WIRELESS AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION
CLA 2 IMPORTANT TOPICS
1. HLR & VLR
In wireless mobile communication systems like GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communication) and its successors, HLR (Home Location Register) and VLR (Visitor Location
Register) are key components of the network architecture, primarily responsible for
managing subscriber information and call routing.
HLR (Home Location Register):
HLR is a centralized database that stores subscriber information of a particular mobile
network operator.
It contains details such as subscriber identity, current location, services subscribed, and
authentication key.
Whenever a subscriber turns on their mobile phone or moves to a new location, the VLR in
the visited network queries the subscriber's HLR to retrieve necessary information for call
routing and service provisioning.
HLR is responsible for call setup, location updating, authentication, and supplementary
services for subscribers within its network.
VLR (Visitor Location Register):
VLR is a temporary database that stores information about subscribers who are currently
within the coverage area of a particular Mobile Switching Center (MSC) or Visitor Location
Area (VLA).
When a subscriber roams into a new area served by a different MSC, their information is
temporarily stored in the VLR of that MSC.
VLR contains essential information needed for call routing and management within the
visited network.
It reduces the need for constant communication with the subscriber's home network (HLR)
by temporarily caching the subscriber's information.
In summary, HLR and VLR work together to manage subscriber mobility, call routing, and
service provisioning in mobile communication networks. HLR serves as the permanent
repository of subscriber information, while VLR temporarily stores information about
subscribers visiting other network areas.
2. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System)
UMTS or Universal Mobile Telecommunications Framework, is the 3G successor to the GSM
family of measures counting GPRS and EDGE. 3G UMTS employments a completely diverse
radio interface based around the utilize of Coordinate Grouping Spread Range as CDMA or
Code Division Multiple Access. Although 3G UMTS employments a completely distinctive
radio gets to standard, the center arrange is the same as that utilized for GPRS and EDGE to
carry partitioned circuit exchanged voice and bundle data.
UMTS employments a wideband adaptation of CDMA possessing a 5 MHz wide channel.
Being more extensive than its competition CDMA2000 which as it was utilized a 1.25MHz
channel, the tweak conspire was known as wideband CDMA or WCDMA/W-CDMA. This title
was regularly utilized to allude to the total framework. It could be a frame of media
transmission utilized for remote gathering and transmission. It is an advancement in speed
boost from the more seasoned 2G standard of transmission speed and can increment
information transmission times between gadgets and servers.
UMTS Applications
Streaming / Download (Video, Audio)
Videoconferences.
Fast Internet / Intranet.
Mobile E-Commerce (M-Commerce)
Remote Login
Background Class applications
Multimedia-Messaging, E-Mail
FTP Access
Mobile Entertainment (Games)
Features of UMTS
UMTS could be a component of IMT-2000 standard of the Universal Broadcast
communications Union (ITU), created by 3GPP.
Its employments wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) discuss interface.
It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia.
It gives tall transmission capacity to portable operators.
It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps.
For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate is as tall as 7.2 Mbps
within the downlink connection.
It is additionally known as Flexibility of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA).
Advantages of UMTS
UMTS could be a successor to 2G based GSM advances counting GPRS and EDGE. Gaining a
3rd title 3GSM since it could be a 3G relocation for GSM
Support 2Mbit/s information rates.
Higher Information rates at lower incremental costs.
Benefits of programmed universal wandering also necessarily security and charging
capacities, permitting administrators emigrate from 2G to 3G whereas holding numerous of
their existing back-office frameworks
Gives administrators the adaptability to present unused mixed media administrations to
trade clients and buyers
This not as it were gives client a valuable phone but moreover deciphers higher incomes for
the administrator.
Disadvantages of UMTS
It is more expensive than GSM.
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System has poor video experience.
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System still not broadband.
Features UMTS
Network Architecture : Circuit-switched and packet-switched
Radio Access Technology: Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)
Bandwidth : 5 MHz
Data Rate : Up to 2 Mbps for HSDPA; up to 7.2 Mbps for HSDPA
Applications : Multimedia applications
Roaming Support : Automatic international roaming
Video Quality : Improved compared to GSM
Cost : More expensive than GSM
Broadband : Offers broadband capabilities
3. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a widely used standard for cellular
communication that has been the foundation for many mobile networks around the world.
Here's an overview of how GSM works:
Mobile Stations (MS):
Mobile Stations, or MS, refer to the user's mobile devices such as mobile phones, tablets, or
other handheld devices.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
BSS consists of two main components: Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and Base Station
Controller (BSC).
Base Transceiver Station (BTS): BTS houses the radio transceivers that communicate directly
with the mobile devices. It handles tasks like transmitting and receiving radio signals.
Base Station Controller (BSC): BSC controls multiple BTS s. It manages tasks like handovers
between cells, frequency hopping, and power level control.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):
NSS is the core network of GSM and consists of several key components:
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): MSC is the central component of the NSS. It connects the
mobile network to other networks such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or
other mobile networks. MSC handles tasks like call routing, call setup, and mobility
management.
Visitor Location Register (VLR): VLR is a temporary database that stores information about
subscribers currently located in the coverage area controlled by the MSC.
Home Location Register (HLR): HLR is a central database that stores permanent subscriber
information, including subscriber profiles, authentication data, and current location.
Authentication Center (AUC): AUC generates authentication parameters to verify the identity
of subscribers and prevent unauthorized access to the network.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR): EIR is a database that stores information about mobile
devices to prevent the use of stolen or unauthorized devices in the network.
Operations Support Subsystem (OSS):
OSS provides support functions for network operations and maintenance. It includes
components like the Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC) for network monitoring,
configuration management, and fault management.
Air Interface:
GSM uses a combination of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA) for its air interface.
TDMA divides each frequency channel into time slots, allowing multiple users to share the
same frequency channel by transmitting data in different time slots.
FDMA divides the available frequency spectrum into multiple frequency channels, each of
which can be used by a different BTS to communicate with mobile devices within its
coverage area.
Overall, GSM provides voice and data communication services to mobile subscribers through
a network of interconnected components, allowing users to make calls, send messages, and
access data services while on the move.
4. EDGE Technology
EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) is an enhancement to the GSM mobile
communication standard that provides improved data transmission rates and efficiency.
Here's an explanation of EDGE technology:
Background:
EDGE was introduced as an evolution of GSM to meet the growing demand for faster data
transmission rates for services like internet browsing, multimedia messaging, and email on
mobile devices.
It was standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) as part of the Release
99 of the GSM standard.
Improved Data Rates:
The primary goal of EDGE is to increase the data transmission rates of GSM networks by
introducing more advanced modulation and coding techniques.
EDGE achieves higher data rates by using a new modulation scheme called 8-PSK (8-Phase
Shift Keying), which allows more bits to be transmitted per symbol compared to the older
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) modulation schemes.
EDGE also implements more efficient error correction coding, known as Turbo coding, which
improves the reliability of data transmission.
Backward Compatibility:
One of the key advantages of EDGE is its backward compatibility with existing GSM networks.
EDGE-capable devices can still operate on GSM networks when EDGE is not available,
ensuring widespread coverage and seamless transition for users.
EDGE achieves backward compatibility by using the same frequency bands and infrastructure
as GSM, allowing operators to upgrade their networks gradually without requiring a
complete overhaul.
Increased Efficiency:
EDGE improves the spectral efficiency of GSM networks by allowing more data to be
transmitted within the same bandwidth.
This increased efficiency translates to higher data rates for users without the need for
additional spectrum allocation or infrastructure investment.
Applications:
EDGE technology enables a variety of data-intensive applications on mobile devices,
including web browsing, multimedia streaming, video calling, and file downloads.
It significantly enhances the user experience by providing faster data access and reduced
latency compared to traditional GSM networks.
Evolutionary Step:
While EDGE provides significant improvements over traditional GSM networks, it is
considered a transitional technology between 2G and 3G mobile standards.
EDGE paved the way for subsequent generations of mobile communication technologies,
such as UMTS (3G) and LTE (4G), which offer even higher data rates and advanced features.
Overall, EDGE technology played a crucial role in enhancing the capabilities of GSM
networks, enabling faster data transmission rates and paving the way for the mobile data
revolution that followed.
5. HANDOFFs and Types
In mobile communication networks, handoff (also known as handover) refers to the process
of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one cell (or base station) to another
without interrupting the communication. Handoffs are crucial for maintaining seamless
connectivity as a mobile user moves through different coverage areas. There are several
types of handoffs, each designed to cater to specific scenarios and requirements within the
network. Here are the main types:
Intra-cell Handoff:
Intra-cell handoff, also known as soft handoff, occurs when a mobile device moves within the
coverage area of a single cell but changes the frequency or channel it is using.
This type of handoff helps to optimize the allocation of radio resources within the cell and
maintain call quality as the user moves around.
Inter-cell Handoff:
Inter-cell handoff, also known as hard handoff, occurs when a mobile device moves from the
coverage area of one cell to another cell belonging to the same or different base station.
During inter-cell handoff, the call or data session is transferred from the serving cell to the
target cell. There is typically a brief interruption in the communication during this process.
Inter-cell handoff is necessary to ensure continuous connectivity as a mobile user moves
between different cells, especially when the signal strength from the serving cell becomes
weak or when the user enters a new coverage area.
Inter-system Handoff:
Inter-system handoff occurs when a mobile device moves between cells that are part of
different wireless technologies or systems.
For example, a handoff may occur when a mobile device moves from a GSM cell to a UMTS
cell, or from an LTE cell to a Wi-Fi access point.
Inter-system handoff is more complex than intra-cell or inter-cell handoff because it involves
transitioning between different radio access technologies and network infrastructures.
Vertical Handoff:
Vertical handoff occurs when a mobile device switches between different types of networks,
such as cellular networks, Wi-Fi networks, or satellite networks.
This type of handoff is common in heterogeneous wireless environments where multiple
network technologies are available, and the device selects the most appropriate network
based on factors like signal strength, data rates, and quality of service requirements.
These types of handoffs are essential for maintaining seamless connectivity and ensuring
uninterrupted communication for mobile users as they move within and between coverage
areas of wireless networks. Efficient handoff mechanisms are critical for providing high-
quality mobile services and enhancing the overall user experience.
6. Primary difference between 3g and 2g:
The primary differences between 3G (Third Generation) and 2G (Second Generation) mobile
communication technologies lie in their capabilities, data transmission speeds, and the types
of services they support. Here's a breakdown of the key differences:
Data Transmission Speeds:
2G networks, such as GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), primarily focused on
voice calls and low-speed data transmission. Typical data rates ranged from 9.6 Kbps to 114
Kbps.
3G networks, on the other hand, were designed to provide significantly faster data
transmission speeds, capable of supporting multimedia applications, video streaming, and
high-speed internet access. 3G networks offered data rates ranging from 384 Kbps to several
megabits per second (Mbps), with theoretical peak speeds of up to 21 Mbps for HSPA (High-
Speed Packet Access) and even higher for HSPA+.
Services and Applications:
2G networks were primarily optimized for voice calls and basic text messaging services like
SMS (Short Message Service). While they supported limited data services, they were not
suitable for bandwidth-intensive applications like video streaming or online gaming.
3G networks introduced a wide range of multimedia services and applications, including
video calling, mobile TV, music streaming, and web browsing. These networks enabled users
to access high-quality multimedia content and enjoy a more immersive mobile experience.
Network Architecture:
2G networks typically used circuit-switched technology for voice calls and packet-switched
technology for data services. They relied on narrowband channels and were optimized for
voice communication.
3G networks introduced a packet-switched architecture for both voice and data services,
allowing for more efficient use of network resources and better support for high-speed data
transmission. They also introduced features like soft handoff and faster call setup times
compared to 2G networks.
Spectrum Efficiency:
3G technologies offered higher spectrum efficiency compared to 2G, allowing operators to
accommodate more users and provide better quality of service.
With 3G, operators could deliver a greater volume of data traffic within the available
spectrum, resulting in improved network capacity and performance.
Overall, the transition from 2G to 3G represented a significant leap in mobile communication
technology, enabling a wide range of advanced services and applications that revolutionized
the way people communicate and interact with mobile devices.
7. Structure of mobile IP
Mobile IP (Internet Protocol) is a standard communication protocol that enables mobile
devices to maintain continuous network connectivity and seamlessly roam between different
IP networks without changing their IP addresses. The structure of Mobile IP involves several
key components and mechanisms:
Mobile Node (MN):
The Mobile Node refers to the mobile device or endpoint that moves between different
networks while maintaining its IP address.
It could be a laptop, smartphone, tablet, or any other mobile device capable of
communicating over IP networks.
Home Agent (HA):
The Home Agent is a router or entity located in the home network of the Mobile Node.
It serves as a home address anchor point for the Mobile Node and maintains the current
location (care-of address) of the Mobile Node when it is away from its home network.
Foreign Agent (FA):
The Foreign Agent is a router or entity located in a foreign network that the Mobile Node is
visiting.
When the Mobile Node roams into a foreign network, the Foreign Agent assists in the Mobile
IP registration process and forwards data packets to and from the Mobile Node.
Home Address (HoA):
The Home Address is the permanent IP address assigned to the Mobile Node within its home
network.
It remains constant regardless of the Mobile Node's location.
Care-of Address (CoA):
The Care-of Address is the temporary IP address assigned to the Mobile Node when it roams
into a foreign network.
It represents the current location of the Mobile Node within the foreign network.
Registration Process:
When the Mobile Node moves to a foreign network, it registers its current Care-of Address
with its Home Agent using a registration procedure.
The registration process involves the exchange of messages between the Mobile Node, the
Home Agent, and optionally, the Foreign Agent.
The Home Agent updates its mobility binding table to associate the Mobile Node's Home
Address with its current Care-of Address.
Tunneling:
Mobile IP typically employs tunneling techniques, such as IP-in-IP encapsulation or GRE
(Generic Routing Encapsulation), to forward data packets between the Home Agent and the
Mobile Node.
Data packets destined for the Mobile Node's Home Address are encapsulated and tunneled
to the Care-of Address, where they are decapsulated and delivered to the Mobile Node.
Routing Optimization (Optional):
In some cases, Mobile IP can optimize routing by allowing direct communication between
the Correspondent Node (the peer with which the Mobile Node is communicating) and the
Mobile Node's Care-of Address without involving the Home Agent or Foreign Agent.
This mechanism, known as Route Optimization, reduces latency and improves network
efficiency.
Overall, the structure of Mobile IP enables mobile devices to maintain seamless connectivity
and transparently roam between different networks while preserving their IP addresses and
ensuring continuous communication.
8. Tunneling vs Reverse Tunneling
Tunneling and reverse tunneling are both techniques used in networking to encapsulate and
forward packets between two endpoints, but they serve different purposes and operate in
different directions within a network. Here's an explanation of each:
Tunneling:
Purpose: Tunneling involves encapsulating packets within another protocol's data packets for
transmission across a network.
Direction: In tunneling, packets are encapsulated at the source and decapsulated at the
destination.
Typical Use Cases:
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Tunneling protocols like IPsec, L2TP, or GRE are used to
create secure and private communication channels over public networks.
IPv6 Transition: Tunneling techniques like 6to4 or Teredo are used to transmit IPv6 packets
over IPv4 networks during the transition phase.
Virtualization: Tunneling is used in virtualization technologies like Virtual Extensible LAN
(VXLAN) or Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) to transmit packets between virtual
machines or across virtual networks.
Example: In an IPsec VPN, IP packets are encapsulated within IPsec packets for secure
transmission across the internet. At the destination, the IPsec packets are decapsulated to
retrieve the original IP packets.
Reverse Tunneling:
Purpose: Reverse tunneling is a technique used when a device initiates a connection to a
central server or gateway and requests that the server encapsulates and forwards packets
back to the device.
Direction: In reverse tunneling, packets are encapsulated at the destination (central server or
gateway) and forwarded to the source (initiating device).
Typical Use Cases:
Remote Access: Devices behind a firewall or NAT (Network Address Translation) initiate a
connection to a central server or gateway, which then establishes a reverse tunnel to
facilitate communication with the devices.
Mobile IP: In Mobile IP networks, reverse tunneling may be used to forward packets from the
Home Agent to the Mobile Node's Care-of Address when direct routing is not possible.
Example: In remote access scenarios, a remote device behind a firewall initiates a connection
to a central VPN server. The VPN server then establishes a reverse tunnel to the device,
allowing it to communicate with the device securely.
In summary, tunneling involves encapsulating packets for transmission across a network,
while reverse tunneling involves encapsulating packets at the destination and forwarding
them back to the source. Both techniques are essential for various networking scenarios,
such as secure communication, remote access, and IPv6 transition.
