UNIT 3

CHAPTER 2
DC MOTORS
• DC Motor

✓ A DC Motor or Direct Current Motor converts electrical energy in to mechanical

energy.
✓ A Direct Current (DC) motor is fairly simple electric motor that uses electricity and a
magnetic field to produce torque, which turns the rotor and hence give mechanical
work.

Small Size DC Motor Large Size DC Motor

• CONSTRUCTIONAL PARTS OF DC MACHINE

1) Magnetic Frame or yoke

2) Pole core & Pole shoes.
3) Magnetic field or Exciting coils
4) Armature core
5) Armature winding
a) Lap Winding
b) Wave Winding
6) Commutator
7) Brushes.
8) Bearing
9) End ring
10) Shaft
✓ MAGNETIC FRAME OR YOKE
▪ The outer hollow cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter-poles are
fixed and by means of which the machine is fixed to the foundation is known
as Yoke.
▪ The two main purposes of the yoke are as follows:-
➢ It supports the pole cores and provides mechanical protection to the
inner parts of the machines.
➢ It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

✓ POLE CORE & POLE SHOES

▪ The Pole Core and Pole Shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts.
▪ The pole core and shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations.
▪ It supports the field or exciting coils.
▪ They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
▪ It increases the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit, as a result, the
reluctance of the magnetic path is reduced.

✓ FIELD or EXCITING COILS

▪ The enameled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils.
▪ The field coils of all the poles are connected in series in such a way that when
current flows through them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity.

✓ ARMATURE WINDING
▪ The insulated conductors are placed in the slots of the armature core.
▪ The armature winding is the heart of the DC Machine.
▪ Armature winding is a place where conversion of power takes place.
 ▪ Windings are classified into two types named as Lap Winding and Wave
Winding.
➢ Lap Winding
• In lap winding, the conductors are connected in such a way
that the number of parallel paths are equal to the number of
poles.

➢ Wave Winding
• In wave winding, the conductors are so connected that they
are divided into two parallel paths irrespective of the number
of poles of the machine.
✓ COMMUTATOR
▪ The commutator which rotates with the armature, is cylindrical in shape.
▪ It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit
through brushes.
▪ It converts the induced alternating current in the armature conductor into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit in DC Generator action,
whereas it converts the alternating torque into unidirectional (continuous)
torque produced in the armature in motor action.

✓ BRUSHES
▪ The brushes are pressed upon the Commutator and form the connecting link
between the armature winding and the external circuit.
▪ The pressure exerted by the brushes on the Commutator can be adjusted and is
maintained at a constant value by means of springs.
▪ It can be used to provide a lubricating effect on Commutator surface.

✓ END HOUSINGS
▪ End housings are attached to the ends of the Mainframe and provide support
to the bearings.

✓ BEARINGS
▪ The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The function of the
bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the
machine.

✓ SHAFT
▪ The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft
is used to transfer mechanical power from or to the machine.

▪ WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR

▪ A machine that converts DC electrical power into mechanical power is known

as a Direct Current motor.

▪ DC motor working is based on the principle that when a current carrying

conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force.
 ▪ The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and magnitude
is given by;
F = BIL Newton’s
▪ According to Fleming’s left-hand rule when an electric current passes through
a coil in a magnetic field, the magnetic force produces a torque that turns the
DC motor. The direction of this force is perpendicular to both the wire and the
magnetic field.

• TYPES OF DC MOTORS

1. Series
2. Shunt
3. Compound

• TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTOR

▪ Three characteristic curves are there for DC Motors given below

➢ Torque-armature current
➢ Speed- armature current
➢ Speed- torque

❖ SERIES DC MOTOR

➢ TORQUE- ARMATURE

In the case of a series motor, the series field winding is carrying the
entire armature current. So flux produced is proportional to the
armature current.

Figure: torque-armature current curve for DC series motor

➢ SPEED- ARMATURE
Hence in the speed equation, Eb ≈ V and can be assumed constant. So
speed equation reduces.

Figure: speed-armature current curve for DC series motor

➢ SPEED- TORQUE
In case of series motors

Hence we can write

Thus as torque increases when load increases, the speed decreases.

 Figure. Speed-torque curve for DC series motor

❖ SHUNT DC MOTOR

➢ Torque-armature current

For a constant values of and supply voltage is also constant and hence flux
is also constant.

Figure: Torque-armature current curve for DC shunt motor

➢ Speed- armature current

So as load increases >> The armature current increases and hence

drop also increases.
 Figure: speed-armature current curve for DC shunt motor
➢ SPEED- TORQUE

So from these 2 equations, we can conclude that Speed and Torque both has
a linear relationship.

Figure: Speed-torque curve for DC shunt motor

❖ DC COMPOUND MOTOR
A compound motor has both shunt and series field winding .The shunt
field winding always stronger then series field winding.
Two types of the compound motor
(1) Cumulative compound motor (current direction is same in series and
shunt).
(2) Differentially compound motor (current is in opposite direction in
series and shunt winding).
➢ Cumulative Compound Motor
• In this series and shunt both characteristics are required
• The load is likely to be removed completely.
• Series winding takes care of the heavy load.
• The shunt winding prevents the motor from running at
dangerously high speed.
• These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where
sudden and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.

➢ Differentially Compound Motor

• Series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with
increase in load.
• Thus the machine runs at a higher speed with increase in the
load.
• This property is dangerous as on full load, the motor may try
to run with dangerously high speed.
• So differential compound motor is generally not used in
practice.
❖ APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
➢ Blower
➢ Fans
➢ Lathe machine
➢ Machine tool
➢ Drilling machines
➢ Punches
➢ Elevators

❖ BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
➢ Permanent magnet (PM) brushless DC motors (BLDCM) are generated by virtually
inverting the stator and rotor of PM DC motors.
➢ These motors are actually fed by rectangular AC waveform.
➢ The advantage is the removal of brushes, leading to eliminate many problems
associated with brushes.

Figure: BLDC motor

➢ Classical DC motors are no doubt good and simple but inefficient in some ways.
➢ Although dc motors possess good control characteristics and ruggedness, their
performance and applications are inhibited due to sparking and commutation problems.
➢ The Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PMBLDC) motor is able to overcome the
limitations mentioned above and satisfy the requirements of a variable speed drive.

❖ BLDC MOTOR
➢ Has no brushes and commutators.
➢ Rotation of the rotor depends on the accurate position with stator.
➢ Detected by Hall Sensor, mounted on rotor, shifted at 60º or 120º phase shift.
➢ Electronic commutation used to vary the PWM duty-cycle for speed control, using
software.
 ❖ WORKING OF BLDCM
➢ As there is no commutator, the current direction of the conductor on the
stator controlled electronically.
➢ Rotor consists the permanent magnet where as stator consist a no. of
windings. Current through winding produces magnetic field and force.
➢ Hall sensor used to determine the position during commutation.
Brushless DC motor requires external commutation circuit to rotate rotor.
➢ Rotor position is very important.
➢ HALL SENSOR senses the position of the coil accurately.

❖ APPLICATIONS
PMBLDC motors are increasingly being used in a wide spectrum of applications:
➢ domestic equipments
➢ automobiles information technology equipment
➢ industries
➢ public life appliances
➢ transportation
➢ aerospace, defence equipments, power tools, toys, vision and sound equipments
➢ medical and health care equipment ranging from microwatts to megawatts

❖ SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

➢ Single-phase a.c supply is commonly used for lighting purpose in shops, offices,
houses, schools etc.
➢ Hence instead of d.c motors, the motors which work on single-phase a.c. supply are
popularly used. These a.c motors are called single-phase induction motors.
➢ Used in applications like small toys, small fans, hairdryers etc.

❖ CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

▪ Single-phase induction motor also has two main parts, one rotating and
other stationary.
▪ The stationary part in single-phase induction motors is Stator and the
rotating part is Rotor.
▪ The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings.
▪ The number of poles for which stator winding is wound decides the
synchronous speed of the motor.

❖ TYPES OF ROTOR
There are two types of rotor such as:
1. Squirrel cage rotor
2. Slip ring rotor
 ➢ SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR
▪ Squirrel cage motor is one of the types of induction motors. In order to
generate motion, it hardens electromagnetism.
▪ As the output shaft is connected to the rotor inner component which is
looking like a cage. Hence it is called squirrel cage.
▪ In order to avoid hysteresis and eddy currents that are leading to power loss,
the rotor is laminated.

ADVANATGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR

Advantages:
• Simple and rugged construction.
• The low initial as well as maintenance cost.
• Maintains constant speed.
Disadvantages:
• High starting current.
• Very sensitive to fluctuations in supply voltage.
• Low power factor at light loads.
 APPLICATIONS OF SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR
The applications of squirrel cage induction motor include the following.
• Suitable for industrial drives of small power where speed control is not required such as for
printing machinery, flour mills, and other shaft drives of small power.
• Centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, etc

➢ SLIP RING ROTOR

▪ A slip ring induction motor is referred to as an asynchronous motor as the
speed at which it operates is not equal to the synchronous speed of a rotor.
▪ The rotor of this type of motor is wound type. It comprises of a cylindrical
laminated steel core and a semi-closed groove at the outer boundary

Advantages:
• High and excellent starting torque to support high inertia loads.
• It has a low starting current due to external resistance.
• Can take full load current that is 6 to 7 times higher.
Disadvantages:
• Includes higher maintenance costs due to brushes and slip rings compared to squirrel cage
motor.
• Intricate construction.
The applications of slip ring induction motor include the following.
• These motors are used where higher torque and low starting current are required.
• Used in applications like elevators, compressors, cranes, conveyors, hoists, and many more.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SQUIRREL CAGE & SLIP RING INDUCTION MOTOR

Parameters Slip ring Squirrel cage

Rotor It has a rotor of wound type Its rotor is of squirrel cage

type.

Rotor slots Rotor has cylindrical core has Slots are not parallel to each
parallel slots, in which each other
slot has a bar

Construction Construction is complicated Simple construction

because of slip rings and
brushes

External resistance External resistance circuit is No external resistance circuit

connected with a motor as bars of the rotor is
completely slotted

Starting torque High Low

Efficiency Low High

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

• In the single-phase induction motor, single-phase a.c supply is given to the stator winding.
The stator winding carries an alternating current which produces the flux which is also
alternating in nature. This flux is called the main flux.
• This flux links with the rotor conductors and due to transformer action e.m.f gets induced in
the rotor.
• The induced emf drives current through the rotor as the rotor circuit is the closed circuit.
• This rotor current produces another flux called rotor flux required for the motoring action. Thus
second flux is produced according to the induction principle due to induced e.m.f hence the
motor is called induction motor.
• As against this in d.c motor a separate supply is required to the armature to produce armature
flux. This is an important difference between d.c motor and an induction motor.
APPLICATIONS OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
• Fans
• Refrigerators
• Air-conditioners
• Vacuum cleaners
• Washing machines
• Centrifugal pumps
 • Small farming appliances

SPEED OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The speed of three phase induction motor is given by:
Ns = 120f/P
Where
Ns = synchronous speed
f = supply frequency
P = number of poles

SLIP OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

• The slip in an induction motor is the difference between the main flux speed and their rotor
speed.
• The symbol S represents the slip. It is expressed by the percentage of synchronous speed.
Mathematically, it is written as

Where Ns is synchronous speed and Nr is rotor speed.

The rotor speed is given by the equation shown below.

Alternatively, if
• Ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per second
• Nr is the actual rotor speed in revolution per second.
• S is slip.

The rotor frequency is given by the equation shown below.

fr = s. fs
Where fr is rotor frequency
• s is slip
 • fs is supply frequency
At standstill condition
Slip s = 1, then rotor frequency
fr = 1. fs

Comparison between Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motors

1. Single phase induction motors are simple in construction, reliable and economical for
small power rating as compared to three phase induction motors.
2. The electrical power factor of single phase induction motors is low as compared to three
phase induction motors.
3. For the same size, the single-phase induction motors develop about 50% of the output as
that of three phase induction motors.
4. The starting torque is also low for asynchronous motors/single phase induction motor.
5. The efficiency of single phase induction motors is less compared to that of three phase
induction motors.

Single phase induction motors are simple, robust, reliable and cheaper for small ratings. They are
available up to 1 KW rating.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINGLE PHASE & THREE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR
Parameters Single phase induction motor Three phase induction motor

Supply Single Phase induction motor Three Phase induction motor

uses single phase supply, for its uses three phase supply, for its
operation. operation

Maintenance They are easy to repair and Difficult to repair and

maintain. maintain.

Efficiency Efficiency is less Efficiency is high

Power Factor Power factor is low Power factor is high

Applications They are mostly used in Three phase induction motors

domestic appliances such as are mostly used in industries.
mixer grinder, fans,
compressors etc

Cost Cheaper Quiet expensive

 • SERVO MOTOR

✓ In modern usage the term servo or servo-mechanism is restricted to

a feedback control system in which the controlled variable is
mechanical position or time derivatives of position such as velocity
and acceleration.
✓ A servo is a device, electrical, mechanical or electro mechanical, that
upon receipt of a input will employ feedback for velocity and/or
position control, creating a closed loop.

CONSTRUCTION OF SERVO MOTOR

Working principle of Servomotor

It is having three major parts:
1. Controlled device
2. Feedback system
3. Output sensor
➢ The servo motor works on the phenomenon of the automatic closed-loop system. The controller
is required for this closed-loop system.
➢ This controller is composed of a comparator and a feedback path. It has one output and two
inputs.
 ➢ In this, for producing an output signal, the comparator is used to compare the required reference
signal and this output signal is sensed by the sensor. The input signal for the motor is termed as
a feedback signal.
➢ On the basis of the feedback signal, the motor starts working. Comparator signal is called a
logic signal of the motor.
➢ The motor would be ON for the desired time when the logical difference is higher and the motor
would be OFF for the desired time when the logical difference is lower.
➢ Basically, a comparator is used to decide that motor would be ON or OFF. Proper functioning
of the motor can be done with the help of a good controller.
ADVANTAGES
✓ High output power relative to motor size and weight.
✓ Encoder determines accuracy and resolution.
✓ High efficiency. It can approach 90% at light loads.
✓ High torque to inertia ratio. It can rapidly accelerate loads.
✓ Has "reserve" power. 2-3 times continuous power for short periods.
✓ Has "reserve" torque. 5-10 times rated torque for short periods.
✓ Motor stays cool. Current draw proportional to load.
DISADVANTAGES
✓ Requires "tuning" to stabilize feedback loop.
✓ Motor "runs away" when something breaks. Safety circuits are required.
✓ Brush wear out limits life to 2,000 hrs. Service is then required.
✓ Peak torque is limited to a 1% duty cycle.
✓ Motor can be damaged by sustained overload.
✓ Bewildering choice of motors, encoders, and servo-drives.
✓ Power supply current 10 times average to use peak torque.
✓ Motor develops peak power at higher speeds. Gearing often required.
✓ Poor motor cooling. Ventilated motors are easily contaminated.
APPLICATIONS
❑ They play an important role in robotics information of robot because of their smooth switching
on or off and accurate positioning.
❑ They are used in hydraulic systems to maintain hydraulic fluid in the aerospace industry.
❑ In radio controlled toys these are also used.
❑ They are used to extend or replay the disc trays in electronic devices such as DVDs or Blue-
ray Disc players.
❑ They are used to maintain the speed of vehicles in the automobile industries.
 • STEPPER MOTOR
✓ A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts train of pulses
into discrete mechanical movements.
✓ The shaft of motor rotates through a fixed angle for each discrete pulse. This
rotation can be linear or angular.
✓ When a train of pulses is applied, it gets turned through a certain angle.
✓ The angle through which the stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is
referred as step angle.
WORKING OF STEPPER MOTOR

➢ The stepper motor rotor is a permanent magnet, when the current flows through the
stator winding, the stator winding to produce a vector magnetic field.
➢ The magnetic field drives the rotor to rotate by an angle so that the pair of magnetic
fields of the rotor and the magnetic field direction of the stator are consistent.
➢ When the stator's vector magnetic field is rotated by an angle, the rotor also rotates with
the magnetic field at an angle.
➢ Each time an electrical pulse is input, the motor rotates one degree further. The angular
displacement it outputs is proportional to the number of pulses input and the speed is
proportional to the pulse frequency.
➢ it can control the rotation of the stepping motor by controlling the number of pulses,
the frequency and the electrical sequence of each phase winding of the motor.
OPERATION OF STEPPER MOTOR
▪ Each of those slight rotations is called a step, with an integer number of steps making
a full rotation.
▪ In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise.
▪ Stepper motor doesn’t rotate continuously, they rotate in steps.
▪ There are 4 coils with 90 deg angle between each other fixed on the stator.
▪ The stepper motor connections are determined by the way the coils are
interconnected.
▪ In stepper motor, the coils are not connected together.
▪ The motor has 90deg rotation step with the coils being energized in a cyclic order.

TYPES OF STEPPER MOTOR

✓ PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

▪ Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor.
▪ It operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator
electromagnets.
▪ When the stator windings are excited with DC supply, it produces magnetic flux and
establishes north poles and south poles.
▪ Due to force of attraction and repulsion between PM rotor poles and stator poles, the
rotor starts moving upto the position for which pulses are given to the stator.
✓ VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR
▪ Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on the
principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor points
are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.
▪ All the stator poles are aligned in a Multi-Stack motor. But the rotor poles are displaced
by 1/m of the pole pitch angle from each other.

✓ HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR

▪ Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a combination of permanent magnet
(PM) and variable reluctance (VR) techniques to achieve maximum power in a small
package size.
▪ The Hybrid Stepper Motor is a combination of the features of the variable reluctance
motor and permanent magnet stepper motor.
STEPPER MOTOR ADVANTAGES
✓ The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
✓ The motor has full torque at standstill.
✓ Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.
✓ Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is
simply dependant on the life of the bearing.
✓ The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.
✓ It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.

STEPPER MOTOR DISADVANTAGES

✓ Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
✓ Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds

STEPPER MOTOR APPLICATIONS

▪ Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine tooling
automated production equipment's.
▪ Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
▪ Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found inside
digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators and blood analysis machinery.
▪ Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus and
zoom functions.
NUMERICALS:

1. A stepper motor offers a resolution of 200 steps per revolution. Calculate the necessary
pulse rate to achieve a rotor speed of 2800 rpm?
2. In a DC shunt motor, operating at 400V, it draws 60A at full load and 4A at no load.
With an armature resistance of 0.4 ohms and a shunt field winding resistance of 180
ohms, determine the back electromotive force (E.M.F) at both no load and full load
conditions?
3. In a DC shunt motor operating at 380V; it draws an armature current of 55A at full load,
running at 1200 RPM. Given an armature resistance of 0.5 ohms and shunt field
winding resistance of 250 ohms, determine the no-load speed of the DC shunt motor?

Questions:
1. Elaborate on the operating principle of a DC motor and derive the equation for torque
in a DC motor?
2. Describe different techniques for regulating the speed of (1) a DC shunt motor and (2)
a DC series motor?
3. Illustrate and provide an explanation of drive circuits used with stepper motors, and
discuss their performance characteristics?
4. Highlight the distinctions among stepper motors, BLDC (Brushless DC) motors, and
servo motors ?