Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology

College of Engineering
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology

Fermentation on the Rise

A report on Fermentation Industry

In partial fulfillment
of the requirement for
ChE 140: CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

Owen Gabriel P. Umacob

November 28, 2014

 Table of Contents
I. History of Fermentation ............................................................................................................... 3

II. Fermentation............................................................................................................................... 3

III. Factors Influencing Fermentation ............................................................................................. 4

IV. Types of Fermentation .............................................................................................................. 5

V. APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 6

A. Production of Biomass and Microbial Cells........................................................................... 7

Cell Biomass−Bakers’ Yeast Production ............................................................................... 8

Process Layout ....................................................................................................................... 8

B.Production of Microbial Enzymes ......................................................................................... 10

C. Production of Microbial Metabolites .................................................................................... 10

Production of Industrial Alcohol .......................................................................................... 11

Miscellaneous Primary Metabolites ..................................................................................... 13

D. Recombinant DNA Products ................................................................................................ 13

E. Biotransformation through Fermentation .............................................................................. 14

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 17

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 I. History of Fermentation
The Fermentation has been used since ancient times to conserve and alter foods. The use
of fermentation, particularly for beverages, has existed since the Neolithic period and has been
documented dating from 7000-6600 BCE in Jiahu, China, 6000 BCE in Georgia, 3150 BCE in
ancient Egypt, 3000 BCE in Babylon, 2000 BCE in pre-Hispanic Mexico, and 1500 BC in
Sudan. The fermented foods have religious significance in Judaism and Christianity. Both beer
and wine were deified and offered to gods in Egypt. Also, alcohol was considered a spiritual
food rather than a material one in China in prehistoric times.

The scientific understand of fermentation was made by Louis Pasteur. He showed that
fermentation is directly caused by the life processes of minute organisms. Louis Pasteur (1822–
1895), during the 1850s and 1860s, showed that fermentation is initiated by living organisms in a
series of investigations. In 1857, Pasteur showed that lactic acid fermentation is caused by living
organisms. In 1860, he demonstrated that bacteria cause souring in milk, a process formerly
thought to be merely a chemical change, and his work in identifying the role of microorganisms
in food spoilage led to the process of pasteurization. Before World War I the only large-scale
fermentation product was ethanol. During World War I, acetone-butanol fermentation was
commercially established. Acetone was used in explosives production. Shortly after the war,
sharp increase in the market of fermentation products was observed- manufacture of organic
acids began. Before World War II fermentation was mainly a method of food production. In the
years 1941-1946, the market for conventional fermentation products, such as antibiotics, germ
warfare, was established. This greatly increased interest in industrial utilization of
microorganisms.

Advances in microbiology and fermentation technology have continued steadily up until

the present. For example, in the late 1970s, it was discovered that microorganisms could be
mutated with physical and chemical treatments to be higher-yielding, faster-growing, tolerant of
less oxygen, and able to use a more concentrated medium. Strain selection and hybridization
developed as well, affecting most modern food fermentations.

II. Fermentation
The term “fermentation” comes from the Latin verb, fervere, meaning “to boil”. It
describes the appearance of action of yeasts on extracts of fruit or malted grain. It is now known
that the boiling appearance is due to the production of carbon dioxide bubbles caused by the
anaerobic catabolism of sugars present in the extract.

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 a. c.

b. d.

Figure 1. Some of the products of fermentation a.) beer b.) fermented meat c.) bread d.) cheese

In its broadest meaning, fermentation is a metabolic process, specifically the release of energy, in
which an organism breaks down carbohydrates and other complex organic substances into
simpler ones. Fermentation process utilizes microorganisms to convert solid or liquid substrates
into various products. The substrates used vary widely, any material that supports microbial
growth being a potential substrate. Similarly, fermentation-derived products show tremendous
variety. Commonly consumed fermented products include bread, cheese, sausage, pickled
vegetables, cocoa, beer, wine, citric acid, glutamic acid and soy sauce. Industrial fermentation
refers to the process in which microorganisms that are cultured on a large-scale under aerobic or
anaerobic conditions, convert a substrate into a product which is useful to man.

III. Factors Influencing Fermentation

There are numerous factors that influences fermentation, that includes temperature, pH,
nature and composition of the medium, dissolved CO2, dissolved O2, operational system (e.g.
batch, feed-batch, continuous), feeding with precursors, mixing (cycling through varying

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environments), and shear rates in the fermenter. Variations in these factors may affect the rate of
fermentation, the product spectrum and yield, the organoleptic properties of the product
(appearance, taste, smell, and texture), the generation of toxins, nutritional quality, and other
physico-chemical properties.
The formulation of the fermentation medium affects the yield, rate, and product profile.
The medium must provide the necessary amounts of carbon, nitrogen, trace elements and
micronutrients (e.g. vitamins). Specific types of carbon and nitrogen sources may be required,
and the carbon: nitrogen ratio may have to be controlled. An understanding of the fermentation
biochemistry is essential for developing a medium with an appropriate formulation.
Concentrations of certain nutrients may have to be varied in a specific way during a fermentation
to achieve the desired result. Some trace elements may have to be avoided- for example, minute
amounts of iron reduce yields in citric acid production by Aspergillus niger. Additional factors,
such as cost, availability, and batch-to-batch variability also affect the choice of medium.

IV. Types of Fermentation

There are two classifications of the most commercially useful fermentation, these are
solid-state and submerged cultures. In solid-state fermentations, the microorganisms grow on a
moist solid with little or no ‘free’ water, although capillary water may be present. Examples of
this type of fermentation are seen in mushroom cultivation, bread-making and the processing of
cocoa, and in the manufacture of some traditional foods (e.g. miso, sake, soy sauce, tempeh, and
gari) which are now produced in large industrial operations. Submerged fermentations may be
use a dissolved substrate, e.g. sugar solution, or a solid substrate, suspended in a large amount of
water to form slurry. Submerged fermentations are used for pickling vegetables, producing
yogurts, brewing beer, and producing wine.
Industrial fermentations may be carried out either batch wise, as feed-batch operations, or
as continuous cultures. Batch and fed-batch operations are quite common, continuous
fermentations are relatively rare. In batch processing, a batch of culture medium in a fermenter is
inoculated with a microorganism (the starter culture). The fermentation proceeds for a certain
duration (the ‘fermentation time’ or ‘batch time’), and the product is harvested. Batch
fermentations typically extend over 4-5 days, but some traditional food fermentations may last
months or years. In fed-batch fermentations, sterile culture medium is added either continuously
or periodically to the inoculated fermentation batch. The volume of the fermenting broth
increases with each addition of the medium, and the fermenter is harvested after the batch time.
In continuous fermentations, sterile medium is fed continuously into a fermenter and the
fermented product is continuously withdrawn, so the fermentation volume remains unchanged.

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 V. APPLICATIONS
There are five major groups of commercially important fermentation.
A. Microbial cells or biomass of the product, e.g. single cell protein, baker’s
yeast, lactobacillus, E.coli, etc.
B. Microbial enzymes: catalase, amylase, protease, etc.
C. Microbial metabolites
 Primary metabolites-ethanol, citric acids, glutamic acid, lysine,
vitamins
 Secondary metabolites- all antibiotic fermentation
D. Recombinant products: insulin, hepatitis B vaccine, interferon
E. Biotransformations: phenylacetylcarbinol, steroid biotransformation

An established process may be divided into six basic component parts regardless of the
type of fermentation.
• The formulation of media to be used in the culturing process, organism during the
development of the inoculum and in the production fermenter.
• The sterilization of the medium, fermenters, and ancillary equipment.
• The production of an active, pure culture in sufficient quantity to inoculate the production
vessel.
• The growth of the organism in the production fermenter under optimum conditions for
product formation.
• The extraction of product and its purification.
• The disposal of effluents produced by the process.

Production Biomass
fermenter

Culture fluid Cell Separation

Stock Culture Shake flask seed fermenter

Medium Sterilization Cell-free supernatant

Medium Formulation Product Purification Product Extraction

Medium Raw Materials

Product Packaging Effluent Treatment

Figure 2. A generalized schematic representation of a typical fermentation process

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 In the figure above, the interrelationships between the six component parts are illustrated.
However, one must also visualize the research and development program which is designed to
gradually improve the overall efficiency of the fermentation. Before a fermentation process is
established a producer organism has to be isolated, modified such that it produces the desired
product in commercial quantities, its cultural requirements determined and the plant designed
accordingly. The development program would involve the continual improvement of the process
organism, the culture medium, and the extraction process.

A. Production of Biomass and Microbial Cells

Four types of microorganisms are used to produce biomass: bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and
algae. The choice of a microorganism depends on numerous criteria, the most important of which
is the nature of the raw material available. The other criteria are nutritional, technological, and
toxicological. Nutritional value covers the energy value, protein content, and amino acid balance.
Moreover, technological encompasses the type of culture, nutritional requirements, and type of
separation.
The ideal microorganism should possess high specific growth rate (m) and biomass yield
(Yx/s), high affinity for the substrate, low nutritional requirements, ability to use complex
substrates, ability to develop high cell density, stability during multiplication, capacity for
genetic modification, and good tolerance to temperature and pH.
In addition, it should have a balanced protein and lipid composition. It must have a low
nucleic acid content, good digestibility and be non-toxic.

Table 1. Composition of microorganisms of interest in biomass production

Microorganisms Substrate Nitrogen Protein Fat Carbohydrate
Algae
Chlorella sorokiniana CO2 9.6 60 8 22
Spirulina maximaa CO2 10 62 3
Spirulina maximaa CO2 8.5 53 4.8 28
Bacteria and
Actinomycetes
Cellulomonas sp. Bagasse 14 87 8
Methylomonas clara Methanol 12-13 80-85 8-10
Yeasts
Candida lipolyticia n-Alkanes 10 65 8.1
Candida utilis Ethanol 8.3 52 7
Kluyveromyces fragilis Whey 9 54 1
Sacchamoryces Molasses 8.4 53 6.3
cerevisiae

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 Molds and Higher
Fungi
Aspergillus niger Molasses 7.7 50
Morchella crassipes Glucose 5 31 3.1
Paecilomyces variotili Sulfite waste 8.8 55 1.3 25
liquor

Cell Biomass−Bakers’ Yeast Production

A typical industrial example of fermentation technology for biomass production is the
production of bakers’ yeast. Bakers’ yeast is used in the production of bread. It provides the
rising power of the dough and, therefore, the airiness of the bread during its baking process.
Bakers’ yeast is produced by the growth of microorganism son a substrate consisting of sugars
(e.g., glucose, molasses) under aerobic conditions, that is, with excess oxygen. Under anaerobic
conditions, that is, with a shortage of oxygen, ethanol will be produced, which is not a desired
reaction.
Process Layout
Bakers’ yeast is produced in the fed-batch mode. This has the advantage of a
higher efficiency, a better control of the dynamics of the overall process and a better
quality of the bakers’ yeast compared to batch processing. As the fermentation reaction is
exothermic and the optimal process temperature is 298–303 K, cooling with cooling
water (typically 283–288 K) is limited, which is a common problem in industrial
bioprocesses. Yeast plants are typically run between five and seven days a week. In every
production cycle, a series of reactors with increasing size is used (small, medium, large
volume) as shown in Figure 13.5. Prior to the production, the reactors are cleaned and
sterilized with steam. Beet and cane molasses serve as the sugar providers. Molasses is a
waste product from the sugar industry and the cheapest source of fermentable sugars.
Even so, the substrate costs are responsible for 60–70% of the cost of bakers’ yeast. Beet
and cane molasses differ in sugar composition, proteins, salts, and vitamins content.
Therefore, an additional supply of nutrients (salts, vitamins) is necessary. The raw
molasses is diluted to facilitate pumping and fermentation and treated with acid (to
pH=4) by which precipitation of some organic material occurs. Then the molasses is
centrifuged and sterilized (“heat shocked”) at 410 K, usually by steam injection for a
couple of seconds. The sterilized solution is stored in sterilized vessels. Ammonia is
added to supply the necessary nitrogen for yeast growth and to adjust the pH in the
fermenter. The specific growth rate of the biomass may vary between 0.05 and 0.6 h−1.
In the beginning, the pH of the substrate solution is around four to ensure optimal growth
of the biomass and to prevent contaminations a result of incomplete removal of proteins
from the substrate. At the end of the production cycle, the phi’s increased to a value of
five to prevent strong coloring of the yeast.

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 To start up simply using one large reactor is not optimal. Due to the long
residence time for this type of operation, the chances of contamination of the substrate
solution are large. The process consists of a number of growth stages, the first of which is
the laboratory batch culture (inoculum). The next stages are again pure batch with
progressively increasing reactor volume, while in the final production stages several
reactors (shown as one reactor) are used in fed-batch mode with respect to the sugar
substrates (cycle time circa 16 h). The air flow is continuous when the reactors are in
operation. In old plants, all reactors were mechanically stirred. Nowadays, the large
reactors are more frequently bubble columns. The initial liquid volume in the fed-batch
reactor is 20% and the final volume is 70% of the reactor volume.
Baker’s yeast is marketed in a number of different forms, the main differences
being the moisture contents. Three general types can be distinguished:
-Cream yeast (called cream yeast because of its off-white color) is a suspension of
yeast cells in liquid and has high moisture content.
-Compressed yeast is cream yeast with most of the liquid removed.
- Active dry yeast has the lowest moisture content. Instant yeast and rapid-rise
yeast are varieties of active dry yeast.

Figure 3. Process steps in the production of Baker’s yeast

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 At the end of the production cycle, the fermentation product contains about 5 wt.
% yeast. The biomass is concentrated by centrifugation in several stages. In the transfer
of the biomass from one centrifuge to another, the biomass is washed with water.
Subsequently, the cream yeast is cooled to 277 K and stored in tanks. Small part of the
cream yeast, after acid treatment, is used as starting material for the next fermentation
cycle. The remainder is processed into either compressed or active dry yeast. The cream
yeast is filtered and the dewatered yeast is continuously cut from the filter surface. It is
mixed with emulsifiers and the moisture content adjusted to 70 wt. %. The yeast is then
extruded in the shape of thick strands, cut, packaged, and stored at low temperature.
Although the quality of dried bakers’ yeast is less than that of compressed yeast, part of
the bakers’ yeasts sold as active dry yeast. The reason is that it has a better stability, and
hence can be used in (sub) tropical countries. Production and downstream processing of
so-called active dry yeast is similar to that of compressed yeast. The yeast is extruded to
fine strands (2–3 mm thick) directly after filtration. These strands are chopped to a length
of about 7 mm and then dried. Dryers are commonly of the fluidized bed dryer type. The
active dry yeast can be stored at higher temperature than compressed yeast.

B. Production of Microbial Enzymes

Enzymes are large biological molecules responsible for the thousands of metabolic
processes that sustain life. They are highly selective catalysts, greatly accelerating both the rate
and specificity of metabolic reactions. One of the earliest examples of industrial enzyme use was
for clarifying and filtering wine and beer. Today, enzymes are used in many industries: from
textile production to bakery products; from renewable biofuels to the ‘greener’ production of
tires and adhesives.
Enzymes have been produced commercially from plants, animal and microbial sources.
However, microbial enzymes have the enormous advantage of being able to be produced in large
quantities by established fermentation techniques. Also, it is infinitely easier to improve the
productivity of a microbial system compared with a plant or animal one.

C. Production of Microbial Metabolites

The growth of a microbial culture can be divided in a number of stages which it produces
during the various stages of the growth curve. During the log phase of growth the products
produced are essential to the growth of the cells and include amino acids, nucleotides, proteins,
nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, etc. These products are referred to as the primary products of
metabolism and the phase in which they are produced is in the exponential phase.
During the deceleration and stationary phase some microbial cultures synthesize
compounds which are not produced during the log phase and which do not appear to have any

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obvious function in cell metabolism. These compounds are referred to as the secondary
compounds of metabolism.

Table 2. Some examples of microbial primary metabolites and their commercial significance.
Primary Metabolite Producing Organism Commercial Significance
Ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae Active ingredient in alcoholic
beverages
Citric Acid Aspergillus niger Various uses in food industry
Glutamic Acid Corynebacterium glutamicum Flavor enhancer
Lysine Corynebacterium glutamicum Feed additive
Polyssacharide Xanthamonas spp. Applications in food industry:
enhanced oil recovery

Figure 4. Growth of a typical microorganism under batch culture conditions

Production of Industrial Alcohol

Alcoholic fermentation, also referred to as ethanol fermentation, is a biological process in
which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and
thereby produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products. Because yeasts
perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an
anaerobic process.
• C6H12O6 + Zymase → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

Figure 13.6 shows a schematic of the production of ethanol by yeast. The yeast has been
cultivated in advance in aerated fermenters as discussed for the production of bakers’ yeast. The
yeast is added to a mixture of cane molasses and water in large anaerobic fermenters.
Hydrochloric or sulfuric acid is added to obtain an acidic medium. Heat is removed by external

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Figure 5. Production of fuel-grade ethanol from biomass in an early plant.

heat exchangers. In downstream processing, the yeast is separated by filtration in a rotary drum vacuum
filter, and either recycled or used in animal feed after further handling.
The reactor product, called beer, is first fed to a flash drum and then distilled in a series
of four distillation columns. The separation of ethanol and water is very energy intensive.
Furthermore, the complete separation of ethanol and water, which is required for fuel-grade
ethanol, cannot be attained by normal distillation. Ethanol and water form a homogeneous
minimum boiling azeotrope at a temperature of 351 K, where the mixture contains 96 wt. %
ethanol. Therefore, it is necessary to resort to azeotropic distillation, which is used in many early
fuel-grade ethanol plants, or to more advanced separation methods, for example, based on
membrane technology or molecular sieve adsorption technology. The latter technology has been
adopted byte majority of modern ethanol plants.
In the process layout of Figure 4, the bottom product from the first distillation column
(non-fermentable molasses solids) is an additive for animal feed. The overhead vapor contains a
mixture of ethanol (approximately 50 vol. %), water, and other volatile components (e.g.,
acetaldehyde) and is fed to the base of a rectifying column. In the rectifying column light ends
and so-called fusel oil (a mixture of higher alcohols) are removed overhead and as a side stream,
respectively. The azeotrope is removed as a liquid side stream somewhat below the top of the
column and fed to the azeotropic distillation unit to which benzene is also added. The overhead
vapor of the dehydration column is a ternary minimum boiling azeotrope of ethanol, water, and
benzene (the azeotropic agent), while anhydrous fuel-grade ethanol is produced at the bottom.

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The azeotrope is separated by distillation and benzene is recycled to the dehydration column. In
this separation sequence, heat integration and energy recovery play a vital role in reducing
energy requirements. To obtain high yields of ethanol on an industrial scale in an economical
way, yeast strains must be selected that are resistant to ethanol. As far as the yeast is concerned,
ethanol is not only a waste product but it is also harmful. Normally, microorganisms are killed
when the alcohol concentration exceeds 12–15 vol. %. New types of yeast have been developed
that withstand higher ethanol levels, so that downstream processing is facilitated. At present, the
raw materials for the production of most of the ethanol are food crops, and thus ethanol
production may be in competition with the food chain supply.

Miscellaneous Primary Metabolites

Citric acid is a versatile organic acid being used as an acidulant in carbonated beverages,
jams, jellies, and other foodstuffs. It is also used in the manufacturing of citrates, as an ion-
sequestering agent buffer and a vinyl resin plasticizer. It is produced by aerobic fermentation of
crude sugar or corn sugar by a special strain of Aspergillus niger.
• C12H22O11 + H2O + 3O2 → 2 C6H8O7 + 4 H2O

Interest in glutamic acid production was stimulated by the increasing demand for
monosodium glutamate as a flavor-enhancing agent. One-stage fermentation used in Japan
employs sweet potatoes as the chief raw material. Glutamic acid can be obtained directly from
fermentation of carbohydrates with Micrococcus glutamicus or Brevibacterium divaricatum.
Lactic acid is the primary constituent of sour milk. The technical grade is employed for deliming
leather in tanning. Edible grades are used primarily as acidulants for a number of food and
beverages. Two types of lactic acid fermentation exist- homolactic and heterolactic fermentation.
Lactic acid is produced by lactobacillus-guided fermentation.
• C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CHOHCOOH (glucose homolactic fermentation)

• C12H22O11 + H2O → 4 CH3CHOHCOOH (lactose homolactic fermentation)

• C6H12O6 → CH3CHOHCOOH + C2H5OH + CO2 (heterolactic fermentation)

D. Recombinant DNA Products

Recombinant DNA (DNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods
of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from
multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in biological organisms.
Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same
chemical structure. They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall
structure.

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 The advent of recombinant DNA technology has extended the range of potential
fermentation products. Genes from higher organisms may be introduced into microbial cells such
that the recipients are capable of synthesizing ‘foreign’ or heterologous proteins. A wide range of
microbial cells have been used as hosts for such systems including Escherichia coli,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and filamentous fungi. Important factors in the design of these
processes include the secretion of the product, minimization of the degradation of the product
and control of the onset of synthesis during the fermentation, as well as maximizing the
expression of the foreign gene.
In standard cloning protocols, the cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves
seven steps:
• (1) Choice of host organism and cloning vector

• (2) Preparation of vector DNA

• (3) Preparation of DNA to be cloned

• (4) Creation of recombinant DNA

• (5) Introduction of recombinant DNA into the host organism

• (6) Selection of organisms containing recombinant DNA

• (7) Screening for clones with desired DNA inserts and biological properties

Many additional practical applications of recombinant DNA are found in industry, food
production, human and veterinary medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering.
• Recombinant human insulin - almost completely replaced insulin obtained from
animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of insulin-dependent
diabetes.

• Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine - hepatitis B infection is controlled through the

use of a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a form of the hepatitis B
virus surface antigen that is produced in yeast cells.

• Insect-resistant crops - Bacillus thuringeiensis is a bacterium that naturally

produces a protein (BT toxin) with insecticidal properties.

E. Biotransformation through Fermentation

Microbial cells may be used to convert a compound into a structurally related, financially
more valuable, compound. Because microorganisms can behave as chiral catalysts with high

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positional specificity and stereospecificity, microbial processes are more specific than purely
chemical ones and enable the addition, removal or modification of functional groups at specific
sites on a complex molecule without the use of chemical protection.
Biotransformation is the chemical modification made by an organism on a chemical
compound. Biotransformation means chemical alteration of chemicals such as (but not limited
to) nutrients, amino acids, toxins, and drugs in the body. It is also needed to render nonpolar
compounds polar so that they are not reabsorbed in renal tubules and are excreted.
Biotransformation of various pollutants is a sustainable way to clean up contaminated
environments. These biotransformation methods harness the naturally occurring, microbial
catabolic diversity to degrade, transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds including
hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides and metals.
The reactions which may be catalyzed include dehydrogenation, oxidation,
hydroxylation, dehydration and condensation, decarboxylation, amination, deamination, and
isomerization. Microbial processes have the additional advantage over chemical reagents of
operating at relatively low temperatures and pressures without the requirement for potentially
polluting heavy-metal catalysts. Although the production of vinegar is the most well-established
microbial transformation process, the majority of these processes involved the production of
high-value compounds including steroids and prostaglandins.

• Vinegar may be defined as the condiment made from sugary or starchy material by alcoholic
and subsequent acetic acid fermentations. Vinegar is the product resulting from the conversion of
ethyl alcohol to acetic acid by a group of widely distributed bacteria of the genus Acetobacter.
• 2CH3 CH2OH + O2 → 2CH3CHO + 2H2O
• 2CH3 CHO + O2 → 2CH3COOH
Thus it can be produced from any alcoholic material, ranging from alcohol-water
mixtures to various fruit wines. The composition of vinegar will depend somewhat upon on the
nature of the raw material that has undergone alcoholic and acetous fermentations. Vinegar is a
solution containing at least 4 percent acetic acid and small amounts of alcohol glycerol, esters,
reducing sugars, pentosans, salt, and other substances. Depending on the raw materials, vinegars
are differentiated as wine vinegar, apple cider vinegar, malt vinegar, and others.

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Figure 6. Process Flow Diagram of Vinegar Production

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