded (and given birth to) the division of
labour between class and race. The radical feminists insist that elimination of
sexual
oppression (subordination) should form the cornerstone of attempts to eliminate other
types of oppressions in society. From such a perspective, men and women appear to
form somewhat antagonist classes
irrespective of divisions on either side on the basis
of age, race and income status. The adherents to radical
feminism emphasize that
male domination of the man-woman
relationship resulted in personal services
has
largely to the private sphere where they are made to carry out manyrestricting
women

for men-services that remain

the burden of child rearing.
largely unreciprocated-apart from having to carry
of women remain
Patriarchy, therefore, works to ensure that the vast majority
legally and economically dependent on their men. This process of
subordination through patriarchy begins early in life so that little
less freedom of movement than girls are allowed far
boys of the same age, and the process becomes all the
more visible at the adolescent
stage. Radical feminists appear united in viewing men
as the
enemy in their struggle for women's liberation; they insist on
and men's behaviour in terms of examining women's
aside other types of interrelationships between the two genders, setting
cleavages in society. The Socialist feminism, on the other hand, is
a branch of feminism that
focuses upon both the public and
woman's life and argues that liberation can private spheres of a
the economic and cultural sources of
only be achieved by
working to end both
women's oppression. The social feminist
viewpoint represents the human face of the left movement. Social feminists
from their redical colleagues in their differ
other societal inequalities in relation toemphasis on
patriarchy the root cause of all
as
women, and they reject the notion that 'men
are the
enemy' and favour unity between men and women in the
classes, though they continue to focus on female struggle between
subordination and the and
means of alleviating it. Thus, social
feminism represents the welfare stream ways of radical
feminism. One of the ways to achieve this
goal is through women
Since the 1970s feminist
writings have shed considerable light on empowerment.
the subjects of
women's empowerment. The term
empowerment has a contextual connotation.
Empowerment gives to the expression to emergence of creativity, self-reliance, the
blossoming of thoughts drawing on both extenial and internal sources to secure self-
determination, a productive self-improvement and individualistic
identity and
 CHAPTER 13 FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY 315

lity for the women. The faminst writers have identified two broad strategies
fempowerment
of 'power wihin' and power with'. Power within' refers to affirmation
empowerment 'po
dividual. It may come out through education getting the skills and expertise.
ofPower
u ith' refers to collective action, the organization and mobilization of self-
confident individuals.

Feminist Geography
Human geographers have variousiy detined geography as a spatial science yet a
definition of space universally acceptable to all of them remained elusive. From the
carliest times until the 1970s geographers understood space as physically real,
measurable and definable-a grid within which objects were located and events
eccurred. For spatial scientists, space is a key variable in shaping the organisation of
have focused the ways in which space is
human activity. Feminist geographers
and
gendered. They believe that under patriarchy, ground rules determine how men
women can use space. They examine the ways in which gender relations are expressed
men ditfer because the lives of women revolve around
in space. The lives ot women and
and family, while men's lives revolve around public
private space-the realm of house
institutions. This does not simply make
space-the space of money, power andbut the
women's lives different from men's lives, relegation of women to private space
available to them and makes
and reproductive labour greatly limits the opportunities
Men have long dominated women, and
them subservient to and dependent on men. silent. Most
voices of w o m e n have remained
like those of other dominated groups the
of those who do the domination.
of what we know has come from the perception
leaders and statesmen; they are
books full of the exploits of men. Men are
History are
the philosophers and thinkers,
founders
the winners of war and builders of empires, inventors. The musicians,
the scientists and
of religion,the explorers and discoverers, been men. In short, men
have always
authors too have mostly
artists, painters and missing from the scene of activity
and
dominated public life. m e n are totally the story of men--in
the
also from the pages of history,
making history
rerore, mankind, relegated
are
constitute one half of
of the word. Women, who discipline.
eral sense is true of every
of history
other academic
carried
O the background. What is true
at least till recently,
and their tradition was,
unce, men founded them all, female worldview
was either neglected
totally
men, the
Ward almost exclusively by
or greatly marginalised. theories,
which applies the
is an approach in human geography environment, sociery
Deth Sgeography of feminism
and the study of the
to
human
tnods critiques u 8tuet
Its principal focus of study is geographic ditterences
world, it retlects on
Ographical space. its analysis of
the real
and gender equality. In addition to 8eogtapuy
LOns In this respect temunist
nature of the female experience. which is not primarily
8aphical to the subject
post-modern approach but rather
tocuses
on
Co a Droader theory in itself
conceptual
Cened with the development of in their own
localities,
upon ne
and groups
real experiences of individuals thheir own communities.
However, teminist

g r a p h i e s that they live in within

 316 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

geography is not limited to the local scale. One example of a global topic of feminist
geography research is the worldwide migration of women from the Third World to
pertorm domestic labour and various other jobs. The term feminist geography
subsumes perspectives on feminist
politics and the theories that explore gender
relations in society. The interest in the study of feminism dates back to the mid-1970s.
It drew inspiration from the women's movements in the West in the 1960s as
part of
theradicalization of societal perspectives. As the Women and Geography Study Group
of Institute of British
Geographers put it, "In common with other approaches in
geography which are critical of mainstream work", feminist geography tries to "analyse
and understand why women remain in subordinate position" in society and the
professions. Seen in this light, feminist geography may be defined as "a geography
which explicitely takes into account the socially created
gender structure of society;
and in which a commitment, both towards the alleviation of
gender inequality in the
short term and towards its removal, through social change towards real equality, in
the long term, is expressed." A feature common to all feminist argument is that the
differences in social positions of men and women
of men so that women and men in fact have
systematically work to the advantage
unequal power, opportunities, and social
status. Feminist geography aims at
exploring the ways in which current practices in
society might be changed in order to release women from the state of subordination.
addition to societal studies, Feminist
and other academic
Geography also critiques Human Geography
disciplines, arguing that academic structures have been
traditionally characterized by a patriarchal perspective, and that contemporary studies
which do not confront the nature of
previous work reinforce the masculine bias of
academic study.
It was not until the late 1980s that feminist
geography became well established as
a
sub-discipline geography--several years after it was established in other social
of
sciences. Up until then, the research
agenda being set by men, geography examined
only issues that were of interest of men, vowing masculine
rationality to derive
'universally applicable' laws. What passed as human geography was really male
geography and the geography of the world was really geography of the male world.
The male viewpoint
thought it appropriate to explore only the public spaces, which
were dominated
by men. Private spaces, the realm of women on
account of their
association with reproductive labour, held little interest for male
geographers developed a more 'progressive' and 'engaged' form geographers. Feminist
of geographical
enquiry, bringing a new theoretical agenda to the subject.
reinterpretation of the uses and structures of specific places, They undertook a
methodologicai issues in human geography and presented a critique ofreappraised
assumptions within geographical theory. Feminist geography does not concern underlying
only with women's issues, nor is it geography of female world. It takes into itself
all the processes that contribute to the account
constitution and reproduction of
Feminist geographers have tried to understand the gender.
division of labour and its effects on women's
spatial dimensions of gendered
rather than 'where work was taken
well-being by asking 'who works where?
place?"
 CHAPTER 13 FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY 317

One of the major contributions of feminist geographers has been to the study of
geographers have insisted geography holds a series of unstated
nptions about men and women do, andthat
space Feminist
that the discipline concentrates on spaces,
placesand
and landscapes that it sees as men's. They contend that a complete and
sive understanding
prehensive under of human cannot be achieved without
where a large part of our daily lives are lived. Private space exploring private
is the domain ot
omestic and reproductive labour, which is as important as public space, the domain
oroductive labour. Traditional andro-centric geography has chosen to focus on the
of productive labour.
1aHer.to the exclusion of the tormer. The association between men and labour markets,
coial and political institutions was taken for granted,
the absence of women
trom
them envinced no interest. Feminist geographers have not only expanded the reach of
geographical enquiry, they have challenged conventional explanations and altered
certain assumptions made about human society. They have focused on the exclusion
of women from public spaces of waged employment and their segregation into a
particular range of occupations identified as feminine as well as their absence of the
portals of power and positions of decision-making. It was neither the lack of ability
nor the desire that kept women out of these spaces. Rather, it was the gender relations
that are fundamental part of social structure that contrived to effect this exclusion.
Ground rules laid down by patriarchy construct social, economic and political
structures which influence the ways in which men and women form their own gender
identities. Just as social roles are gendered, patriarchy also constructs certain spaces
as feminine as others as masculine.

NOTES
1. Feminism', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
2. Patriarchy is a social system in which the role of the male as the primary authority figure
is central to social organization, and where fathers
hold authority over women, children,
and is dependent on
andproperty. It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege,
female subordination.
. MacMillan, Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender, 1104.
4. Dikshit, R.D. (1997), 263-69.
5. Tewari, 2010, 33.

REFERENCES
ldeas, Prentice Hall of India.
A Contextual History of
t , D. (1997), Geographical Thought: Feminist Geograpl1y. Routledge
uender, Place and Culture-A Journal of Anglo-American Human Geograply
Since 1945,
and Geograplhers:
Ston, RJ. (2004), Geography
6th Ed., Edward Arnold, London.
MacMillan, Encyclopedin of Sex and Gender.
318 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

McDowell, Linda (1993), "Space, place and gender relations" in Progress in Human Geography,
17(2).
Peet, R. (1998), Modern Geographical Thought, Blackwell.
Rose, Gillian (1993), Feminism and Geography: The Limits Geographical Knowledge,
of Minnesota Press.
of University
Stanford, Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Tewari, Preeti (2010), Divisionof Work and Gender Space in Delhi, Ph.D. research work submitted
at the Department of Geography, University of Delhi, pp. 1-55.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
CHAPTER-14

Positivism

Positivism is the belief that the scientific method

is the best
humans. In other words, all true approach discover
to
knowledge about things or
More narrowly, the term designates the knowledge is scientific.
philosophical and religious doctrines
elaborated by Auguste Comte, who held that human
thought had passed inevitably
through a theological stage into a metaphysical stage and was passing into a
or scientific, stage. As a
philosophical system or method, Positivism denies thepositive,
validity
of metaphysical speculations, and maintains that the data of
sense experience are the
only object and the supreme criterion of hunman knowledge. In the
original Comtean
usage, the term meant the use of scientific methods to uncover the laws according to
which both physical and human events occur. The basic
all factual
principle of Positivism is that
knowledge based on the "positive" information gained from observable
is
experience, and that any ideas beyond this realm of demonstrable fact are metaphysical.
Only analytic statements are allowed to be known as true through reason alone. For
instance, 'roses are flowers' is analytic, whilst 'roses are
fragrant is synthetic that
requires evidence. Positivism seeks empirical regularities. It is based on the view and
in the social as well as natural
sciences, data derived from sensory experience, and
ogicaland mathematical treatments of such data, are together the exclusive source of
all authentic knowledge. Obtaining and verifying data that can be received from the
enses is known as empirical evidence. This view holds that society operates according
to laws like the physical world. Introspective and intuitional attempts to gain
OWIedge are rejected. One extended form of Positivism is Logical Positivism,
prOmoted by the 'Vienna Circle". Logical Positivism places particular emphasis on
Sense experience and observation and attempted to eradicate metaphysics and synthetic
Statements. Logical Positivists include early Wittgenstein, Bertrand Russell and Alíred
Tehead and Rudolph Carnap. Logical positivism attempted to introduce the
ethodology and precision of mathematics and the natural sciences into the field of
philosophy.
320 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Positivism claims to be a fundamentally non-metaphysical philosophy, modelled

empirical sciences and providing them with a methodology. The basic theme of
positivism is that in scientific discipline, knowledge is based on the facts that can be
observed and the relationships among these facts. The science should concern itself
only with empirical questions, i.e. how things are in reality. The real world is the
world that can be sensed actually (and is not mind-based). The reliable knowledge
can come only from basic observation of actual conditions. The philosophy of positivism
is anti-idealism. Since, the positivists believe that the moral norms like attitudes, beliefs,
prejudices, customs, traditions, taste, aesthetics, etc. cannot be tested, measured or
investigated, such aspects should be kept out of scientific disciplines. The six tenets of
Positivism are: (1) Naturalism: the principles of the natural sciences should be used for
social science; (2) Phenomenalism: only observable phenomena provide valid
information; (3) Nominalism: words of scientific value have fixed and single meanings
and the existence of a word does not imply the existence of what it describes;
(4) Atomism: things can be studied by reducing them to their smallest parts (and the
whole is the sum of the parts); (5) Scientific laws: the goal of science is to create
generalised laws (which are useful for such as prediction); and (6) Facts and values:
facts are to sought and values have no meaning for science.
In its strongest original formulation, positivism could be thought of as a set of five
principles: (1) The unity of the scientific method-i.e, the logic of inquiry is the same
across all sciences (socialand natural); (2) The aim of science is to explain and predict;
(3) Scientific knowledge is testable. Research can be proved onlyby empirical means,
not arguments alone; (4) Science does not equal common sense. Researchers must be
careful not to let common sense bias their research; and (5) Science should be as value-
eutral as possible. The ultimate goal of science is to produce
knowledge, regardless
of any politics, morals, or values held by those involved in the research. Science should
be judged by logic.

History
Also referred to as 'empiricism' or 'comtism',
positivism is actually the philosophical
system of Auguste Comte, a French Social Philosopher. It recognizes only
facts and observable phenomena and positive
rejects metaphysics and theism". As an approch
to the philosophy of science,
positivism was first systematically theorized by Comte,
who saw the scier tific method as
replacing metaphysics in the history of thought, and
who observed the circular dependence of
theory and observation in science. Positivism
merged in response to the inability of speculative philosophy (eg. Classical
Idealism) to solve philosophical problems which had arisen as a result of Gernm
development. Positivists went to an opposite extreme and rejected theoretical scientitic
speculation as a means of obtaining knowledge. Positivism declared false and senseless
ail problems, concepts and propositions of traditional
philosophy on being, substances,
causes, etc., that could not be solved or verified by experience due to a high degree ot
abstract nature. Although the positivist approach has been a "recurrent theme in the
history of western thought from the Ancient Greeks to the present day", the concept
was developed in the early 19th century by the philosopher and founding sociologist,
 CHAPTER 14 POSITIVISM 321

AuOste Comte. Positivism took shape as a distinct trend in the 1830s. During its
history of more than a century, positivism has evolved steadily towards expressing
more clearly and carrying to a logical conclusion its inherent tendency towards
Subjective idealism. Historically, the concept of positivism has emerged after French
Revolution. It originated out ot the French Enlightenment. At the time of Comte, science
was having a huge impact and Was steadily replacing religion as the key authority for
knowledge about what was true or false. When something is pronounced scientific
then it is generally held to be verifiable. The roots of Positivism lie particularly with
Empiricism, which works only with observable facts, seeing that beyond this is the
reaim of logic and mathematics. The positivism movement broke a range of taboos
and religious beliefs against empirical investigations. Especially in the latter half of
19th century, positivism had a considerable influence on the natural and social sciences.
Auguste Comte first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in
"Cours de Philosophie Positive" (The Course in Positive Philosophy), a series of texts
published between 1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1844 work, A
General View of Positivism (published in French 1848, English in 1865). The first three
volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence
(mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas, the latter two
emphasized the inevitable coming of social science. Observing the circular dependence
of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, Comte
may be regarded as the first philosopher ofscience in the modern sense of the term.
Comte believed that: "all scientific knowledge must be based ondirect experience of
immediate reality, since direct observation is the surest guarantee that the knowledge
acquired is scientific." Comte had put forward his ideas in the form of private lectures
in his apartment at Paris. Interestingly, the lectures were attended among others by
Humboldt (then nearly 60 years in age). In fact, Comte's lectures were published i
the form of "Cours de Philosophie Positive".

Percepts of Comte's Philosophy of Positivisn

"la certilude", i.e.
The direct experience of reality should be complemented by
the unity of scientific method. This implies
that ihe different branches of
of study (i.e. subject matter) and
knowledge are distinguished by their object differ from one another in 'what
their method. In other words, sciences
not
they study' rather than 'how they study'. of "lutile", which means
Positivist view of science incorporated the principle should be
some useful purpose-it
that all scientific knowledge must serve
social engineering.
to an end, and a tool for
utilizable, it should be a means method requires "le précis", i.e. a common
The concept of unity of scientific
theories. This implies that there is no
Scientific goal for formulating testable
in scientitic enquiry, since being based
place for subjective value judgements are not products of scientific
ethical assertions, value judgements
on
observations, and are as such, not veriiable
which means that scientific knowledge is
The next percept is "le relative",
322 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

essentially unfinished and relative, because knowledge keeps progressing by

gradual unification of theories that in turn enhance man's awareness of social
laws.

Comte otfered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three
phases in its quest for the truth according to a general law of three stages'. The idea
bears some similarity to Marx's view that hunan society would progress towards a
mmunist peak. Both Comte and Marx intended to develop secular-scientific ideologies
inthewake of European secularisation. Comte's stages were: (1) the theological, (2) the
metaphysical, and (3) the positive. The theological phase of man was based on whole-
hearted belief in all things with reference to God. God, Comte says, had reigned supreme
Over human existence pre-Enlightenment. Humanity's place in society was governed
by its association with the divine presences and with the church. The theological phase
deals with humankind's accepting the doctrines of the church (or place of worship)
rather than relying on its rational powers to explore basic questions about existence. It
dealt with the restrictions put in place by the religious organization at the time and the
total acceptance of any "fact" adduced for society to believe. Comte describes the
metaphysical phase of humanity as the time since the Enlightenment, a time steeped in
logical rationalism, to the time right after the French Revolution. This second phase
states that the universal
rights of humanity are most important. The central idea is that
humanity is invested with certain rights that must be respected. In this phase, democracies
and dictators rose and fell in
attempts to maintain the innate rights of humanity. The
final stage of the trilogy of Comte's universal law is the
central idea of this phase is that individual
scientific, or positive, stage. The
rights are more important than the rule of
any one person. Comte stated that the idea of
this stage innately different from the rest. Therehumanity's
is no higher
ability to govern itself makes
and the intrigue of any one power governing the masses
person can achieve anything based on that individual's free
will and authority. The third
principle is most
calls these three phases the universal rule in important
in the positive
stage. Comte
relation to society and its
Neither the second nor the third
phase can be reached without the
development.
understanding of the preceding stage. All stages must be completed in completion and
believed that the appreciation of the progress. Comte
and the ability to build on it towards
was key in
past the future
transitioning from the theological and metaphysical
progress was central to Comte's new sciernce, phases. The idea
ot
historical consideration of every science" because sociology. Sociology would "lead to the
"the
pure political history, would make no sense unless it history
of one science, including
general progress of all of humanity". As Comte would attached to the study of the
was

say: "from science comes

prediction; from prediction comes action." It is
development that culminated in science. The irony ofphilosophy
a of human intellectual
this series of phases is that though
omte attempted to prove that human
it seems that the
development has to go
through these three stages,
positivist stage is far from becoming a realization. This is due to two
truths. The positivist phase requires having a
complete
and world around us and requires that society should neverunderstanding of the universe
know if it is in this
phase. positivist
 CHAPTER 14 POSITIVISM 323

At the end of the 19th century, positivism went

radical breakdown of many concepts in physics at thethrough
a crisis caused by the
turn of the century, as well as
hy progress in the natural sciences, which
cancelled out or reduced the
many of the "synthetic" generalizations importance of
viewed by positivism as eternal and
1nquestionable attainmentS of science. The crisis in positivism was
intensive development of research in psychology, which forced promoted by the
ultimate" philosophical questions of knowledge-the scientists to analyze
had always done its utmost to avoid. In very questions that positivism
addition, the crisis was fostered the failure
of all attempts to
objective basis for the positivist system by
find the
of values in
mechanistic and metaphysical sociology. (The positivist criterion of what is scientific
makes it impossible to
introduce the consideration of values
into scientific research
and to deduce "what should be" from "what
is".) As a result of all of these
developments, became necessary to reassert the question of philosophy's role in the
it
sciences. Transtormed, positivism entered a new, second
the appearance of Machism
stage of its evolution with
(empirio-criticism). The Machist trend has been further
developed in the current, or third stage in the evolution of positivism-neopositivismn,
which emerged during the 1920s. Retreating from the
attempt to solve fundamental
philosophical problems, neopositivism concentrates on concrete logical and
methodological research on language or immediate experience.
Thus, historically, there are three stages in the development of positivism. The
exponents of the first were Comte, E. Littré and P. Laffitte in France, J.S. Mill and
Herbert Spencer in England. Alongside the problems of the theory of knowledge
(Comte) and logic (Mill), the main place in the first Positivism was assigned to sociology
(Comte's idea of transforming society on the basis of science, Spencer's organic theory
of society). The rise of the second stage in Positivism-empirio-criticism dates back to
the 1870s-1890s and is associated with Ernst Mach and Avenarius, who renounced
even formal recognition of objective real objects, which was a feature of early Positivism.
In Machism, the problems of cognition were
interpreted from the viewpoint of extreme
formation of the
psychologism, which was merging with subjectivism. The rise and the Vienna Circle
with the of
atest Positivism, or neo-positivism, is linked up The mainactivityin the third positivism
(O. Neurath, Carnap, Schlick, Frank and others). place
IS taken by the philosophical problems of language, symbolic logic, the structure of
Scientific investigations, and others. Having renounced psychologism, the exponents
the logic of science with
the third positivism took the course reconciling
of
Omathematics, the course of formalisation of epistemological problems.

Logical Positivism
in early 20th century Vienna, led
c a l positivism was important development
an
were true or false, but that
Moritz Schlick^. It held that not just that propositions
y to be either true or false) were
otatements which could not be verified (shown

caningless. Thus statements like "There

is a God" or "There is no God" are not true
that had dominated
but meaningless. This is the original view of positivism
OrTaise,
SCientific thinking for almost a century. As a further development of this philosophy
 324 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

in 1920s there emerged Logical Positivism' (or Logical Empiricism), a new idea-a
body of principles developed by a group of philosophers at the University of Vienna
(Austria)-the Vienna Circle. The logical positivists accepted the basic scheme of Comte
but codified its principles for the conduct of scientific enquiry in order that it could
lead generalizations and theories. The logical positivits were
wel-formulated
to
against everything that cannot be verified empirically and investigated by scientiic
method. As a set of scientific principles, logical positivism is concerned with acquisition
of knowledge in the form of general statements obtained through accepted scientific
procedures of observation and analysis, which can be used in manipulating phenomena
with a view to bringing about desired results. Logical positivism is a school of
philosophy that combines empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is
indispensable for knowledge of the world, with a version of rationalism, the idea that
our knowledge includes a component that is not derived from observation. Until the
1950s, logical positivism was the leading school in the philosophy of science. Logical
positivism used formal logic to underpinan empiricist account of our knowledge of
the world. Philosophers such as Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach, along with
other members of the Vienna Circle, claimed that the truths of logic and mathematics
were tautologies, and those of science were verifiable empirical claims. These two
constituted the entire universe of meaningful judgements; anything else was nonsense.
The claims of ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences. Theology and other
metaphysics were pseudo-statements, neither true nor false, simply meaningless
nonsense. Karl Popper's insistence upon the role of falsification in the philosophy of
science was a reaction to the logical positivists. With the rise of Adolf Hitler and
National Socíalism in Germany and Austria, some members of the Vienna and Berlin
fled
Circles Germany, mainly to
Britain and the USA, which helped to reinforce the
dominance of logical positivism and analytic philosophy in the Anglophone world.
Logical positivists typically considered philosophy as having a very limited function.
For them, philosophy is concerned with the organization of thoughts, rather than
havingdistincttopics of its own. The positivists adopted the principle of verificationism,
according to which every meaningful statement is either analytic or is capable of being
verified by experience. This caused the logical positivists to reject many traditional
problems of philosophy, especialy those of metaphysics or ontology, as meaningless.

Basic Tenets

Although the logical positivists held a wide

range of views on many matters, they
were all interested in science and
skeptical theology and metaphysics. Early, most
of
logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from
protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. Many logical positivists endorsedsimple
forms of materialism, metaphysical naturalism, and empiricism. Perhaps the view for
which the logical positivists are best known is the
verifiability criterion of meaning,that
verificationism. In one of its earlier and stronger formulations, this is the doctrine
or

a proposition is "cognitively meaningful" only if there is a finite procedure for

conclusively determining its truth. An intended consequence of this opinion, for most
 CHAPTER 14 POSITIVISM 325

nositivists,is that
l
nand
metapnysical, theological, and ethical statements fail this
so are not
criterion, and
cognutively meaningful. They distinguished cognitive from
arieties
of meaningfulness
(e.g. emotive,
that the non-cognitive statements ofexpressive, figurative), and most
ncede th
authors concede
the
some ather
other kind ot
meaningtulness. 1he positive history
of meaningtulness. The positiv y oof philosophy
philosophy possess
possess
characterization of cognitive
meaningfulness varies irom dutOr o autnor. It has been described as the property of
havinga ruth value, correspondirng to a
intellieible or understandable inpossible
state of affairs,
the sense in which naming proposition,
a
orbein
fintelligible or understandable. Another characteristic featurescientific statements are
of logical positivism is
dhe commitnment to "Unified Science" that is, the
of. in Neurath's phrase, a "universal
development of common language
a
slang'
n which all scientific propositions can be
expressed.

Influence
Logical positivism spread throughout almost the entire western world. It was
disseminated throughout the European continent. It was spread to Britain the
influence of A.J. Ayer. And later, it was brought to American Universities by
of the Vienna Circle after they fled Europe and settled in the by members
United States during and
after Second World War. Logical positivism was essential to the
development of early
analytic philosophy. The term subsequently came to be almost interchangeable with
"analytic philosophy" during the first half of the twentieth century. Logical positivism
was immensely influential in the
philosophy of language and represented the dominant
philosophy of science between First World War and the Cold War. Key tenets of logical
positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle,
and the fact-value distinction, came under attack after the Second World War
by
philosophers such as Nelson Goodman, Quine, J.L. Austin, and PeterStrawson.
Lhus, the logical positivism-a descendant of Comte's basic thesis bu
independent movement-sprang up in Vienna and grew to become one of the dominant
schools in Anglo-American philosophy and the analytic tradition in the early 20th
Cerntury. Logical positivists (or 'neopositivists) rejected metaphysicalspeculation a
attempted to reduce statements and propositions to pure logic. Critiques of this
aPproach by philosophers such as Karl Popper, Willard Van Orman Quine and Thomas
Nuhn have been
highly influential, and led to the development of post-positivism
Post-Positivis1m
n its broadest sense, positivism is a rejection of metaphysics. It is a position that holds
T e goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience.

to what observe and measure.

Purpose of science is simply to stick we can
nowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold, is impossible In a

UIst View of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth, understand
to
the world well enough so that we might predict and control it. The world and the
Unverse were deterministic-they operated by laws ofcause and effect that we could
326 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

The positivist
of the scientific method.
discern if we applied the unique approach
and measurement was the core of
believed in empiricism-the idea that observation is
scientific endeavour. The key approach of
the scientific method the experiment,
the direct manipulation and observation.
the attempt to discern natural laws through of the 20th century
in views of science since the middle part
Things have changed our
from positivism into what we term post.
The most important has been our shift away
positivism. of the central tenets of positivism. A post
Post-positivism is a wholesale rejection and work and the
that the way scientists think
positivist might begin by recognizing Scientific reasoning and
life are not distinctly different.
way we think in our everyday
the same process. There is no difference in
common sense reasoning are essentially
most common forms of
difference in degree. One of the
kind between the two, only a realist believes that
called critical realism. A critical
post-positivism is a philosophy
about it that science can study. Positivists
there is a reality independent of our thinking
critical realist recognizes
were also realists. The
difference is that the post-positivist
error and that all theory
is revisable. In other
that all observation is fallible and has
our ability to know reality with certainty. Where
words, the critical realist is critical of
of science was to uncover the truth, the post
the positivist believed that the goal the goal of
that the goal of science is to hold steadfastly to
positivist critical realist believes that goal! Because all
getting it right about reality, ven though we can never achieve
the importance of multiple
measurement is fallible, the post-positivist emphasizes
measures and observations,
each of which may possess different types of error, and
errorful sources to try to get a better
the need to use triangulation across these multiple
also believes that all
bead on what's happening in reality. The post-positivist
for that matter)
observations are theory-laden and that scientists (arnd everyone else,
world views, and so on. This is not
are inherently biased by their cultural experiences,
cause to give up in despair, however. Just because I have my world view based on my
that we can't hope to translate from
experiences and you have yours doesn't mean the
each other's experiences or understand each other. That is, post-positivism rejects
relativist idea of the incommensurability of different perspectives, the idea that
we can

never understand each other because we come from different experiences and cultures
view
Most post-positivists are constructivists who believe that we each construct our
is
of the world based on our perceptions of it. Because perception and observation
fallible, our constructions must be imperfect. Post-positivists reject the idea that any
individual can see the world perfectly as it really is. We are all biased and all of our

observations are affected (theory-laden). Our best hope for achieving objectivityis to
the
triangulate across multiple fallible perspectives! Thus, objectivity is not
characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon. It iswhat nultupc
individuals are trying to achieve when they criticize each other's work. We never
achieve objectivity perfectly, but we can approach it. The best way for us to improve
the objectivity of what we do is to do it within the context of a broader contentious
work
community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each other's
The theories that survive such intense serutiny area bit like the species that survive
the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory o
 CHAPTER 14 POSITIVISM 327
wledge and
Ane
holds that ideas have
'survival
through process of variation, selection and value' and
a and that
that knowledge evolves
tne probably close as our species can comeretention.)
and are probably;as
They have adaptive value
to
reality. being objective and
Atthe turn of the 20th century, the understanding
tirst wave of
duced methodological anti-positivism, pronosin German
introduced
on human culturaral norms,anti-positivism,
values, symbols, proposing thattman sociologists formally
research should concentrate
hiective perspective. This first and social
sub processes viewed from a
wave German sociologists,
who rejected the
nd Georg Simmel, wl
ot
doctrine, thus founding the included Max Weber
uAntipositivism" is based on the beliet
that natural ar.d artipositivist tradition.
kologically and epistemologically distinct. The extent of human sciences are
slso become broad, with many anti-positivist criticism has
social epistemology philosophies broadly rejecting
and other ones the
only seeking to scientifically based
developments in the amend it toreflect 20th century
accounts of positivismphilosophy
of science. In
have long since fallen contemporary
out of favour.
social science,
strong
today acknowledge in far greater detail Practitioners of
observer bias and structural positivism
Modern positivists generally limitations.
methodological debates eschew metaphysical concerns in favour of
concerning
positivism is generally equated with clarity, replicability, reliability and validity. This
"quantitative research" and thus carries explicit
theoretical or philosophical commitments. no

Criticism

Historically, positivism has been criticized for its

that all "processes are reducible to universalism, i.e. for
contending
processes are reducible to
physiological, physical or chemical events," "social
relationships between and actions of individuals," and that
"biological organisms are reducible to physical systems."
Max Horkheimers criticized the classic
formulation of
First, he claimed that it falsely represented human socialpositivism
on two
grounds.
action. The first criticism
argued that positivism systematically failed to appreciate the extent to which the
s0-called social facts it yielded did not exist 'out there', in the
were themselves a
objective world, but
product socialiy
of and historically mediated human consciousness.
Positivism ignored the role of the
'observer in the constitution of social reality and
thereby failed to consider the historical and social conditions affecting the
representation of social ideas. Positivism falsely represented the object of study by
reitying social reality as existing objectively and independently and labour actually
prodrced those conditions. Secondly, he argued, representation of social reality
produced by positivism was inherently and artificially conservative, helping to support
une status quo, rather than challenging it. This character may also explains the popularity
POSitivism in certain political circles. Horkheimer argued, in contrast, that critical
eory possessed a reflexive element lacking in the positivistic traditional theory.
c e the time of his writing, critiques of positivism, especially from philosophy
, have led to the development of post-positivism. Positivism has also come
e r fire on religious and philosophical grounds, whose proponents assert that truth
326 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

discern if we applied the unique approach of the scientific method. The positivist
believed in empiricism-the idea that observation and measurement
Was the core of
the scientific endeavour. The key approach of the scientific method is the experiment,
the attempt to discern natural laws through direct
manipulation and observation.
nungs have changed in our views of science since the middle part of the 20th century.
The most important has been our shift
away from positivism into what we term post-
positivism.
Post-positivism is a wholesale rejection of the central tenets of positivism. A post
positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and work and the
way we think in our everyday life are not distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and
common sense reasoning are essentially the same process. There is no ditterence in
ind between the two, only a difference in degree. One of the most common forms of
postpositivism is a philosophy called critical realism. A critical realist believes that
there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. Positivists
were also realists. The difference is that the post-positivist critical realist recognizes
that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable. In other
words, the critical realist is critical of our ability to know reality with certainty. Where
the the goal of science was to uncover the truth, the post
positivist believed that
positivist critical realist believes that the goal of science is to hold steadfastly to the goal of
getting it right about reality, even though we can never achieve that goal! Because all
measurement is fallible, the post-positivist emphasizes the
importance of multiple
measures and observations, each of which may possess different types of error, and
the need to use triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try to get a better
bead on what's happening in reality. The post-positivist also believes that all
observations are theory-laden and that scientists (and everyone else, for that
matter)
are inherently biased by their cultural experiences, world views, and so on. This is not
cause to give up in despair, however. Just because I have my world view based on my
experiences and you have yours doesn't mean that we can't hope to translate from
each other's experiences or understand each other. That is, post-positivism rejects the
relativist idea of the incommensurability of difterent perspectives, the idea that we can
never understand each other because we come from different experiences and cultures.
Most post-positivists are constructivists who believe that we each construct our view
of the world based on our perceptions of it. Because perception and observation is
fallible, our constructions must be imperfect. Post-positivists reject the idea that any
individual can see the world pertectly as it really is. We are all biased and all of our
observations are affected (theory-laden). Our best hope for achieving objectivity is to
triangulate across multiple fallible perspectives! Thus, objectivity is not the
characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social
phenomenon. It is what multiple
individuals are trying to achieve when they criticize each other's work. We never
achieve objectivity perfectly, but we can approach it. The best for us to
the objectivity of what we do is to do it within the context of a broader
way improve
contentious
community of truth-seckers (including other scientists) who criticize each other's work.
The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a bit like the that survive
species
the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of
in
 CHAPTER 14 POSITIVISM 327
holds
kmoawleage and hol that ideas have survivai value' and that
througn
through a af
process of variation, selection and knowledge evolves
retention.) They have
probably as close as our species
being objective and adaptive value
and are can come to
reality
At the turn of the 20th century, the first wave of understanding
d methodological German
sociologists formally
on
anti-poSItVIsm,
nCultural norms, values, Symbols, proposing that research shouid concentrate
and social
subjective perspective. This first wave of German processes viewed from
immel, who rejected the doctrine, sociologists, included
a

ainositivism" is based the beliet that

on
thus
founding the artipositivistMaxtradition.
Weber
ontologically and epistemologically distinct. natural and
The extent of aanti-positivist sciences
criticism has
human sciences are
ontol are
also become broad, with
l onistemology and many puiosopnes droadiy rejecting
other ones the scientifically
only seeking to amend cally based
developments in the philosopny of sciernce. In
it toreflect 20th century
accounts of positivism have long since tallen out contemporary
of
social science, strong
today acknowledge in far greater detail observerfavour. Practitioners of
bias and structural positivism
Modern positivists generally eschew limitations.
methodological debates concerning clarity, metaphysical concerns in favour of
DOsitivism is generally equated with replicability, reliability and validity. This
theoretical or philosophical "quantitative research" and thus carries
commitments. explicit
no

Criticism
Historically, positivism has been criticized for its
that all "processes are reducible to universalism, i.e. for contending
physiological,
processes are reducible to relationships between andphysical chemical events," "social
or
actions of individuals," and that
"biological organisms are reducible to physical
Max systems."
Horkheimer criticized the classic formulation of
First, he claimed that it falsely positivism on two
argued that positivism
represented human social action. The first grounds.
criticism
sO-called social facts it systematically failed to appreciate the extent to which the
were
yielded did not exist 'out there', in the objective world, but
themselves a product of socialiy and
historically mediated human consciousness.
Positivism ignored the role of the 'observer' in the constitution of social
thereby failed to consider the historical and social conditions reality and
representation of social ideas. Positivism falsely affecting the
represented the object of study by
reirying sOcial reality
as
existing objectively and independently and labour actually
produced those conditions. Secondly, he argued, representation ot social
reality
produced by positivism was inherently and artificially conservative, helping to support
ue Status quo, rather than challenging it. This character may also explains the popularity
ot positivism in certain political circles. Horkheimer argued, in contrast, that critical
eory possessed a reflexive element lacking in the positivistic traditional theory.
oince the time of his writing, critiques of positivism, especially trom philosophy
SCience, have led to the development of post-positivism. Positivisni has also come
under fire on
religious and philosophical grounds, whose prop0nents assert that truth
328 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

begins in sense experience, but does not end there. Positivism fails to prove that there
are not abstract ideas, laws, and principles, beyond particular observable facts and
relationships and necessary principles, or that we cannot know them. Nor does it
prove that material and corporeal things constitute the whole order of existing beines.
and that our knowledge is limited to them. According to positivism, our abstract
Concepts or general ideas are mere collective representations of the experimental
order-for example, the idea of "man" is a kind of blended image of all the men
observed in our experience. This runs contrary to a Platonic or Christian ideal, where
an idea can be abstracted from any concrete determination, and may be applied
identically to an indefinite number of objects of the same class. From the idea's
perspective, the latter is more precise as collective images are more or less confused,
become more so as the collection represented increases; an idea by detinition remains

always clear.
Positivism asseris that sense experiences are the only object of human knowledge,
but does not prove its assertion. It is true that all our knowledge has its starting point
in sense experience, but it is not proved that knowledge stops there. Positivism fails to
demonstrate that, above particular facts and contingent relations, thereare not abstract
notions, general laws universal and necessary principles, or that we cannot know them
Nor does it prove that material and corporeal things constitute the whole order of
existing beings, and that our knowledge is limited to them. Concrete beings and
individual relations are not only perceptible by our senses, but they have also their
causes and laws of existence and constitution; they are intelligible. These causes and
laws pass beyond the particularness and contingency of individual facts, and are
elements as fundamentaly real as the individual facts which they produce and control.
They cannot be perceived by our senses, but why can they not be explained by our
intelligence? Again, immaterial beings cannot be perceived by sense experience, it is
true, but their existence is not contradictory to our intelligence, and, if their existence
is required as a cause and a condition of the actual existence of material
things, they
certainly exist. We can infer their existence and know something of their nature. They
cannot indeed be known in the same way as material things, but this is no reason for
declaring them unknowable to our intelligence.

NOTES

1. Isidore Auguste Marie

François Xavier Comte (1798-1857), better known as Auguste
Comte, French philosopher. He was a founder of the
was a
the doctrine of positivism. He may be discipline of sociology and of
regarded as the first philosopher of science in the
modern sense of the term.
2. The Vienna Circle was a
group of philosophers of the Vienna
Members of the Vienna Circle had a common attitude towards University
in the 1920s.

by two main beliefs: first, experience is the only source of philosophy,second,

characterized
knowledge;
analysis performed with the help of symbolic iogic is the preferred method for logical
solving
philosophical problems.
 CHAPTER 14 POSTIVISM 329
a
Metaphysics: philosophy of mind; theism: belief in the
Eriedrich Albert Moritz Schlick (1882-1936) was a German existence of god.
founding father of logical positivism and the Vienna Circle.philosopher, physicist and the
5. Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) was a
his work in critical theory German-Jewish philosopher-sociologist, famous for
as a member of the
'Frankfurt School' of
most important works include Ihe Eclipse of Reason (1947) and, in social research. His
collaboration with
Theodor Adorno, 1he Dialecticof Enlightenment (1947).
Horkheimer planned, supported and made other Through the Frankfurt School,
significant works possible.

REFERENCES

Aver, Alfred Jules (1959), Logical Positivism. Glencoe, 1l:

Free Press.
Catholic Encyclopaedia.
Giddens, Anthony (1974), Positivism and Sociology. Heinemann.
London.
Hanfling, Oswald (1981), Logical Positivism. Oxford: B. Blackwell.
Harvey, M.E. and B.P. Holly (1989), Themes in Geographic Thought, Rawat
and New Delhi. Publications, Jaipur
Mill, John Stuart. August Comte and Positivism. web-books.com.
Mises, Richard von. (1951), Positivism: A study in human
Press. Cambridge, Mass. understanding. Harvard University
Pickering, Mary (1993), Auguste Comte: An intellectual
biography. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
The Dictionary of Philosophy, Progress Publishers.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
 CHAPTER-15

Pragmatism

Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an

ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a
proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that
unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Pragmatism is a modified form of Positivism and
believes that all what is observed may or
may not be of significance. It is a doctrine
that evaluates any assertion
solely by practical
its and its bearing on
human interests; giving a matter of fact treatmentconsequence
to things. It
continuous process of experience, portrays life as a
experiment and evaluation by which beliefs are
continually being reconstructed; such reconstruction is a social
individuals learn and behave in the context of the beliefs process, whereby
of those with whom
interact. Pragmatism deals with both theoretical as they
well as practical solutions. The
doctrine is especially suggested for social sciences.
Because it emphasizes human
experiences, experimental enquiry and truth as criteria for
or for
finding practical solutions for human problems. evaluating consequences
user-oriented (i.e.subject-based; not object-based as
Pragmatism action-oriented,
is
that what is important about positivism).
is that it solves certain Pragmatism
holds
knowledge
constrained both by the world and by human problems that are
human activity is to resolve the purposes. The place of knowledge in
action. The pragmatists are
problems that arisé in conflicts between
belief and
in all forms of
typically committed to the use of the
experimental method
enquiry. Most of the thinkers who describe themselves
point to some connection with practical
consequences or real
as
pragmatists
of both effects as vital components
meaning and truth.

Basic Theme

Pragmatism means 'to rationalize or dealing with matters according to their

significance'. It is a practical approach to problems and affairs markedpractical
the by
 CHAPTER 15 PRAGMATISM 331
doctrines that the meaning of conceptions is to
be sought in their
that the function of thought is to
guide action, and that practical bearings.
tested by the truth is
pre-eminently to be
practical consequences of belief.
philosophy, signifies the insistence on usefuiness asPragmatism, as a
tendency in
nhase, opposes what it styles the formalism
it a test of truth. its negative
In
or rationalism of
nhilosophy. That is, it objects to the view that Intellectualistic
Drocesses representative of reality and the
are concepts, judgements, and reasoning
to be merely symbols, hypotheses and schemataprocesses reality. It considers them
of
possible the use, or experience, of reality. This devised by man to facilitate or render
use, or experience, is the true test of
Teal existence. In its positive phase, therefore, Pragmatism sets
truth some non-rational test, such up as the standard of
as action, satisfaction of
needs, realization in
conduct, the possibility of being lived, and
of all others. Pragmatism is Individualistic.judges reality by this norm to the exclusion
it sets Despite the disclaimers of some of its
exponents, upthe
Protagorean principle, "Man is the measure of all
For if Pragmatism means
anything, it means that human consequences, things".
"consequences to you and me,are the test ot the meaning and truth of our
judgements, and reasonings. Pragmatism is Nominalistic. It denies the validityconcepts,
of
content of universal concepts, and scornfully rejects the mere
possibility
all-including or even many-including, reality. It is, by implication,
of universal,
Sensistic. For in
describing the functional value of concepts it restricts that function to immediate or
remote sense-experience. It is, in a sense, Anarchistic. Discarding Intellectualistic
logic, it discards principles, and has no substitute for them except individual
experience.

Origins
Pragmatism was a philosophical tradition that originated in the United States around
1870. The most important of the 'classical pragmatists' wereCharlesSanders Peirce
(1839-1914), William James (1842-1910) and John Dewey (1859-1952). The influence of
pragmatism declined during the first two-thirds of the 20th century, but it has
undergone a revival since 1970s with philosophers being increasingly willing
to use

the writings and ideas of classical pragmatists, and also a number of other thinkers,
of the pragmatist tradition.
developing8 philosophical views that represent later stages
a rule for clarifying the contents
The core of pragmatism was the pragmatist maxim', In the work of Peirce and James,
of hypotheses by tracing their 'practical consequences'. was to the concept of truth.
the most influential application of the pragmatist maxim
share distinctive epistemological outlook, a
But the pragmatists have also tended tothe
a
norms that govern inquiry. Pragmatism
is
to
tallibilist anti-Cartesian' approach
but a new name for old ways of thinking
in 1878 entitled "How to
paper contributed to the " Popular Science Monthly
na word Pragmatism to designate a principle,
make our Ildeas clear", C.S. Peirce first used theas a rule to guide the scientist and the
Pragmatist Maxim, put forward by him of any conception in the mind is the
mathematician. The principle is that the nmeaning
what effects which might conceivably
practical effect it will have in action. "Consider
332 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

have practical bearings we consider the object of our conception to have. Then our

conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object." This rule remained
unnoticed for twenty years, until it was taken up by Professor William James in his
address delivered at the University of California in 1898. "Pragmatism", according to
James, "is a temper of mind, an attitude; it is also a theory of the nature ot ideas and
truth; and finally, it is a theory about reality"2. As he uses the word, therefore, it
designates-(a) an attitude of mind towards philosophy, (b) an epistemology, and (c) a
follows: "The whole
metaphysics. The attitude which he calls Pragmatism he defines as
function of philosophy ought to be to find out what definite difference it will make to
that world-formula
you and me, at definite instants of our lives, if this world-formula
or
be the true one". Next in importance to James is Professor John Dewey, who in a number
of his articles and lectures, defends the doctrine known variously as Instrumentalism,
or Immediate Empiricism. According to Dewey, we are constantly acquiring new items
in
of knowledge which are at first unrelated to the previous contents of the mind; or,
moments of reflection, we discover that there is some contradiction among the items of
the removal of
knowledge already acquired. This condition causes a strain or tension,
which gives satisfaction to the thinker. An idea is "a plan of action", which we use to
relieve the strain; if it performs that function successfully, that is, satisfactorily, it is true.
The adjustment is not, however, one-sided. Both the old truths in the mind and the new
truth that has just entered the mind must be modified before we can have satisfaction.
Thus there is no static truth, much less absolute truth; there are truths, and these are
constantly being made true. This is the view which, urnder the names Personalism and
Humanism, has been emphasized by Professor F. S. Schiller, the foremost of the English
exponents of Pragmatism. "Humanism", and "Studies in Humanism" are the titles of
his principal works. Pragmatism, Schiller thinks, "is in reality only the application of
Humanism to the theory of knowledge", and Humanism is the doctrine that there is no
absolute truth, but only truths, which are constantly being made true by the mind
working on the data of experience.

Pragmatist Maxim

The pragmatist maxim is a distinctive rule or method for becoming reflectively clear
about the
contents of concepts and hypotheses: we clarify a hypothesis by identirying
its practical consequences. Peirce's illustrative example urges that what we mean by
calling something hard is that 'it will not be scratched by many other substances
Unless there are cases where something's being hard makes a difference to what we
experience and what it is rational for us to do, the concept is empty. The principle has
a verificationist character: 'our idea of anything is our idea of its sensible effects' but
the use of the phrase 'practical consequences' suggests that these are to be understood
as having implications for what we will or should do. We become clearer about the
concept hard, for example, by identifying how there can be conceivable circumstances
in which we have desires that would call for different patterns of action if some object
were hard to from those it would call for if the object were not hard. If one wants to
break a window by throwing something through it, then he would need an object
 CHAPTER 15 PRAGMATISM 333

which is hard, not one which is soft. It is important that, as Peirce hints here, the
consequences we are concerned with are general ones: we are to look for the laws that
Overn the behaviour ot hard things and for laws that show how such modes ot
behaviour on the part or things can make a difference to what it is rational for us to do.
Peirce insisted that his maxim was a logical principle and it was defended as an
important component of the method of science, his favoured method for carrying out
inguiries. This is reflected in the applications of the maxim that we find in his writings.
First, he used it to clarity hard concepts that had a role in scientific reasoning:
like probability, truth, and reality. It also had a role in scientific
concepts
testing. The pragmatist
clarification of a scierntific hypothesis, for example, provides us with just the information
we need for testing it empirically.
Pragmatism, described by Peirce as a laboratory
philosophy', shows us how we test theories by carrying experiments
out
rational actions) in the expectation that if the hypothesis is not true, then the(performing
experiment
will fail to have somne predetermined sensible effect. In later work, Peirce insisted that
the maxim revealed all the information that was need for theory testing and evaluation.
The pragmatist clarification revealed all the information we would need for
testing
hypotheses and theories empirically.
As is evident from the pragmatist maxim, pragmatism is a form of
empiricism.
Our ability to think about external things and to steadily improve our understanding
of them rests upon our experience. However, the pragmatists all adopted accounts of
experience and perception that were radically different from the views of earlier
modern philosophers such as David Hume and Descartes. The established view linked
experience to what is sometimes called 'the given': we are the passive recipients of
atomistic, determinate and singular sensory contents, the kinds of things that are
sometimes called sense data. Experience provides the material for knowledge and
conceptualization, but it does not itself have a content that is informed by concepts,
practical needs, or anything else non-sensory. Our only contact with the external world
is through receiving such experiences that, we suppose, are caused by external things
but since these sensory inputs are our only source of knowledge of the external world,
we have no direct sensory awareness of external things. It is no surprise that this way
of thinking about experience can easily lead to skepticism about the external world.
richer
In different ways, Peirce, James, and Dewey all argued that experience is far
of interence.
tnan the tradition had supposed. They thought that experience was 'full
we interact with our surroundings, obtainng
Experience is a process through which
intormation that helps us to meet our needs. What we experience shaped by
is our

from this complex process the

habits of expectation and there is no basis for extracting
Kind of "thin given' beloved of sense datum
theorists. We experience all sorts of objects,

events and processes.

CENTRAL PRAGMATIST TENETS

Primacy of Practice
the human capability of theorizing
The pragmatist proceeds from the basic preuse that
334 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

is integral to intelligent practice. Theory and practice are not separate spheres; rather,
theories and distinctions are tools or maps for finding our way in the world. As John
Dewey put it, there is no question of thheory versus practice but rather of intelligent
practice versus uninformed practice. Theory is an abstraction from direct experience
and ultimately must return to inform experience in turn. Thus an organism navigating
her environment is the grounds for pragmatist inguiry.

Anti-reification of Concepts and Theories

Dewey has criticized what he called "the philosophical fallacy": philosophers often
take categories (such as the mental and the physical) for granted because they don't
realize that these are merely nominal concepts that were invented to help solve specific
problems. This causes metaphysical and conceptual confusion.

Naturalism and Anti-Cartesianism

From the outset, pragmatists wanted to reform philosophy and bring it more in line
with the scientific method as they understood it. They argued that idealist and realist
philosophy had a tendency to present human knowledge as something beyond what
science could grasp. These philosophies then resorted either to a phenomenology
inspired by Kant or to correspondence theories of knowledge and truth. Pragmatists
criticized the former for its a priorism, and the latter because it takes correspondence
as an unanalyzable fact. Pragmatism instead tries to explain, psychologically and
biologically, how the relation between knower and known 'works' in the world. C.S.
Peirce denied that introspection and intuition (staple philosophical tools at least since
Descartes) were valid methods for philosophical investigation. He argued that intuition
could lead to faulty reasoning, e.g. when we reason intuitively about infinity.
Furthermore, introspection does not give privileged access to knowledge about the
mind- the self is a concept that is derived from our interaction with the external world
and not the other way around.

Reconciliation of Anti-skepticism and Fallibilism

Hilary Putnam has suggested that the reconciliation of anti-skepticism and fallibilism
is the central goal of American
pragmatism. Although all human knowledge is partial,
with no ability to take a
'God's-eye-view,' this does not necessitate a globalized skeptical
attitude, a radical philosophical skepticism (as distinguished from that which is caled
scientific skepticism). Peirce insisted that--(1) in
and at least the hope, that truth and the real are
reasoning, there is the presupposition,
discoverable and would be discovered,
sooner or later but still
inevitably, by investigation taken far enough, and (2) contrary
to Descartes' famous and influential
methodology, doubt cannot be
by verbal fiat so as to motivate fruitful inquiry, and much less can feigned
or created

universal doubt. Doubt, like belief, requires philosophy begn in

justification. Inquiry is then the rationally
self-controlled process of attempting to return to a settled state of belief about the
matter. Note that anti-skepticism is a reaction to modern
academic skepticism in the
 CHAPTER 15 PRAGMATISM 335
wake of Descartes. The pragmatist insistence that all knowledge is tentative is actually
quite congenial to the older skeptical tradition.

Pragmatist Theory of Truth and Epistemology

The epistemology of early
pragmatism was
Pragmatism was not the first to apply evolutionheavily influenced by Charles Darwin.
to theories of
advocated a biological idealism as whae's useful to an knowledge: Schopenhauer
wildly from what is true. Here organism to believe might differ
knowledge and action are
portrayed as two separate
Spheres with an absolute or transcendental truth above
and beyond any sort of inquiry
organisms use to cope with lite. Pragmatism
"ecological" account of challenges this idealism by providing an
knowledge: inquiry how organisms can get a
is
environment. labels in inquiry and cannot begrip
Real and true are functional on their

outside of this context. It is not realist in a understood

Hilary Putnam would later call traditionally robust sense of realism
(what
metaphysical realisnm),
acknowledges external world which must be dealt with. Many of
an
but it is realist in how it

phrases-truth's cash value and the true is James' best-turned

taken out of context and caricatured in only the expedient in our
way of thinking?-were
where any idea with practical contemporary literature as represernting the view
utility is true. William James wrote:
"It is
high time to urge the use of a little imagination in philosophy. The
unwilingness of some of our critics to read any but the silliest of possible
meanings into our statements is as discreditable to their imaginations as
anything I know in recent philosophic history. Schiller says the truth is that
which 'works'. Thereupon he is treated as one who limits verification to the
lowest material utilities. Dewey says truth is what gives 'satisfaction'! He is
treated as one who believes in calling everything true whick, if it were true,
would be pleasant."*

LEGACY AND CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE

In the 20th century, the movements of logical positivism and ordinary language
philosophy have similarities with pragmatism. Like pragmatism, logical positivism
provides a verification criterion of meaning that is supposed to rid us of nonsense
metaphysics. However, logical positivism doesn't stress action like pragmatism does.
Furthermore, the pragmatists rarely used their maxim of meaning to rule out all
metaphysics as nonsense. Usually, pragmatism was put forth to correct metaphysical
doctrines or to construct empirically verifiable ones rather than to provide a wholesale
rejection. Ordinary language philosophy is closer to pragmatism than other philosophy

of language because of its nominalist character and because it takes the broader
functioning of language in an environment as its tocus instead ot investigating abstract
relations between language and world. Behaviourism and functionalism in psychology
and sociology also have ties to pragmatism, which is not surprising considering that
James and Dewey were both scholars of psychology.
 336 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Influence of Pragmatism in Social Sciences

Symbolic interactionism, a major perspective within sociological social psychology,
Was derived from pragmatism in the early 20th century. Increasing attention is being
given to pragmatist epistemology in other branches of the social sciences, which have
struggled with divisive debates over the status of social scientific knowledge.

Influence of Pragmatism in Public Administration

The classical pragmatism of John Dewey, William James and Charles Sanders Peirce
has influenced research in the field of Public Administration. Scholars claim classicai
pragmatism had a profound influence on the origin of the field of Public
Administration At the most basic level, public administrators are responsible for
making programmes"work" in a pluralistic, problems-oriented environment. Public
administrators are also responsible for the day-to-day work with citizens. Dewey's
participatory democracy can be applied in this environment. Dewey and James' notion
of theory as a tool, helps administrators craft theories to resolve policy and
administrative problems. Further, the birth of American public administration coirncides
closely with the period of greatest influence of the classical pragmatists.

Pragmatism and Feminism

Since the mid-1990s, feminist philosophers have re-discovered classical pragmatism
as a source of feminist
theories. Their works explore the historic and
between feminism and pragmatism. The connection between philosophic links
took
pragmatism and feminism
so long to be rediscovered because pragmatism itself
eclipsed
it wasby
was
positivism during the middle decades of the 20th century. As a result lostlogical
from
feminine discourse. The very features of
characteristics that feminists
pragmatism that led to its decline are the
now consider its
and early criticisms of
greatest strength. These are "persistent
positivist interpretations of scientific methodology; disclosure
of value dimension of factual claims";
viewing aesthetics as
experience; subordinating logical analysis to political, cultural andinforming everyday
social issues; linking
the dominant discourses with
domination; "realigning theory with praxis; and resisting
the turn to
epistemology and instead emphasizing concrete experience". These feminist
philosophers point to Jane Addams" as a founder of classical pragmatism. In addition,
the ideas of Dewey, Mead and James are
consistent with many feminist tenets.
Addams, John Dewey and George Herbert Mead Jane
three became friends, influenced each other and were developed their philosophies as all
causes. engaged in the women's rights

Pragmatism and Urbanism

One application of pragmatism that is being developed, is the one between
and urbanism/urban transtormation. A pragmatic apPproach to urban pragmatism
transformation
values and evaluates the consequences of a design, rather than
only considering
the
 CHAPTER 15 PRAGMATISM 337

initial intentions. According to the pragmatic maxim, an

he fully understood through its practical consequences. In object
or conception can only
an urban context this
how the implementation (and its
effects) of a concept or design alters the overall
signifies
understanding of the concept. Richard Korty mentions that "a sea change" is ocurring
inrecent philosophical thought-"a change so
profound that we may not recognize
that it is occurring. While the world that the
movement is rooted in has had many
changes, as a frame to perceive the
world, pragmatism also has experienced different
levels of nmodifications. Those changes are
very relevant to the development of cities
and basic themes, such as anti-foundationalism,
fallibilism,
auestioning the sharp distinction between theory and community as inquirers,
democracy, of pragmatism can be applied to the urbanism even practice, pluralism and
more strongly.

NOTES
1. Cartesianism is the name given to the philosophical doctrine of René Descartes
(1596-
1650), a French philosopher and a major figure in 17th-century rationalism. Cartesians
view the mind as being wholly
separate from the corporeal body. Sensation and the
perception of reality are thought to be the source of untruth and illusions, with the only
reliable truths to be had in the existence of a metaphysical mind. Such a mind can
perhaps
interact with a physical body, but it does not exist in the body, nor even in the same
physical plane as the body. In general the Cartesian satamevjaita divides the world into
three areas of existence: that inhabited by the physical body (matter), that inhabited
by
the mind, and that inhabited by God.
2. Journal ofPhil, V, 85.
3. Smith 1978: chapter 3.
4. Reification may refer to Concretization, or making less abstract or less generalized.
5. De Waal 2005, 7-10.
6. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) was a German philosopher known for his pessimism
and philosophical clarity. At age 25, he published his doctoral dissertation, On the Fourfold
Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, which examined the four separate manifestations
of reason in the phenomenal world. Schopenhauer's most iníluential work, The Worid as
Will and Representation, claimed that the world is fundamentally what humans recognize
in themselves as their will. His analysis of will led him to the conclusion that emotional,
physical, and sexual desires can never be fully satistied. The corollary of this is
an

considered that a lifestyle of

ultimately painful human condition. Consequently, he Buddhism and the Church
negating desires, similar to the ascetic teachings of Vedanta,
Fathers of early Christianity, was the only way to attain liberation.
7. James 1907, 200-202.
8. James 1907, 90.
9. Pragmatism', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
be labelled the first woman "public philosopher" in United
10. Jane Addams (1860-1935) can

States history.
338 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

REFERENCES
Daniel Dennett (1998), Post-modernism.and Truth.
Goodman, R. (ed) (1995), Pragmatism, London:Routledge volumes covering: volume
(2005), Pragmatism: Critical Concepts in Philosophy (four volume three:
-ed) and epistemology;
one: Pragmatism's first decade; volume two: metaphysics
and aesthetics). London: Routledge.
and political issues; volume four: neopragmatism
moral NY: Prometheus.
Haack, S. (ed) (2006). Pragmatism, Old and New, Amherst
Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Lectures on Philosophy,
James, W. (1907), A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking: Popular
Longmans; Harvard University Press, 1975. House.
Menand, L (ed) (1998), Pragmatism, New York: Random
Press.
Misak, C.J. (ed) (1999), Pragmatism, Calgary: University of Calgary
Putnam, H (1994), Pragmatism, Oxford: Blackwell.
psychology.wikia.com/twiki/Pragmatism.
Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
Hackett.
Thayer, H.S. (ed) (1982). Prag1natism: The Clasic Writings,
The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
CHAPTER-16

Phenomenology

In its central use

Phenomenology
"phenomenology names a movement in 20th
century
study the structural philosophy.
utilizes
adistinctive method to
experience and of things as experienced. Topics discussed within
features of
the
tradition include the nature of
intentionality, perception,
phenomenological
consciousness, awareness of the time-consciousness, self-
body and consciousness of others. Although elements
of this 20th century movement can be found in earlier
Hume, Immanuel Kant and Franz philosophers-suchas David
Brentano-phenomenology
movement really began with the work of Edmund
as a
philosophical
Husserl. Following Husserl,
phenomenology was adapted, broadened and extended by, amongst others, Martin
Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Emmanuel Levinas and Jacques
Derrida. The domain of
phenomenology is the range of experiences including
perception, imagination, thought, emotion, desire, volition, and action. Classical
phenomenologists practiced three distinguishable methods-(1) Describing a type of
experience just as we find it in our own (past) experience. Thus, Husserl and Merleau-
ronty spoke of pure description of lived experience; (2) Interpreting a type of
experience by relating it to relevant features of context. In this vein, Heideg8er and
his followers
spoke of hermeneutics, the art of interpretation in context, especially
social and linguistic context; and (3) Analysing the form of a type of experience. In the
end,all the classical phenomenologists practiced analysis of experience, factoring out
notable features for further elaboration. These traditional methods have been ramified
n recent
decades, expanding the methods available to phenomenology.
Basic Theme
Ihe discipline of phenomenology (from Greek: phainómenon "that which appears";
and lógos "study") may be defined initially as the study of structures of experience,
340 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

or consciousness. Literally, phenomenology is the study of "phenomena": appearances

of things, or things as they appear in our experience, or the ways we experiencethings
thus the meanings things have in our experience. Phenomenology is the study of
structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view". It is a
philosophy of enquiry based on the premise that reality consists of objects and events
as they are perceived by human consciousness and not of anything independent of
human consciousness. The phenomenologist is concerned with providing a description
of the life-world as it is actually experienced?. This concern avoids the abstraction
involved in both positivis1m and idealism. However, in seeking to describe life-worlds
there is strong element of subjectivity and this
subjectivity is inevitable. The positivist
fails to recognize the difference between objective and behavioural environment. To
the phenomenologist, all cognitive experiences possess an intentional structure through
which objects are made to mean something specific to an individual or group'. To the
phenomenologist there is no objective world independent of man's existence and "all
knowledge proceeds from the world of experience and cannot be independent of the
world". This means that the phenomenologists describe, rather than explain. The
student of phenomenology has no presuppositions; he does not use his own constructs
in seeking to comprehend those of his subject. The subjectivity of phenomenologist
research is that of the subject being studied, and not the student.
Phenomenology, in Husserl's conception, is primarily concerned with the
systematic reflection on and study of the structures of consciousness and the
phenomena that appear in acts of consciousness. This phenomenological ontology
be clearly differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis which sees the
world as objects, sets of objects, and objects acting and reacting upon one another. In
its most basic form, phenomenology
attempts to create conditions for the objective
study of topics usually regarded as subjective: consciousness and the content of
conscious experiences such as judgements,
perceptions, and emotions. Although
phenomenology seeks to be scientific, it does not attempt to study consciousness from
the perspective of clinical
psychology or neurology. Instead, it seeks through systematic
reflection to determine the essential
properties and structures of experience.
Techniques
Phenomenology operates rather differently from conventional social sciences.
Phenomenology is a theoretical orientation, but it does not generate deductions from
propositions that can be empirically tested. It operates more on a
level, demonstrating its premises through meta-sociological
self-situational, and social descriptive analyses of the procedures ot
constitution. Through its
apprehend the means by which phenomena, originating indemonstrations,
human
audiences
to be experienced as features of the world. consciousness, come
introspective and Verstehen methods toPhenomenological
tools include the use ot
offer a detailed
consciousness itself operates. Introspection requires the description of how
or her own subjective phenomenologist to use his
process as a resource for study, while Verstehen
empathic effort to move into the mind of the other". Not only are requires an
introspection and
 CHAPTER i6 PHENOMENOLOGY 341

Verstehen tools of phenomenoiogical analysis, but they are procedures used by

ordinary individuals to carry out their projects. Thus, the phenomenologist as
analyst
might study himselt or herself as an ordinary subject dissecting his or her own self-
consciousness and action schemes'. In this technique, an analytic attitude toward the
role of consciousness in designing everyday life is developed.
Phenomenological concerns are trequently researched using qualitative
Phenomenological researchers frequently undertake analyses methods'
of small groups, social
situations, and organizations using tace-to-tace techniques of participant observation'.
Ethnographic research frequently utilizes phenomenological tools. Intensive
interviewing to uncover the subjece's orientations or his or her "life world" is also
widely practiced". Qualitative tools are used in phenomenological research either to
vield insight into the microdynamics of particular spheres of human life for its own
sake or to exhibit the constitutive activity of inuman consciousness.

Origin
Phenomenology is a broad philosophical movement founded in the early years of
20th century by Edmund Husserl, expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the
Universities of Götingern and Munich in Germany. It then spread to France, the United
States and elsewhere. In that movement, the discipline ot phenomenolOEY was prized
as the proper foundation of all philosophy-as opposed, say, to ethics or metaphysics
or epistemology. Phenomenology as a discipline has been central to the tradition of
continental European philosophy, while philosophy of mind has evolved in the Austro
Anglo-American tradition of analytic philosophy throughout the 20th century. The
fundamental character of our mental activity is pursued in overlapping ways within
these two traditions. The Oxford English Dictionary presents the following definitions
of Phenomenology: (a) the science of phenomena as distinct from being (ontology);
describes and classifies its phenomena. In its
(6) that division of any science which
root meaning, then, phenomenology is the study of phenomena: literally, appearances
did not blossom
as opposed to reality. However, the discipline of phenomenology
meant the
until the 20th century.Originally, in the 18th century, "phenomenology"
theory of appearances fundamental to empirical knowledge, especially sensory
was introduced by Christoph Friedrich
appearances. The Latin term "Phenomenologia"
term "Phänonmenologia" was used by
Oetinger in 1736. Subsequently, the German in various
Johann Heinrich Lambert. Immanuel Kant used
the term occasionally
Fichte. In 1807, G.W.F. Hegel wrote a book titled
wnings, as did Johann Gottlieb translated as Phenomenology of Spirit). By 1889
des Geistes (usually
Phänomenologie
Franz Brentano used the term to characterize what he called "descriptive psychology".
term for his new science of consciousness
From there Edmund Husserl took up the
and the rest is history.
launched by Edmund Husserl in his Logical
Phenomenology as we know it was and the modern concept of
nvestigations (1900-01)2, Indeed, phenomenology
intentionality emerged hand-in-hand in Husserl>'s Logical Investigations. Intentionality
(often described as "aboutness"), is the notion that consciousness is always
342 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

consciousness of something. The object of consciousness is called the intentional object,

different ways, through, for
and this object is constituted for consciousness in many
etc. Throughout
instance, perception, memory, retention and protention, signification,
structures and different
these different intentionalities, though they have different
is still constituted as the identical object;
ways of being "about" the object, an object
consciousness is directed at the same intentional object in
direct perception as it is in
of it.
the immediately following retention of this object and the eventual remembering
it into becoming the
It was Husserl's adoption of this term (circa 1900) that propelled
As envisioned by Husserl, phenomenology is a
designation of a philosophical school. has dominated
method of philosophical inquiry that rejects the rationalist bias that
attentiveness that
Western thought since Plato in favour of a method of reflective
"science of
discloses the individual's "lived experience". Sometimes depicted as the
experience," the phenomenological method is rooted in intentionality, Husserl's theory
of consciousness. Intentionality represents an alternative to the representational theory
of consciousness, which holds that reality cannot be grasped directly because it is
available only through perceptions of reality that are representations of it in the mind.
Hence, the phenomenological method relies on the description of phenomena as they
are given to consciousness, in their immediacy. The phenomenological method serves
to momentarily erase the world of speculation by returning the subject to his or her
primordial experience of the matter, whether, the object of inquiry is a feeling, an
idea, or a perception. According to Husserl the suspension of belief in what we
ordinarily take for granted or infer by conjecture diminishes the power of what we
customarily embrace as objective reality.
Phenomenology came into its own with Husserl, much as epistemology came into
its own with Descartes, and ontology or metaphysics came into its own with Aristotle
he heels of Plato. Yet phenomenolog8y has been practiced, with or without the
name, for many centuries. When Hindu and Buddhist philosophers reflected on states
of consciousness achieved in a variety of meditative states,
they were practicing
phenomenology. When Descartes, Hume, and Kant characterized states of perception,
thought, and imagination, they were practicing phenomenology. When Brentano
classified varieties of mental phenomena (defined by the directedness of
he was practicing phenomenology. When William James
consciousness),
appraised kinds of mental
activity in the stream of consciousness (including their embodiment and their
dependence on habit), he too was practicing phenomenology. And when recent analytic
philosophers of mind have addressed issues of consciousness and intentionality, they
have often been practicing phenomenology. Still, the
discipline of
its roots tracing back through the centuries, came to full flower in phenomenology,
Husserl.
Husserl's work was followed by a flurry of phenomenological writing in the first
half of 20th century. The diversity of traditional phenomenology is apparent in the
Encyclopaedia of Phenomenology, which features seven types of phenomenology-
(1) Transcendental constitutive phenomenology studies how objects are constituted
in pure or transcendental consciousness,
setting aside questions of any relation to the
natural world around us, (2) Naturalistic constitutive
phenomenology studies how
consciousness constitutes or takes things in the world of nature, assuming with the
 CHAPTER 16 PHENOMENOLOGY 343

natural attitude that consciousness is part of nature, (3) Existential phenomenology

studies concrete human existence, including our experience of free choice or action in
concrete situations, (4)
Generaive nistoricist phenomenology studies how
as found in our experience, is generated in historical processes of collective meaning
over time, (5) Genetic phenomenology studies the genesis of meanings of thingsexperience
within
one's own stream of experience, (6) Hermeneutical
phenomenology studies interpretive
structures of experience, how we understand and engage things around us in our
human worid, inciuding ourselves and others, and (7) Realistic
the structure of consciousness and intentionality,
phenomenology studies
assuming it occirs in a real world
that is largely external to cornsciousness and not somehow
brought were being
consciousness. The most famous of the classical phenomenologists
into
by
Husserl,
Heidegger, Sartre, and Merleau-Ponty. In these four thinkers we find different
conceptions of phenomenologY, different methods, and different resu

Theory
Phenomenology commences with an analysis of the natural attitude. This is understood
as the way ordinary individuals
participate in the world, taking its existence for granted,
assuming its objectivity, and undertaking action projects as if they were predetermined.
Language, culture, and common sense are experienced in the natural attitude as
objective features of an external world that are learned by actors in the course of their
lives. Human beings are open to patterned social experience and strive towards
meaningful involvement in a knowable world. They are characterized by a typifying
mode of consciousness tending to classify sense data. In phenomenological terms
humans experience the world in terms of typifications: Children are exposed to the
common sounds and sights of their environments, including their own bodies, people,

1als, vehicles, and so on. They come to apprehend the categorical identity and
typified meanings of each in terms of conventional linguistic forms. in a similar manner
children learn the formulas for doing common activities. These practical means of
doing are called recipes for action. Typifications and recipes, once internalized, tend
to settle beneath the level of full awareness, that is, become sedimented, as do layers
of rock. Thus, in the natural attitude, the foundations of actors' knowledge of meaning
and action are obscured to the actors themselves. Actors assume that knowledge is
assumes that every other
ODjective and all people reason in a like manner. Each actor
actor knows what he or she knows of this world: All believe that they share common

biography is unique, and each develops relatively

a
Sense. However, each person's
distinct stock oftypifications and recipes. Therefore, interpretations may diverge.
in which actors create feelings that
Everyday social interaction is replete with ways and that everything
is
common sense is shared, that mutual understanding occurring,
IS all right. Phenomenology emphasizes that humans live within an intersubjective
best approximate shared realities. While a paramount reality
wOria, yet they at realities or finite provinces of
commonly experienced in this manner, particular
and experienced by diverse cultural, social, or
meaning are also constructed
all human consciousness is practical
OCCupational groupings. For phenomenology,
344 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

it is always of something. Actors intend projects into the world; they act in order to
implement goals based on their typifications and recipes, their stock of knowledge at
hand. Consciousness as an intentional process is composed of thinking, perceiving,
feeling, remembering, imagining, and anticipating directed towards the world. The
objects of consciousness, these intentional acts, are the sources of all social realities
that are, in turn, the materials of common sense. Thus, typifications derived from
common sense are internalized, becoming the tools that individual consciousSness uses
to constitute a lifeworld, the unified arena of human awareness and action. Common
sense serves as an ever-present resource to assure actors that the reality that is projected
from human subjectivity is an objective reality. Since all actors are involved in this
intentional work, they sustain the collaborative effort to reify their projections and
thereby reinforce the very frameworks that provide the construction tools.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY

Intentionality
Intentionality refers to the notion that consciousness is always the consciousness of
something The word itself should not be confused with the "ordinary" use of the
word intentional, but should rather be taken as playing on the etymological roots of
the word. Originally, intention referred to a "stretching out". Intentionality is often
summed up as "aboutness". Whether this something that consciousness is about is in
direct perception or in fantasy is inconsequential to the concept of intentionality itself;
whatever consciousness is directed at, that is what consciousness is consciousness of.
This means that the object of consciousness doesn't have to be a
physical object
apprehended in perception: it can just as well be a fantasy or a memory. Consequently,
these "structures" of consciousness, i.e. perception, memory, fantasy, etc., are called
intentionalities. The cardinal principle of phenomenology, the term
intentionality
originated with the Scholastics in the medieval period and was resurrected by Brentano
who in turn influenced Husserl's conception of
and made it the cornerstone of his
phenomenology, who refined the term
theory of consciousness. The term should not be
confused with "intention" or the psychoanalytic
or "gain".
conception of unconscious "motive"

Intuition
Intuition in phenomenology refers to those cases where the
intentional object is directly
present to the intentionality at play; if the intention is "filled" by the direct
of the object, you have an intuited apprehension
object. Having a cup of coffee in front of you, for
instance, seeing it, feeling it, or even imagining it-these are all filled
the object is then intuited. The same intentions, and
goes for the apprehension mathematical
of
formulae or a number. If you do not have the
is not intuited, but still intended, but then
object as referred to
directly, the object
be
emptily. Examples of empty intentions can
signitive intentions-intentions that only imply or refer to their objects.
 PHENOMENOLOGY 345
CHAPTER 16

Evidence
In everyday language, we use the word evidence to signify a special sort of relation
between a state of affairs and a proposition: State A is evidence for the proposition "A is
rue. In phenomenolo8y, however, the concept of evidence is meant to signify the
"subjective achievement of truth." This is not an attempt to reduce the objective sort of
evidence to subjective "opinion," but rather an attempt to describe the structure of having
something present in intuition with the addition of having it present as intelligible:
"Evidence is the successful presentation of an intelligible object, the successful
presentation of something whose truth becomes manifest in the evidencing itself."

Noesis and Noemna

In Husserl's phenomenology, which is quite common, this pair of terms, derived from
the Greek nous (mnd), designate respectively the real content, noesis, and the ideal
content, noema, of an intentional act (an act of consciousness). The Noesis is the part of
the act that gives it a particular sense or character (as in judging or perceiving something,
loving or hating it, accepting or rejecting it, and so on). This is real in the sense that it is
actually part of what takes place in the consciousness (or psyche) of the subject of the
act. The Noesis is always correlated with a Noema; for Husserl, the full Noema is a
complex ideal structure comprising at least a noematic sense and a noematic core.

Empathy and Intersubjectivity

In phenomenology, empathy refers to the experience of one's own body as another.
While we often identify others with their physical bodies, this type of phenomenology
requires that we focus on the subjectivity of the other, as well as our intersubjective
this was done by a sort of
engagement with them. In Husserl's original account,
apperception built on the experiences of your own lived-body. The lived-body is your
own body is also experienced as
body as experienced by yourself, as yourselt. Your and
a

as your own subjectivity

duality, both as object (you can touch your own hand)
(you experience being touched). The experience
of yourown bodyas own
your
of another's
subjectivity is then applied to the experience You can thus body, which, through
apperception, is constituted as another subjectivity. recognise the Other's
intentions, emotions, etc. This experience of empathy is important in the
phenomenological account of intersubjectivity.
In phenomenology, intersubjectivity
constitutes objectivity (i.e. what you experience as objective is experienced as being
to all other subjects. This does not imply that
intersubjectively available-available nor does it imply a relativist position, cf. for
objectivity is reduced to subjectivity
instance intersubjective verifiability). In the experience of intersubjectivity, one also
experiences oneself as being a subject among other subjects, and one experiences oneself
as
existing objectively for these Others; one experiences oneself as the noema of Others'
noeses, or as a subject in another's empathic experience. As such, one experiences
oneself as objectively existing subjectivity. Intersubjectivity is also a part in the
constitution of one's lifeworld, especially as "homeworld".
346 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Lifeworld
The lifeworld (German: Lebenswelt) is the "world" each one of us lives in. One could
call it the "background" or "horizon" of all experience, and it is that on which each
object stands out as itself (as different) and with the meaning it can only hold for us.
The lifeworld is both personal and intersubjective (it is then called a "homeworld",
and, as such, it does not enclose each one of us in a solus ipse.

PHENOMENOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY

Phenomenology has to do with beginnings, with phenomena that are first experienced
and are only subsequently formulated as concepts. Geography as a formal body of
knowledge presupposes our geographical experiences of the world. In other words,
geography has an experiential or phenomenological foundation. Concepts of space,
landscape, city, region, have meaning for us because we can refer to them to our direct
experiences of these phenomena. We live in a world of buildings, streets, sunshine
and rainfall and other people with all their sufferings and joys, and we know
intersubjectively the meanings of these things and events. This pre-intellectual world,
or life-world, we experience not as a set of objects somehow apart from us and fixed in
time and space, but as a set of meaningful and dynamic relations. A recurrent theme
in the phenomenological writings of the geographers is that Phenomenology leads to
self-awareness and a heightened sense of responsibility for the environments we live
and the ideas we express about
them. Phenomenology helps people to appreciate
their worlds and lives more fully and also to begin to see what modern science,
technology and consumerism have wrought in the name of efficiency and satisfaction.
So it might be suggested that once the insight of grasping the world from the
perspective of one's own experience has been achieved then necessarily one must do
geography phenomenologically3

NOTES

1. Stanford, Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.

2. Buttimer, 1976.
3. Dikshit, 1997, 150.
4. Darroch and Silvers, 1982.
5. Hitzler and Keller, 1989.
6. Helle 1991; Truzzi, 1974.
7. Bleicher, 1982.
8. Bogdan and Taylor, 1975; Denzin and Lincoln 1994, 1998.
9. Bruyn, 1966.
10. Costelloe, 1996; Grekova, 1996.
11. Langsdorf, 1995.
12. Myron Orleans, Encyclopedia of Sociolog8y
13. Harvey and Holly, 1989, 109-114.
 CHAPTER 16 PHENOMENOLOGY 347

REFERENCES

Bleicher, Josef (1982), The Hermeneutic Imagination: Outline

Sociology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. of a Positive Critique of Scientism and
Bogdan, Robert, and steven, J. Taylor (1975), Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A
Phenomenological Approach to the Social Sciences. New York: Wiley.
Bruyn, Severn, T. (1966), The Human Perspective in
Observation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Sociology:
The Methodology of Participant

Buttimer, Anne (1976), "Grasping the Dynamism of

Lifeworld", Annals of the Association of
American Geographers, Volume 66, Issue 2,
pp. 277-292, June 1976.
Cerbone, David R. (2006), Understanding Phenomenology. Chesham: Acumen.
Costelloe, Timothy M. (1996), "Between the Subject and
Phenomenology of the Life-World", Human Studies, 19:247-266. Sociology:Alfred Schutz's
Darroch, Vivian, and Ronald J. Silvers (eds.) (1982), Interpretive Human Studies: An Introduction
to Phenomenological Research.
Washington, D.C.: University Press.
David Stewart and Algis Mickunas (1990), Exploring Phenomenology: A Guide to the Field and its
Literature, Athens: Ohio University Press.
Dikshit, R.D. (1997), Geographical Thought: A Contextual History of Ideas, Prentice Hall of India.
Harvey, M.E. and B.P. Holly (1989), Themes in Geographic Thought, Rawat Publications, New
Delhi
Helle, Horst]., ed. (1991), Verstehen and Pragmatism: Essays in Interpretative Sociology. Frankfurt,
Federal Republic Germany: Peter Lang.
Herbert Spiegelberg (1983), The Phenomenological Movement: A Historical Introduction, 3rd ed.
The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Hitzler, Ronald, and Reiner Keller (1989), "On Sociological and Common-Sense Verstehen.",
Current Sociology, 37, pp. 91-101.
Husserl, Edmund. (1999) (1907), The ldea ofPhenomenology. Trans. Lee Hardy. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
Langsdorf, Lenore (1995), "Treating Method and Form as Phenomena: An Appreciation of
Garfinkel's Phenomenology of Social Action", Human Studies, 18:177-188.
Michael Hammond, Jane Howarth, and Russell Kent (1995), Understanding Phenomenology,
Oxford: Blackwelil.
Moran, D. (2000), Introduction to Phenomenology, Oxford: Routledge.
Myron Orleans, Encyclopedia of Sociology.
Peet, R. (1998), Modern Geographical Thought, Blackwell.
Richard, M. Zaner (1970), The Way of Phenomenology, Indianapolis: Pegasus.
Robert Sokolowski (2000), Introduction to Phenomenology, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
Stanford, Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
Truzzi, Marcello (1974), Verstehen: Subjective Understanding in the Social Sciences. Reading, Mass.
Addison-Wesley.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia.
CHAPTER-17

Existentialism

Closely associated with phenomenology is the philosophy of existentialism. It is another

anthropocentric approach used by social scientists. It emphasises that the explanation
should begin from space occupied by man or society, and then the other relationships
should be explored. The central concept is all sorts of explanations should begin from
the existential space of mankind. The view supports the conception that man is
responsible for making his own space or the living environment. Both, phenomenology
and existentialism look at the environment from an experimental perspective. The
basic difference is that phenomenology believes in "being before essence". The process
of defining oneself (creating an essence) involves creating an environment. Thus
environments can be read as biographies, as representations of man creating himself;
whereas, 'existential' means 'concerned with existence', and 'especially with human
existence'. In this sense, the 'existentialism' may be defined as the philosophical theory
emphasizing existence of the individual person as free and responsible agent
determining his own development. Here, the basic idea is "existence comes before
essence", i.e. existence comes before anything, any other reality. For the social scientists,
the
existence of man should be the starting point. The scale of existential space may
range from an individual to group of individuals to society and ultimately the entire
mankind. Existentialism.considers a studythat pursues meaning in existence and seeks
value for the existing individual. Existentialism, unlike other fields of
philosophy,
does not treat the individual as a concept, and values individual subjectivity over
objectivity. As a result, questions regarding the meaning of life and subjective
experience are seen as being of paramount importance, above all other scientific and
philosophical pursuits. Existentialism tends to view human beings as subjects in an
indifferent, objective, often ambiguous, and "absurd" universe in which meaning is
not provided by the natural order, but rather can be created, however, provisionally
and unstably, by human beings' actions and interpretations.
 CHAPTER 17EXISTENTIALISM 349
Basic Theme

Evistentialism is a philosophy that is centred upon the

rhumans find themselves existing in. the world. The analysis of existence and of the
and then each individual spends a lifetime notion is that humans exist
changing their essence or nature. In
eimpler terms, existentialism is a philosophy concerned
with finding self and the
meaning of life through free will, choice, and personal
neople are searching to find out who and what responsibility. The belief is that
they are
throughout life as they make
choices based on their experiences, beliets, and outlook. And
unique without the necessity of an personal choices become
objective
that aperson should be forced to choose
form of truth. An existentialist believes
and be
ethnic rules, or traditions. Existentialism responsible without the help of laws,
fundamental to human existence and is emphasizes action, freedom, and decision as
fundamentally opposed to the rationalist
tradition and to positivism. That is, they argue against definitions of human beings as
primarily rational. Rather, existentialists look at where
Existentialism asserts that people actually make decisions based people find meaning.
on the
them rather than rationally. meaning to
On the existential view, to understand what a human
know all the truths that natural
being is it is not enough to
science-including
tell us. The dualist who holds that human
the science of psychology-could
beings
are composed
of independent
substances-"mind" and "body"-is no better off in this regard than is the physicalist,
who holds that human existence can be adequately explained in terms of the
fundamental physical constituents of the universe. Existentialism does not deny the
validity of the basic categories of physics, biology, psychology, and the other sciences
(categories such as matter, causality, force, function, organism, development,
motivation, and so on). It claims only that human beings cannot be fully understood
in terms of them. Nor can such an understanding be gained by supplementing our
scientific picture with a moral one. Categories of moral theory such as intention, blame,
responsibility, character, duty, virtue, and the like do capture inportant aspects of
the human condition, but neither moral thinking (governed by the norms ot the good
and the right) nor scientific thinking (governed by the norm of truth) suffices.
"Existentialism", therefore, may be defined as the philosophical theory which holds
that a further set of categories, governed by the norm of authenticity, is necessary to

8rasp human existence.

Origin
Gabriel
The term "existentialism" wasactually coined by the French philosopher
Existentialism began in
Marcel in the mid-1940s. It was adopted by Jean-Paul Sartre".
the mid-19th century as a reaction against then-dominant systematic philosophies,
to be precursors of the
seen as
Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche,
came
With Seren
were the first philosophers considered
movement. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche neither used the term
fundamental to the existentialist movement, though
rather than the objective
existentialism". They focused on subjective human experience
350 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

truths of mathematics and science, which they believed were too detached or
observational to truly get at the human experience. Opposed to Hegelianism and
Kantianism, Kierkegaard posited that it is the individual who is solely responsible for
giving meaning to life and for living life passionately and sincerely. Existentialism
became popular in the years following Second World War and influenced a range of

disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and

psychology. Existentialistic ideas came out of a time in society when there was a deep
sense of despair following the Great Depression and Second World War. There was a
spirit of optimism in society that was destroyed by First World War and its mid-century
calamities. This despair has been articulated by existentialist philosophers well into
the 1970s and continues on to this day as a popular way of thinking and reasoning
(with the freedom to choose one's preferred moral belief system and lifestyle).
Like empiricism, 'existentialism' is a term that belongs to intellectual history. The
term was explicitly adopted by Jean-Paul Sartre, and through the wide dissemination
of the post-war literary and philosophical output of Sartre and his associates-notably
Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Albert Camus-existentialism
became identif ed with a cultural movement that flourished in Europe in the 1940s
and 1950s. Among the major philosophers identified as existentialists were Karl Jaspers,
Martin Heidegger, and Martin Buber in Germany, Jean Wahl and Gabriel Marcel in
France, the Spaniards José Ortega y Gasset and Miguel de Unamuno, and the Russians
Nikolai Berdyaev and Lev Shestov. In the first decades of 20th century, a number of
philosophers and writers explored existentialist ideas. Following the Second World
War, existentialism became a well-known and significant philosophical and cultural
movement.

CONCEPTS

Existence Precedes Essence

A central proposition of existentialism is that existence
precedes essence, which means
that the actual life of the individual is what constitutes what
could be called his or her
"essence" instead of there being a predetermined essence that
defines what it is to be
a human. Thus, human
beings-through their own consciousness-create their own
values and determine a meaning to their life.
Although, it was Sartre who explicitly
ed the phrase, similar notions can be found in the
thought of existentialist
manyExistentialism
philosophers from Kierkegaard to Heidegger. Sartre writes it in his work
is a Humanism: "man first of all exists, encounters
himself, surges up in the world-
and defines himself afterwards." Sartre's
slogan-"existence precedes essence"-may
serve to introduce what is most distinctive of
existentialism, namely the idea that no
general, non-formal account of what it means to be human can be given, since that
meaning is decided in and
through existing itself. Existence is "self-making-in-a-
situation"4, Traditionally, philosophers have connected the concept of existence with
that of essence in such a way that the former
latter. If "essence"
signifies merely the instantiation of the
designates what a thing is and "existence" that it is, it follows that
 CHAPTER 17EXISTENTIALISM 351
what is intelligible about any given
thing, what can be thought about it, will belong to
its essence. It is from essence in this
sense-say, human being as rational animal or
imago Dei-that ancient philosophy drew its
life, its estimation of the meaning and value prescriptions for an individual's way of
of
that human beings could be placed withina largerexistence.whole,
Having an essence meant
a kosmos that
standard for human flourishing. Modern provided the
it abandoned the idea of a "natural philosophy retained this framework even as
place"
of an infinite, labyrinthine universe. The
for man in the face of the
scientific picture
thought lies in the idea that one's fundamental contribution of existential
identity is constituted neither
culture, since to "exist" is precisely to constitute such by nature nor by
idea that key existential notions such as an
identity. is in light of this
It
and authenticity must be understood. facticity, transcendence (project), alienation,
Facticity and Transcemdence
Facticity includes all those properties that
about an inddividual: natural third-person investigation can establish
facts such as race, class, and
properties such as weight, height, and skin
colour; social
nationality; psychological properties such as his web of
belief, desires, and character traits; historical facts such as his past actions,
background, and his broader historical milieu; and so on. Transcendence refersfamily
to to
one's attitude toward himself characteristic of his
the agent's perspective. An practical engagement the world,
in
agent is oriented by the task at hand as
brought about through its own will or agency. Such orientation does something to be
not take itself as
a theme but loses itself in what is to be done.
as
Thereby, things present themselves not
indifferent givens, facts, but as meaningful: salient,
on. To
expedient, obstructive, and so
speak of "transcendence" here is to indicate that the agent "goes beyond" what
simply is towards what can be: the factual-including the agent's own properties
always emerges in light of the possible, where the possible is not a function of
anonymous forces (third-person or logical possibility) but a function of the agent's
choice and decision. Because existence is co-constituted by
facticity and transcendence,
the self cannot be conceived as a Cartesian ego but is embodied being-in-the-world, a
self-making in situation.

Alienation
lhe anti-Cartesian view of the self as in situation yields the familiar existential theme
of the "alienated" self, the estrangement of the self both from the world and from
c . Ihis experience, basic to existential thought, contrasts most sharply with the
ancient notion of a kosmos in which human beings have a well-ordered place, and it
COnnects existential thought tightly to the modern experience of a meaningless universe.
An individual's very engagement in the world alienates him from his authentic

SSibility. This theme is brought out most clearly by Heidegger: the anti-Cartesian
e a that the self is defined first of all by its practical engagement entails that this self
S not
properly individual but rather indisinguishable fronm anyone else (das Man)
 352 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

who engages in such practices: such a "they-self" does what "one" does. Thus, if who

am is detined through existing. this "who" is normallypre-defined by what is average,

The "T" that gets defined is
by the roles availabie to me in my culture, and so on.
a function of not
thereby "anonymous," or "anyone"; self-making is largely
sense in talking of t
distinguishing myself from others. If there is nevertheless good
one starts but
singularity of my existence, it will not be something with which
something that gets achieved in recovering oneself from alienation or lostness in the
"crowd". If the normative is first of all the normal, however, it might seem that talk
about a norm tor the singularity of existence, a standard for thinking about what is
my ownmost just as I myself, would be incoherent. It is here that the idea of
"authenticity" must come into focus.
Authenticity
The theme of authentic existence is common to many existentialist thinkers. It is often
taken to mean that one has to "find oneself" and then live in accordance with this sel
What is meant by authenticity is that in acting, one should act as oneself, not as one
acts or as one's genes or any other essence requires. The authentic act is one that is in
accordance with one's freedom. Existentialism arises with the collapse of the idea that
philosophy can provide substantive norms for existing, ones that specify particular
ways of life. Nevertheless, there remains the distinction between what I do "as" myself
and as "anyone", so in this sense existing is something at which I can succeed or fail.
Authenticity-in German, Eigentlichkeit-names that attitude in which I engage in
my projects as my own (eigen). What this means can perhaps be brought out by
considering moral evaluations. In keeping my promise I act in accord with duty; and
ifI keep it because it is my duty, I also act morally (according to Kant) because I am
acting for the sake of duty. But existentially there is still a further evaluation to be
made. My moral act is inauthentic if, in keeping my promise for the sake of duty, I do
so because that is what "one" does (what "moral people" do). But I can do the same
thing authentically if, in keeping my promise for the sake of duty, acting this way is
something I choose as my own, something to which, apart from its social sanction, I
commit myself. Similarly, doing the right thing from a fixed and stable character--
which virtue ethics considers a condition of the good-is not beyond the reach of
existential evaluation: such character may simply be a product of my tendeney to "do
what one does," including feeling "the right way" about things and
betaking myself
in appropriate ways as one is expected to do. Thus the norm of authenticity refers to a
kind of "transparency with regard to my situatiorn, a recognition that I am a being
who can be responsible for who I am. In choosing in light of this norm I can be said to
recover myself from alienation, from my absorption in the anonymous "one-self" that
characterizes mein my everyday engagement in the world. Authenticity thus indicates
a certain kind of integrity-not that of a pre-given whole, an identity waiting to be
discovered, but that of a project to which I can either commit myself (and thus "become"
what it entails) or else simply occupy for a time, inauthentically drifting in and out of
various affairs. Thus existentialism's focus on authenticity leads to a distinctive stance
 CHAPTER 17EXISTENTIALISM 353
towards ethics.and
freedom, value-theory generally. The
my and it is
throughfreedom that
possibility of authenticityty is a mark of
1eleading to many of its
most existentialism
recognizable doctrines. approaches questions of

Criticism

Many critics argue Sartre's

Sartre makes metaphysicalphilosophy
is
arguments contradictory.
despite his Specifically, they argue that
views ignore
metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse criticizedclaiming that his philosophical
hy Tean-Paul Sartre for Being and Nothingness (1943)
pxistence itself: "in so farprojecting
as
anxiety and
Existentialism is a meaninglessness onto the nature of
idealistic doctrine: it philosophical doctrine, it remains an
hypostatizes specific historical
into ontological and conditions of human existence
metaphysical
of the very ideology which it characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part
criticizes Sartre's existentialism:
attacks, and its radicalism is
Existentialism illusory." Heidegger
statement he is taking existentia and
this says existence precedes essence. In
essentia
meaning, which, from Plato's time on, has said according to their metaphysical
Sartre reverses this statement. But the that essentia
reversal of precedes existentia.
a
a
metaphysical
metaphysical statement. With it, he stays with metaphysics, in oblivion
statement remains
of Being. of the truth

Existentialism Today
As a cultural movement, existentialism
that introduced a new norm, belongs to the past. As a philosophical inquiry
authenticity, for understanding what it means to be
human-a norm tied to distinctive,
post-Cartesian concept of the self as practical,
embodied, being-in-the-world-existentialism has continued to play an
role in important
contemporary thought, in both the continental and analytic traditions. The
Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy, as well as societies devoted
to
Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, Jaspers, Beauvoir, and other existential
philosophers, provide a forum for ongoing work-both of a historical, scholarly
nature and of more systematic focus-that derives from classical existentialism, often
Dringing it into confrontation with more recent movements such as structuralism,
deconstruction, hermeneutics, and feminism. In the area of gender studies Judith
Butler (1990) draws
the
importantly on existential sources, as does Lewis Gordon (1995)
n area of race theory. Interest in a narrative conception of self-identity-for
instance, in the work of Charles Taylor (1999), Paul Ricoeur, David Carr (1986), or
Charles Guignon-has its roots in the existential revision of Hegelian notions of
emporality and its critique of rationalism. Hubert Dreyfus (1979) developed an
uential criticism of the Artificial Intelligence programme drawing essentialuly upon
h xIstentialist idea, found especially in Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty, that the
nan world, the world of meaning, must be understood first of all as a function of
embodied practices and cannot be represented as a logically structured system
of representations.
354 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

NOTES

1. Dikshit, 1997, 151.

2. Johnston, 1983, 155.
a French existentialist philosopher.
3. Jean-Paul Charies Aymard Sartre (1905-1980) was
and literary critic. He
playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer,and one of the leading
was one of the key figures in philosophy of existentialism,
the
Marxism. His work has also influenced
figures in 20th century French philosophy and
and literary studies, and continues to
sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory,
influence these disciplines. Sartre has also been noted for his relationship with the

prominent feminist theorist Simone de Beauvoir.

4. Fackenheim, 1961: 37.

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Edwards. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Marcel, G. (1968), The Plhilosophy of Existentialism, New York: Citadel Press.
Marino, Gordon (ed.) (2004), Basic Writings of Existentialism. New York: Modern Library. ISBN
0-375-75989-1.
Peet, R. (1998), Modern Geographical Thoug1t, Blackwell.
Reynolds, J. (2006), Understanding Existentialism. London: Acumen.
Sartre, Jean-Paul (1945), Existentialism and Humanism.
Solomon, R. (ed.), (1974), Existentialism, New York: Random House.
Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
Wikipedia, Tlhe Free Encyclopaedia.
 CHAPTER-18

Idealism

In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that

fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. reality is
Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing
any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism
ideas-especially beliefs and values--shape society. As anemphasizes
how human
idealism ontological doctrine,
goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or
thus rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe spirit. Idealism
extreme version of this idealism can exist in the
priority to the mind. An
philosophical notion of solipsism
Roots
Religious and philosophical thought privileging the immaterial or supernatural over
the material and natural is
ubiquitous and ancient. However, the earliest extant
arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India
and Greece. The Hindu idealists in India and the Greek
Neoplatonists gave pantheistic
arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality.
in contrast, the Yogcära school which arose within Mahayana Buddhism in India in
the 4th century CE, based its "mind-only" idealism to a greater extent on
phenomenological analyses of personal experience. This turn towards the subjective
anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, who revived idealism in 18th century
ELrope by employing skeptical arguments against materialism.
Beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G.W.F. Hegel, Johann
ottieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur Schopenhauer
ominated 19th century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or
f character of all phenomena, birthed idealistic and subjectivist schools ranging
rom British idealism to phenomenalism to existentialism. The historical influence of
356 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its metaphysical
assumptions, such as-marxism, pragmatism, and positivism.
Idealism is a term used to describe a wide variety of philosophical positions. One
can distinguish two general senses: A Platonic sense, and a modern sense. Idealism in
the Platonic sense involves the claim that ideal things occupy a metaphysically
around the
privileged position in the universe. Idealism in the modern sense centres
claim that at least large portions of reality (in particular, the experienced physical
and their ideas or
world) are metaphysically based in something nmental (minds
with "materialist" views of
representations). Such a view stands in stark opposition
reality, which claim that mental entities and properties are somehow based or grounded
in non-mental, material entities and properties, of the sort with which physics is
concerned (there are positions between the two extremes, such as dualism).
their
Though both types of idealism are first and foremost metaphysical positions,
considerations.
proponents have typically tried to motivate them using epistemological
Plato's concern with the ideal realm appears to have been largely motivated by
central role in
questions concerning knowledge. Epistemological arguments play a

the defences of modern idealism presented by the two most prominent idealists in
modern Western philosophy: George Berkeley and Immanuel Kant.

Modern Idealism
Kant defined "genuine" idealism as consisting in the assertion that, "there are none
but thinking beings; all other things which we believe are perceived in intuitions are
nothing but representations in the thinking beings, to which no object external to them
corresponds". His view, which he described as "transcendental" or "critical" idealism
(4:293-94), did not involve the claim that all non-mental things must exist in
representations. The distinction Kant aimed to draw can be turned into a useful general
point. Itis clearest to understand the term "idealism"inarelative sense and an absolute
sense. In the relative sense, a philosopher is an idealist about a certain sort of entity or
property, where this simply means that she believes that the existence and nature of
that entity or property ultimately reduces to facts about minds and their
representations. Given this, certain forms of idealism should be generally accepted
for instance, we might be idealists about a certain fictional character. Kant, then, was
an idealist about a certain set of properties (including space and time), but not about
others (for instance, the property of being able to affect other entities). The absolute
sense of "idealism," then, is relative idealism about all entities and properties. This is
then a much stronger position, and one that cannot be conclusively argued for one
entity or property at a time.
Inspired by the work of the French philosopher and theologian Nicolas
Malebranche, the Irish Bishop George Berkeley believed that philosophical positions
that posited absolutely non-mental entities in the universe (in
particular, Cartesian
material substance) were responsible for the spread of atheism and skepticism across
Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. According to a philosophical
picture such as that advanced by John Locke, material substance was the crucial aspect
 CHAPTER 18 IDEALISM 357

of the physical world, and was responsible for causing representations in the mina.
could not, however, be directly perceived, and could it
only be known indirectly through
the representations it caused. But if material
substance was at the core of physical
reality and could not be directly known, then, Berkeley believed, it was inevitable that
people would come to doubt whether it existed, and thereby come to
reality of the world of everyday objects. Worse, in his view, this view question
the
universe that seemed capable of described a
operating ndependently of God. Were people to
become convinced ot such a picture, it was inevitable that they would comne to wonder
if they had any reason for
believing in God at all. On the other hand, if
people believed-
(1) that all that existed were minds and their
representations, (2) that the world of
everyday objects was simply composed of representations, and that most of their
representations were directly caused by God, then the source of(3) those
towards skepticism and atheism would dry up. In his two temptations
of Human Kriowledge (1710) and Three Dialogues Between major works, the Principles
Hylas and Philonous (1713),
Berkeley presented two general arguments for his idealism: The first based on the
differing representations we have of
based on the very conceivability of supposedly unchanging objects, and the second
something non-mental. The first general
argument
might be schematized as follows: Our perceptions of objects
us (e-g. objects appear diferent
change with changes in
shapes
from different perspective angles), but, on the
view that there exists some non-mental material
substance, the underlying substance
needn't change with (e.g.) changes in our
position. Yet there is no non-arbitrary way
of determining which of those changing
perceptions is correct, in the sense of revealing
the true nature of the object. Because those
perceptions are often incompatible, they
cannot all reveal the nature of the object, but since
they are all on par, the only
reasonable conclusion is that none of them do. But that,
Berkeley claimed, is obviously
absurd; of course human perceptions say something about the nature of the
object.
That's why people use their perception in the first place. Given this, he thought that
the only reasonable alternative was to
identify the object with one's perceptions of it,
thereby allowing one direct epistemic access to it (this relied on the uncontroversial
assumption that people have direct access to their perceptions). The first argument,
however, is not nearly strong enough to establish absolute idealism, which was
Berkeley's aim. It leaves open the possibility that the objects people perceive have an
unknown reality,as well as the possibility that there might be unperceivable and non-
mental objects. To rule out those possibilities, Berkeley presented another line of
argument. Accepting a strong form of empiricism, Berkeley claimed that the only
understanding of "existence" one can have must be one derived from his experiences.
Tuman experiences, however, are all of one's own mind and one's own representations.
But in that case, the only meaning that existence can have is "to have a representation
or be a representation." Material substance, however, was supposed to be something
tnat was neither a representation nor a possessor of representations. The conclusion is
that "material substance exists" is in fact a
contradiction.
Derkeley's second argument (presernted above) relied heavily on the claim that all
One s meaningful thoughts must be based in direct experience. While this thought
s
4ppealed to some
philosophers (perhaps most notably, in the twentieth century,
358 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT
For instance.
theological positivists), it strikes most pcople as highly problematic. content
seem to be able to think thoughts with universal
and necessary (for
people
instance, all events have a cause), even though experience alone seems insutficient to

yield ideas of universality or necessity. Motivated by just such thougnts, Kant rejected
the strong empiricist assumptions that underlay Berkeley's most radical arguments.
Nevertheless, in his Critique of Pure Reason, he advanced arguments for torms oft relative
idealism about almost all qualities of objects, including their spatiality, temporality,
and all sensible qualities. With respect to space and time, Kant believed that some
form of idealism was required to explain the vast store of a priori knowledge people
clearest example
and temporal properties of objects (the
nave concerning the spatial have
After all, people experienced a minute fraction of what
only
Deing geometry). interence to such a conclusion.
exists, so
they are hardly in a place to draw any inductive
The only way one could explain this bulk of necessary, universal knowledge, Kant
mind that one
believed, was if space and time only existed as representations in the
that this does not
mposes on objects she encounters. Nevertheless, Kant was clear
mean that the objects people encounter only exist in their representations. The objects
exist on their own--it is rather a certain set of their properties that are ideal. They
almost certainly have other properties beyond those people encounter, and those
properties needn't have any relation to anything mental. Kant often puts this distinction
in terms of a contrast between "things as they appear to us" and "things as they are in
themselves." By emphasizing ignorance of how things are in themselves, Kant hoped
to rule out the possibility that natural science (which has to do only with things as
they appear) could disprove the existence of freedom of the will or the existence of
God.

Basic Theme
Idealism is an approach to philosophical enquiry which asserts that direct and
immediate knowledge can only be had through ideas or mental pictures. Objects that
the basis of these ideas can only be known indirectly or mediately. Idealism is
oftencontrasted with materialism. Idealism is based on the philosophy that "reality
is mind-based or mind-dependent". All spatial expressions of human beings are the
manifestations of man's thinking or thinking of society. Activity of mind is the
foundation of human existence and knowledge. There is no real world that can be
known independently of mind-the main
point that separates social sciences trom
the natural sciences. For
example, when people grow crops, build houses, exploit
resources, clear forests, lay down roads, grow trees in
deserts, dig canals or make any
other use of space-their actions are the results of rational
of mind); all these activities, which alter the natural thought (logical thinking
therefore, is a system of
landscape, are mind based. Idealism,
philosophy that regards reality as residing in or constituted
by the mind. To the idealist, all actions result from rational
theoretical construct present at the back of the decision-makers' thought ensuing from a
mind. Such theories
are generally the part of socio-cultural milieu and
may include religions, beliefs, myths
and traditions. They represent the order which man has himself created through his
 CHAPTER 18 IDEALISM 359
soial organization. ldealism holds that what we
arld is in some way an artifice refer to and perceive as the external
of the mind.
The idealist is
actor believes, not why he believes it, since concerned with what the
imately based on an individual's objective according to the idealist 'all knowledge is
mental constructs and ideas'. experience the world, and
of
comprises
UNDERSTANDING IDEALISM
Contents

What idealism is may be clarified by

approaching it through its basic doctrines and
principles. Six basic conceptions are discussed here in order to
philosophy: distinguish idealistic
(1) The Union of Individuality and
Universality
Abstract universals, such as "canineness," which
express the common nature
essence that the members of a class or
(e.g. individual
dogs wolves) share with one
or
another, are acknowledged by many
philosophers. Many idealists, however,
emphasize the concept of a concrete universal, one that is also a concrete
such as "humankind" or "literature," which can be reality,
imagined as
gatherable into one
specific thing. As opposed to the fixed, formal, abstract universal, the concrete
universal is essentially dynamic, organic, and
developing. Thus, universality and
individuality merge.
(2) The Contrast between Contemporaneity and Eternity
While most philosophers tend to focus on matters of contemporary concern, idealists
always seeka much wider perspective that embraces epochs and eras in the broad
sweep of history. In the words of the 17th century rationalist philosopher Benedict de
Spinoza, they strive to view the contemporary world "under the aspect of eternity."
Thus, in spite of the extensive formative influence of culture, idealists claim that their
philosophy transcends the parochialism of a particular culture; and idealisms are found,
in fact, in all of the major cultures of the world.

(3) The Doctrine of Internal Relations and the Colherence Theory of Truth

It seems natural to suppose, as non-idealists usually do, that the consideration of two
things in their relatedness to one another can have no effect on the things themselves-
Le. that a relation is something in addition to the things or terms related and is thus
external. On this basis, truth would be defined as a relation of correspondence between
a proposition and a state of affairs. The idealist believes, however, that reality is more

Subtle than this. The relationship between a mineral deposit and the business cycle,
tor example, is an internal one: the deposit of an ore changes when prices render it
360 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

profitable to mine the mineral. Similarly, it is part of the essence of a brick that it is
related to a wall or pavement. Thus, terms and relations logically determine one
another. Ultimate reality is, therefore, a system of judgements or propositions, and
truth is detined in terms of the coherence of these propositions with one another to
form a harmonious whole. Thus, a successful spy is judged either a hero or a villain
only in relation to a total system of international relations, an accepted philosophy
history, and the moral judgements involved. There are, therefore, degrees of reality
and degrees of truth within a system of truth cohering by internal relations, and t
truth of a judgement reflects its place in this system.

(4) The Dialectical Method

ldealism seeks to overcome contradictions by penetrating into the overall coherent
to be integrated with earlier
system of truth and continually creating new knowledge
in the natural or
discoveries. Idealism is thus friendly to all quests for truth, whether
behavioural sciences or in art, religion, and philosophy. It seeks the truth in every
dialectical method
positive judgement and in its contradictory as well. Thus, it uses the
of reasoning to remove the contradictions characteristic of human knowledge. Such
removal leads to a new synthetic judgenment that incorporates in a higher truth the
degree of truth that was present in each of the two lower judgements.

(5) The Centrality of Mind in Knowledge and Being

Idealism is not reductive, as are opposing philosophies that identify mind with matter
and reduce the higher level of reality to the protons and electrons of mathematical
physics. On the contrary, idealism defends the principle that the lower is explained by
the higher-specifically, that matter can be explained by nmind but that mind cannot
be explained by matter. The word spirit can be substituted for "mind" or even placed
above it; and at one time "spiritualism" was used, especially in Europe, as a synonym
for idealism.

(6) The Transmutation of Evil into Good

Nearly all idealists accept the principle that the evils with which humankind has to
deal may become ingredients in a larger whole that overcomes them. The American
Hegelian Josiah Royce held that thelarger whole is the Absolute Mind, which keeps
evils under control as a person might hold a viper under the sole of his boot. Along
with this doctrine of the sublimation or transmutation of evil,
Royce incorporated
into his metaphysics a point from the irrationalism of Arthur Schopenhauer, itself a
voluntaristic form of idealism, viz. that "the world is my idea".
Schopenhauer,
was probably the only idealist who defended the converse principle thathowever,
good is
transmuted into evil.
 CHAPTER 18 IDEALISM 361
DEFINITIONS

1 alicum is a
term with several related
ning "to see". The terun entered themeanings. It comes via idea from the Greek
as when English language in 18th idein
speaking Woodrow Wilson's
of century. In ordinary
riority of ideals, principles, values, and political idealism, it generally suggests
understood to represent the worta as it mughtgoals over concrete
or should
realities. Ideaiists are
focus on the world as it presentiy In the be, unlike
and attempts to realize a
1s. arts, similarly, idealism pragmatists, who
mental affirms imagination
conception
Opposition aesthetic naturalism and realism.
to
of
beauty, a
standard of perfection, in
Any philosophy that assigns crucial
its account of human existence importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in
may be termed "idealist".
ontological doctrine that holds that reality itself is Metaphysical idealism is an
core. Beyond this, idealists
disagree on which incorporeal or
experiential at its
aspects of the mental are more basic.
Platonic idealism aftirms that abstractions are more
perceive, while subjective idealists and basic to reality than the
things wve
phenomenalists tend to privilege sensory
experience over abstract reasoning. Epistemological idealism is the weaker view that
reality can only be known through ideas, that
apprehended by the mind. Subjective idealists only
like
psychological experience can be
George Berkeley are anti-realists
in terms of a
Kant
mind-independent world, whereas transcendental idealists like Immanuel
strong skeptics of such a world, affirming
are

metaphysical idealism. Thus Kant defines idealism as "the epistemological and not
be certain whether all of our assertion that we can never
putative outer
experience is not
mere
imagining". Asa
rule, transcendental idealists like Kant affirm idealism's epistemic side without
committing themselves to whether reality is ultimately mental; objective idealists like
Plato affirm realitys metaphysical basis in the mental or abstract without restricting
their epistemology to
ordinary experience; and subjective idealists like Berkeley affirm
both metaphysical and
epistemologicalidealism.
Classical Idealism
Monistic idealism holds that consciousness, not matter, is the
monist because it holds that there is
ground of all being. It is
of
only one type thing in the universe and idealist
because it holds that one thing to be consciousness. Anaxagoras (480 B.C.) introduced
the term "Nous"
("Mind") and taught that "all things" were created by Mind, that
Mind held the cosmos together and gave human beings a connection to the cosmos or
athway to the divine.Many religious philosophies are specificaly idealist. The
eler that beings with knowledge (God/s, angels and spirits) preceded insentient
d ter seems to suggest that an experiencing subject is a necessary reality. Hindu
dealism, for instance, is central to Vedanta philosophy. Christian theologians have
held idealist views, often based on Neoplatonism, despite the influence or ArStoE
scholasticism from the 12th century onward. Several modern religious movements,
example the organizations within the New Thought Movement and the Unty
Cnurch, may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The theology Or
362 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Christian Science includes a form of idealism: it teaches that all that truly exists is God
and God's ideas; that the world as it appears to the senses is a distortion of the

underlying spiritual reality, a distortion that may be corrected (both conceptually and
in terms of human experience) through a reorientation (spiritualization) of thought.
held that objects do
Wang Yangming,
not exist entirely
a Ming Chinese neo-Confucian philosopher,
apart from the mind because the mind shapes them. It is not the
that shapes the mind but the mind that gives reason to the world, so the mind
workd
alone is the source of all reason, having an inner light, an innate moral goodness and

understanding of what is good.

Platonism and Neoplatonism

Plato's theory of forms or "ideas" describes ideal forms (for example the platonic solids
in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as universals existing
independently of any particular instance. Arne Gron calls this doctrine "the classic
example of a metaphysical idealism as a transeendent idealism", while Simone Klein
calls Plato "the earliest representative of metaphysical objective idealism"
Nevertheless, Plato holds that matter is real, though transitory and imperfect, and is
perceived by our body and its senses and given existence by the eternal ideas that are
pereived directly by our rational soul. Plato was, theretore, a metaphysical and
epistemological dualist, an outlook that modern idealism has striven to avoid: Plato's
thought cannot, therefore, be counted as idcalist in the modern sense.
With the neoplatonist Plotinus, wrote Nathaniel Alfred Boll: "there even appears,
probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current
in the East even at that time, for ittaught.. that the soul has made the world by stepping
from eternity into time...". Similarly, in regard to passages from the Enneads, "The
only space or place of the world is the soul" arnd "Time must not be assumed to exist
outside the soul". Ludwig Noiré wrote: "Forthe first time in Western philosophy
find idealism proper in Plotinus. However, Plotinus does not address whether we
know external objects, unlike Schopenhauer and other modern
philosophers."
Subjective ldealism
Subjective ldealism (immaterialism or
phenoménalism) describes a relationship
between experience and the world in which objects are no more than collections
"bundles" of sense data in the perceiver.
Proponents include Berkeley, Bishoplater
Cloyne, an Irish philosopher who advanced a theory he called immaterialism,
of

referred to as "subjective idealism",

contending that individuals can only know
sensations and ideas of objects
ideas also depend upon being
directly, not abstractions such as "matter", and that
be is to be perceived".
perceived for their very existence-esse est percipi; to "

Transcendental ldealism
Transcendental idealism, founded by Immanuel Kant in the 18th century, maintains
 CHAPTER 18 IDEALISM 363

that the mnind shapes the world we perceive into the form of space-and-time. "it
removethe thinking subject, the whole material world must at once vanish becauseit
isnothing but a phenomenal aPpearance in the of ourselves as a
and a manner or species of representation". Kant sensibility
focused on ideas drawn from British subject,
philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley and Hume but distinguished his transcendental
or critical idealism from previous varieties. Kant distinguished
to an observer and things in themselves, "that
things as they appear
is, things considered without regard to
whether and how they may be given to us". We cannot
approach
"thing in Itself" (German: Ding an sich) without our own mental
the noumenon, the
world. He added that
the mind is not a blank slate, tabula rasa but rather comes
organizing Our sense impressions.
equipped with categories for

Pluralistic Idealism
Pluralistic idealism such that of Gottfried Leibniz takes the view that there are
as
many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world
and make possible the existence of the physical universe. The pluralistic idealism does
not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality.
Idealism in the Philosophy of Science

Idealist notions took a strorng hold among physicists

of the early 20th century
confronted with the paradoxes of quantum physics and the theory of relativity. In The
Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are
many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy,
the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard
for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements. Sir Arthur Eddington,
a British astrophysicist of the early 20th century, wrote in his book The Nature of the
Physical World, "The stuff of the world is mind-stuff": "The mind-stuff of the world is,
of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-
stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately
derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of
our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the
form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness..
Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond
that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental
nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the
substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the
first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inerenc

FORMS
in philosophy, any view that stresses the central role of the ideal or the spiritual
laealism,
in the interpretation of experience. It may hold that the world or reality exists essentially
364 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

that abstractions and laws are more fundamental in reality

asspirit or consciousness, dimensions that are
at least, that whatever exists is known in
than sensory things, or,
as ideas. Thus, the two basic forms of idealism are
chiefly inental-through and
and epistemological idealism,
metaphysical idealism, which asserts the ideality of reality,
which holds that in the knowledge process the mind can grasp only the psychic or
that its objects are conditioned by their perceptibility. In its metaphysics, 1dealism is
thus directly opposed to materialism, the view that the basic substance of the world is
matter and that it is known primarily through and as material forms and processes. In
its epistemology, it is opposed to realism, which holds that in human knowledge objects
are grasped and seen as they really are--in their existence outside and independently
of the mind.
As a philosophy often expressed in bold and expansive syntheses, idealism is also
opposed to various restrictive forms of thought: to skepticism, with occasional
exceptions as in the work of the modern British Hegelian F.H. Bradley; to positivism,
which stresses observable facts and relations as opposed to ultimates and therefore,
spurns the speculative "pretensions" of every metaphysics; and often to atheism, since
the idealist commonly extrapolates the concept of mind to embrace an infinite Mind.
The essential orientation of idealism can be sensed through some of its typical tenets:
Truth is the whole, or the Absolute"; "to be is to be perceived"; "reality reveals its
ultimate nature more faithfully in its highest qualities (mental) than in its lowest
(material)"; "the Ego is both subject and object."

CRITICISM
The most natural response to idealism is that it violates some tenet of common sense.
Berkeley was well aware of this, and spent much of his Three Dialogues attempted to
argue to the contrary.
Yet a sustained
philosophical attack on idealism was made (largely in response to
Hegelian idealism) by the British philosopher G.E. Moore in the early 20th
(Bertrand Russell made a parallel attack). Moore directly attacked that essential century
assumption of idealism, that what people are directly aware of are their
Instead, Moore proposed that people should understand the representations.
to be propositions, where objects of their thoughts
propositions can be understood as states of affairs constituted
by genuinely non-mental objects in the world. Such a picture has become the
one in contemporary dominant
analytic philosophy, and idealism is not often counted as a
philosophical position. Nevertheless, defenders of idealism may well note that viably
alternative picture is no more self-evident than the Moore's
the matter is far from settled. picture it meant to
replace, so that

NOTES

1. Idealism', Last updated 2 days ago.

 CHAPTER 18 IDEALISM 365
2. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia.
In philosophy, materialism is that form of
that can truly be said to exist is matter; thatphysicalism which holds that the only thing
material and all phenomena are the result of fundamentally, all things are composed of
material interactions. Science uses a
assumption, sometimes known as methodological working
nature are explained only by natural naturalism, that observable evenis in
causes without
existence of the supernatural. In terms of assuming the existence or non-
singular
materialism stands in sharp contrast to idealism. explanations of the phenomenal reality,
Mark Kulstad and Laurence Carlin, "Leibniz's
of Philosophy. Philosophy of Mind", Stanford Encyclopedia
5, Arne Grøn, "Idealism". Encyclopedia of Science and
6. Op. cit. Religion.
7. A.S. Eddington, The Nature of the
Physical World, 276-81

REFERENCES

Encyclopedia Britannica.
Encyclopedia of Science and Religion.
Harvey, M.E. and B.P. Holly (1989), Themes in Geographic Thought, Rawat Publications, Jaipur
and New Delhi.
Kant, Immanuel (1963), Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. N.K. Smith. London:
MacMillan and Co.
New World Encyclopedia.
Sprigge, T.L.S. (1998). "Idealism." In E. Craig, ed. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London:
Routledge.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Encyclopedin of Philosophy, vol. 3, "Idealism," New York, 1967.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia.
CHAPTER-19

Functionalism

Functionalism is a practical and utilitarian approach based on the

The diversity of function has resulted in
concept of interaction.
of
diversity meanings. However, taken in the
simplest sense, it is a viewpoint that investigates functional linkages with emphasis
on the
goals, the needs and links between role and actor. In other words, functionalism
concerned with
functions(occupations)and the
It is a perspective which views the world as a set ofanalysis
ot the functions of a
society.
differentiated and interdependent
systems, whose collective actions are instances of repeatable and
regularities in which form and function can be assumed to be related, predictable
and which
explains these form-function relations in terms of their role in maintaining the
continuity of the systems'. The distinction between Pragmatism and Functionalism is
weak. Still the latter
viewpoint is very popular among geographers. Taken as a
viewpoint, it investigates the functional linkages between elemernts and is concerned
mainly with the function of the object or phenomenon, rather than its aesthetic
consideration. The proponents believe in two
types of functions, viz. 'manifest (visible)
and "latent (hidden/unseen). The importance ot the centres like Mumbai, Tatanagar
and Gulmurg, for instance, can be
explained in terms of their functions-as a chief
port, an iron and steel manufacturing centre, and a centre of
Then each of them has its manifest and latent tourism, respectively.
function. For example, manufacturing
of iron and steel is the manifest
function of
function is the exchange of ideas and socialTatanagar (Bihar, India) but its latent
meeting of people with each other.
Following functionalism, the human societies should be examined
interrelated system's framework. However, the holistically in an
functionalists
history of a society, but more concerned with social interaction.less interested toin
are
the
find the interrelationships between the They attempt
functional approach has become very
compounds of social structure.
Recently, the
popular in geography.
Functionalism is the most familiar view among
philosophers of mind and cognitive
 CHAPTER 19 FUNCTIONALISM 367

science. It is a theory about the nature of men.al states

mental states are identitied by what they do rather than (metaphysics). Accordingly
by what they are made of. In
particular, the original motivation for functionalism comes from the comparison of
minds with computers. But that is only an analogy. Functionalism is a theory of the
mind in contemporary philosophy, developed
identity theory of mind and behaviourism. largely an alternative to both the
as

Basic Theme

Functionalism is the doctrine believing that mental state of a

depend on its internal constitution, but particular type does not
rather on the way it functions, or the role it
plays, in the system of which it is a part. The main arguments for functionalism
on showing that it is
superior to its depend
primary competitors: identity theory and
behaviourism. Contrasted with behaviourism, functionalism retains the traditional
idea that mental states are internal states of
thinking creatures. Contrasted with identity
theory, functionalism introduces the idea that mental states are
Objectors to functionalism generally charge that it classifies too manymultiply
realized.
mental states, or at least more states than things having
as
psychologists
of the arguments for and against functionalism
usually accept. The effectiveness
in question, and whether it is a
depends part on the particular variety
in
stronger or weaker version of the theory. More precisely,
functionalist theories take the identity of a mental state to be determined by its causal
relations to sensory stimulations, other mental states and behaviour. Its core idea is
that mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely by their
functional role-that is, they are causal relations to other mental states, sensory inputs,
and behavioural outputs.2 Functionalism is a theoretical level between the physical
implementation and behavioural output3Therefore, it is different from its predecessors
of Cartesian dualism (advocating independent mental and physical substances) and
Skinnerian behaviourism and physicalism (declaring only physicalsubstances) because
it is only concerned with the effective functions of the brain, through its organization
or its 'software programmes'. Since, mental states are identified by a functional role,
are said to be realized on multiple levels; in other words, they are
able to be
they
manifested in various systems, even perhaps computers, so long as the system pertorms
the appropriate functions. While computers are physical devices with electronic
substrate that perform computations on inputs to give outputs, so brains are physical
devices with neural substrate that perform computations on inputs which produce

behaviours.
Roots
of the soul, and has antecedents in
This doctrine is rooted in Aristotle's conception
but it has become fully
Hobbes' conception of the mind as a "calculating machine",
in the last third period of the 20th century.
articulated (and popularly endorsed) only
as a theory of mental states
Although functionalism attained its greatest prominence
antecedents in both modern and
in the last third period of the 20th century, it has
368 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

of computation and
artificial intelligence
ancient philosophy, as well as in early theories functionalism is Aristotle's
considered an ancestor of
The earliest view that can be
claim that the soul can exist apart
of the soul (350 B.C.). In contrast to Plato's
theory soul is theformof a natural, organized
from the body, Aristotle argued that the (human) its "essential
that enable it to express
human body-the set of powers or capacities the function or purpose that
matter of fulfilling
whatness", which for Aristotle is a an axe is whatever enables it to
as the form of
defines it as the kind of thing it is. Just the (human) soul is to be
whatever enables it to see,
cut, and the form of an eye is ernable a natural, organized hunan
identified with whichever powers and capacities is to survive and
defining function,
to fulfil its
which, according to Aristotle,
body and reasoning being. So, Aristotle argues, the
flourish as a living, acting, perceiving
and comprises whichever capacities
are required
soul is inseparable from the body,
and act.
for body to live, perceive, reason
a
that the question, "Can machines think?
seminal paper, A.M. Turing proposed
Ina "Is it theoretically possible for a finite state digital
can be replaced by the question,
but finite table of instructions, or programme, to
computer, provided with a large
fool an unknowing interrogator into thinking
provide responses to questions that would
it is a human being?" Now, in deference to
its author, this question is most often
(appropriately
expressed as "Is it theoretically possible for a finite state digital computerwith states of a
programmed) to pass the Turing Test? Turing identifies thoughts
further internal states and verbal
system defined solely by their roles in producing
view that has much in common with contemporary functionalist theories.
outputs, a
Indeed, Turing's work was explicitly invoked by many theorists during the beginning
for a class of
stages of 20th century functionalism and was the avowed inspiration
theories, the "machine state" theories are most firmly associated with Hilary Putnam
(1960, 1967)* that had an important role in the early development of the doctrine.
Other important recent antecedents of functionalism are the behaviourist theories
that emerged in the early-to-mid 20th century. The development of two important strains
functionalism, "psycho-functionalism" and "analytical" functionalism are related,
respectively, to empirical and logical behaviourism. As an empirical psychological theory,
behaviourism holds that the behaviour of humans (and other animals) can be explained
by appealing solely to behavioural dispositions, that is, to the law like tendencies of
organisms to behave in certain ways, given certain environmental stimulations.
Behavioural dispositions, unlike thoughts, feelings and other internal states that can be
directly observed only by introspection, are objectively observable and are indisputabiy
part of the natural world. Logical behaviourism, in contrast to behaviourism as a
psychological theory,isa thesis about the meanings of our mental state terms or concepts
According to logical behaviourism, all statenents about mental states and processesare
equivalent in meaning to statements about behavioural dispositions.

TYPES OF FUNCTIONALISM

The functionalist theories belong to one of three major strains--machine state

functionalism, psycho-functionalism and analytic functionalism.
 CHAPTER 19 FUNCTIONALISM 369

Machine State Functionalism

The broad position of "functionalism" can be articulated in different varieties.

The first formulation of a functionalist theory of mind was putmany
forth by Hilary Putnam.
This formulation, which is now called machine-state functionalism, or just machine
functionalism, was inspired by the analogies which Putnam and others noted between
bhe mind and the theoretical machines or computers
alaorithm which were developed by Alan Turing (called capable computing any given
of
Universal
The early functionalist theories of Putnam (1960, 1967) can be seenTuring machines)
as a response to
the difficulties facin8 behaviourism as a scientific
psychological
endorsement of the (new) computational theories of mind whichtheory,
and as an
were becoming
increasingly significant rivals to it. According to Putnam's machine state functionalism,
any creature with a mind can be regarded as a Turing machine (an idealized finite
state digital computer), whose operation can be fully specified by a set of instructions
(a 'machine table' or programme) each having the form:

If the machine is in state S, and receives input I, it will go into state S, and
produce output O, (for a finite number of states, inputs and outputs).

A machine table of this sort describes the operation of a deterministic automation,

but most machine state functionalists take the proper model for the mind to be that of
a probabilistic automation: one in which the programme specifies, for each state and
set of inputs, the probability with which the machine will enter some subsequent state
and produce some particular output. On either model, however, the mental states of a
creature are to be identified with such "machine table states" (S,, , S).These states
are not mere behavioural dispositions, since they are specified in terms of their relatiors
not only to inputs and outputs, but also to the state of the machine at the time. For
example, if believing it will rain is regarded as a machine state, it will not be regarded
as a disposition to take one's umbrella after looking at
the weather report, but rather
to take one's umbrella if one looks at the
weather report and is in the
statedisposition
as a
of wanting to stay dry. So machine state functionalism can avoid what many
In addition, machines of this
have thought to be a fatal difficulty for behaviourism.
sort provide at least a simple model of how
internal states whose effects on output
OCcur by means of mechanical processes can
be viewed as representations (though the
of discussion).
question of what, exactly, theyrepresent has been an ongoing topic
particular physical (or other) realization;
Finally, machine table states are not tied runany
to
be on different sorts of computer hardware.
the same programme, after all, can
machines providedfruitful model for early
a
ts easy to see, therefore, why Turing
table states are total states of a system, the
functionalist theories. But because machine faded in
functionalist equation of mental states with machine table states
early characterization of the complex of distinct
importance as a model for the functional
realized in a human (or other) subject.
internal states that can be simultaneously
described in terms of their relations
Nonetheless, the idea that internal states can fully
be
and can figure in law like descriptions, and
to input, output, and No: one another,
370 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

is retained
predictions, of a system's output, was a rich and important idea that by
contemporary functionalist theories.

Psycho-Functionalism
of behaviourist theories in
A second form of functionalism is based on the rejection
models of the mind. The
and their replacement with empirical cognitive
psychology that psychology is an irreducibly complex
fundamental idea of psycho-functionalism is
in our best
describe the entities of mind
science and that the terms that we use to
behavioural dispositions,
redefined in terms of simple
psychological theories cannot be desirable were it achievable. Psycho-
and that such a redefinition would not be
further,
same sorts of irreducibly teleological
functionalists view psychology as employing the
sciences. Thus, for example, the function
or purposive explanations as the biological
to maintain
or role of the heart is to pump blood,
that of the kidney is to filter it and
for the
what accounts of scientific
purposes
certain chemical balances and so on-this is
and taxonomy. There may be an infinite variety
of physical realizations
explanation
but what is is only their role in the overall biological
important
for all of the mechanisms, is
the role of mental states, such as belief and desire,
theory. In an analogous manner,causal
determined role that is
by the functional or designated for them within our best
scientific psychological theory.
from reflection upon the goals and
This strain of functionalism derives primarily
theories. In contrast to the behaviourist's
methodology of "cognitive" psychological
insistence that the laws of psychology appeal only to behavioural dispositions, cognitive
theories of behaviour take it to be the result
psychologists argue that the best empirical
introduced and individuated in terms of
of a complex of mental states and processes,
to be explained. For example, a
the roles they play in producing the behaviour
postulating the existence
psychologist may begin to construct a theory of memoryorbyabsence is responsible for
of "memory trace" decay, a process whose occurrence
stress or emotion
effects such as memory loss and retention, and which is affected by
in certain distinctive ways. On a theory of this sort, what makes some neural process
an instance of mem ry trace decay is a matter of how it functions, or the role it plays,
in a cognitive system; its neural or chemical properties are relevant only in so far as
they enable that process to do what trace decay is hypothesized do; similarly
to and
for all mental states and processes invoked by cognitive psychological theories.
Cognitive psychology, that is, is intended by its proponents to be a 'higher-level' science
like biology: just as, in biology, physically disparate entities can all be hearts as long
as they function to circulate blood in a living organism, and physically disparate entites
can all be eyes as long as they enable an organism to see, disparate physical structures
or processes can be instances of memory trace decay-or more familiar phenomena
such as thoughts, sensations and desires-as long as they play the roles described by
the relevant cognitive theory. Psych0-functionalism, therefore, can be seen
as
its
straightforwardly adopting the methodology of cognitive psychology in
characterization of mental states and processes as entities defined by their role in
a

cognitive psychological theory. All versions of functionalism, however, can be regarded

 CHAPTER 19 FUNCTIONALISM 371
aracterizing mental states in terms of their roles in
as charac
5What
other. What is distinctive about
psycho-functionalism
some psychological
theory or
is itsclaim that mental states
orocesses are just those entities, with just those
scientific explanation of human properties, postulated by the best
behaviour.
Scan diverge from the "machine table" This 1 first, that the form of the theory
can

also means
also means that th
specifications
the information used in the of machine state functionalism. it
dprOcesses needn't be restricted to whatfunctional characterization of mentalstates
ntalstates
is considered
mon sense, but can include common knowledge
information available only careful or
chservation and experimentation. For by
hle to distinguish phenomena such asexample, a psycho-furictional theorylaboratory
might be
depression
hough the distinctive causes and effects of these from sadness or listlessness even
syndromes
solelyby consulting intuitions or appealing to common are difficult to untangle
theorieswill include characterizations of mental states for
not sense. And
psycho-functional
evidence, such as Buyerto's regret or which there is no scientific
Such states is something that hysteria, even if the existence and efficacy of
common sense affirmns.
Analytic Functionalism
There is another important strain of
there to be reason to restrict the functionalism, "analytic" functionalism that takes
defining theory not just to generalizations
close to those that "the folk" take to hold sufficiently
between mental states, environmental
stimulations, and behaviour, but rather to a priori information about
This is because, for analytic functionalists, there are these relations.
equally
strictly a priori characterizations of mental states. Thisimportant goals that require
form of functionalism is
concerned with the meanings of theoretical terms in
associated with David Lewis$ and is often referredgeneral.
This view is most
closely
to as conceptual functionalism.
The basic idea of
analytic functionalism is that theoretical ternms are
by the theories in whose formulation they occur and not by intrinsicimplicitly
defined
properties of the
phonemes they comprise. In the case of ordinary language terms, such as "belief",
"desire", or "hunger", the idea is that such terms get their meanings from our
Commonsense "folk psychological" theories about them, but that such
conceptualizations are not sufficient to withstand the rigor imposed by materialistic
theories of reality and causality. Such terms are subject to conceptual analyses wlich
take something like the
following
form:

Mental state M is the state that is pre-conceived by P and causes Q

example, the state of pain is caused by sitting on a tack and

For cries,
causes loud
and higher order mental states of anger and resentmernt directed at the careless person
who left a tack lying around. These sorts of functional definitions in terms of causal
are claimed to be
rolese analyticanda truths about the sub mental states and the
priori
largely fictitious) propositional attitudes they describe. Hence, its proponents are
known asanalytic or conceptual functionalists. The essential difference between analytic
and psycho-functionalism is that the latter emphasizes the importance of laboratory
 372 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

observation and experimentation in the determination of which mental state

and concepts are
terms
genuine and which functional identifications may be considered to
be genuinely contingent and a
posteriori identities. The former, on the other hand.
claims that such identities are and not
necessary subject
to empirical scientific
investigation.
Like the logical behaviourism from which it
emerged, the goal of analytic
functionalism is to provide "topic-neutral" translations, or
mental state terms or concepts.
analyses, of our ordinary
Analytic functionalism, course, has richer resources
of
than logical behaviourism for such
translations, since it permits reference to the causal
relations that a mental state has to stimulations, behaviour, and other mental
True enough, analytic functionalists can states
and 'desire' are not
acknowledge, terms like 'pain', "thought',
equivalent to any descriptions expressed in the language of physics,
chemistry, neurophysiology. But if there are functional descriptions that preserve
or
the meanings of these terms, then a creaturc's mental
states can be identified
simply
by determining which of that creature's internal states and processes play the relevant
functional roles. And since the
capacity to play these roles is merely a matter of having
certain causal relations to stimulations,
these properties is
behaviour, and one another, the possession of
compatible with a materialistic theory of the
OBJECTIONS
There have been many
of the theory.
objections to functionalism, however, that apply to all versions

Functionalism and Holism

One difficulty for every version of the theory is that functional characterization is
holistic. Functionalists hold that mental states are to be characterized in
roles in a psycholoogical terms of their
theory-be it common sense, scientific, or
something in
between-but all such theories incorporate information
about a large number and
variety of mental states. Thus if pain is interdefined with certain
beliefs and desires, then animals who don't have highly articulateda
our articulated beliefs and desires
internal states that play the roles of
can't share our
pains, and
capacity to feel pain can't share certain of our belieís and desires. humans without the
in the ways people reason, the In addition, differences
ways their beliefs are fixed, or the
affect their beliefs-due either to cultural or individual ways their desires
impossible for them to share the same mental states. These idiosyncrasies-might make it
worries for all versions of functionalism.
are
regarded as serious

Functionalism and Mental Causation

Another worry for functionalism is the "causal exclusion
problem", the worry about
whether role functionalism can account for what we take to be the
causal efficacy of
our mental states. For example, if pain is realized in me
by some neural state-type,
 CHAPTER 19 FUNCTIONALISM 373
then in so far as there are
that
purely physical
law-like generalizations linking states ot
type with pain behaviour; one
can give a
behaviour by citing the occurrence of that complete causal explanation of my
neural state (and the properties by virtue of
which it figures in those
laws). And thus, some have argued, the
properties of that state-its higher-level role
being a pain-are causally irrelevant. There have been a
number of different
responses to this problem. Some suggest that it arises from an
overly restrictive account of causation, in which a cause must
its effect, a view which would count
the macroscopic
"generate" or "produce
as causally irrelevant as well. properties of other special sciences
Instead, some argue, causation should be regarded asa
special sort of counterfactual dependence between states of certain
sort of regularity that holds between them0. If this is types, or as a special
correct, then functional role
properties (along with the other macroscopic properties of the special sciences) could
count as
causally efficacious.
Alternatively, some argue that causation is best regarded as a relation between
types of events that must be invoked to provide sufficiently general explanations of
behaviour. Though many who are moved
by the exclusion problem maintain that
there is a difference between
generalizations that are truly causal and those that
contribute in some other (merely epistemic) way to our
understanding of the world,
theorists who advocate this response to the problem charge that this objection, once
again, depends ona restrictive view of causation that would rule out too much.

Functionalism and Introspective Belief

Another important question concerns the beliefs that we have about our own
"Occurrent" (as opposed to dispositional) mental states such as thoughts, sensations,
and perceptions. We seem to have immediately available, non-inferential beliefs about
these states, and the question is how this is to be explained if mental states are
identical with functional properties. The answer depends on what one takes these
introspective beliefs to involve. Broadly speaking, there are two dominant views of
the matter. One popular account of introspection-the "inner sense" model on which
introspection is taken to be a kind of "internal scanning" of the contents of one's
mind has been taken to be uníriendly to functionalism, on the grounds that ite's hard
to see how the objects of such scanning could be second-order relational properties
of one's neural states. Some theorists, however, have maintained that functionalism
can accommodate the special features of introspective belief on the "inner sense"
model, since it would be only one of many domains in which it's plausible to think
that we have immediate, non-inferential knowledge of causal or dispositional
properties. Another account of introspection, is that the immediacy of introspective
belief follows from the fact that occurrent mental states and ourintrospectivebeliefs
about them are functionally interdefined. For example, one satisfies the definition
of being in pain only if one is in a state that tends to cause (in creatures with the
requisite concepts who are considering the question) the beliet that one is in pain,
and one believes that one is in pain only if one is in a state that plays the belief role,
and is caused directly by the pain itself. On this account of introspection, the
374 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

immediacy and non-inferential nature of introspective belief is not merely compatible

with functionalism, but required by it.

Functionalism and the Norms of Reason

Yet another objection to functionalism raises the question of whether any "theory" of
the mind that invokes beliefs, desires and other intentional states could ever be, or
even approximate, an empirical theory. Whereas, even analytic functionalists hold
that mental states are implicitly defined in terms of their (causal or probabilistic) roles
in producing behaviour, these critics take mental states, or at least in tentional states, to
be implicitly defined in terms of their roles in rationalizing or making senseofbehaviour
This is a different enterprise, they claim, since rationalization,unlike causal explanatiorn,
requires showing how an individual's beliefs, desires, and behaviour conform, or at
least approximate, to certain a priori norms or ideals of theoretical and practical
reasoning-prescriptions about how we should reason, or what, given our beliefs and
desires, we ought to do. Thus the defining "onstitutive") normative or rational
relations among intentional states expressed oy these pinciples cannot be expected
to correspond to empirical relations among our internal states, sensory stimulations
and behaviour, since they comprise a kind of explanation that has sources of evidence
and standards for correctness that are different from those of empirical theories. One
can't, that is, extract facts from values.
Thus, although attributions of mental states can in some sense explain behaviour,
by permitting an observer to 'interpret' it as making sense, they should not be expected
to denote entities that
figure in empirical laws. This is not to say, these theorists stress,
that there are no causes, or
empirical laws of, behaviour. These, however, will be
expressible only in the vocabularies of the neurosciences, or other lower-level sciences,
and not as relations among beliefs, desires and
behaviour. Functionalists have replied
to these worries in different
ways. Many just deny the intuition behind the objection,
and maintain that even the strictest
conceptual analyses of our intentional terms
concepts purport to define them in terms of their bonafide causal roles, and that and
norms they reflect are
explanatory rather than prescriptive. They argue, that is, thatanyif
these generalizations are idealizations,
they are the sort of idealizations that occur in
any scientific theory: just as Boyle's Law
depicts the relations between the temperature,
pressure, and volume of a gas under certain ideal
theory of the mind consists of descriptions of what experimental conditions, our a priori
normal
(physically specifiable) ideal conditions, not prescriptions ashumansto what
would do under
are
rationally reguired, to do. they should, c
While functionalism has its
advantages, there have been several arguments against
it, claiming that it is an insufficient account of the
mind. An
accounts of functionalism is the idea of important part of some
multiple
standard functionalist theories, mental states are the realizability. Since, according to
mental states can be sufficiently corresponding functional role,
explained without taking into account the underlying
physical medium (e-g. the brain, neurons, etc.) that realizes such states; one
take into account the higher-level functions in the need only
cognitive system. Since, mental
 CHAPTER 19 FUNCTIONALISM 375

states are not limited to a particular medium, they can be realized in multiple ways,
including, theoretically, within non-biological systems, such as computers. In other
words, a silicon-based machine could, in principle, have the same sort of mental lite
that a human being has, provided that its cognitive system realized the proper
functional roles. Thus, mental states are individuated much like a valve; a valve can
be made of plastic or metal or whatever material, as
long as it performs the proper
function (say, controlling the flow of liquid through a tube by blocking and unblocking
its pathway)
However, there have been some functionalist theories that combine with the
identity theory of mind, which deny multiple realizability. Such Functional
Specification Theories (FSTs), as they are called, were most notably developed by David
Lewis and David Malet Armstrong." According to FSTs, mental states are the
"realizers" of the functional role, not the functional role itself. The mentalparticular
state of
belief, for example, just is whatever brain or neurological process that realizes the
appropriate belief function. Thus, unlike standard versions of functionalism (oten
called"Functional State Identity Theories", FSTs do not allow for the multiple
realizability of mental states, because the fact that mental states are realized by brain
states is essential. What often drives this view is the belief that if we were to encounter
an alien race with a cognitive system composed of significantly different material from
humans' (e-g, silicon-based) but performed the same functions as human mental states
(eg.they tend to
yellYowzas!" when poked with sharp objects, etc.) then we would
say that their type of mental state is perhaps similar to ours, but too different to say
it's the same. For some, this may be a disadvantage to FSTs. Indeed, one of Hilary
Putnam's arguments for his version of functionalism relied on the intuition that such
alien creatures would have the same mental states ás humans do, and that the multiple
realizability of standard functionalism makes it a better theory of mind.

THE FUTURE
In the last part of the 20th century, functionalism stood as the dominant theory of
mental states. Like behaviourism, functionalism takes mental states out of the realm
of the "private" or subjective, and gives them status as entities open to scientific
investigation. But, in contrast to behaviourism, functionalism's characterization of
mental states in terms of their roles in the production of behaviour grants them the
causal efficacy that common sense takes them to have. And in permitting mental states
to be multiply realized, functionalism offers an account of mental states that is
compatible with materialism, without limiting the class of those with minds creatures
to
with brains like ours. The sophistication of functionalist theories has increased since
their introduction, but so has the sophistication of the objections to functionalism,
especially to functionalist accounts of mental causation, introspective knowledge; and
the qualitative character of experiential states. For those unconvinced of the plausibility
of dualism, however, and unwilling to restrict mental states to creatures physically
like ourselves, the initial attractions of functionalism remain. The primary challenge
376 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

tor future functionalists, therefore, will be to meet these objections to the doctrine,
convincing detail, or by
either by articulating a theory in increasingly
functionalist
can be explained away.
fuel these objections
showing how the intuitions that

NOTES

1. Husain, M. (1995), 369-70.

2. Block, Ned. (1996).
3. Mar, D. (1982).
4. Turing, A.M. (1950).
H. (1967a and b).
5. Putnam, H. (1960); Putnam,
and 1967).
6. Putnam, Hilary, (1960
7. Fodor, J. (1968). was an American
1941-October 14, 2001)
8. David Kellogg
Lewis (September 28,
philosopher.
9. Lewis, D. (1966).
10. Melnyk, Andrew. (2003
a and b).
11. Armstrong, D.M. (1968).

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 CHAPTER 19 FUNCTIONALISM 377

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Putnam, H. (1967a) "The Mental Life of
some Machines", in
Intentionality, Minds and Perception, Detroit: Wayne State Hector-Neri Castañieda (ed.),
Putnam, H. (1967b) "The Nature of Mental University Press, pp. 177-200.
Art, Mind and Religion, States", in Captain, W.H. and Merrill, D.D. (eds.),
Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, Pp. 37-48.
Turing, A.M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59, 433-460.
Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia.
CHAPTER-20

Realism

Realism is commonly defined as a concern for fact or reality and a rejection of the
impractical and visionary. As a word in common use, however, realism is employed
to suggest a wide variety of meanings. Broadly speaking, realism denotes two distinct
sets of philosophical theories, one regarding the nature of universal concepts and the
other dealing with knowledge of objects in the world. Accordingly, a distinction may
be made between the Direct' (or Naive) Realism and the Philosophical' Realism.
Indeed, the realism is a very interesting and different philosophy. In whatever form
the view of realism is taken, it is certainly a mix of both idealism and positivism. It is
the view regarding things in their true nature and dealing with them as they are.
Realism says that facts (whether hidden or seen) speak themselves. Accordingly, the
realities are neither totally mind-based (like idealism) nor solely directly observable
(like positivism).
In its most general form realism asserts tlhat objects in the external world exist
independently of what is thought about them. The most straightforward of such
theories is usually known as "Naïve Realism". It contends that in perception humans
are made directly aware of objects and their attributes and thus have immediate access
tothe external world. Thus, Direct or Naive Realism is a
theory of perception that
claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world.
Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect
perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a
voice. Most people, until they start thinking
philosophically, are naïve realists. This
theory is also known as "common sense realism". It holds that the view of the world
that we derive from our senses is to be taken at face value. There are
in the world, and those objects have the
objects out there
properties that they appear to us to have. For
instance, if one has an experience as of a large apple tree, then that's because there's
large apple tree in front of him. If the apples on the tree appear to him to be red, then
 CHAPTER 20 REALISM 379

that's because there are objects in front of him-apples-that have the property of
redness. In other words, this form ot realism claims that the world is
pretty
much as
it
appears to our senses. All objects are composed of matter; they occupy space, and
have properties such as size, shape, texture, smell, taste and colour. These properties
are perceived directly. So, when we look at and touch things we see and feel those
things themselves and só perceive them as they really are. The naive or direct realism
is distinguished from
'representative' realism, the view that we cannot perceive the
external world directly; or 'critical realism', the
with the accuracy of human sense-data; or the philosophy
of perception concerned
'transcendental realism', the concept
implying that individuals have a perfect understanding of the limitations of their own
minds.
The Philosophical Realism, on the other hand, is the belief that exists
reality
independently of observers. Also referred to as Metaphysical Realism it refers to the
thesis that general properties, technically known as universals, have a
form of realityy
that is in a certain sense independent of the things that possess them. This view of
realism believes that a
particular phenomenon is only appearance which shall disappear
in due course of time?. For example, a specific mountain, like the Himalayas, does not
exist; it will wear down to the ocean floor over geological time. Contrary to this, the
general and universal term 'mountain' is rigid and fixed. Philosophical realism is also
referred to as Platonic realism or Scholastic realism. Plato was a Greek losopher, who
lived during 427-347 B.C. He was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle.
The rational theory that the forms we see, touch, taste and smell in time and space do
not exist and are not knowable with certainty by our senses was first put by Platonic-
Socratic writers". Platonic realism describes a philosophy articulated by Plato, positing
the existence of universals. In its simplest sense, according to philosophical realism
the theory of knowledge that maintains that "universals" (general concepts
representing the common elements belonging to individuals of the same genus or
species) have a separate existence apart from individual objects. Plato's insistence that
there is a realm of universals above the material universe as real as individual objects
themselves had a great influence on medieval thought. The philosophical realists tend
to believe that whatever we believe now is only an approximation of reality and that
every observation brings us closer to understanding reality. They tend to embrace
new
what they believe is actually real, despite how unattractive reality itself may be. Such
realists arrive at their understanding of reality through critical thinking.

SCIENTIFIC REALISM

Scientific realism is, at the most general level, the view that the world described by
of what we might take it to be. Within
science is the real world, as it is, independent
framed as an answer to the question "how is the
philosophy of science, it is often
success of science to be explained?"
The debate over what the success of science involves
centres primarily on the status ot unobservabie entities apparently talked about by
are scientific realists assert that one can make
scientific theories. Generally, those who
reliable claims about unobservables (viz., that they have the same ontological status)
 380 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

as ODservables, as opposed to instrumentalism. Scientific realism involves two basic

scientific theory; an
posiions. First, it is a set of claims about the features of an idealit is
aeal theory is the sort of theory science aims to produce. Second, the comimitmentthat
like an ideal theory and
very
nat science will eventually produce theories domains. much
that
It is important to note one
Sclence has done pretty well thus far in some while not being a realist regarding
sciences
Tgnt be a scientific realist regarding some attitudes towards physics, chemistry
and
others. For example, one might hold realist
biology, and not towards economics, psychology and sociology

ROOTS
a
term in the arts. In literature, it being as of human
came into response
Realism widely used Romanticism
is a
focused on the inner, spiritual side
to Romanticism. While
and sublime, Realism focused on
skewed towards the exceptional
nature, and was
the ideology of objective reality
and
the mundane, the everyday. Realism focused on
Romanticism. It was more "democratic"
revolted against exaggerated emotionalism of
not the elite. As an artistic strategy,
orientation, interested in the life of the majority,
in the concrete, the physical and
it was an attempt to focus literature on the objective,
to convey the ethos of the society.
social milieu was depicted in painstaking detail
which shaped their actions and
Characters were portrayed in their social setting,
to portray things "as they
their choices. Realism is often referred to as an attempt
are"
with its roots in France, where it
Literary Realism began as a cultural
movement

was a very popular art form, not only

in France but the in rest of Europe as well, from
new visual
the mid to late 1800s. It was aided with the introduction photography--a
of
source that created a desire for people
to produce things that looked "objectively real".
It became popular in America largely in the early twentieth century.
In the visual arts it refers to a style of depiction that attempts to portray subjects
as

embellishment or interpretation. The term is

they appear in everyday life, without
also used to describe works of art which, in revealing a truth, may emphasize the ugly
or sordid. Realist artists focused on that side of "reality" which had often been excluded
in Romantic art, the unflattering truth of the underside of elite culture.
Realism is a literary technique practiced by many schools of writing. This style
focuses particularly on the representation of middle-class life and is a reaction against
Romanticism. According to William Harmon and Hugh Holman, "Where romanticists
transcend the immediate to find the ideal, and naturalists plumb the actual or superficial
to find the scientific laws that control its actions, realists centre their attention to a
remarkable degree on the immediate, the here and now, the specific action, and the
verifiable consequence". In American literature, the term "realism" encompasses the
period of time from the Civil War to the turn of the century, during which William
Dean Howells, Rebecca Harding Davis, Henry James, Mark Twain, and others wrote
fiction devoted to accurate representation and exploration of American lives in various
contexts.
 CHAPTER 20 REALISM 381

Nineteenth Century Realism

Realism was a response to both Neo-classicism and Romanticism, and for the entire
group, history had no artistic relevance or importance.2
Gustave Courbet, theleader
of the realism movement, defined Realism as a "human conclusion which awakened
the very forces of man against paganism, Greco-Roman art, the Renaissance,
Catholicism, and the gods and demigods, in short against the conventional ideal."
The Realists, who were influenced by the Dutch and Flemish naturalists of the 17th
century, were dedicated wholeheartedly to an establishment founded on justice for
the working class, the ordinary citizens of
society. In fact, all the artists, politicians,
economists, and critics congregated in the Andler Keller, a type of restaurant serving
food at all hours, which eventually became known as the temple of Realism. In 1863,
after being shunned by Count Nieuwerkerke at the Universal Exposition of 1855,
Courbet and friends organized a Salon de Refusés. This was an exhibition that included
the works of those who are now recognized as the premier painters of the period.
Astoundingly, two of the greatest Realist masters, Daumier and Courbet, were actually
forced to serve prison sentences as a result of their involvement in the rebellion against
uniformity.
With the arrival of photography, the world of visual arts would be altered
significantly. The idea of photography itself was not new, and some artists had even
employed some form of it. The concept of photography revolved around light passing
surface
through a small aperture as it registers the image of its subjects upon any
which it may strike. The camera obscura was used by artists throughout the ages and

specialized particularly by Vermeer. Daguerreotypes soon became popular by the

made by Samuel F.B. Morse,
hundreds of thousands. The first photo portrait was
but for many artists, a
inventor of the telegraph. The possibilities were enormous,
of photography, the art of portraiture would
point of concern. With the invention w a s a n assured fact, and
become almost non-existent. By 1858, photography
last how living beings really look in motion, to
photographers were able to prove at
classic tradition with their contrived poses. In
the great discomfiture of artists in the as it is,
the essence of the action, the movement
other words, photographs capture This
and there is absolutely no doubt in
the veracity or accuracy of the photograph.
the world, as it
with the realists because their sole focus is to portray
fits in perfectly
manner.
is, and not in a blown-up, romantic

THE REALIST DOCTRINE

those of the Neo-classicists
and the Romanticists
"The doctrine of the Realists, like
of natural
in their original purity. Too many aspects
could not be maintained for long the immense historic value of
were excluded. But
human feeling and imagination of
of.vision over either abstract principles
in its insistence on the priority
Realism lay emotional and narrative
content. The Realist emphasis on
form and composition or It would
in the tormation of Impressionism.
here and n o w w a s instrumental
the
and at times, w a s even more fanatical.
minimally in the twentieth century,
reappear
382 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

NOTES
Free Encyclopaedia.
1. Realism', Last updated 4 days ago Wikipedia, The
2. Husain, 1995, 377-80.
3. Harvey and Holly, 1989, 148-62.
was an artistic, literary, and intellectual
4. Romanticism (or the Romantic Era/Period) and in most areas
movement that originated in Europe toward
the end of the 18th century
a reaction to the
Was at its peak in the approximate period
from 1800 to 1840. Partly
aristocratic social and political norms of
Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against
the scientific rationalization of nature. It
the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against but had a major
was embodied most strongly in the
visual arts, music, and literature,
the natural sciences.
impact on historiography, education and
5. 'Realism', New World Encyclopaedia.

REFERENCES
Rawat Publications, Jaipur
Harvey, M.E. and B.P. Holly (1989), Themes in Geographic Thought,
and New Delhi.
Rawat Publications,
Husain, M. (1995), Evolution of Geographical Thought, Third Revised Edition,
Jaipur.
New World Encyclopaedia.
Peet, R. (1998), Modern Geographical Thought, Blackwell.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia.
 SECTION-V
FUTURE OF GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER-21

Scope of Geography

Geography, as a branch of learning, is focused on understanding the relationship

between man and nature. The edifice of geography as a discipline is built on the
experiences of successive generations of mankind in trying to comprehend the world,
of which their homeland forms a but small part. The thrust for geographical knowledge
is as old as human curiosity. There is a natural urge in man to gain knowledge about
the lands and peoples lying beyond his own territory. As human beings
we are
concerned with what m an knows about himself, the earth on which he lives and the
universe in which he exists. Geography has been defined differently at different times,
depending upon the demands made on it. For instance, in the early stage of its growth
it was concerned with 'what is where' and fixing absolute locations. After the Age of
Discovery it was required to or anize the mass of informatiorn about different lands
and people. It was followed by the areal differentiation view, and so on. But, according
to a recent definition of geography its overriding problem is concerned with a 'full
understanding of vast system on the earth's surface comprising man and the natural
environment", The field of geographical study appears to be so broad that it merits
the remark-it is fit subject for encyclopaedia, but far too inclusive for a 'scientific
discipline'. But there is no reason for despair. Geography has a domain of its own-
the terrestrial space, which makes it distinct from other disciplines. The broad emphasis
is on the spatial arrangement of phenomena and their interrelationships, and all those
processes that are responsible for spatial patterns are taken into account. Geography
and social sciences.
res the man-environment system with many earth, biological
While focusing its attention on spatial patterns and processes geography performs a
function that no other discipline does, i.e. integratin8 the data from a number of
disciplines and conceptualing the total unity of the earth, a holistic view which no
other discipline can achieve by itself, and which is the ultimate objective of man's
quest. Geography is the backbone of human knowledge and is, therefore, the most
 386 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

important science. The Greek Scholar, Eratosthenes, first used the word 'geography
in the 3rd century B.C. It is derived from Greek 'geo' (the earth) and 'graphe
(description), so that geography as a discipline is focused on the description of the
world of man on the earth's surface. As a discipline, "geography is concerned to provide
accurate, orderly and rational description and interpretation of the variable character
of the Earth's surface". By the phrase 'earth's surface', the geographers imply the
zone extending as far down below the surface as man has been able to penetrate and
as tar high above the surface as man normally goes. Since man's reach above as well
as below the earth's surface is relative to the level of his technological progress, the
thickness of this zone of study has been progressively increasing.
In the contemporary period, the prestige of ge0graphy as a useul branch of
knowledge has been further enhanced owing to the valuable service rendered by
geographers in the context of inter-disciplinary workin the study of nature and society.
The geographers' locational perspective and their cartographic expertise have proved
particularly useful. This has led to liberal funding for geographic research and
education. Though the word is originally derived from the ancient Greek
"geographikos", meaning 'the description of the earth', the geographical scope extends
far beyond describing the earth. Today, the geographers' ambit includes spatial
analysis, the creation of theoretical models involving extensive use of mathematics, as
an essential component. If one wishes to study the subject, he should be interested in
the earth, its produce and its people and their activities. Mathematical ability would
be an advantage, as would basic dwelling skills. Besides, a geographer's work calls
for practice and meticulousness to handle detailed tasks and analyze data. As
geography has a number of sister-disciplines, it also provides assistance in the
understanding of various other disciplines. In fact, geography serves all those
disciplines that serve it. For instance, geography and history have always gone hand
in hand, the common thing between the two being 'description', i.e. in terms of space
for the former and in terms of time for the latter. More
recently we find that geography
has become the backbone of the fields like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information
System (GIS).
Beside its academic growth, the professionalization in
geography is also increasing
day by day. Penetrating in so many spheres, geography opens job avenues in numerous
areas, and the discipline is becoming more and more
job-oriented. A graduate or post
graduate in geography, for instance, has a lot of scope being absorbed in the fields ot
Education, Administration, Research, Cartography, Town and Country
Planningot
Surveying and Civil Services. The job prospects are also open in the departments
Remote-Sensing, GIS, Demography, Defence, Meteorology, Soil Science, Forestry,
Industry, Agriculture, Environmental Studies and Travel and Tourism. The students
of geography can opt for at
teachirng
as TCTs (Trained Graduate Teachers)
school and college level, and take up professions
level and
or PGIs (Post-Graduate Teachers) in the school
as Lecturers, Readers or Professors at university level. B.Ed. or M.Ed. is
desirable at school level, whereas, at university level it is M.Phil. and
Ph.D. In the field
of administration, the jobs may be taken through UPSC
(Union Public Service
 CHAPTER 21 SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY 387

Commission), All India Central Services, SPSC (State Public Service

Staff Selection Commission) and Block Commission), SSC
Remote Sensing and GIS is the Development Offices.
recently emerging area of job prospects for the
geographers. This field also opens a booming career options for the students of
geography those who wish to be breed apart a
in the corporate world. The
geoinformatic' institutes like SIG* aim to train and empower the students with analytical
decision-making and management skills, besides enabling
geoinformation solutions in infrastructure development, naturalthem to offer complex
resources monitoring
and urban development wherein the data
management, environment, logistics and assetanalysed
are and used in areas like disaster
of Institutes offer courses of different management, to name a few. A number
in Geographic Information and the
types and durations in this fields. Growing interest
success of GIS
development of new application fields, technologies,technologies
hardware
have stimulated the
and software to meet
a very wide
range of requests from both the scientific research
environmental policy-making community. It is community and the
possible find solutions to critical
environmental, social, economic, anthropogenic and
to
other situations; in other words,
all kinds of situations related to the
territorial
management,
geo-knowledge in traditional e-government can improve land-use
or
governance. Introducing
governance. It can
help citizens to perceive the state of the environment and accept constraints on land
use and planning
strategies more readily. It naturally implies the availability and
usability of good Geographic Information System (GIS). Geo-Governance is an initiative
of the University of Potsdam's focus research areas of Earth Sciences and Politics,
Administration and Management. The initiative aims to better
integrate the results of
current research on global problems such as natural hazards, climate
sustainable resource into policy decision-making. Geo-Governance
change and
bridges the gap
between natural and social sciences. The interdisciplinary focus lies on
Earth and
incorporating
environmental expertise into political and administrative decision-making
processes. This provides a common reference point, which is currently being addressed
in some initial research projects and a variety of pilot models of training and continuing
education.
Computer technology is now overwhelming the world and computers can handle
vast amount of information in comparison to the traditional skills. Therefore, Computer
Assisted Cartography (CAC) is emerging as another field of profession. Particularly
the young generation of geographers has a considerable degree of mastery over this
technology. A number of organizations are offering professional courses in this field.
Besides, the above, there are a score of other institutes offering different professional
where the students of geography may be absorbed. These courses are related
courses
to the fields of Demography, Environment, Forestry, Planning, Social Work and
Tourism.
In spite of its inter-dependence cutting across on so many sister disciplines,
geography in itself is an independent field of study. It is the science of place, i.e. the
study of the surface of the earth, the location and distribution of its physical and cultural
features, the areal patterns or places that they form, and the interrelation of these
features as they affect humans. Geography is a synoptic science that uses the same
388 GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT
data spatially
context. It integrates
but in a different
elements as the other sciences
tool. Geography may be studied by way
of
of as its special
making elaborate use maps descriptively, and
interrelated approaches, i.e. systematically, regionally, of geography is
several and methodology
the definition, purpose
analytically. Not only matter is also widening
with time.
changing, but its scope
and subject

NOTES

1.
1. Ackerman, et al., 1965,
2. Hartshorne, 1959. Hills Corner,
Institute of Geoinformatics,
SIMS Campus, 2nd Floor, Range
3. Symbiosis
Kirkee Cantt., Pune. information scienceinfrastructure
Geoinformatics is a science which develops and uses
4. branches of engineering. The three
to address the problems
of geosciences and related
and management of databases of
are: (1) development
main tasks of geoinformatics and integration of
of geodata; and (3) development
geodata; (2) analysis and modelling
for the first two tasks.
Geoinformatics is related to
software
computer tools and of geographic information systems.
geocomputation and to the development and use

5. Rana, 2008, 37-43.

6. Rana, op. cit.

REFERENCES

National Academy of Science Publication,

Ackerman, E.A. et al., (1965), The ScienceofGeography,
Washington D.C.
Nature of Geography, Rand McNally and Co., Chicago.
Hartshorne, R. (1959), Perspective on the
Record of Evolution, Concept Publishing
Rana, L. (2008), Geographical Thought: A Systematic
Company, New Delhi.
Geographical thought at any point in time is a manitestation of the prevailing
viewpoints and methodological approaches in vogue. The developmernt of
geography has a history of evolution of over 2000 years. The discipline has
been crafted over time to incorporate ideas from various schools of thought
and several other disciplines irom ancient to modern times. The existingg
methodology and the subject matter of Geography is a reflection of this
assemblage and evolution. The nature of development remained more
philosophical up to modern period. The First edition of this book, published in
2008. was an attempt towards compilation of relevant study material
evoiution of Geographic thought in a systematic way up to the modern
period. The book has been revised with the addition of two elaborated
sections, i.e. one each on the Classical and the Contemporary tradition in
geography. However, the major thrust of present book is on the nature of
geographic developments in its contemoporary phase. More recently, the
anthropocentricism and a concern about methodology are more evident in
the development of discipline.

Dr. Lalita Rana (b. 1960) is a Gold Medallist and the recipient of
UGC Fellowship. She is Associate Professor in the Department
of Geography, Shivaji College, University of Delhi. Committed to
the teaching and research, she has a special interest in the
study
of history and philosophy of geography. Her previous book
Geographical Thought: A Systematic Record of Evolution'
(published in 2008) has been widely accepted and well read by the students
of geography both at the under and
post-graduate levels.

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