Dualism Between Determinism & Possibilism

DUALISM IN GEOGRAPHY
Introduction-
Dualism refers to the presence of two main principles or ideas that are often in
conflict with each other. In geography, this concept of dualism has been around
since ancient times, seen in the work of Greek, Arab, and Roman geographers.
After the Renaissance, clear distinctions emerged in how geography was studied,
leading to new forms of dualism. This pattern of dualism is common in any field
of study, as different methods can lead to different branches within the same
discipline.
In ancient geography, there were two main focuses. The first was the study of
unique things, which involved examining different phenomena in specific places.
The second was creating general concepts by studying particular types of
phenomena on the Earth's surface. These two approaches naturally led to
methodological challenges.
Geography is a dynamic and complex field, and its tendency to develop
dichotomies and dualisms has grown over time. Some key dichotomies in
geography include:
• General geography vs. regional geography
• Physical geography vs. human geography
• Deterministic geography vs. possibilistic geography
• Historical geography vs. contemporary geography
• Study of formal regions vs. functional regions
These pairs represent different ways of looking at and studying the world,
reflecting the diverse nature of geographic inquiry.
DETERMINISM AND POSSIBILISM
INTRODUCTION
Geography is about studying how humans and the environment interact with each
other. Since ancient times, geographers have explored how humans affect the
environment and how the environment affects humans. This study remains
important for understanding how the relationship between humans and their
surroundings changes over time.
In human geography, two main ideas—environmental determinism and
possibilism—focus on whether humans are shaped by their environment or
whether they actively shape it. Environmental determinism is the older idea,
dating back to ancient Greek philosophy, which held that nature is all-powerful
and determines all human activities. According to geographer Haggett,
environmental determinism suggests that the natural environment plays a major
role in shaping human behaviour.
After World War II, the debate between these ideas intensified. Possibilism, the
other perspective, argues that human activities are the result of human initiative
and mobility within the limits set by the natural environment. While recognizing
that the environment imposes certain limits, possibilism emphasizes the choices
and actions humans can take. Haggett defines possibilism as highlighting human
freedom to choose different behaviours despite geographic constraints.

Supporters of Determinism
• Classical Antiquity:
• Hippocrates (420 BC): Compared easy-going Asiatic people in
favorable regions with hard-working Europeans facing tough natural
conditions.
• Aristotle: Differentiated Europeans and Asians in terms of courage,
skill, and spirit, attributing these traits to climate.
• Plato (428-348 BC): Believed observable things on earth were
imperfect copies of ideal forms.
• Eratosthenes, Strabo, and Ptolemy: Supported the idea that the
environment influences human activities.
• Middle Ages:
• Albertis Magnus, Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly, Ibn-Hawqal, Al
Masudi, Al-Biruni, Ibn-Batuta: Contributed to the idea of
environmental determinism.
• Ibn-Khaldun: Focused on man-environment relationships in his
book 'Muquaddimah' (1377), discussing how physical environment
influences human characteristics and culture.
• Renaissance:
• Bodin (1566): Described the impact of environmental factors on
people's behavior and capabilities.
 • Montesquieu: Explained how climate and soil affect people's
character and laws, noting differences between cold and hot
climates.
• Kant: Suggested that people in hot lands are lazy and timid, similar
to those in the north.
• 19th Century:
• Carl Ritter and Alexander Von Humboldt:
• Alexander Von Humboldt (1769-1859): In his book
'Cosmos', described how the Mediterranean's configuration
influenced early civilizations.
• Carl Ritter (1779-1859): Studied the influence of
environmental factors on human activities and character,
focusing on the interaction between humans and their
environment.
• Darwinian Influence:
• William Morris Davis, Haeckel, Herbert Spencer, Ratzel:
• Frederic Ratzel: Linked Darwinism with determinism,
showing how geographical environment influences history in
his work 'Anthropogeographie' (1897).
• Early 20th Century:
• Ellen Semple: In 'Influence of Geographic Environment' (1911),
argued that the earth shapes human development and behavior.
• Huntington: Known for climatic determinism, interpreting
climate's effects on human life.
• Other Supporters:
• E.C. Dexter, Albert Brigham, H.J. Mackinder, Mechnikov,
Baransky, Plekhanov: Advocated for the deterministic approach.
• Modern Perspective:
• Tatham (1952): Recognized the intricate interaction between
humans and their environment, suggesting it is difficult to determine
where one influence ends and the other begins.
 • Possibilist Paradigm (Adhikari, 2006): Emphasizes that the
physical environment offers opportunities for various human
responses, highlighting human creativity and choice.

Supporters of Possibilism
• Introduction by Paul Vidal de la Blache (1899):
• Built on the works of Montesquieu, Comte de Buffon, George
Perkins Marsh, and Alfred Kirchoff.
• Offered an alternative to the environmental determinism of the
Darwinian-Ratzelian heritage.
• Proposed that the physical environment provides various
possibilities which humans use according to their needs, wishes, and
capabilities.
• Argued that human presence significantly changes nature, especially
where material culture is advanced.
• Stated that "nature is never more than an advisor."
• Lucien Febvre's Contribution:
• Further developed possibilism in 'Geographical Introduction to
History'.
• Emphasized that humans are significant geographical agents who
shape the earth's appearance.
• Proposed that there are no necessities but only possibilities, and
humans judge how to use them.
• Support from Other Scholars:
• Jean Brunhes: Highlighted the importance of human activity as a
material force with significant effects on the environment.
• Isaiah Bowman: Admired the French possibilist paradigm; in
'Geography and the Social Sciences', he discussed the growing
complexity of the association between events, conditions, and
places.
• Carl O. Sauer and V. Whittlesey: Supported possibilism but
acknowledged its limitations, emphasizing that nature's impact
cannot be ignored.
 • Neo-Determinism by Griffith Taylor (early 1940s):
• Developed as a balanced approach between determinism and
possibilism.
• Suggested that well-endowed parts of the world offer multiple
possibilities, but many areas have clear natural limitations (e.g., too
dry, too cold, too wet).
• Argued that ignoring these natural limitations leads to disaster.
• Probabilism by O.H.K. Spate (1957):
• Proposed that the physical environment doesn't determine human
actions but makes certain responses more likely.
• Described human action as a balance of probabilities rather than a
matter of choice or compulsion.
• Haggett supported this by explaining that probabilism is a middle
ground between environmentalism and possibilism, assigning
different probabilities to various geographic behaviors in specific
locations.
• Contributions from Other Scholars:
• Fleure, Spate, Woolridge, East, Roxby, and Herbertson:
Discussed the relationship between humans and the environment in
terms of human adjustment to nature.
• Emphasized the importance of modern scientific developments.

Conclusion:
The debate between environmental determinism and possibilism continued
through the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.
The dualism between possibilism and determinism in geography reflects the
ongoing debate about the extent to which human actions are shaped by the
environment. While determinism emphasizes the influence of nature on human
behaviour, possibilism argues that humans have agency and can adapt to and
shape their surroundings. Over time, scholars have recognized the complexity of
human-environment interactions, leading to a more nuanced understanding that
incorporates elements of both perspectives. This ongoing dialogue highlights the
dynamic nature of geography as a discipline and the importance of considering
multiple factors in studying the relationship between humans and their
environment.