Department of Geography,

Miranda House, University of Delhi

BIOGEOGRAPHY:
NATURE, SCOPE, &
COMPONENTS

Submitted by:

Rishita Tripathi (2021/56) Stanzin Skaldan(2021/735) Sumnima Sah(2021/1810)

Content

INTRODUCTION TO BIOGEOGRAPHY

HISTORY OF THE STUDY

COMPONENTS

NATURE OF BIOGEOGRAPHY

SCOPE OF BIOGEOGRAPHY

APPLICATIONS IN THE MODERN WORLD

CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
‘Exploring the Tapestry of Life’
Earth's varied landscapes are the subject of
the intriguing field of biogeography, which
examines the complex interactions that
occur between living things and their
surroundings.
Biogeography examines the variables
affecting the geographic distribution of
species, such as geological history, climate
change, human impact, and evolutionary
forces.
Biogeography investigates the past and present
distribution of organisms, providing crucial insights
into biodiversity conservation, ecosystem
management, and our understanding of the
intricate web of life that sustains our world.
From the towering peaks of mountain ranges to
the depths of ocean trenches, and from lush
rainforests to desolate deserts, biogeography
unravels the tales of adaptation, migration, and
evolution that have sculpted the tapestry of life.
Biogeography does more than ask -
Which species? and Where. It also asks Why? and,
what is sometimes more crucial, Why not?
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is one of the most
intricate and important aspects of our planet Earth. It
explains the diversity and abundance of life on Earth. It
alludes to the diversity found in different species of plants,
animals, and microorganisms. Without biodiversity, life
cannot exist. All terrestrial (land-dwelling), marine
(aquatic), and several other habitats and biological
complexity are commonly included in the biodiversity.
Biodiversity is the important component of biogeography.
Biogeographers study patterns of biodiversity across
different geographical regions, examining factors such as
climate, geology, historical events, and human activities
that influence the distribution of species and ecosystems.
Branches of Biogeography
Biogeography is a broad discipline but is mainly divided into two major branches:

1) Ecological Biogeography:
Understanding species and ecosystem distribution patterns in connection
to ecological factors like climate, habitat features, species interactions, and
disturbances is the main goal of the discipline of ecological biogeography.
It aims to clarify how, at various geographic scales, ecological processes
affect the spatial distribution of organisms and communities.
Important features of ecological biogeography consist of:
Relations between species and environments, slopes in biogeography,
Community-based ecology, Biogeographic mechanisms
2) Historical Biogeography:

Within the discipline of biogeography,

historical biogeography aims to
comprehend the past processes that
have influenced the distribution of
species in various geographical areas.
It looks for the past causes of the current
patterns of species and ecosystem
distribution, including geological events,
climate shifts, continental drift, and
evolutionary processes.
 Concept of Biogeogeography
The goal of the scientific field of biogeography is to
comprehend the processes and patterns behind the
distribution of living things in space and time.
Concepts and techniques from biology, ecology,
geography, geology, and other natural sciences are
combined in this multidisciplinary discipline.

Fundamentally, biogeography aims to provide

answers to the issues of why particular species are
found in particular locations and not in others.
Biogeographers study the distribution of species in
order to find patterns and linkages that shed light on
the fundamental mechanisms governing the diversity
of life on Earth.
Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include:

Allopatric speciation is a method of speciation that

happens when biological groups become geographically
isolated from one another to an extent that precludes or
interferes with gene flow. It is also known as geographic
speciation, vicariant speciation, or its earlier name, the
dumbbell model.

There are many other types of geographic changes that

can occur, including the shifting of continents and the
emergence of mountains, islands, water bodies, and
glaciers. Variations in the distribution of species
populations can also be caused by human activities like
development and agriculture.
Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include:

White peppered moth Black morph in peppered moth evolution

A Evolution is the shift over multiple generations in the heritable traits of biological populations.
It happens when genetic variety is acted upon by evolutionary processes like natural selection
and genetic drift, leading to the more or less prevalent occurrence of particular traits within a
population over time. Biodiversity has arisen at every level of biological organisation as a result of
evolution.
Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include:

When a taxon becomes extinct, it means that its final

member has passed away. If a taxon loses its ability to
reproduce and recuperate, it may go extinct before its
final individual passes away.
It is believed that approximately five billion species—
more than 99% of all species that have ever existed on
Earth—have gone extinct.
Study of Extinct species is one of the major concept of
biogeography.

The thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) is an example of an extinct species.

 Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include:

Both "natal dispersal" and "breeding dispersal," which

describe the movement of individuals (plants, animals,
fungi, bacteria, etc.) from one breeding location to
another and from one birth site to another, are
considered forms of biological dispersal.
Additionally, the term "dispersal" refers to the spread of
propagules like seeds and spores.

A dandelion seed caught in a spider web strand.

Dandelions disperse seeds via wind currents.
 Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include:

When a species is endemic, it means that it can

only be found in one specific geographic area,
such as an island, state, country, or other
designated zone.
In other words, an organism that is native to one
area does not become endemic if it can also be
found in another. In scientific literature, an
endemic species is sometimes known as an
endemite or an endemism.

Bicolored frog (Clinotarsus curtipes) is endemic to the Western Ghats of India.

HISTORY OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
During the 18th century most views on the world
were shaped around religion mainly the bible.
With the limited dissemination of scientific
knowledge and the absence of explanations for
natural phenomena, religious explanations
provided a comprehensive worldview for many
people.
So when exploration began with scientific
development, it led to the foundation of Bio-
geography, whose history can be divided into three
cateogry:
18th century -
In the mid 18th- century, European explorers began
to describe the diversification of life on Earth,
leading to the initial discoveries that helped
establish biogeography as a science, which earlier
were influenced by religion, particularly by the
bible.
Following Linnaeus, Georges-Louis Leclerc and
Comte de Buffon noted changes in temperature
and the consequent global distribution of species.
He was the first to see various organismal groups
in various parts of the globe.
-The figure on left side represents the hypothesis of
Comte de Buffon
18th century -
In his 36-volume work Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière, Buffon
made the case that distinct types of life will exist in different
geographical places. His comparisons of the Old and New Worlds, where
he identified unique species differences between the two areas, served
as the inspiration for this. Contrary to Linnaeus, Buffon thought that there
was only one species creation event and that different parts of the earth
were home to distinct species.
Buffon's law eventually became a principle of biogeography by
explaining how similar environments were habitats for comparable
types of organisms.
Additionally, Buffon's study of fossils led him to conclude that humans
Georges-Louis Leclerc, had not existed on Earth for very long, given its age of over tens of
Comte de Buffon
thousands of years.
19th century -
The notion of physique generale was created at the beginning of the
19th century by Alexander von Humboldt, who is regarded as the
"founder of plant geography. Its purpose was to illustrate the unity of
science and the relationships between species.
He classified the Earth's zones as tropical, temperate, and arctic, and he
noted that comparable types of flora could be found in each of these
areas.
In the end, this helped him to develop the isotherm, which let scientists
observe life patterns in various climates.
In his book Cosmos, he drew this depiction of the biotic and abiotic
Alexander von
characteristics of the Earth and added his observations to the botanical
Humboldt
geography discoveries made by earlier scientists.
19th century -
Observing species rivalry and the various distinctions that impacted the
discovery of life's diversity, Augustin de Candolle made a significant
contribution to the field of biogeography.
The first Laws of Botanical Nomenclature were developed by this Swiss
botanist and were documented in Prodromus. He talked about the
dispersion of plants, and his views eventually had a significant influence
on Charles Darwin.
After learning about botanical geography, Darwin was motivated to
take into account species adaptations and evolution. The distinctions
Augustin Pyramus de between the global distribution patterns of organisms on a local and big
Candolle scale were initially described by De Candolle.
19th century -
After researching fossils, Charles Lyell created the Theory of
Uniformitarianism. This idea clarified how multiple creation events and
locales, rather than a single catastrophic event, contributed to the
creation of the globe.
Additionally, uniformitarianism popularised the theory that the Earth is
actually much older than previously thought. Based on this information,
Lyell came to the conclusion that species extinction was a possibility. He
realised that since the Earth's climate varies, so too does the distribution of
species.
According to Lyell, changes in the vegetation accompanied changes in the
Charles Lyell climate, linking the surrounding environment to different species. Charles
Darwin was greatly affected by this when he was developing the idea of
evolution.
19th century -
Natural scientist Charles Darwin conducted research all around the world,
but particularly in the Galapagos Islands. Darwin proposed the theory of
natural selection in opposition to the widely held belief that species were
static or unchanging.
He created a framework to explain how species evolved, which set him
apart from other explorers of his era in his contributions to biogeography
and the idea of evolution.
Among his significant contributions are the theories of natural selection
and the battle for existence.
Darwin's theories initiated the biological branch of biogeography and
Charles Darwin empirical research, allowing later scientists to formulate hypotheses
regarding the global distribution of organisms.
19th century -
In the mid of 19th century, Alfred Russel Wallace conducted research on
the flora and fauna distribution in the Malay Archipelago and the Amazon
Basin. He was dubbed the "father of Biogeography" because of his
research, which was crucial to the field's advancement
He investigated the ranges of birds and butterflies in relation to the
existence or lack of geographic barriers.
Based on his observations, he came to the conclusion that the quantity of
food supplies in a given habitat determined how many creatures were
present in that community.
He and Philip Sclater utilised Darwin's conclusion to show how
Alfred Russel biogeography was comparable to a record of species inheritance, which
they considered as evidence in favour of the theory of evolution.
Wallace
20th & 21st Century -
The Theory of Continental Drift was first proposed by Alfred Wegener in
1912, but it wasn't generally embraced until the 1960s. Because it altered
people's perceptions of species and their global distribution, this notion
was revolutionary.
According to the hypothesis, the movement of the plates beneath the
surface of the Earth is what caused the continents to gradually drift apart
after being linked in one massive landmass called Pangea. The jigsaw
puzzle shape of the Earth's landmasses, the geographic distribution of
some fossils (such as mesosaurs) on different continents, and the
geological similarities between different parts of the world provide
Alfred Wegener evidence for this theory.
20th & 21st Century -
Wegener made a significant contribution to the study
of biogeography by shedding light on the significance
of geographic and environmental similarities and
differences as a result of climate and other pressures
on the planet, even though he was unaware of the
mechanism underlying the concept of continental
drift.
Crucially, Wegener realised late in his career that
measuring continental migration was necessary to
validate his theory rather than drawing conclusions
from the distributions of fossilised species.

The continental drift theory by Alfred Wegener

20th & 21st Century -
A Biogeography of Reptiles and Amphibians in the Gómez Farias Region,
Tamaulipas, Mexico, written by palaeontologist Paul S. Martin, was
published in 1958. It has been called "ground-breaking" and "a classic
treatise in historical biogeography".
Martin examined the herpetofauna of a relatively small and largely
undisturbed area, but ecologically complex, situated on the border
between temperate and tropical (nearctic and neotropical) regions,
including semiarid lowlands at 70 metres elevation and the northernmost
cloud forest in the western hemisphere at over 2200 metres.
Martin applied several disciplines, including ecology, botany, climatology,
Paul Schultz Martin geology, and Pleistocene dispersal routes.
at Rampart Cave
20th & 21st Century -
Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson's 1967 book ‘The Theory of Island
Biogeography’ demonstrated how variables like habitat area,
immigration rate, and extinction rate might be used to forecast an area's
species richness. This heightened the long-standing curiosity about the
biogeography of islands.
. The Island Theory Wilson's research on Melanesia's ants served as the
inspiration for biogeography. In order to create a straightforward
graphical depiction of immigration and extinction curves that can be
used to calculate the equilibrium species number on an island,
MacArthur combined Wilson's theories about competition, colonisation,
Edward Osborne and equilibrium. The concepts of MacArthur and Wilson were initially
Wilson published in a 1963 article, and they were later expanded upon in a book.
20th & 21st Century -
The growth of molecular systematics has broadened the field of classic
biogeography, giving rise to a new field called phylogeography.
This breakthrough made it possible for researchers to test hypotheses
on the genesis and distribution of populations, including island
endemics.
For instance, phylogeography enables traditional biogeographers to test
hypotheses on relatedness between these populations and potential
source populations on different continents, most notably Asia and North
America, whereas biogeographers were able to conjecture about the
origins of species in the Hawaiian Islands.
Many geography and biological science continue to study biogeography
around the world, however sometimes it is taught under more general
terms like ecology or evolutionary biology in academic settings.
Phylogeography -
The study of historical processes that may have contributed
to the geographic distributions of genealogical lineages in
the past, present, and future is known as phylogeography.
To do this, the geographic distribution of people is taken
into account in the context of genetics, specifically
population genetics.
This concept was coined to characterise genetic signals
within and across species that are structured regionally.
Different from traditional population genetics and
phylogenetics, phylogeography places a clear emphasis on
the biogeography and biogeographical history of a species.
NATURE OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY
Nature of
Biogeography
The patterns of species distribution across
geographical areas can usually be explained
through a combination of historical factors
such as: speciation, extinction, continental drift,
and glaciation. Through observing the
geographic distribution of species, we can see
associated variations in sea level, river routes,
habitat, and river capture. Additionally, this
science considers the geographic constraints
of landmass areas and isolation, as well as the
available ecosystem energy supplies.

Presentation 2024
Biogeography, in its broadest sense, attempts
to understand the interactions between and
among the environment, animals, plants and
man, all of which constitute the sub-systems
of the global ecosystem. Thus bio-
geographical studies include:
To examine, by means of experimental
analysis, the relationship between
complex ecological systems and
propagation areas e.g. in a forest,
grassland, pond or an estuary.
To analyse the spatial and temporal
affinities between individual organisms
and populations.

Presentation 2024
Some of the key questions that biogeographers seek to answer
include:

What are the patterns of diversity and distribution of different

types of organisms across the globe?

What are the factors that have shaped these patterns, such as
climate change, geological events, or human activities?

How have different species evolved and adapted to different

environments over time?

Presentation 2024
Some of the key questions that biogeographers seek to answer
include:

What are the processes that govern the movement of species

between different regions, such as migration, dispersal, or
human-mediated introductions?

How can we use our knowledge of biogeography to inform

conservation efforts and protect biodiversity?

By exploring these and other questions, biogeographers help us to

better understand the complex and dynamic relationships between
living organisms and the natural world around them.

Presentation 2024
Our earth possesses mainly two kinds of
spheres:-

Non-living spheres (lithosphere, atmosphere,

and hydrosphere)

Living sphere (the sphere of living organisms)

or the biosphere.

Biogeography has been mainly concerned with

the sphere of living organisms. Biogeography
deals with the relation of geographical factors
with plant and animal life.

Presentation 2024
Biogeography can be expressed as a branch
of geography that studies the plants, animals,
soil, and geographical sets of conditions
related to human activities. Since man is the
most dynamic entity on this planet, cannot be
neglected in the domain of biogeography.

Presentation 2024
It will be pertinent here to point out that the cause-effect
relationships in the distributional pattern of biota are of
paramount importance to geographers. Such studies are
not done in any other science, as they are invariably
linked with the local or regional environment, it is easy to
evaluate for a geographer that the grasslands of the
Americas are still in their original, flourishing state due to
poor grazing by animals which in turn is associated with
the recent inhabitation of these two continents by man.
Similarly, it is on account of the separation of Australian
continent, in the Eocene period, from the ‘Pangea’
continent that the animal and vegetal forms of life differ
from all the continents and the impact of geographic
isolation is most prominent.

Presentation 2024
The study of the responses of plants and animals to their
environmental conditions is within the purview of
biogeography. Their behaviours cause different biological
conditions in an area. It is fascinating to find that the flora
and fauna of equatorial regions are different from those of
temperate regions on account of variations in climate.
Equally significant are the ways in which the plants and
animals adapt to various climatic regimes responses to
climate or to topography, soil and chemical nutrients are
exhibited by plants in a multitude of morphological and
physiological modifications. They are also markedly
noticeable in wild animals as the animals of cold regions
live in burrows and have a thick cover of fur or hair on their
skin to save themselves against cold, while those living in
tropical regions are devoid of the hairy cover and lead an
arboreal life.

Presentation 2024
Biogeography covers important linkages between man and his physical as
well as biological environment. It is not only related to biology and
geography together but its compass of knowledge covers 1he productive
forces of the environment where the role of man is most challenging. Its
study is of dynamic nature since inorganic and biotic components are
changing over the course of time.

Man is most dynamic of all to alter his living and, surrounding that affects
the other members of the biosphere, such as plants and animals. Human
activities motivate, change, alter, tip set, and destroy the equilibrium.
Therefore, man is the most important consideration in the study of
biogeography and the present situation on the globe. Thus, biogeography
has been a subject of varied dimensions from various branches of
knowledge. It is a highly specialized branch and field of geographical studies
and research.
The modern age with its scientific and
technological race is charged with misuse of
the environment and resources. Alarming
problems like deforestation, extinction of
animals, soil erosion, reckless exploitation of
non-renewable resources, and pollution have
been accelerated by the population
explosion.

The nature of biogeography is also diverse,

as it involves the study of many different
types of organisms, from microbes to
megafauna. Biogeographers use a range of
techniques to study the distribution of life,
including fieldwork, remote sensing,
molecular biology, and ecological modeling.

Presentation 2024
SCOPE OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY
The study of the distribution and interactions of living things across a broad
variety of spatial and temporal scales is included in the large field of
biogeography.

The following are some of the main topics that are covered by biogeography:
Macroecology

Island Biogeography

Historical Biogeography

Conservation Biogeography
There are other scopes also which make biogeography a wide discipline to explore,
discussed further:
MACROECOLOGY

Large-scale patterns of biodiversity, such as species distribution

across continents, oceans, and biomes, are studied in this field.
Macroecologists study how climate, habitat suitability, and past
events like continental drift impact these patterns. To do this, they
employ methods like species distribution models and phylogenetic
studies.

Claudia Alves Presentation 2024

ISLAND
BIOGEOGRAPHY

Islands, being resource-poor and frequently isolated, offer special

opportunity to study the mechanisms that drive biodiversity.
Island biogeography studies the processes that lead to species
colonisation and extinction on islands and the development of
distinctive island biotas.
Theory of Island Biogeography
According to MacArthur and Wilson's theory of
island biogeography, an island's species richness is
based on the ratio of immigration to extinction rates,
which is impacted by the island's size and distance
from the mainland.
The image above shows how the size of an island and
its distance from the mainland interact with
immigration (colonization, the orange lines) and
extinction events (green lines) to influence the
richness of species.
HISTORICAL
BIOGEOGRAPHY

This field uses data from molecular genetics, biogeography, and

the fossil record to try and understand the historical relationships
between various groups of organisms. The goal of historical
biogeographers is to piece together the biotic past of various
locales and comprehend the ways in which biotic trade between
them has shaped the evolution of life on Earth.
CONSERVATION
BIOGEOGRAPHY

This area of study develops techniques for safeguarding high

biodiversity places by identifying them using biogeographic data.
The goal of conservation biogeographers is to detect and
implement mitigation strategies for threats to biodiversity, such as
invasive species, habitat destruction, and climate change.
In its broadest definition, biogeography studies the relationships between and among
the environment, people, animals, and plants—all of which are components of the
smaller ecosystems that make up the global ecosystem. Therefore, biogeographical
research comprises:

Understanding how various species have adapted to various geographical

locations is made easier by biogeography.
It aids in the knowledge of the life and distribution of plants and animals on Earth
by other sciences.
These works contribute to our understanding of the biotic community's rapid
reduction, primarily as a result of human activity.
Biogeography is a research that aids in solving a variety of environmental issues.
to assess the region's ecological suitability for a particular plant or animal
species.
IIn its broadest definition, biogeography studies the relationships between and among
the environment, people, animals, and plants—all of which are components of the
smaller ecosystems that make up the global ecosystem. Therefore, biogeographical
research comprises:

To examine the temporal and spatial relationships between populations and individual
organisms.
To investigate the interaction between complex biological systems and propagation
areas, such as those found in a forest, grassland, pond, or estuary, using experimental
analysis.
To assess the region's ecological suitability for a particular plant or animal species.
Abiotic factors like soil, relief, the quantity of nutrients in a particular area, temperature,
rainfall, and moisture, as well as biotic factors like the species' methods of dispersal,
behaviour towards its environment, rate of reproduction, and environmental
adaptations, can all have an impact on potential.
COMPONENTS OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY
COMPONENTS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY

BIOLOGY GEOGRAPHY

BOTANY PHYSICAL
ECOLOGY GEOGRAPHY

ZOOLOGY HUMAN
PALEONTOLOGY GEOGRAPHY
 COMPONENTS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY ZOOGEOGRAPHY
Phytogeography is the scientific Zoogeography is the scientific study
study of the distribution of plants in of animal distribution patterns and
space and time, and the interactions with the environment.
environmental elements influencing It includes the scientific study of
this distribution. various 'zooids' and various other
animals living in agglomerations.
Phytogeography
"Phytogeography is the study of the distribution of plants or taxonomic
groups of plants and its focus is to explain the ranges of plants in terms of
their origin, dispersal, and evolution."
-Matthews et al., 2003

Phytogeography, also known as botanical geography, is a field

within biogeography dedicated to studying the geographical
distribution of plant species and their impact on the Earth's
surface. It encompasses a broad range of topics, including
understanding the factors influencing the distribution of individual
plant species across various scales, as well as the mechanisms
shaping the composition of entire plant communities and floras.

Presentation 2024
 Major Divisions of Phytogeography
There are two major divisions of Phytogeography:

(i) Descriptive or Static Phytogeography (ii) Interpretive or Dynamic Phytogeography

Descriptive Phytogeography deals with the Interpretive or Dynamic Phytogeography

actual description of floristic or vegetational deals with the dynamics of migration and
groups found in different parts of the world. evolution of plants and floras. It explains the
Early plant geographers described floras and reasons for varied distribution of plant
attempted to divide earth into floristic and species in different parts of the world.
botanical zones.

Presentation 2024
 Principles of Phytogeography
Lowerence (1951) has suggested the following thirteen modern principles of Phytogeography which are
classified into four groups:

I. Principles concerning environment:

1. The distribution of plants is primarily controlled by climatic conditions.

2. There has been variation in climate during geological history in the past which affected migration of
plants.
3. The relations between land masses and seas have varied in the past. The large land masses split up to
form new land masses or continents which separated and reoriented. Land bridges between continents
acted as probable routes for migration of plant and animal species. The land bridges became
submerged in sea with the passage of time and the possibility for migration of plants and animals from
one continent to another disappeared for ever.
4. Soil conditions on plains and mountains of different land masses show secondary control on distribution
of vegetation. Halophytes, psammophytes, calcicols, calcifobs etc. have developed because of edaphic
conditions.

Presentation 2024
 Principles of Phytogeography
5. Biotic factors also play important role in distribution and establishment of plant species.
6. The environment is holocentric, i.e., all environmental factors have combined effects on the vegetation of
a place (Ale & Pank, 1939).

II. Principles concerning plant responses:

7. Range of distribution of plants is limited by their tolerances. Each plant species has a range of climatic
and edaphic conditions. Therefore, tolerance of a large taxon is the sum of tolerances of its constituent
species.
8. Tolerances have a Genetic basis. The response of plants to environment is governed by their genetic
makeup. Many of the crops through breeding and genetic changes have been made to grow in wider range
of environmental conditions. In nature, hybrid plants have been found to have wider range of tolerances
than their parents.
9. Different ontogentic phases have different tolerances. Different developmental stages of plants show
different degree of tolerances, as for example seeds and mature plants are more tolerants to temperature
and moisture variations than their seedlings.

Presentation 2024
 Principles of Phytogeography
III. Principles concerning the migration of floras and climaxes:

10. Large scale migrations have taken place. The fossils and palaeoecological evidences reveal that large
scale migrations of plants and animals have taken place during Mesozoic era and Tertiary periods.
11. Migration resulted from transport and establishment. In the process of migration plants are dispersed to
new habitats through their propagules such as spores, seeds, bulbils etc., and there they are established if
environmental conditions are favourable. Plants grow and reproduce there and progeny perpetuates
through ecological adjustments.

IV. Principles concerning the perpetuation and evolution of floras and climaxes:

12. Perpetuation depends first upon migration and secondly upon the ability of species to transmit the
favourable variations to the progenies.
13. Evolution of floras and climaxes depends upon migration, evolution of species and environmental
selections.

Presentation 2024
Zoogeography
Zoogeography is the study of distribution of animals on our
planet, which occur in different regions of the world in a
distinct patterns. Zoogeographers formulate theories to
explain the distribution, based on information about
geography, physiography, climate, and geologic history,
as well as knowledge of the evolutionary history and
relationships of the animals involved.

This study got popularity with the work of Alfred Russel

Wallace in the mid to late nineteenth century who was also
the co-founder of the theory of natural selection.

Presentation 2024
Four Key Framework Explaining Animal Distribution

CENTRE
CONTINENTAL
ORIGIN
DRIFT THEORY
HYPOTHESIS

DISPERSAL VICARIANCE

Presentation 2024
 Principles of Zoogeography
Following are the three major principles of Zoogeography:

1. Endemism:

All species have a limited distribution on a world scale. Some species are very well
dispersed e.g. Humans, their stock, and like the house mouse (Mus domesticus), etc...
whereas others have a very limited distribution.

Endemism (occurring nowhere else) or being endemic is that a taxon is restricted to a

limited geographical area. Endemism depends on the scale you are referring to. It might
be a small area like an island, or an entire continent.

Endemism can refer to a single species, genus, family, order, or other grouping.

Presentation 2024
 Principles of Zoogeography
2. Divergence:
When groups of mammals become geographically isolated, they usually diverge
meaning they adapt (over a long-time span) to the specific climatological, geological,
and ecological situation they are faced with.

3. Convergence
However, sometimes convergence occurs. Convergence occurs when distantly related
lineages inhabiting regions with similar climatological, geological, and ecological
situations evolve similar morphologies, life history patterns or niche characteristics.
Numerous examples of convergence exist among mammals

Presentation 2024
 Zoogeographic Regions
1. Palearctic: Europe, northern Africa, and northern Asia

2. Nearctic: N. America including about 2/3 of Mexico and Greenland.

3. Neotropical: lower 1/3 of Mexico, Central and South America.

4. Ethiopian: Sub-Saharan Africa, adjacent Arabian Peninsula.

5. Oriental: Indian subcontinent and adjacent regions of southern Asia.

6. Australian: Includes Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and New

Zealand

Claudia Alves Presentation 2024

ZOOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
APPLICATIONS OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY
Applications of
Biogeography
Biogeography, the study of the distribution of
species and ecosystems across geographic
space and through geological time, plays a
pivotal role in various scientific disciplines and
practical applications. Understanding the
patterns of life on Earth is crucial for
conservation efforts, climate change
assessment, invasive species management,
human health studies, evolutionary biology,
agriculture, forestry, ecological restoration,
and urban planning.

Presentation 2024
Conversation Biology

Conservation biologists rely on biogeographic

principles to identify biodiversity hotspots, areas with
exceptionally high levels of species richness and
endemism. By mapping species distributions and
understanding habitat requirements, conservationists
can develop targeted conservation strategies and
management plans to protect and restore threatened
ecosystems and species.

Presentation 2024
Climate Change Assessment

Biogeography helps scientists monitor shifts in species

distributions in response to climate change. By
analyzing historical data and modeling future
scenarios, researchers can predict how species
ranges may expand or contract and assess the
vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change
impacts. This information is crucial for developing
adaptation strategies and prioritizing conservation
efforts.

Presentation 2024
Invasive Species Management

Biogeography provides insights into the pathways and

mechanisms of species invasions. By studying the
ecological requirements and dispersal patterns of
invasive species, scientists can develop effective
control and eradication strategies to mitigate their
impacts on native biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning.

Presentation 2024
Human Health Studies

Biogeography contributes to understanding the

distribution of disease vectors and pathogens, such as
mosquitoes carrying malaria or ticks transmitting
Lyme disease. By mapping disease transmission
patterns and identifying environmental factors
influencing disease dynamics, researchers can inform
public health interventions and develop strategies for
disease prevention and control.

Presentation 2024
Evolutionary Biology

Biogeography plays a crucial role in understanding

the historical processes that shape the distribution of
life on Earth and drive evolutionary change. By
reconstructing past biogeographic patterns and
studying speciation events and dispersal
mechanisms, evolutionary biologists can unravel the
intricate history of biodiversity and its underlying
mechanisms.

Presentation 2024
Agriculture and Forestry

Biogeography informs land-use planning and

agricultural practices by assessing the suitability of
habitats for crop cultivation and forestry. By
considering factors such as climate, soil, and
topography, researchers can identify optimal
locations for agriculture and forestry activities and
anticipate risks associated with crop pests and
diseases.

Presentation 2024
Ecological Restoration

Biogeographic principles guide habitat restoration

efforts by selecting appropriate species for
reintroduction and designing restoration strategies
that mimic natural ecosystems. By restoring degraded
habitats and reintroducing native species,
conservationists aim to enhance ecosystem function
and resilience, promoting biodiversity conservation
and ecosystem services.

Presentation 2024
Urban Planning

Biogeography is increasingly integrated into urban

planning to design green spaces and promote
biodiversity in cities. By incorporating natural habitats
and green infrastructure into urban environments,
planners aim to enhance urban biodiversity, improve
air and water quality, and create healthier and more
sustainable cities.

Presentation 2024
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION