1

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

1) Sigmund Freud theory

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist who had some interesting theories about the
human mind. One of his most famous theories is psychoanalysis, which explores the
unconscious mind and how it influences our thoughts and behaviors. He believed that our
childhood experiences and unconscious desires shape who we are.
Level of personality:Freud proposed a model of personality that consists of three level:

 Conscious level
 Preconscious level
 Unconscious level

1.Conscious level: The conscious level refers to thought, feelings and perceptions thar
we are currently aware of.
Example:You may be conscious of the feel of your pen.

2. The preconscious level; contains information that is not currently in our conscious
awareness but can be easily accessed and brought into consciousness.
Example: Those wishes or desires that direct our behavior.

3.The Unconscious level: according to Freud, holds thoughts, memories, desires, and
impulses that are beyond our conscious awareness. It's like the submerged part of the iceberg that
we can’t see directly but influences our thoughts and behaviors.
Example:Its about what you did last night.

Structure of personality:
Freud believed that the human personality is made up of three elements:

 Id
 Ego
 Superego.
 2

The id :It is the primitive and instinctual part of our personality. It operates on the pleasure
principle, seeking immediate gratification for our basic needs and desires.

The ego:It is the rational and logical part of our personality.it operates on reality principle It
develops as we interact with the world and helps us navigate reality by balancing the demands of
the id and the superego.

The superego: It represents our internalized moral standards and values.It operates on morality
principle.It acts as our conscience, striving for perfection and enforcing societal rules and norms.

Psychosexual stages of Personality Development:

Freud psychosexual stages of development are:

1. Oral Stage: This stage occurs from birth to around 1 year. The focus of pleasure is on
the mouth, as infants explore the world through sucking, biting, and tasting. Freud
believed that unresolved conflicts during this stage could lead to oral fixation,
resulting in behaviors like nail-biting or overeating.
2. Anal Stage: This stage takes place from around 1 to 3 years. Pleasure is now centered
around bowel movements and toilet training. Freud suggested that conflicts arising
from toilet training could impact a person’s later personality. For example, an overly
strict or controlling approach could lead to anal-retentive traits, such as being overly
organized or perfectionistic, while a more lenient approach could result in anal-
expulsive traits, like being messy or disorganized.
3. Phallic Stage: Occurring between ages 3 and 6, this stage is characterized by a
growing awareness of gender identity. Children develop unconscious desires for their
opposite-sex parent, which Freud called the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra
complex in girls. These desires are eventually resolved through identification with the
same-sex parent, which contributes to the development of gender identity.
4. Latency Stage: This stage takes place from around 6 years to puberty. Sexual
feelings are repressed, and children focus on developing social and intellectual skills.
During this stage, Freud believed that sexual energy is channeled into non-sexual
activities, such as schoolwork, hobbies, and friendships.
5. Genital Stage: This stage begins at puberty and continues into adulthood. Sexual
desires become focused on others outside the family, and individuals seek mature and
intimate relationships. Freud viewed successful resolution of earlier stages as
essential for healthy development during this stage.
 3

1) Freud's theory of personality has been both influential and controversial, and while many
of his specific ideas have been criticized or modified over time, his work laid the
foundation for much of modern psychology, particularly in the areas of personality,
psychopathology, and therapy.
2) Erik erikson theory
Erik Erikson, a prominent psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist, expanded upon
Freud's theory of personality by emphasizing the importance of social and cultural influences
across the lifespan. Erikson proposed a theory of psychosocial development, outlining eight
stages of development that individuals encounter from infancy to old age. Each stage is marked
by a psychosocial crisis or conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development to
occur. Now let's delve into Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development:
1) Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year): The infant learns to trust their caregivers if their
basic needs are consistently met. For example, an infant who is consistently fed,
comforted, and cared for develops a sense of trust in the world.
For Example : Infants learn to trust or mistrust the world based on how their caregivers meet
their needs for food, comfort, and affection. Trust is developed when caregivers are
responsive and consistent in meeting the infant's needs, forming the foundation for healthy
attachment and relationships later in life.
2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years): Children develop a
sense of independence and autonomy as they learn to control their bodies and make
choices. If their attempts at independence are met with criticism or over-control, they
may develop feelings of shame and doubt.
For Example: Toddlers begin asserting their independence by exploring their environment
and making choices. They develop a sense of autonomy when caregivers encourage their
efforts and provide opportunities for safe exploration. However, if caregivers criticize or
restrict the child's autonomy, they may develop feelings of shame and doubt about their
abilities.
3) Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years): Children begin to assert themselves and take
initiative in exploring their environment and interacting with others. If their efforts are
stifled or punished excessively, they may develop feelings of guilt and inadequacy.
For Example: Preschoolers take initiative in exploring their environment and engaging in
imaginative play. If their efforts are encouraged and supported by caregivers and peers, they
develop a sense of initiative and creativity. However, if their attempts at exploration are met with
disapproval or punishment, they may develop feelings of guilt and hesitation to take risks.
4) Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-11 years): Children develop a sense of
competence and mastery as they engage in tasks and activities that require skill and
 4

effort. If they experience repeated failures or criticism, they may develop feelings of
inferiority.
For Example: School-age children develop a sense of competence and mastery as they
engage in academic and social activities. Success in learning tasks and receiving recognition
fosters a sense of industry. However, repeated failures or criticism may lead to feelings of
inferiority and inadequacy.
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years): Adolescents explore their
identity and develop a sense of self and personal values. If they are unable to form a
coherent identity or feel pressured to conform to others' expectations, they may
experience role confusion.
For Example: Adolescents explore their identity and develop a sense of self and personal
values. Supportive environments encourage identity formation, while pressure to conform or
uncertainty may lead to identity confusion.
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 years): Young adults form intimate
relationships with others and establish a sense of connection and intimacy. If they are
unable to form meaningful relationships or fear rejection, they may become socially
isolated.
For Example: Young adults form close, meaningful relationships. Successful development of
intimacy involves open communication, trust, and mutual respect. Failure may result in social
isolation or difficulty forming lasting connections.
7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years): Adults contribute to
society and future generations through work, family, and community involvement,
fostering a sense of purpose and fulfillment. If they feel unproductive or stagnant, they
may experience feelings of dissatisfaction.
For Example: Middle-aged adults contribute to society through work, family, and community
involvement, fostering a sense of purpose and fulfillment. Failure to do so may lead to stagnation
and dissatisfaction.
8) Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years): Older adults reflect on their lives
and achievements, seeking to find meaning and acceptance of their life choices. If they
feel a sense of regret or despair over unfulfilled goals or unresolved conflicts, they may
struggle to find peace in later life.
For Example: Older adults reflect on their lives and seek to find meaning and acceptance.
Acceptance of life's successes and failures leads to integrity, while unresolved regrets and
conflicts may result in despair.
 5

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development highlights the importance of social relationships,

cultural context, and individual experiences in shaping personality and identity across the
lifespan.

3) Jeans piaget theory

JEANS PIAGET,S THEORY
In this theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed
that humans progress through four developmental stages:

 the sensorimotor stage.

 preoperational stage
 concrete operational stage
 formal operational stage.
1. Sensorimotor. Birth through 2 years old, when babies start to understand object
permanence. During this period, your little one learns about the world by using their
senses to interact with their surroundings. They touch things, lick them, bang them
together (with joy, we might add), and put them into their mouths. They also begin to
develop fine motor skills. Example: A baby learns that when they drop a toy from their
highchair, it falls to the ground. Over time, they understand that the toy still exists even
when it's not visible, which is a demonstration of object permanence.
2. Preoperational. Toddlerhood through early childhood (2-7 years old), Children begin to
use language to represent objects and ideas symbolically. They engage in symbolic play
and demonstrate egocentrism, where they have difficulty understanding other people's
perspectives.Example: A child uses a stick as a pretend sword during imaginative play.
They may also struggle to understand that someone else may have different thoughts or
feelings from their own.
3. Concrete operational. Ages 7-11 years old, when kids display logical thought. Children
develop the ability to think logically about concrete objects and events. They can perform
mental operations such as conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same
even if the shape changes) and classification.Example: A child understands that if you
pour water from a tall, thin glass into a short, wide glass, the amount of water remains the
same. They can also classify objects into different categories based on shared
characteristics, such as sorting shapes or animals.
4. Formal operational. Adolescence through adulthood (12 years and older), Adolescents
and adults develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. They can engage in
deductive reasoning and problem-solving using abstract concepts. They also develop
metacognition, or the ability to think about their own thinking.Example: A teenager can
understand and solve complex math problems, consider hypothetical situations, and think
critically about abstract concepts such as justice or morality.
 6

Piaget's theory suggests that children progress through these stages in a fixed sequence, with
each stage building upon the previous one. While his theory has been influential in understanding
cognitive development, some critics argue that the stages may not be as rigid as Piaget proposed
and that individual differences and cultural factors may also play a role in cognitive
development.

4) Alfred adler theory

Alfred Adler, an Austrian psychiatrist and psychotherapist, was a prominent figure in the early
development of psychoanalytic theory alongside Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Born in 1870,
Adler's work diverged from Freud's emphasis on the unconscious and instead focused on the
conscious individual and their social context. Adler founded the school of Individual Psychology,
which emphasized the uniqueness of each person's psychological makeup and their drive for
superiority.
Alfred Adler's theory of personality, known as Individual Psychology, offers a unique perspective
on human behavior, emphasizing the individual's subjective experiences and their interactions
with society. Here are the key components of Adler's theory:

 Striving for Superiority: At the core of Adler's theory is the notion of the "striving for
superiority" or "perfection." Adler believed that individuals are inherently motivated to
overcome feelings of inferiority and inadequacy in order to strive for a higher sense of
self-esteem and competence. This striving for superiority serves as a driving force behind
much of human behavior.
 Inferiority complex : The concepts of individual psychology include the Alfred Adler
inferiority complex theory.
 Adler asserts that children experience feelings of inferiority as early as infancy, when
they become aware of their reliance on people (like their parents or caregivers) who
are stronger than they are.
 When a child is aware of their inferiority, they are motivated to strive for superiority
to eventually overcome their weakness, which Adler refers to as compensation.
 Adler continues by saying that our internal conflict between feelings of inferiority
and a desire for superiority allows us to contribute positively to society.
 Adler also mentioned "organic inferiority," which refers to feelings of inadequacy
caused by a less developed body organ.
 The apparent lack of one organ is compensated for by increased activity in other
organs.
 This encourages us to push ourselves further than we would if the affected organ were
functioning normally. Adler refers to this as overcompensation.
For example, a woman born without arms learns to care for herself using her two feet.
It's also worth noting that different people's attitudes toward their organic inferiority can
affect how they try to make up for it.For example, a man who loves music but was born
 7

deaf may have a defeatist attitude and not do much to compensate for his inferiority. On
the other hand, if he is brave and willing to learn, he will find ways to make up for his
inferiority, allowing him to pursue his passion for music

 Birth Order: Adler proposed that an individual's position within their family, or birth
order, significantly influences their personality development. He suggested that firstborns
may develop characteristics associated with leadership and responsibility, while
laterborns may exhibit traits such as rebelliousness or sociability. This idea laid the
groundwork for later research on birth order and its effects on personality.
 Social Interest: Adler emphasized the importance of "social interest" or
Gemeinschaftsgefühl, referring to an individual's innate tendency to connect with and
contribute to the well-being of others. Adler believed that fostering social interest was
essential for psychological health and fulfillment. Lack of social interest could lead to
feelings of isolation and neurosis.
 Creative Self: Adler proposed the concept of the "creative self," suggesting that
individuals possess the capacity to actively shape their own personalities and life
experiences through their choices and actions. Rather than being determined solely by
past experiences or external factors, individuals have the power to create their own
unique paths in life.
 Holistic Approach: Adler took a holistic approach to understanding personality,
considering the individual as a whole rather than focusing solely on isolated traits or
behaviors. He emphasized the interconnectedness of various aspects of personality,
including thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and social relationships.
Overall, Adler's theory of personality offers a comprehensive framework for understanding
human behavior, highlighting the significance of social context, subjective experiences, and
the pursuit of personal and social fulfillment. His ideas continue to influence contemporary
psychology, particularly in the fields of personality theory, psychotherapy, and counseling.

5) Carl Jung theory

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who developed a theory of personality that
diverged from Freudian psychoanalysis. Jung's theory, often called analytical psychology,
emphasizes the importance of the unconscious mind and explores the concept of individuation,
or the process of becoming a fully integrated and self-aware individual. Here's a detailed
overview of Carl Jung's theory of personality:

 The Structure of Personality:Jung proposed that the psyche, or the totality of the human
mind, consists of three main components: the conscious ego, the personal unconscious,
and the collective unconscious.
The conscious ego is the center of consciousness and represents the individual's sense of
self.
 8

The personal unconscious contains repressed or forgotten memories, as well as thoughts,

feelings, and experiences that are not currently part of conscious awareness but can be
accessed.
The collective unconscious is a deeper layer of the unconscious mind shared by all human
beings, containing universal archetypes and symbols.

 Archetypes:

Jung believed that the collective unconscious is populated by archetypes, which are universal
symbols and images inherited from ancestral experiences.Archetypes are the fundamental
building blocks of the human psyche and manifest as recurring themes in myths, fairy tales, and
religious symbols.
Common archetypes include the persona (the social mask we present to the world), the shadow
(the dark and repressed aspects of the personality), the anima/animus (the feminine/masculine
aspects of the psyche), and the self (the center of personality and the striving for wholeness)..

 Attitudes:

Jung described two fundamental attitudes that shape how individuals interact with the external
world: extraversion and introversion.Extraverts are oriented toward the external environment,
focucing on people, objects, and events outside themselves.Introverts, on the other hand, are
more internally focused, directing their attention inward toward their thoughts, feelings, and
subjective experiences.

 Persona and Shadow: Jung proposed the concept of the persona, which is the social
mask or façade that individuals present to the world. It represents the public image or
identity that individuals construct to fit societal expectations. Conversely, the shadow
represents the unconscious aspects of personality that are repressed or denied. It consists
of the darker, less desirable aspects of oneself, including impulses, fears, and weaknesses.
 The Process of Individuation:

Individuation is the central concept in Jungian psychology, representing the journey toward self-
discovery, self-actualization, and integration of the various aspects of the personality.It involves
the exploration and integration of both conscious and unconscious elements of the psyche,
including the recognition and acceptance of the shadow (the darker aspects of the personality)
and the realization of the self (the central archetype representing wholeness and integration).
Overall, Carl Jung's theory of personality offers a comprehensive framework for understanding
the complexities of human nature, emphasizing the interplay between conscious and unconscious
forces in shaping individual behavior, perceptions, and experiences.