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The Sound System of khow`ar

Articulatory Location
Lip Tongue Nasal Larynx Glottis
tip up [apical] tip down [laminal/dorsal] front back
front back front back retracted
Stricture Type apico-dental apico-alveolar lamino-alveolar dorso-velar dorso-pharyngeal

ćh c̣h čh [asp]
Affricates ć c̣ č
(ź) (J̣) ǰ [vcd]
Ob- Occlusives ph th ṭh kh [asp]
stru-
ents Stops p t ṭ k q
Con-
b d ḍ g [vcd]
son- f s ṣ š x h
Spirants
ants (v) z ẓ ž ǧ [vcd]
Flap r
Laterals ḷ l
Sono- Approx-
rants imants
w (ř) y
Nasal
Stops
m n [nas]

Close u i
Vowels
Open o e a
primary ` ´
Accent
secondary ` ´
Pitch dropped .
Terminal steady ,
Contours high
dropped ?
Table 1. The Phonemes of khow`ar.

Phonemic Inventory. The symbols in Table 1 stand for the distinctive speech sounds of Khow`ar, as spoken in
southern Chitral around the village of N`aǧar.
Symbols enclosed in parentheses represent foreign sounds (v and ř) that may not be fully integrated into the speech of
all speakers, or sounds of questionable phonemic status (ź and J̣).
The symbols [vcd] [voiced], [asp] [aspirated], and [nas] [nasalized] represent coproduced components of the sounds
listed to their left in the row.

Phonation and Laryngeal Accent. The normal unaccented phonation of vowels in Khow`ar is produced with
anterior voicing and a concomitant front tensing of the larynx.* With many speakers the front tensing produces a
somewhat high-pitched phonatory register with vocalic voicing that tenses into a slight creakiness before a voiceless
consonant.
Accented phonation is produced with either tight anterior voicing or posterior voicing, concomitant with the oral
articulation of a vowel. Accented anterior voicing raises the pitch of the vowel, while posterior voicing lowers the vowel's
pitch. There are two levels of accent, Primary and Secondary, above the level of unaccented phonation. The default
accentual level is Primary.
Primary accented phonation is indicated by an accent mark (` for anterior voicing or ´ for posterior voicing) written
before the accented vowel. The following pairs of words demonstrate the contrast between anterior and posterior accented
phonation:

anterior- g`oḷ 'throat' ḍ`aq 'boy' ḍ`af 'frame drum' ḍ`uk 'lump' š`en 'rough' d`on 'tooth' ph`ox 'slowly' b`as 'overnight' b`ol 'army' wez`enote 'tonight'
voiced `
posterior- g´oḷ 'gully' ḍ´ak 'hind leg' ḍ´ap 'level area' ḍ´uk 'side peak' š´en 'grape arbor' d´on 'ghee' ph´ox 'soft; loose' b´as 'flame' b´ol 'Plieades' wez´en 'evening'
voiced ´
Table 2. Accented Phonation Contrasts in Khow`ar.

The position of accent within words is distinctive. Accented phonation may occur on the penultimate or the final
syllable in a simple, non-compounded word, as in the following word-pair:

penultimate accent bèḷu 'straw bucket'

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final accent beḷù 'pipe; flute'

Table 3. Positional Contrasts of

Accent in Khow`ar.

Secondary Accent. A secondary level of accent appears in multi-word sequences. Secondary accent may be produced
by either anterior or posterior voicing. It is indicated by a lighter-faced accent mark: ` or ´. Compared to the normal,
primary accent described above, the pitch of secondary accent is not as high for anterior voicing and not as low for
posterior voicing. In compound words secondary accent falls on the normally accented vowel of a constituent word.
Accentual Sequences. Mixed sequences of primary, secondary, and unaccented vowels appear in morphemically
complex words as well as in general speech. Khow`ar speakers distinguish complex words with one primary accent only
vs. words or phrases with one primary and one secondary accent, as seen in the contrast between mitar`i noǧor 'Mehtar's
Fort', a place name with only one accented constituent, and mitar`i noǧ`or 'mehtar's fort', with two accented constituents
(reminiscent of English "White House" vs. "white house").
The possible two-constituent accentual sequences in Khow`ar are exemplified in Table 4:

Accentual Primary Accent on Initial Constituent Primary Accent on Final Constituent

Sequence
g`ox šal 'a settlement in C̣ hetrar G´ol' kho-w`ar 'Kh´ow language'
` mitar`i noǧor 'Mehtar's Fort' gehta-g`ehti 'dusty'
one geht-m`an 'dusty'
accent
g´ol dur 'Valley House' kaṭur-´e 'agnatic decendant of Kaṭ`ur'
´
g´om dan 'popped wheat' kuško m´uḷ 'armpit'
ko`it kiṭ`ori 'dried fig' `i šor oče `i 'one hundred one'
puš`ur deti paxt`i 'rice with meat' g`oǧ-čaw`aṭ 'worms (in general)'
ky`awat ky`awat 'sometimes' draǧ`anẓ-s`al 'famine'
` ` m`už griṣp`o 'midsummer' b`išir ǰ`oš 'thirty'
`iǧo ǧ`on 'identical' mitar`i noǧ`or 'mehtar's fort'
an`o kah`ak 'mountain hen' han`isen d`i 'still'
sin`o d`on 'river bank' buḷ`io l`enẓu 'birch-bark'
s´ah´an 'a part of Oy´on' kah´ak-m´aḷ 'chicken house'
bard´eyru ž´ur 'female ward' dr´os-g´ol 'Dr´os Valley'
dr´on-h´anu 'rainbow'
´´ b´ar-d´oyu 'porter'
g´oḷa-g´oḷi 'gully-covered mountainside'
čh´uy-b´oti 'late-night supper'
two p´inga-čh´uy 'tomorrow'
accents xaḷ´aw-m`aḷi 'rat hole'
c̣h´irmuž-d`uri 'land farmed by peasant'
ǰal´aṣ-ph`uri 'scraggly-haired'
´` pinga-čh´uy-ping`ah 'two days hence'
br´ar-gan`iru 'blood brother'
deh´o loṭhor`o 'village elders'
b´oto w`axta 'dinnertime'
oxt`iri wez´en 'two nights ago' kalkaṭh`ako ḍ´ap 'Kalkaṭhak's Flats'
ǧaḷ`uči ph´ur 'curly locks'
t`or kh´ow 'Upper Kh´ow'
` ´ nič`uht n´ey- 'slice'
gor`o har´en 'mica'
r`enio dr´o 'dog hair'
nir`ango h´anu 'dagger sheath'

Table 4. Accentual Sequences in Khow`ar.

Intonation. Symbols for the intonational contours that terminate phonological phrases appear in Table 1. A proper
account of intonation in Khow`ar requires further study.

Vocalism. The articulatory processes of mandibular opening, lingual fronting, and labial rounding produce the five
contrasting vowels of Khow`ar (see Table 1). The Khow`ar vowels fit a "standard" five-vowel system, with vowel
qualities similar to those of Spanish.
Vowel Length. Length is not a phonemically distinctive vocalic process in Khow`ar. Accented vowels, especially
posteriorly voiced ones, are slightly longer than their unaccented counterparts; but such length is a by-product of the
glottal tensing of accented vowels, with the tensing of posterior voicing taking longer than the tensing of anterior voicing.
However, sequences of two a's may occur through suffixation (hay`aa 'here' ← hay`a 'this' + -a [locative], žaǧ`aa
'instead of' ← žaǧ`a 'place' + -a [locative]). Such sequences are pronounced as a single long vowel, without hiatus.
Sequences of Vowels. Dissyllabic sequences of vowels occur, without hiatus, as exemplified Table 5:

V1 accent V2 accent no accent

r`auz 'musk deer' ṣa`uk 'tight knot' piaḷ`ik 'Burusho from Pi´aḷ (Punyal)'
(cf. s`awz 'green') sipa`i 'soldier' reis´e 'agnatic descendant of Reis'

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c̣h´ui 'hunger' su`ir 'Suwir' boik`aḷi 'teal'
khošt`ien 'secretly' bo`ik 'bird'
hay`aa 'here' ši´aq 'adobe'
di´ey- 'lactate'
xe`al 'thought'
xoǰa´e 'agnatic descendant of Xoja'
qo´ey- 'call'

Table 5. Vowel Sequences in Khow`ar.

In words that end in y, the y drops before a suffixed -i to produce a dissyllabic sequence. Note the contrasts between:

monosyllable čh´uy 'dark' c̣h´uy 'hungry'

dissyllable čh´ui 'darkness' c̣h´ui 'hunger'
Table 6. y vs. i in Khow`ar.

Consonantism. The distinctive articulatory locations and stricture levels that intersect to produce the consonants of
Khow`ar appear in Table 1.
Voicing. Consonants may be voiced or voiceless. Sonorants are by nature voiced. Distinctive voiced–voiceless
contrasts appear among the obstruents, with voicing as the accentual ("marked") component. Occlusives may be voiceless
unaspirated or voiceless aspirated, in addition to being voiced. Voiced and voiceless consonants may appear in initial,
medial, or final position within an utterance.
Aspiration. Aspiration is a noisy, turbulent flow of air through the glottis. Aspiration may stand alone as a voiceless
consonantal sound (represented by h) or as a component added to a voiceless occlusive consonant to form an aspirated
consonant (represented by h following the voiceless occlusive's symbol). Aspirated consonants contrast with unaspirated
consonants, which are released directly into a following sound without aspirational turbulence. Aspirated consonants do
not occur in final position, but final h does occur (k`uh 'wide valley', `ayh 'up', etc.). Examples of unaspirated vs.
aspirated voiceless occlusives include those in Table 7:

Occlusive Unaspirated Aspirated

p`ar 'cradle' ph`ar 'yonder'
p p`oṣ 'fertilizer' phoṣ- 'quarry'
p`on 'path' ph´on 'paddy'
taǧ`ar 'from that one' th´aǧ 'twig'
t`u 'you [sg.]' thu- 'spit'
t tr`in 'watery curd' thr´inguḷ 'winnowing pitchfork'
trupč`ay 'salt tea' thr`up 'radish'
ṭ´insk 'kind of bird' ṭh´ing 'slope'
ṭ ṭ`ong 'pear' ṭh`ongi 'small ax'
k`ar 'ear' kh´ar 'vegetable garden'
kiṣmanž´a 'cultivated area' khišm`iš 'raisin'
kuṭ`u 'entryway' kh`uṭu 'lame'
k`eḷi 'ewe' kheḷ`i 'shield'
k`oṭ 'coat' kh´oṭ 'cloud'
k
k`oḷ 'K`oḷ' kh´oḷ 'bone'
k`oli 'crooked' kh´oḷi 'left'
k´oy 'he will do' kh´oy 'cap'
kow`arik 'kind of duck' khow`ar 'Khów language'
ky`aǧ 'what' khy`o 'what [obl.]'
ćoǧ`u 'orphan' ćh`ok 'wood chips collected for fire'
ć ć`at 'sufficient quantity' ćh`atur 'spindle for cotton thread'
č čang- 'lie (fib)' čh´ang 'Jew's harp'
c̣ c̣`oktu 'above' c̣h´oǧ 'thief'

Table 7. Aspiration Contrasts in Khow`ar.

Labial Consonants. Labial consonants are bilabial, except for the spirants f and v, which are labio-dental. v only
occurs in English loanwords (e.g., ḍr`ayv 'drive'; cf. ḍrayw`er 'driver'). Before front vowels f and w are lax bilabial
spirants; otherwise w is a bilabial approximant.
Dental and Alveolar Consonants. The back of the teeth and the alveolar ridge provide phonemically contrasting
targets for the tongue's tip (apex), to produce dental versus alveolar consonants. In addition to apico-alveolar ("retroflex")
consonants, the tongue's blade may articulate with the alveolar ridge to produce lamino-alveolar ("palatal") consonants.
The phonemic status of the voiced apical affricates ź and J̣ requires further investigation. These sounds have only been
recorded after n. An alternative phonemic solution would be to recognize these as sequences of n + z or ẓ, with a
homorganic affricating stopness automatically inserted at the transition from the nasal to the voiced spirant. However,
there are a few examples of n + voiced spirant, as shown in Table 10. The contrast of affricate vs. spirant after n requires

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verification. If it holds true, then ź and J̣ are minimally phonemic, occuring only after n; otherwise, they are allophones of
z and ẓ after n, and the sequence nǰ should be similarly analyzed as nž.
l is produced with the tongue's blade, giving it a palatalized effect. ḷ is apparently apico-alveolar with concomitant
strong posterior voicing, giving it a pronounced "dark" quality.
r is an upward apico- or lamino-alveolar flap. The alveolar approximant ř is included here as a foreign (English) sound
that occurs only in loanwords. Its usage beyond learned speakers of Khow`ar has not been verified.
Dorsal Consonants. The dorso-velar consonants require no special comment. q is a voiceless dorso-pharyngeal stop,
which lacks aspirated and voiced counterparts.
Nasal Consonants. n assimilates to the articulatory position of a following consonant, becoming [n] before apico-
dentals, [ɲ] before lamino-alveolars, [ɳ] before apico-alveolars, and [ŋ] before velar g. The phonemic sequence ng is
pronounced [ŋg] before vowels and [ŋ] elsewhere. It is not clear if n assimilates to a following k or not. It is also unclear
if the final n of a compound's first constituent always assimilates to an initial g of the compound's second constituent; in
compounds like čumurkh´on-g´ol 'Iron-Shoe Valley' and dukan-g´ol 'Store Valley', is the first constituent's final n
pronounced [n] or [ŋ]? If [n], then a junctural phoneme · (possibly representable by just a space between the constituents)
must be recognized to distinguish the sequence ng ([ŋg] or [ŋ]) from n·g ([ng]).

Distribution of Consonants. Single or multiple consonants may appear initially, medially, or finally in utterances.
Initial Consonants. All single consonants may appear initially. Sequences of initial consonants include an obstruent,
m, or w plus a non-nasal sonorant, as exemplified in Table 8:

Second First Consonant

Consonant labial dental alveolar laminal velar
pr`aš 'rib' trac̣`on 'carpenter' ḍrayw`er 'driver' šruph- 'slurp' kr`uy 'red'
pr`ušṭi 'before' tr`in 'watery curd' šr`on 'hip' kr`em 'upper back'
tr`učing 'goat or sheep dung' kr`oṭ 'large dry log'
phr`etam 'I, we hit; I, we gave' tr`ez b- 'crack [wood]' žr`ex 'cartilage'
tr`oy 'three' khrop- 'crow'
br´ar 'brother; male cousin'
bri´- 'die' thr`aṣ kor- 'dart out; go quickly' gr´ać 'tall millet'
br`u 'eyebrow' thr´inguḷ 'winnowing pitchfork' gr`i 'mountain pass'
brež`ayu 'sister-in-law' thr`up 'radish' gr´uc̣ 'basting stitch'
br`oz 'Br`oz' threšṭ`u 'onion'
thron`i 'kind of rose' ǧranu 'heavy'
r fr`ax 'loose [clothes]' ǧr`uć 'bunch of grapes'
draz´ey- 'load up'
mr`ac̣ 'mulberry' dr`iẓ 'gravelly slope'
mr`oy 'wild goat or sheep' dr`ung 'long; tall [animate]'
dr´ey- 'pour out (from a pot)'
wr`azun 'wing' dr´o 'single hair'
wr`enz 'pneumonia'
ćrax´ey- 'drizzle'
ćr`ik 'kind of bird'
ćr`ex 'spark'

sr`ung 'horn'
pḷaxd`ini 'wild tulip' kḷinz`u 'wart on hand'
pḷing´ay 'kind of bird' kḷ`up 'hollow; dell'

ḷ bḷ`ać 'short [animate]' gḷ`oć 'crotch of tree'

bḷ`ik 'eyeball'
bḷ`ok 'flower bud' xḷ`ak 'phlegm'
xḷik- 'hiccup'
l bl`uš 'lukewarm'
phy`u 'scapula' ty`of 'kind of hawk' ṣy`aḷ 'jackal' ky`aǧ 'what'
(šokh`or)-thyon [place name] ṣy´elio xam [place name]
y
by`oḷi 'By`oḷi' khy`o 'what [obl.]'
ny`of 'nine'
w phw`ini 'bellows'

Table 8. Initial Consonant Sequences in Khow`ar.

Final Consonants. Aspirates do not occur finally, and the voiced occlusives occur finally only if bolstered by a
preceding sonorant. The remaining consonants may occur singly in final position. Final two-consonant sequences include
those exemplified in Table 9:

Pre-Final Final Consonant

Consonant labial dental alveolar laminal velar
Obstruents s p`ast 'low' b´osk 'thick [flat thing]'
ph`ust 'tassle' h´osk 'straight; true'

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ph´ost 'skin' ṭ´insk 'kind of bird'
h`ost 'hand' br´onsk 'grassy place'
š x`ošp 'dream' `ošṭ 'eight' uč`ušt 'Uč`ušt' k`ušk 'lap'
ṭh´ašṭ 'metal basin' r`ošt 'bright' ph`ešk 'bean; shell'
č`ašṭ 'lunch'
l`ašṭ 'flat'
h´ešṭ 'plow beam'
ṣ p`oṣp 'wool' ṣ`uṣk 'white clay'
gr´iṣp 'summer' n`aṣk 'beak'
[ocl]C ẓ`ac̣k 'cicada'
s`otk 'mature fruit bud'
[spi]C y`uft 'autochthon'

m`aǧz 'brain'
x ṣiǧ`ixt 'snipe'
ẓ`axt 'small firewood'
duw`axt 'door'
w`axt 'time'
b`oxt 'stone; rock'
h g`eht 'dust' z`ehč 'yellow'
d`aht 'pus; ugly' m`ahč 'chili pepper'
s`aht 'loom' z`ohč 'animal hair'
th´uht 'ford'

`ohć 'bear'
r ph´orp 'cattle corral' w`arz 'head end' y`urǰ 'falcon'
ř tenisk`ořṭ 'tennis court'
ḷ h´oḷk 'scar'
n g`and 'single-beam bridge' l`enḍ 'knot' kh´anǰ 'wall' ṭ`ong 'pear'
sam`and 'camel-colored' gr`awnḍ 'playing ground' kḷ`inǰ 'Kḷ`inǰ' p`ong 'foot'
ṭ`unǰ 'clay water jug' ḍ`ang 'hard; tight'
Sonorants lays`ens 'license' c̣how`enẓ 'kind of bush' g`onǰ 'storeroom' ṭh´ing 'slope'
ẓ`ang 'high'
dahl`enz 'entry room' sr`ung 'horn'
wr`enz 'pneumonia' ḷ`ung 'hornless'
w s`awz 'green'
q`awz 'constipation'
y kum`ayd 'black [horse]' ǧayr 'except' ṣ´uyč 'kind of bird' `ayh 'up'

Table 9. Final Two-Consonant Sequences in Khow`ar.

Final sequences of three consonants include those in br´onsk 'grassy place' and gr`awnḍ '(playing) ground'.
Medial Consonants. Medial consonants include any single consonant, any permitted sequence of initial or final
consonants (see Tables 8 and 9), or any sequence of consonants formed from a permitted final consonantal string (of one
or more consonants) plus a permitted initial consonantal string (of one or more consonants). However, geminate
consonants do not occur (e.g., kh´ow + w`ar → khow`ar, with one w), nor do sequences that violate the following
sequential constraints on consonants.
Sequential Constraints on Consonants. Among sequences of consonants, sequences of all obstruents must be either
all voiceless or all voiced. No apico-dental + apico-alveolar sequence may appear, except in English loanwords (e.g.,
sṭ`iring 'steering-wheel', also pronounced ištir`ing).
Consonantal Sequences with n. Sequences of n + consonant are exemplified in Table 10:

Following Consonant
Stricture Type dental (n = [n]) alveolar (n = [ɳ]) laminal (n = [ɲ]) velar (n = [ŋ])
voiced and`aw 'fever' onḍ´or 'rice huller' ang´ar 'fire'
kand`u 'wild almond' kalkanḍ´er 'kind of water bird' ḍang´ey- 'bury'
kund`ax 'wild leafy vegetable' kanḍaḷ`ak 'kind of reed' šang`ur 'intestines'
rand`eẓu 'kabab' xoranḍ´ok 'a part of Dr´os' čil´ingi 'hummingbird'
sandal`i 'stool' ḷ`unḍur 'timber' drung´ey- 'stretch out'
parkund`ić 'small lizard' lanḍ`i 'whore'
pand`ir 'kind of soft cheese' sanḍ`a 'male buffalo' ṭ`ong 'pear'
h´end`aru 'wooden pry bar' pinḍ´oru 'round' p`ong 'foot'
pulmunḍ`uk 'butterfly' ḍ`ang 'hard; tight'
stop
andr´en 'inside of house' hinḍ`al 'childless person' ṭh´ing 'slope'
indroǧ`aḷi 'kind of duck' ẓ`ang 'high'
čondr`uk 'feathery creeper growing on trees' l`enḍ 'knot' sr`ung 'horn'
žindr`oži 'millipede' gr`awnḍ '(playing) ground' ḷ`ung 'hornless'
zondr´e 'agnatic descendant of Zondur'

g`and 'single-beam bridge'

goḷb`and 'muffler'
b`end 'terraced field'
affricate kḷinź`u 'wart on hand (temporary)' c̣anJ̣´a 'torch' anǰ´ey- 'send [something]'
xonź´a 'mehtar's wife' c̣honJ̣`or 'stone bow' khanǰ´oḷ 'large black songbird'

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ronź- 'shiver' draǧ`anJ̣ s`al 'famine' ǰonǰ`uruk 'raceme'
donź- 'dice' l`enJ̣u 'bark' tonǰ´ey- 'destroy; lose'
ćrik`onźu 'wild spinach' sanǰ`ir 'main roof beam'
c̣how`enJ̣ 'kind of medicinal bush' sinǰ`ur 'zizyphus (dry)'
dahl`enź 'entry room' panǰar`aš 'full moon'
wr`enź 'pneumonia'
šunǰn`eṭi 'packing needle'

gr`inǰ 'rice (hulled)'

š`unǰ 'needle'
p`onǰ 'five'
b`anǰ 'hollyoak'
kar`anzo lašṭ 'Kar`anz's Flats' kiṣmanž´a 'cultivated area for grain'
spirant ranzuri- 'shake'
wanz`i 'a place in Gombir G´ol'
čint`a 'smart; industrious' ṭanṭ`ey 'threshed corn stalk' (unclear if n becomes [ŋ]
šonṭh`i 'slingshot' before k)
kank`oṭi 'woodpecker'
ḍ`ankhoḷ 'ankle bone'
stop čank`araṭ 'kind of duck'
šankh´ur 'nightblind'
donkhal´eni 'toothpick'
sinkuḷ´um 'a part of Br`oz'
voiceless hayrank`oṭ 'a part of C̣ hetr`ar'
ćenćen kor- 'smash to pieces' g´anc̣homik 'syphilis' g´ančh`eḷi 'blowing snow'
affricate
čapanč`oṭ 'stairs'
kḷ`insar 'walking stick with pick for snow' šunṣ´ayi 'pubescent boy' aliph`anšap`ir 'hairy caterpillar'
lays`ens 'license' yomunš`ali 'winter quarters'
spirant pininšow´e 'agnatic descendant of Pininšow'
ṭ´insk 'kind of bird' br´onšal 'a settlement in C̣ hetrar G´ol'
br´onsk 'grassy place; lawn'

Table 10. Examples of n + Consonant in Khow`ar.

Transition. In Khow`ar transition from one phoneme to another appears to require little assimilation or overlapping of
adjacent articulations, unlike in most of the neighboring languages. Whether a proper analysis of Khow`ar requires a
junctural phoneme or not (see above) is open to further study.

Notes

* I follow Catford's (1977: 99ff.) nomenclature of phonation types.

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First posted 16 January 2012 Last modified 16 January 2012

Copyright © 2012 by Richard F. Strand

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