Guide to

Energy Efficient Homes

in Louisiana

Louisiana Department of Natural

Resources

Technology Assessment Division

Scott A. Angelle, Secretary

T. Michael French, Director
Paula Ridgeway, Manager
 Principal Authors
James E. Davidson, Sr., CSI
Jerry Heinberg, AIA, NCARB
Billy Williamson, EIT, EMIT

Project Manager
David McGee, PE, CEM

Technical Review
Howard Hershberg, AIA
David McGee, PE, CEM

Graphics and Layout

James E. Davidson, Sr., CSI
Jerry Heinberg, AIA, NCARB
Billy Williamson, EIT, EMIT

Contact
For more information on any of the energy services mentioned in this guide, please contact:
Technology Assessment Division:
Main Number: 225-342-1399 Toll-free: 1-800-836-9589 Fax: 225-342-1397
E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.dnr.state.la.us/energy
The contents of this manual are offered as guidance. The Louisiana Department of Natural
Resources, nor any of its employees, nor any of its contractors, subcontractors, or their
employees, and all technical sources referenced in this manual do not (a) make any warranty or
representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of
the information contained in this report, or that the use of any information, apparatus, method or
process disclosed in this report may not infringe privately owned rights; (b) assume any
liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of any information,
apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report. This report does not reflect official views
or policy of the above mentioned institutions. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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Table of Contents
1. Site Planning 1
Changing Times – Professional Advice 1
Surveys 1
Location and Size 2
Drainage 2
Earthwork 2
Views and Access 3
Understanding Solar Position 3
Natural Cooling 4
Natural Ventilation 6
Landscaping and Trees 10

2. The House as a System 13

Concepts 14
Systems in a Home 21
Systems are Interdependent 29

3. Energy Efficient Features 31

Achieving Energy Efficiency 31
Appendix – Energy Star Homes Technical Resources 47

4. Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 53

Air Leakage Driving Forces 54
Materials 58
Seal Penetrations and Bypasses 58
Airtight Drywall Method 64
Housewrap Air Barriers 67

5. Insulation Materials and Techniques 73

Insulation Materials 73
Foundation Insulation 77
Basement Wall Insulation 78
Framed Floor Insulation 81
Wall Construction 85
Ceilings and Roofs 98

6. Windows and Doors 109

Windows 109
Doors 121
Overall Window and Door Recommendations 122

Table of Contents i
7. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 123
Types of HVAC Systems 123
Air Conditioning Equipment 126
Heating Systems 129
Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality 137
Overall HVAC Recommendations 142

8. Duct Design and Sealing 143

Duct Materials 143
The Problem of Duct Leakage 144
Duct Design 151
Conclusion 157

9. Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 159

Water Heating 159
Appliances 165
Lighting 168

10. Energy Efficient Roofing 173

The Roof Structure (A Good Foundation!) 173
Green Roofs 184

11. Fingertip Facts 187

Abbreviations 187
Energy and Fuel Data 187
Average Daily Solar Radiation 187
Insulating Values 188
HVAC Equipment Efficiencies 189
Climatic Data for Louisiana 189

ii
Table of Figures
1. Site Planning
Figure 1-1 Solar Path Chart 4
Figure 1-2 Wind Roses Summer and Winter 5
Figure 1-3 Natural Ventilation Design Strategies 6
Figure 1-4 Stack Effect 7
Figure 1-5 Overhang Types 7
Figure 1-6 Site Planning 8
Figure 1-7 Site Planning 9

2. The House as a System

Figure 2-1 Home Losing Heat through Conduction in Winter 14
Figure 2-2 Convection in the Home 15
Figure 2-3 Radiation Entering House 15
Figure 2-4 Air Quality Problems from “Fresh” Air 16
Figure 2-5 Thermal Boundaries 17
Figure 2-6 Conditions for Condensation 17
Figure 2-7 Psychometric Chart 19
Figure 2-8 Winter Dew Point Temperature Inside Walls 19
Figure 2-9 Summer Condensation in Walls 20
Figure 2-10 Relative Humidity Ranges 21
Figure 2-11 Bulk Moisture Transport 23
Figure 2-12 Drainage Plane 24
Figure 2-13 Capillary Action 25
Figure 2-14 Typical Water Vapor Transport 26
Figure 2-15 Drying to the Interior 27

3. Energy Efficient Features

Figure 3-1 International Residential Code (2006) Climate Zone Map 33
Figure 3-2 Envelope Construction Ideas 34
Figure 3-3 Sealing Holes in Framing 34
Figure 3-4 More Sealing Techniques 35
Figure 3-5 Typical Insulated Concrete Forms (ICF) 44
Figure 3-6 Typical Structural Insulated Panel 45

Table of Figures iii

4. Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques
Figure 4-1 Creating a Pressure Boundary 54
Figure 4-2 Wind Driven Infiltration 55
Figure 4-3 The Stack Effect 55
Figure 4-4 Mechanical System Driven Infiltration 56
Figure 4-5 Blower Door 57
Figure 4-6 Home Blower Door Test 58
Figure 4-7 Air Leakage through Bypass 59
Figure 4-8 Typical Home Air Leakage Sites 60
Figure 4-9 Sealing Bypasses 62
Figure 4-10 Sealing More Bypasses 63
Figure 4-11 Airtight Drywall Method Air Barrier 64
Figure 4-12 Creating an Air Barrier Between Floors 66
Figure 4-13 Housewrap – Window Connection 68
Figure 4-14 Recommended Housewrap Installation Process & Procedure 69
Figure 4-15 Sealing Sheathing as Exterior Air Barrier 70

5. Insulation Materials and Techniques

Figure 5-1 Insulating the Building Envelope Recommended Insulation Values 73
Figure 5-2 Insulating Concrete Block Cores 77
Figure 5-3 Relative Humidity (RH) and Foundation Vents 78
Figure 5-4 Interior Foam Wall Insulation 79
Figure 5-5 Interior Framed Wall 79
Figure 5-6 Insulated Concrete Form Wall Systems 80
Figure 5-7 Insulated Wood Framed Floors 81
Figure 5-8 Insulated Floor over Pier Foundation 82
Figure 5-9 Insulated, Sealed Crawlspace Walls 83
Figure 5-10 Floor Insulation Details 84
Figure 5-11 Let-in Bracing 86
Figure 5-12 Advanced Framing Insulation Details 87
Figure 5-13 Standard Framing versus Advanced Framing 88
Figure 5-14 Insulating Walls with Batts 89
Figure 5-15 Blown Sidewall Insulation Options 90
Figure 5-16 Spray Foam Insulation 91
Figure 5-17 Structural Insulated Panels (SIP) 92
Figure 5-18 Structural Insulated Panels Construction 93
Figure 5-19 Foam Sheathing Keeps Walls Warmer 95
Figure 5-20 Average Wall R-Value 97
Figure 5-21 Ridge and Soffit Vents 98
Figure 5-22 Pressure Problems Due to Powered Attic Ventilators 99
Figure 5-23 Attic Blocking Requirements 101
Figure 5-24 Full Width Batts 102
Figure 5-25 Insulating under Attic Floors 102
Figure 5-26 Insulation Options for Eaves 104
Figure 5-27Airtigt, IC-rated Recessed Lamps 105
Figure 5-28 Cathedral Ceiling Insulation Options 106
Figure 5-29 Cathedral Ceiling – Exterior Roof Insulation 107

iv
6. Windows and Doors
Figure 6-1 Window Anatomy 110
Figure 6-2 Winter Heat Loss in a Typical Double-glazed Window 111
Figure 6-3 Summer Heat Gain in a Typical Double-glazed, Low-e Window 111
Figure 6-4 Relative Intensity of the Solar Spectrum 112
Figure 6-5 Metal Window with Thermal Break 115
Figure 6-6 Low-e, Gas-filled Windows 116
Figure 6-7 NFRC Label 117
Figure 6-8 Inside Window Temperatures in Cold Weather 118
Figure 6-9 Composition of Solar Heat Gain into Home 118
Figure 6-10 Guidelines for Overhangs 119

7. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

Figure 7-1 Components of Forced-Air Systems 123
Figure 7-2 Automatic Zoned System with Dampered Bypass Duct 126
Figure 7-3 Air Conditioning with the Vapor Compression Cycle 127
Figure 7-4 Air Source Heat Pump 130
Figure 7-5 Sealed Mechanical Room Design for Non-direct Vent Furnace 132
Figure 7-6 Integrated Space and Water Heating System 134
Figure 7-7 Efficient Wood Heater Design 136
Figure 7-8 Direct Vent Heaters 137
Figure 7-9 Ventilation with Spot Fans 138
Figure 7-10 Whole House Ventilation System 139
Figure 7-11 Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV) System 141

8. Duct Design and Sealing

Figure 8-1 Types of Ductwork 143
Figure 8-2 Efficiency Losses Due to Attic Return Leaks 145
Figure 8-3 Sealing Flex-duct Collar with Mastic 146
Figure 8-4 Disconnected Ducts are High Priorities 148
Figure 8-5 Duct Test on Return Grille 149
Figure 8-6 Duct Leaks in Inside Spaces 149
Figure 8-7 Seal All Leaks in Air Handling Unit 150
Figure 8-8 Shelf-Mounted Systems without Returns 150
Figure 8-9 Seal All Leaky Takeoffs 151
Figure 8-10 Sealing Leaky Boots 151
Figure 8-11 Comparison of Air Flow in Different 6-inch Ducts 152
Figure 8-12 Jump Duct 154
Figure 8-13 Transfer Grills – Over Doors 155
Figure 8-14 Transfer Grills – In Wall 156
Figure 8-15 Louvered Passage Doors 156

Table of Figures v
9. Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting
Figure 9-1 Typical Breakdown of Hot Water Use 160
Figure 9-2 Insulating Jackets for Electric and Gas Water Heaters 161
Figure 9-3 Heat Pump Water Heaters 162
Figure 9-4 Active Solar Water Heating Systems 163
Figure 9-5 Batch Solar Water Heating Systems 164
Figure 9-6 EnergyGuide Label 166
Figure 9-7 Efficacy of Different Lighting Types 169

10. Energy Efficient Roofing

Figure 10-1 Color Standard Cool Roof Color Materials 176
Figure 10-2 Laminated Shingles 178
Figure 10-3 Natural Slate Tiles 178
Figure 10-4 Concrete Tiles 179
Figure 10-5 Rubber Shingles 179
Figure 10-6 Landscaped “Green Roof” 185

vi
Table of Tables
1. Site Planning
Table 1-1 Shading Design Strategies 11

2. The House as a System

Table 2-1 Building Materials and Their Perm Ratings 28

3. Energy Efficient Features

Table 3-1 Estimated Extra Costs of an Energy Star Home in Baton Rouge 36
Table 3-2 Energy Savings for an Energy Star Home 37
Table 3-3 Design Requirements to Meet the 2006 International Residential Code 37
Table 3-4 Rate of Return for Energy Investments (%) 39
Table 3-5 Mortgage Rate Table by Interest Rate by Term - $/S1000 40
Table 3-6 IRC 2006 Code and Energy Star Homes for Climate Zones 2 & 3 42
Table 3-7 Economic Analysis of Energy Efficient Features 43
Table 3-8 Energy Star Mandatory Requirements 51

4. Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques

Table 4-1 Typical Infiltration Rates 57
Table 4-2 Leaks and Sealants 59

5. Insulation Materials and Techniques

Table 5-1 Fiberglass Batt Insulation Characteristics 74
Table 5-2 Comparison of Envelope Insulation Materials 75
Table 5-3 Cost Comparison of Insulating Materials 76
Table 5-4 Economics of Framed Floor Insulation 82
Table 5-5 2x4 Framed Wall Problems and Solutions 86
Table 5-6 Steel Wall Insulation Options 94
Table 5-7 Sheathing Costs 96
Table 5-8 Economics of Wall Insulation 97
Table 5-9 Typical Attic Insulation Costs ($/sq.ft.) 100
Table 5-10 Typical Blowing Chart for Loose-Fill Insulation 100
Table 5-11 Economics of Attic Insulation 103
Table 5-12 Economics of Cathedral Ceiling Insulation 106

6. Windows and Doors

Table 6-1 Economics of Energy Conserving Windows and Doors 109
Table 6-2 Cost Comparison of Window Alternatives 114
Table 6-3 Sample Window Performance Characteristics 114
Table 6-4 Summer and Winter Sun Angles 119

7. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

No Tables

8. Duct Design and Sealing

No Tables

Table of Tables vii

9. Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting
Table 9-1 Typical Energy Costs for Appliances 165
Table 9-2 Fluorescent Lighting Guidelines 170
Table 9-3 Purchase and Operating Costs of Incandescent Lamps and CFLs 170
Table 9-4 Sample Improved Lighting Design 171

10. Energy Efficient Roofing

Table 10-1 Cooling Performance During Unoccupied Period 175
Table 10-2 Normalized Annual Savings & Demand Reductions 175
Table 10-3 Characteristics of Various Metal Roof Types Ranked by Reflectance 180
Table 10-4 Top Rated Membrane Products Typical Properties 182
Table 10-5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Roofs 184

11. Fingertip Facts

Table 11-1 Climatic Data for Louisiana 190
Table 11-2 Average Monthly Temperatures 190
Table 11-3 Comparative Climatic Data 191

viii
2009 Builder’s Guide to Energy Efficient Homes
in Louisiana
Introduction
The Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, Technology Assessment Division (DNR) has
updated the 2002 edition of the Builder’s Guide. This edition expands important information and
includes energy code updates from Chapter 11 of the 2006 International Residential Code (2006
IRC). New chapters have been added on roofs and site selection. The other chapters have been
revised to agree with the 2006 IRC.

The purpose of this book is to help the homeowner understand that if his home is energy efficient;
not only will they benefit by lower energy bills, but the offshoot of using less energy will be a
healthier environment, and a longer time for their family to be able to utilize present energy
resources.

This book is therefore to help consumers become more conscious and capable of conserving energy
resources. The more energy each family conserves, the less utility companies have to spend for
plants and distribution facilities to provide for their customers’ energy requirements. This translates
into less disturbance and destruction of the natural environment, less use of its nonrenewable
resources (such as natural gas and coal), and less pollution. Thus the Louisiana citizen, and the
environment and natural resources, are all in a “win-win-win” situation if less energy is consumed.

Energy conservation directly benefits Louisiana with less direct energy costs. On an individual
basis, residential housing lasts approximately 45 years. Therefore, nominal costs for installing and
using more energy efficient construction techniques, materials and, appliances (such as Energy Star
appliances) when a customer builds or restores a house will be paid back many, many times over the
life of the house.

DNR hopes that updating and publishing the “Builders Guide to Energy Efficient Homes in
Louisiana” will enable homeowners and building professionals make Louisiana code compliant
homes as energy efficient as possible.

We at the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources feel that the 2009 version of the “Builder’s
Guide” is a current and “full fledged” reference book for our citizens as well as for building
professionals. It is our hope that our customers find it a useful document to guide them in improving
present and future housing stock throughout our state.

Introduction ix
Notes:

x
Chapter 1
Site Planning
When anticipating the construction of a new home, selecting the site is one of the largest influences
on the success of that endeavor. There is far more to good site planning than a choice of which lot
seems best at first glance. There are the obvious decisions such as, matching the family’s needs to
the quality of the neighborhood, perhaps school districts, or commuting distance to work, shopping,
and recreation.

The things that can go wrong, the complexity of the research and decisions to be made may seem
intimidating, but the success of the whole project depends on it. Below are some questions and
points to help think through the process of site planning.

Changing Times – Professional Advice

Many years ago, residences were normally designed by professionals who considered the above
decisions a part of the process. Additionally, air conditioning brought with it the need to make
buildings energy efficient. Now, when these and other systems are more important to energy
efficiency, design professionals are usually commissioned only for the “jewel” projects. Every
structure, from the modest to the award winning must go through the same question and answer
process if it is to perform to its highest potential. Generally missing from the process today is the
architect to assist and guide one through the design process from site evaluation, structures design,
construction observation and the quality of work reporting.

In today’s “do it yourself” (DIY) world, architects are often bypassed. At the very least, seek out an
architect to consult on a limited hourly basis to get past the hurdles where expertise is lacking to
decide, or to effectively monitor the builder’s work. Below are some issues that should investigated
as the site selection and planning process progresses.

Surveys
The following surveys would be strongly advised for any new house:
• Property lines survey including metes and bounds (angle and distance dimensions) of all
property lines. The legal description should be shown. It should indicate any easements or
servitudes.
• An existing utility survey is important to locate and describe all connections to electricity,
gas, water, sewer, storm drainage, telephone, cable junction/distribution box if any. This
information can be combined with the property lines or topographic survey if the contract
calls for that.
• A topographic survey is critical to design proper drainage and setting the optimum elevation
of a slab, or wood framed first floor. The datum flood elevation measurement should be
performed, certified by a registered land surveyor.
• Geotechnical investigation and analysis. This consists of taking one or more soil borings to
25’ or more below grade. From several tests, the properties of the soil are determined,
providing bearing pressure, shrink/swell potential and other data. The analysis is performed
by a registered engineer and provides several recommended foundation types.

Chapter 1 Site Planning 1

Location and Size
Although some of these questions may not affect energy efficiency of the house directly, they are
among many fundamental questions that can affect whether or not to build on this site.
• Will the site be large enough to accommodate the size house desired, once the easements and
zoning setbacks are deducted from the area of the land?
• Are school districts important?
• Will the property hold its value over time?
• Will this site be conducive to building an energy efficient structure?

Drainage
Is the topography flat, making it difficult to drain the site well or is it hilly or sloped creating the
potential for erosion, interesting landscaping and perhaps difficult mowing?
Does the site have the potential for draining water away from the proposed house without diverting
the runoff onto the neighbor’s property?
Will separate improvements or permits be required to discharge storm runoff to a bayou, canal, etc?
Has a registered land surveyor to determine the minimum slab elevation above mean sea level that
must be certified to meet the flood plane requirements been commissioned?
Will the above requirements necessitate bringing in a substantial volume of fill-grade earth?
Has the cost of fill and of compacting it under the structure, walks and drives been investigated?
Does the budget allow for this contingency?

Earthwork
“Dirt cheap” is an expression which has little meaning if remedial earthwork becomes necessary.
Most potential homeowners or builders do not realize the high value a relatively small investment in
a geotechnical investigation and analysis by a professional engineer. Select fill, compacted properly
under a slab on grade will go a long way for stability through the years. Some sites/houses may
require drilled concrete shafts, a post tensioned slab, or other foundation type. The foundation
appropriate for a house may not be the same as the one on either side of it.

The geotechnical report may indicate and describe a high bearing pressure soil with no indication of
expansive soil which can shrink and swell under a structure as the moisture content varies. It can
cause cracks and misalignment of the slab, footings or grade beam. This can wreak havoc with the
remainder of the structure bearing on that foundation/slab. Remember that a geotechnical report is
inexpensive if it produces a proper foundation/slab design under one’s investment.

If the need arises to remove poor soils such as quick sand, organic deposits or expansive clay and
replace them with select, compacted fill, the budget can be hit hard. Ignore the problem and the
costs may be many times larger. It is possible to obtain an option to purchase the property and
commission the geotechnical investigation. Losing one’s option money and paying for the
geotechnical reports may be far less expensive than making a blind property purchase only to
discover much additional expensive earthwork and foundation enhancements are required. Even
worse is not discovering those issues above before construction.

Geotechnical investigation is standard practice in commercial construction. Those structures are no

different from residential structures in terms of placing pressure (pounds per square foot) on the soil

2
at the foundation. Either structure can settle differentially on soil with inadequate bearing capacity,
or which contains decaying organic matter such as stumps or limbs of previously cleared timber.
The primary difference in foundation failure rates is related to the awareness of the owner. What can
not be seen beneath the surface on the site can ruin the investment made.

From an energy efficiency standpoint, sinking or heaving of the soil causes cracks in slabs, walls,
miss-fitting doors and windows which can allow excessive infiltration into a house which may have
been constructed as nearly air tight. The best insurance against this outcome is to procure the soil
borings and analysis. Then, the bearing surfaces of all foundation members must be of adequate size
to distribute their loads at less than the allowable soil bearing pressure.

Views and Access

Are there vistas from the site which should be appreciated and enjoyed from within the house?
Conversely, are there unsightly views which should be screened? Will the site easily accommodate
pedestrian and vehicular access? What about fire trucks? Where are nearby fire hydrants? How
will these vistas and means of ingress affect where expanses of glass will be placed in the exterior
wall of the structure? How will that be coordinated with the path of the sun throughout the day and
with the changing altitude and bearing during the changing of the seasons? How will that affect the
quantity of solar energy intake (heat gain)? For example, the north side of a building receives very
little sunlight which can penetrate windows. Only in late June, very early or very late in the day
does the sun come from the northeast or northwest. However, everyday, the early morning or late
afternoon sun is very low in the east and west. It is not possible to block it with an overhang. Will
vistas to the west become a problem with excessive solar heat gain or glare?

The proper placement of roof overhangs admits the low winter sun into the house, and excludes the
higher summer sun. The design of the overhang is dependent on the height of the wall, the depth of
the soffit, the vertical distance from the soffit to the head (top) and sill (bottom) of the window, or
glass door (collectively called fenestration; meaning openings in an opaque wall). A uniform two
foot overhang may, or may not be appropriate. See Chapter 6 for how to determine the best
overhang for the location.

Understanding Solar Position

Figure 1-1 below is a Solar Chart used to determine the position of the sun at any time in the year.
The curved horizontal arcs represent the 21st day of each month. Solar altitude is shown by
concentric circles in 10 degree increments. Curved lines indicating the time of day are labeled as 6
a.m. to 6 p.m. Azimuth lines (similar to bearing) are radial lines in 10 degree increments from
South. Interpolation is permissible.

Chapter 1 Site Planning 3

 Figure 1-1
Solar Path Chart

Altitude
Azimuth

In the example indicated by the “X”:

• Month/Day: March 23 (or August 30)
• Time: 3:35 p.m.; Azimuth: 70° west of South
• Altitude: 30.5° above the horizon.

The chart in Figure 1-1 above is for 32 degrees North Latitude (North of Alexandria). A chart can
be calculated mathematically for a specific latitude, but this one is representative of most of
Louisiana. It is based on “sun time” for the particular location. Using the chart as an overlay on a
site plan provides an understanding of how the sun’s path each day of year will affect window
locations, admitting daylight and heat gain when and where desired and excluding them when they
would be detrimental. This information can also be expressed in a table as shown in Chapter 6,
Figure 6-10.

Natural Cooling
Louisiana’s hot, humid summers drive most people indoors to seek air conditioned comfort —
comfort that is paid for by high monthly cooling bills. Natural cooling design measures can further
reduce the air conditioning needs of any house. Natural cooling guidelines are especially important
for passive solar homes because their large expanses of south-facing glass can cause overheating if

4
unprotected in summer. In Louisiana, summer discomfort is caused by humidity as much as by heat.
Natural cooling techniques and new approaches designed to reduce humidity levels can promote
comfort on moderately warm days. Natural cooling techniques and proper insulation and air sealing
will continue to save money and energy. Remember that shading from trees can greatly reduce the
ambient temperature, saving air conditioning. Capturing the natural breezes on the site can reduce
the need for air conditioning during spring and fall.

Prevailing Breezes - Wind Rose

A consideration is wind direction and speed. This interesting Wind Rose diagram (see Fig. 1-2
below) is available from: http://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/sites/locate.php?network=LA_ASOS

It is very useful in determining the predominant strength and direction of wind for the area of the
site. This allows design for natural ventilation and shielding from cold winter winds. The web site
will construct a wind rose for the most populated areas of the state. Thirty-eight stations on land are
available in Louisiana plus Vicksburg and Natchez in Mississippi. Be sure to try several years as
these plots are for one year of data and will vary somewhat, year to year. By using January 1 to
March 1 and July 1 to September 1, the most significant prevailing winds can be seen for the more
extreme seasons. April to June and October to December will show the temperate seasons when
many people like to be out-of-doors. Be careful to avoid hurricanes as they will distort the average
results.

Figure 1-2
Wind Roses Winter and Summer

1 knot = 1.1508 miles per hour, 5 knots = 5.75 mph, 15 knots = 17.26 mph, etc.

The length of the ray indicates the fraction of the time that the wind blew from a particular direction
while the different sized/colored sections indicate the proportion of that time within a particular
speed range. The center shows the percentage of the time period that was calm and the average wind
speed for the period is shown below the speed legend.

Chapter 1 Site Planning 5

The USDA also has a Wind Rose program that illustrates the yearly average since 1961 of wind
direction and speed for four cities around the state:
ftp://ftp.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/downloads/climate/windrose/louisiana/

Natural Ventilation
Even in the land of hot and humid, there are those times when we would prefer natural ventilation to
heating or cooling. The fresh air is great for removing odors or pollutants from our environs. The
saving for not using the heating and cooling is another plus. Use the Wind Rose information
combined with site specific information. A forest or high hill on one side of the site will change
wind directions. Large man made structures will also, but are not usually found in residential areas.
Locating on the side of a hill or on the edge of a lake or other large cleared area will affect wind
patterns. For example if the site is on a man made lake, it is probably sloping; that is, a hill on the
side away from the lake. How will the same winds affect similar sites on north and south shores of
the lake? The north shore site will have some of the winter winds blocked and receive direct
breezes in the summer, while the south shore site will be just the opposite. The degree of affect will
depend on the magnitude of the obstacles being considered.

It may be desired to present the bedroom side of the house with few windows to predominantly north
winter winds. The west side may be “shaded” by a garage and storage area. But the south or south
east breezes of the spring and fall present a good time to welcome the breezes by opening various
windows on opposite sides of the house. Careful planning is required to combine the many
beneficial features into an efficient house.

Figure 1-3
Natural Ventilation Design Strategies

Figure 1-4
The Stack Effect

Note: North-South vs East-West Axis.

Window orientation needs adjusting
for different locations/sites.
East or West Wind

6
 Figure 1-4
Stack Effect

As the interior air heats up it rises to the higher parts of the structure and escapes creating
suction. The suction pulls in cooler (lower) air from outside. The structure behaves like a
chimney cooling and aerating the house. The taller the structure, the stronger the force.
This effect is why most old plantation homes have such high ceilings and double hung
windows.

Orientation of Building and Components

1. Major glazed areas are oriented within 20 degrees of north and south which have overhangs
for summer shading.
2. Placing the garage on the west blocks summer sun.

Figure 1-5
Overhang Types

Projection – high window head. Louver – high window

Excludes summer sun; admits Low window head.
head. Excludes summer Excludes summer sun;
winter sun. sun; admits winter sun admits winter sun

For more specific information concerning overhangs and window shading options see Chapter 6.

Chapter 1 Site Planning 7

 Figure 1-6
Site Planning

Plant low branching trees

Gutter, downspout & drain on east and west to shade
directs water away from the in summer
foundation
Open carport is placed to shield South overhang shades direct sunlight in
the house from the low west sun summer and shunts rainwater further
from the foundation.

A)
A)

C)
C)
Slope soil away from house
Plant low shrubs and ground cover to
B) South windows let in sunlight during winter minimize ground reflected sunlight
Overhang shades windows in summer. entering windows in summer.

LEGEND FOR FIGURE 1-6 ABOVE

A) Minimize east and west windows; use north windows for daylighting and ventilation.
B) Water-saving landscaping practices known as xeriscaping: substitute mulched shrubbery and ground
cover for turf grass. Where used, choose turf grasses that require less water, use drip rather than
spray irrigation on plants; shade lawn to reduce evaporation.
C) Continuous perforated foundation drain connected to subsurface closed drain carrying moisture
away from foundation. Embed perforated drain in gravel and cover with durable filter fabric, to
prevent silt intrusion into gravel bed and reduction of intake holes in perforated pipe drain.
D) Termite prevention measures: remove construction lumber and other wood from soil before
backfilling; obtain termite treatment and long-term renewable contract from reliable, established
company; consider use of “termite traps,” both to eliminate pests and to determine if they are
present; if using slab insulation, make sure pests control company will guarantee home against
infestation. For slabs on grade, always have the termiticide applied.

Figure 1-7 shows a typical site plan for a new residential project. It is advisable to elongate house on
the east-west axis (even more than in this illustration) to maximize north & south glazing and
minimize east & west glazing. Ensure that finished grading does not leave low areas (ponding) and
that the site generally slopes away from the structure to drain. Puddles are not just a nuisance, but
can be a fertile breeding place for disease bearing mosquitoes.

8
 Figure 1-7
Site Planning

Plant evergreens on the

north side to act as a wind
break in winter
Overhangs shunt
rainwater further
from foundation.
North
Slope yard
Slope yard to drain to drain
away from house away from
house

Avoid placing a Slope yard to drain

concrete drive away from house
due south of
primary South overhang shades
windows. The direct sunlight in summer
heat and glare and lets it pass in winter.
reflect off the
white surface. Elongate house on the east-west axis
to maximize north & south glazing and
minimize east & west glazing

Plant low-limb, deciduous trees to the east and west of the living spaces. This helps to permit the
passage of some sun into the space in winter, but the heavy summer foliage blocks the sunlight when
the heat gain is least wanted inside the space. South facing overhangs can be designed to permit the
passage of low altitude winter sunlight into the space, while excluding the high altitude summer sun.
Low shrubbery can help prevent ground bounce glare from reflecting off the ground or paved areas
and penetrating the south windows.

Landscaping and Trees

According to the U.S. Department of Energy report, "Landscaping for Energy Efficiency", careful
landscaping can save up to 25% of a household's energy consumption for heating and cooling. Trees
and vines on trellis or arbor are very effective means of shading in the summer months. In addition
to contributing shade, landscape features combined with a lawn or other ground cover can reduce air
temperatures as much as 9oF in the surrounding area when water evaporates from vegetation and

Chapter 1 Site Planning 9

cools the surrounding air. Louisiana’s abundant trees are wonderful for natural shading and cooling.
However, they must be located so as to provide shade in summer and permit sun light in the winter
coming from the south. Even deciduous trees that lose their leaves during cold weather block some
winter sunlight – bare trees can block over 50 percent of the available solar energy if they have a lot
of limbs.

Landscaping Guidelines
1. Ground cover reduces reflected sunlight.
2. Deciduous trees shade east, west, southeast, and southwest sides in summer.
3. Trellis with deciduous vine can shade east and west walls.
4. Windbreak of evergreen trees and shrubs to the north buffers winter winds.

Table 1-1
Shading Design Strategies

Interior Shades
Direction
Window

Shade Can eliminate Recommended

Landscaping Overhangs
Screens over 40% of Strategies
solar gains.

Provide good Block up to Should be used

Shrubs & ground
Deciduous trees shade some control if sized 70% of on all windows
cover. Overhang
in winter. Provide a few high correctly. sunlight without exterior
that does not
South

branching trees. Use shrubs They do not shade before it gets shade screens.
block winter
and ground cover to reduce diffuse sunlight through Roller blinds are
sunlight. Use
sunlight reflected into on hazy days and window. Can more effective
shade screens or
windows from the ground. ground-reflected be very than Venetian
interior shades.
sunlight. effective. blinds.
High branching
Southeast &
Southwest

High branching trees are trees, shrubs and

Less effective
appropriate near southeast ground cover.
than on south Effective. Effective.
and southwest corners of Use shade
windows.
house. screens or interior
shades.
High branching trees are
Must be as long as High branching
appropriate. Low branching
the window is tall trees, shrubs and
trees block low afternoon sun.
West

(e.g. porches and ground cover.

Shrubs next to the house are Effective. Effective.
carports). Not Use shade
less effective, but block
effective for low screens or interior
diffuse, ground-reflected
sun angles. shades.
sunlight.
Must be as long as Low branching
East , Northeast
& Northwest

Low branching trees block the window is tall trees and ground
low morning and afternoon (e.g. porches and cover. Use shade
sun. Shrubs next to the house carports) or use Effective. Effective. screens or interior
are less effective, but block awnings that shades.
ground-reflected sunlight. extend over
windows.

Effective if Can control the

Evergreen Trees provide Evergreen trees
North

incoming small amount of

diffuse summer shading and Ineffective. and interior
light is a incoming
serve as a wind break. shades.
problem. sunlight.

10
Conclusion
Proper consideration of each of the unique criteria found with each site and planning a resolution to
conflicts is key to successful and more productive site planning. The design decisions will change
the site for a long time. The following questions should be asked before making a final decision:
• Is weather data on hand for predominant wind direction and strength?
• Are there obstructions that will alter wind patterns?
• How much rain falls annually by month?
• How does the land drain on its surface?
• Where to drain water without infringing on the neighbor’s right not to have it on his
property?
• Is there a crest which would make an ideal high building platform?
• Does the earth have sufficient strength of bearing pressure for what is to be built?
• Does it drain well internally?
• Is it sandy or does it contain expansive clay with its volumetric changes?
• Are there rock outcrops or other unusual features?
• Where will the automobile traffic be?
• How will groceries get into the kitchen in the rain?
• Where are the best views from the site? The worst?
• Where will the path of the sun be in July; in January?
• How will windows and doors be affected by:
o Area?
o Orientation?
o Shading?
o Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) and U factor?
• Will the yard be oriented well for future photovoltaic panels or solar water heaters?

Armed with knowledge about these characteristics of the site, various plans can be tested by the
questions above. A final site plan from these scenarios can provide lower utility bills and a more
pleasant environment for many years. The remainder of construction decisions will be easier to
address when the plan addresses all the questions and others that are aesthetic. The energy
efficiency of the home will be greater if the precepts of good site planning are followed.

Chapter 1 Site Planning 11

Notes:

12
Chapter 2

The House as a System

We sometimes think of our homes as independent structures, placed on an attractive lot, and lived in
without regard to the world around. Yet, most homes have problems - some minor nuisances, others
life-threatening:
• Mold on walls, ceilings, and furnishings
• Mysterious odors
• Excessive heating and cooling bills
• High humidity
• Rooms that are never comfortable
• Decayed structural wood and other materials
• Termite or other pest infestations
• Fireplaces that do not draft properly
• High levels of formaldehyde, radon, or carbon monoxide

These problems occur because of the failure of the home to properly react to the outdoor or indoor
environment. The house should be designed to function well amid fluctuating temperatures,
moisture levels, and air pressures. Quality builders are concerned about these problems, but are not
always certain what steps to take to prevent them. They must start by considering what makes
buildings healthy and comfortable.

The following factors define the quality of the living environment. If kept at desirable levels, the
house will provide comfort and healthy air quality.
• Moisture levels - often measured as the relative humidity (RH). High humidity causes
discomfort and can promote growth of mold and organisms such as dust mites
• Temperature - both dry bulb (that measured by a regular thermometer) and wet bulb, which
indicates the amount of moisture in the air. The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures can be
used to find the relative humidity of the air.
• Air quality - the level of pollutants in the air, such as formaldehyde, radon, carbon monoxide,
and other detrimental chemicals, as well as organisms such as mold and dust mites. The key
determinant of air quality problems is the strength of the source of pollution.
• Air movement - the velocity at which air flows in specific areas of the home. Higher
velocities make occupants more comfortable in summer, but less comfortable in winter.
• Structural integrity - the ability of the materials that make up the home to create a long-term
barrier between the exterior and inside.

Chapter 2 The House as a System 13

Concepts
Heat Flows in Homes
Heat transfer - heat loss and heat gain - between a home and its exterior envelope has a major impact
on health and comfort. Figures 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3 explain the three primary modes of heat transfer.

When building energy efficient homes, many builders focus on reducing conduction heat gain and
loss by installing more insulation. However, air leakage and duct leakage are serious contributors to
heating and cooling bills. They can also create moisture and indoor air quality problems.
Unfortunately, many homes labeled as energy efficient are not sealed for air leaks or duct leaks. In
summer, cooling needs are driven by the location and shading of windows. Also, the percentage of
the cooling load that is for latent cooling (humidity removal) can increase substantially in homes
with well insulated thermal envelopes.

Several general areas contribute significantly to energy bills. The largest is air leaks through the
envelope. We expect the walls, floors and ceiling to keep the elements outdoors. There are many
penetrations in these that allow air to move into and out of the house. With that air, heat and
moisture can enter the house, contributing as much as 30-40% of the energy bill alone. The next
greatest loss comes from poorly sealed duct work, which can contribute 10-20% of the typical
energy bill. Windows are not as good at resisting energy flow as insulated walls. They let the sun
shine in winter and summer. However, in winter, heat radiates out through them as well. Typical
single pane windows allow heat to flow in or out 10 times more easily than a good wall and can
contribute 10% to the energy bill. Walls and ceilings can easily contribute 15% to the bill. Not all
of these losses can be prevented, but they can be managed and optimized.

There are also internal heat and moisture sources from the inhabitants, lighting, cooking, bathing,
etc. that are a part of living. These are influenced by lifestyle and the house has limited effect on
them. Depending on the family, these items can be from 30-50% of the energy bill. Controlling
them efficiently can make a house more comfortable without a great expense.

Conduction
• The transfer of heat through solid objects, such as the ceiling, walls, and floor of the home.
• Insulation and quality windows reduce conduction losses.

Figure 2-1
Home Losing Heat through Conduction in Winter

14
Convection
• The flow of heat by currents of air.
• As air becomes heated, it expands until it transfers the heat to an adjacent object which cools
it; at which point it contracts and sinks. Inside of a space this forms a cycle of air movement
until the walls of the space reach equilibrium with the air temperature.
• The flow of air into a home is known as infiltration; the outward flow is called exfiltration.
In this publication, infiltration and exfiltration are known together as air leakage.

Figure 2-2
Convection in the Home

Radiation
• The movement of energy from warm to cooler objects across empty spaces.
• Examples include radiant heat traveling from inner panes of glass to outer panes in double
glazed windows in winter. roof deck to attic insulation during hot, sunny days.
• Can be reduced by installing reflective barriers; examples include radiant heat barriers in
attics and low-emissivity coatings for windows.

Figure 2-3
Radiation Entering House

Chapter 2 The House as a System 15

Air Leaks and Indoor Air Quality
Both building professionals and homeowners have concerns about indoor air quality. It is important
to understand that few studies on the subject have shown a strong relationship between indoor air
quality and the air tightness of a home. In order for a home or any other occupied space to be
livable, a certain amount of fresh air exchange must occur continually since the normal process of
breathing exchanges oxygen with carbon dioxide which will accumulate unless it is replaced with
fresh air. The amount necessary for any inhabited space has been determined to be 0.35 fresh air
changes per hour. Building a leaky home may help lessen the intensity of the problem, but will
neither eliminate it, nor necessarily create a healthy living situation. Air leaks often bring in air
quality problems from outside, such as:

• Mold spores from crawlspaces and outdoors

• Radon, while rare in Louisiana, entering from crawlspaces and under-slab areas
• Water vapor from crawlspaces and outdoor air
• Pollen and other allergens from outdoor air
• Dust and other particles from crawlspaces and attics

The best solution to air quality problems is to build a home as tightly as possible and install an
effective ventilation system that can bring in fresh, filtered outside air (not crawlspace or attic air)
under the control of the homeowner.

Figure 2-4
Air Quality Problems from “Fresh” Air

Dust, humidity and

insulation materials
may be drawn in
from attic

Allergens, humidity,
and dust are normally
present in outside air

Mold, humidity, and

pesticides can be drawn in
through the crawl space

16
Creating Boundaries
In the field of building science, the term boundary has been applied to an external barrier created to
control moisture, air leakage, and thermal conduction losses and gains. Every successful energy
efficient home should have a moisture boundary, air leakage (pressure) boundary, and thermal
boundary that separate unconditioned areas of the home from areas with heating or cooling.

Figure 2-5
Thermal Boundaries

Potential thermal bypass at dormer

Intermediate zones

Potential thermal bypasses

The designer and builder must direct the subcontractors about how to install continuous air and
ductwork sealing materials, insulation, moisture retarders, drainage systems, and other building
materials. The air quality and durability of a home depend vitally on how well these boundaries are
installed and maintained.

Figure 2-6
Conditions for Condensation

Surface at or
below dew
point of air

Air at given
temperature
and relative
humidity

Condensation

Chapter 2 The House as a System 17

How Condensation Occurs
Air is made up of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor. The amount of water vapor that
air can hold is determined by its temperature. Warm air can hold more vapor than cold air. The
amount of water vapor in the air is measured by its relative humidity (RH). At 100% RH, water
vapor condenses into a liquid. The temperature at which water vapor condenses is its dew point.

The amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature

RH=
The maximum amount of water vapor that air can hold at that temperature

A convenient tool for examining how air, temperature, and moisture interact is the Psychometric
Chart. Preventing condensation involves reducing the RH of the air, increasing the temperatures of
surfaces exposed to moist air, and blocking the flow of moisture using air barriers and vapor barriers.
Builders should always give spaces the ability to shed or reject moisture.

Moisture and Relative Humidity

A psychometric chart aids in understanding the dynamics of moisture control. A simplified chart
shown in Figure 2-7 relates temperature and moisture. Note that, at a single temperature, as the
amount of moisture increases (moves up the vertical axis) the relative humidity of the air also
increases. At the top curve of the chart, the relative humidity reaches 100% - air can hold no
additional water vapor at that temperature, called the dew point, so condensation will occur.

Winter Condensation in Walls

In a well built wall, the temperature of the inside surface of the sheathing will depend on the
insulating value of the sheathing and the indoor and outdoor temperatures.

Example: When it is 35°F outside and 70°F at 40% relative humidity inside:

• The interior surface of plywood sheathing will be around 39°F.

• The interior surface of insulated sheathing would be 47°F.

The psychometric chart can help predict whether condensation will occur:

1. In Figure 2-8, find the point representing the indoor air conditions.
2. Draw a horizontal line to the 100% RH line.
3. Next, draw a vertical line down from where the horizontal line intersects the 100% RH line.

In the example, condensation would occur if the temperature of the inside surface of the sheathing
were at 44°F. Thus, under the temperature conditions in this example, water droplets may form on
the plywood sheathing, but not on the insulated sheathing.

18
 Figure 2-7
Psychometric Chart

Moisture Content of Air

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Air Temperature (degrees F)

Figure 2-8
Winter Dew Point Temperature Inside Walls

Moisture Content of Air

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Air Temperature (degrees F)

Chapter 2 The House as a System 19

 Figure 2-9
Summer Condensation in Walls

Moisture Content of Air

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Air Temperature (degrees F)

Figure 2-9 depicts a similar case in summer. If the interior air is 75°F, and outside air at 95°F and
40% relative humidity enters the wall cavity, will condensation occur on the exterior side of the
drywall, which would be about 73°F? Using the psychometric chart, we find that the dew point of
the outside air leaking into the wall cavity would be about 67°F. Since the drywall temperature is
greater than the dew point, condensation should not form.

Effect of Relative Humidity

Humans respond dramatically to changes in relative humidity (RH):
• At lower RH, we feel cooler as moisture evaporates more readily from our skin.
• At higher levels, we may feel uncomfortable, especially at temperatures over 78 degrees.
• Dry air can often aggravate respiratory problems.
• Mold and fungi grow in air over 70% RH.
• Dust mites prosper at over 50% RH.
• Wood decays when the RH is near or at 100%.
• Humans are most comfortable at 40% to 60% RH.

Figure 2-10 shows that relative humidity levels in the 40% to 60% range accomplish two major
goals: provide human comfort and minimize the many diverse negative impacts that occur in drier
and more humid air. By controlling air leakage and properly designing HVAC systems, relative
humidity levels should remain at desirable levels.

20
 Figure 2-10
Relative Humidity Ranges

Human
Comfort

Allergens

Bacteria

Chemical Interactions

Mold and Fungi

Mites

Ozone Production

Respiratory Infections

Viruses

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Relative Humidity

Systems in a Home
Whether the health and comfort factors of temperature, humidity, and air quality remain at
comfortable and healthy levels depend on how well the home works as a system. Every home has
systems that are intended to provide indoor health and comfort:
• Structural system
• Moisture control system
• Air barrier system
• Thermal insulation system
• Comfort control system

Structural System
The purpose of this book is not to show how to design and build the structural components of a
home, but rather to describe how to maintain the integrity of these components. Key problems that
can affect the structural integrity of a home include erosion, roof leaks, water absorption into
building systems, excessive relative humidity levels, fire, and summer heat buildup.

Chapter 2 The House as a System 21

Structural recommendations
To prevent these structural problems, the home designer and builder should:
• Ensure that the footing is installed level and below the frost line. Use adequate reinforcing
and make sure concrete has the proper slump and strength.
• Divert ground water away from the building through a properly designed and installed
foundation drainage system and effective gutters, downspouts, and rain water drains.
• Build a quality roof and thorough exterior flashing to prevent rainwater intrusion. Install a
"drainage plane" that sheds water outside (Figure 2-12).
• Seal penetrations that allow moisture to enter the building envelope via air leakage. Use fire-
stopping sealants to close penetrations that are potential sources of “draft” during a fire.
• Install baffles in attics to prevent air from washing over insulation.
• Install a series of capillary breaks that keep moisture from migrating through foundation
systems into wall and attic framing.

Air Barrier System

Air leakage can be detrimental to the long term energy efficiency and durability of homes. It can
also cause many other problems, including:
• High humidity in summer and dry air in winter
• Allergy problems
• Radon entry (though not a significant issue in Louisiana) via leaks in the floor system
• Mold growth
• Drafts
• Excessive heating and cooling bills
• Increased damage in case of fire

An air barrier system may sound formidable, but it is actually a simple concept - seal all leaks
between conditioned and unconditioned spaces with durable materials. Achieving success can be
difficult without diligent efforts, particularly in homes with multiple stories and changing roof lines.
Air barriers may also help a home meet local fire codes. One aspect of controlling fires is
preventing oxygen from entering a burning area. Most fire codes have requirements to seal air
leakage sites. There are a number of air barrier systems - all can be effective with proper
installation. They are one of the key features of an energy efficient home. The basic approach is:

• Seal all air leakage sites between conditioned and unconditioned spaces:
o Caulk or otherwise seal penetrations for plumbing, electrical wiring, and other
utilities.
o Seal junctions between building components, such as bottom plates and band joists
between conditioned floors.
o Consider using insulation that also air seals, such as foam or densely packed cellulose
or rock wool.
• Seal bypasses - hidden chases, plenums, or other air spaces through which attic or crawlspace
air leaks into the home.
• Install a continuous air barrier system such as the Airtight Drywall Approach or exterior
house-wrap that is vapor permeable and sealed properly.

For more detailed information on sealing air leaks, see Chapter 4.

22
Moisture Control System
Homes should be designed and built to provide comfortable and healthy levels of relative humidity.
They should also prevent both liquid water and water vapor from migrating through building
components. An effective moisture control system includes quality construction to shed water from
the home and its foundation, vapor and air barrier systems that hinder the flow of water vapor, and
heating and cooling systems designed to provide comfort all year.

There are four primary modes of moisture migration into our homes. Each of these must be
controlled to preserve comfort, health, and building durability.

Bulk moisture transport

• The flow of moisture through holes, cracks, or gaps
• Primary source is rain and groundwater
• Causes include:
o Poor flashing
o Inadequate drainage
o Poor quality weather-stripping or caulking around joints in building exterior (such as
windows, doors, and bottom plates)
• To solve, install a building drainage plane:
o No roof leaks; gutters connected to drain system carry roof water away from
foundation
o Walls built with continuous drainage plane (see Figure 2-12)
o High quality weather stripping or caulking around joints in building exterior (such as
windows, doors, and bottom plates)
o All openings through wall - for windows, doors, plumbing, lighting, etc. - well
flashed and sealed to prevent rain penetration
o Soil sloped away from home to divert ground water from foundation
o Foundation wall waterproofed and provided with a drainage system - gravel or a
gravity drain membrane
o Foundation drain, preferably located beside the footing, to carry water away from the
house

Figure 2-11
Bulk Moisture Transport
Rain

Wind-driven
rain

Chapter 2 The House as a System 23

 Figure 2-12
Drainage Plane

4
3

1. Design and build a durable roof with maximum overhang allowable by the
International Residential Code, to shade windows.
2. Carefully flash around windows, doors, and other penetrations and seal to
drainage plane.
3. Tape or seal joints in foam sheathing or house wrap to prevent water and air
penetration.
4. Install furring strips between wall sheathing and siding to create a drainage
plane, a ventilating air space that allows water to drain.
5. Provide a finished grade that slopes away from the foundation and a French
drain beneath to keep seepage from undermining them.

Capillary action
• Wicking of water through porous materials or through small cracks.
• Primary sources are from rain or ground water.
• Causes include:
o Water seeping between overlapping pieces of exterior siding
o Water drawn upward through pores or cracks in concrete slabs
o Water migrating from crawlspaces into attics through foundation walls and wall
framing
• Solved by completely sealing pores or gaps, increasing the size of the drainage planes
(usually to a minimum of 1/8 inch), or installing a waterproof, vapor barrier material to form
a capillary break.

24
The foundation system should include a drain pipe surrounded by a gravel bed covered by a filter
fabric to prevent dirt from stopping up the drain. In addition, install a layer of 10-mil polyethylene
under concrete slabs and footings. Use sill sealer between concrete foundation walls and sill plates.
Lapped wood siding should be primed on the back. In addition, the wall system should have an air
space behind the siding and a continuous drainage plane behind the air space, such as 30-pound
roofing felt installed shingle style.

Figure 2-13
Capillary Action

Dry air inside conditioned

space draws water
through porous materials,
Rain like wood and concrete

Saturated ground

Air transport
• Unsealed penetrations and joints between conditioned and unconditioned areas allow air
containing water vapor to flow into enclosed areas. Air transport can bring 50 to 100 times
more moisture into wall cavities than vapor diffusion.
• Primary source is water vapor in air.
• Causes include air leaking through holes, cracks, and other leaks between:
o Interior air and enclosed wall cavities
o Interior air and attics
o Exterior air and interior air, adding humidity to interior air in summer
o Crawlspaces and interior air
• Solved by creating an Air Barrier System.

Vapor Barriers or Vapor Diffusion Retarders

A vapor barrier or vapor diffusion retarder (VDR) is a material that reduces the rate at which water
vapor can move through a material. The older term "vapor barrier" is still used even though it may
inaccurately imply that the material stops all of the moisture transfer. Since everything allows some
water vapor to diffuse through it to some degree, the term "vapor diffusion retarder" is more
accurate.

Chapter 2 The House as a System 25

The ability of a material to retard the diffusion of water vapor is measured by units known as
"perms" or permeability. A perm is equal to one grain of water vapor at 73.4°F (23°C) passing
through a square foot of material per hour at a differential vapor pressure equal to one inch of
mercury (1 grain/square-foot*hour*inch-of-mercury). Any material with a perm rating of less than
1.0 is considered a vapor retarder.

Vapor Diffusion
• Water vapor in air moves through permeable materials.
• Primary source is water vapor in the air.
• Causes:
o Interior moisture permeating wall and ceiling finish materials
o Exterior moisture moving into the home in summer
o Moist crawlspace air migrating into the home
• Solution: proper installation of a vapor retarder.

Vapor barriers are not recommended in Louisiana

Winters are mild so interior vapor barriers are not necessary; exterior sheathing materials usually
serve as partial vapor barriers in summer. Wall systems without vapor barriers can dry to the inside
of the home in summer and to the outside in winter. An exterior “drainage plane” is required as
shown in Figure 2-12 above.

Figure 2-14
Typical Water Vapor Transport
(100 square foot wall)

Vapor diffusion: 2/3

pint per heating
season

Air leakage (1/2” hole) brings 50

pints of water per heating season

26
Moisture Problem Example
The owner of a residence complains that her ceilings are dotted with mildew. On closer
examination, an energy auditor finds that the spots are primarily around recessed lamps located close
to the exterior walls of the building. What type of moisture problem may be causing the mildew
growth, which requires a relative humidity over 70%? In reality, any of the forms of moisture
transport could cause the problem:

• Bulk moisture transport - the home may have roof leaks above the recessed lamps.

• Capillary action - the home may have a severe moisture problem in its crawlspace or under a
slab. Via capillary action, moisture travels up the slab, into the framing lumber, and all the
way into the attic. If the attic air becomes sufficiently moist, it may condense on the surface
of the cool roof deck and drip onto the insulation and drywall below.

• Air transport - unsealed recessed lamps are quite leaky; if relatively warm and moist air is
leaking into the attic, and the roof deck is cool, the water vapor in the air may condense and
drip back down onto the sheetrock. The moisture moves through the gypsum and mold can
grow. This is the most likely explanation.

• Vapor diffusion - the home’s ceiling may not have an adequate vapor barrier in the vicinity
of the recessed lamps, resulting in excessive vapor flow into the attic. Although this situation
is highly unlikely in Louisiana, the true cause may be a combination of the above problems.

Figure 2-15
Drying to the Interior

A permeable interior wall allows

the wall cavity to dry to the
inside when air conditioning

Chapter 2 The House as a System 27

 Table 2-1
Building Materials and Their Perm Ratings

Material Perm Rating* Vapor Retarder?

½” Gypsum Wallboard 38.0 – 42.0† No
Latex Primer 7.0 – 10.0† No
7/16” Oriented Strand Board 0.77 – 3.48†† Sometimes
1” Thick Extruded Polystyrene 0.40 – 1.60†† Sometimes
Kraft Paper Facing 1.0† Yes
2-mil Polyethylene Film 0.06 – 0.22†† Yes
Alkyd-based or vapor retarder paint < 0.05†† Yes
1-mil Aluminum Foil Laminate < 0.05†† Yes
Plywood with exterior glue 0.70 Yes
DuPont™ Tyvek® DrainWrap™ 50 No
*grains/[hr·ft2·in.Hg], 7000 grains = 1 pint of water
†Tested at Johns Manville Technical Center
††Solplan Review, November 1999
http://www.jm.com/engineered_products/wallcoverings/moisture.pdf

Thermal Insulation System

Thermal insulation and energy efficient windows are intended to reduce heat loss and gain due to
conduction. As with other aspects of energy efficient construction, the key to a successfully
insulated home is quality installation. Substandard insulation not only inflates energy bills, but may
create comfort and moisture problems. Key considerations for effective insulation include:

• Install R-values equal to or exceeding the International Residential Code of 2006 or the latest
update version implemented and presently in effect.
• Do not compress insulation.
• Provide full insulation coverage of the specified R-value; gaps dramatically lower the overall
R-value and can create areas subject to condensation.
• Prevent air leakage through insulation - in some insulation materials, R-values decline
markedly when subject to cold or hot air leakage.
• Air seal knee walls and other attic wall areas and insulate with a minimum of R-19
insulation.
• Support insulation so that it remains in place, especially in areas where breezes can enter or
rodents may reside.
• Consider installing a radiant heat barrier; especially in homes whose roofs receive sunlight in
the summer and have less then R-30 insulation.

Comfort Control System

The heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system is designed to provide comfort and
improved air quality throughout the year, particularly in winter and summer. Energy efficient
homes, especially passive solar designs, can reduce the number of hours during the year when the
HVAC systems are needed. These systems are sometimes not well designed or installed to perform
as intended. As a consequence, homeowners often suffer higher heating and cooling bills and more
areas with discomfort than necessary. Poor HVAC design can also lead to moisture and air quality
problems.

28
One major issue concerning HVAC systems is their ability to create pressure imbalances in the
home. Duct leaks can create serious problems. Even closing a few doors can create situations that
may endanger human health. Pressure imbalances increase air leakage, which may draw additional
moisture into the home. Proper duct design and installation helps prevent pressure imbalances from
occurring. HVAC systems must be designed and installed properly, and maintained regularly by
qualified professionals to provide continued efficient and healthy operation. See Chapters 7 and 8
for a detailed discussion of this subject area.

Duct Leaks and Infiltration

Forced-air heating and cooling systems should be balanced - the amount of air delivered through the
supply ducts should be equal to that drawn through the return ducts. If the two volumes of air are
unequal, pressure imbalances may occur in the home, resulting in increased air leakage and possible
health and safety problems. For more information on duct sealing, see Chapter 8.

Carbon Monoxide
Consider a home that has been built to airtight specifications - an air barrier system success.
However, the home's ductwork was not well sealed - a HVAC system failure. It has more supply
leakage than return leakage which creates a strong negative pressure inside the home when the
heating and cooling system operates. The home has only a single return in the main living room.
With overnight guests in the home, many of the interior doors are kept closed.

When the system operates, the rooms with closed doors become pressurized, while the central living
area with the return becomes significantly depressurized. Because the house is very airtight, it is
easier for these pressure imbalances to occur. The home has a fireplace without an outside source of
combustion air. When the fire in the unit begins to dwindle, the following sequence of events could
spell disaster for the household:
• The fire begins to smolder, producing increased carbon monoxide and other harmful
pollutants.
• Because the fire's heat dissipates, the draft pressure, which draws gases up the flue,
decreases.
• The reduced output of the fire causes the thermostat to turn on the heating system. Due to
duct pressures and closed interior doors, the blower creates a relatively high negative
pressure in the living room.
• Because of the reduced draft pressure in the fireplace, the negative pressure in the living
room causes the chimney to backdraft - the flue gases are drawn back into the home.
• Backdrafting may generate considerable carbon monoxide and cause severe, if not fatal,
health consequences for the occupants. This example is extreme, but similar events occur in
dozens of Louisiana homes each year. The solution to the problem is to eliminate the causes
of pressure imbalances and install an external source of combustion air for the fireplace, a set
of tightly fitting doors and a carbon monoxide detector.

Systems are Interdependent

It must be remembered that a house is a complex system of smaller systems. Each of these smaller
systems can not only affect the performance of the house in general, but they can also affect the
other systems within the house. Understanding these systems will help the homeowner and builder
make educated decisions about which systems to use. The following chapters provide more detailed
information on these individual systems and their effects.

Chapter 2 The House as a System 29

Notes:

30
Chapter 3

Energy Efficient Features

Investments in energy efficient features in new homes are remarkable because everyone wins:

• Most homeowners win because they receive a positive cash flow within 1-3 years.
• Homeowners benefit from improved comfort, better indoor air quality and reduced moisture
problems.
• Heating, ventilation and air conditioning contractors have fewer callbacks.
• Realtors receive additional fees from the additional cost of the energy features and enhance
their reputations by selling higher quality homes that homebuyers appreciate.
• Participating financial institutions receive higher mortgage payments and have more secure
loans because the homes have lower annual ownership costs due to reduced utility bills.
• National lending agencies such as the Federal Housing Authority (FHA) and the Veteran's
Administration (VA) permit energy efficient home buyers to qualify for larger loans because
their energy bills will be lower.
• The local community benefits as more money stays within the community; and local
subcontractors and product suppliers make additional income by selling improved energy
efficient features.

To compensate for heat gains in hot humid climates like Louisiana air conditioning design must take
into consideration all forms of energy that will elevate the temperature in the home. These forms are
often called “energy loads.” “Energy loads” are imposed either by climate, life style choices, people
and animals, and power required to light the spaces and cook food. Each watt of electricity used in
the home, whether it is running a computer, playing music, operating a blow dryer or charging a cell
phone battery, produces 3.412 Btus. The average human being at rest may put out 500 Btus. Pets
may produce even more heat. Then there is power from lighting, cooking, washing, and making hot
water. Add to that the amount of light passing through windows facing the sun at different times of
the day. This applies to walls and ceilings as well even though they are more resistant to heat
conduction. All have quantifiable load characteristics that must be taken into account when
designing the air conditioning system. In winter the envelope components reverse their flow while
the others contribute to heating the space.

Achieving Energy Efficiency

Overall success, resulting in a well-designed and constructed home that is also energy efficient,
requires careful and cooperative collaboration between the owner, the architect (or licensed home
designer), and the builder. The architect, if used, or a home energy rater should serve as the main
coordinating party between the participants.

Designing and building a home that uses energy wisely does not mean sacrificing a home's aesthetic
qualities or amenities. Quite the opposite; usually, the better the home is designed, the easier and
more natural it is to make it energy efficient, comfortable and convenient. While an energy efficient
home usually incorporates higher quality windows and doors than a standard code compliant home,
the payback due to increased energy savings for the better quality materials is usually 2-3 years.

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 31

After payback, the owner continues to benefit from the energy savings as long as he occupies the
home.

International Residential Code 2006 (IRC 2006)

The state of Louisiana adopted IRC 2006, effective January 2007, as its residential building code.
Chapter 11 of the IRC 2006 deals with residential energy efficiency. Figure 3-1 is the climate zone
map that is used by the IRC 2006. Along with Tables N1102.1 and N1102.1.2 of the IRC 2006, a
builder can determine which residential building components are permitted at that location. The
dotted white line separates the portion of the southeast that is considered to have high humidity
affecting building design.

For the purpose of this guide we are only concerned with Louisiana, Zones 2 & 3, Hot and Humid,
including the north east corner of the state for the following energy related items:

1. The building thermal envelope*

2. Insulation and fenestration**
3. Duct insulation for supply and return ducts
4. Duct sealing
5. Air leakage and moisture control
6. General lighting - limiting air leakage

* The building envelope consists of the building’s roof, walls, windows and doors. The envelope
controls the flow of energy between the interior and exterior of the building. Source: U.S. DOE
EERE website (URL: http://www.eere.energy.gov, May 2, 2007).

** Fenestration is defined as the arrangement, proportioning and design of windows and doors in a
building.

32
 Figure 3-1
International Residential Code (2006) Climate Zone Map

Warm-Humid
below white
line

Quality of Construction Affects Energy Efficiency

Quality of the basic construction goes a long way in providing comfort to the homeowner and
savings on energy costs. The following areas should be thoroughly reviewed in the design process
and during construction:

1. One of the most important aspects of the planning of a home is making advantageous use of
the site for the comfort of the occupants. Planning for a nice view from the site is very
important. However, where windows are placed affects energy use. Solar heat gain is
greatest from the East and West, so minimizing glass on those sides is the best idea. With
good windows, cold North winds are not much of a winter heating concern in Louisiana,
therefore orienting the home to face north and installing more glazing there is better than
facing either east or west. Southerly views are also better as long as the windows are shaded
with the maximum code-allowed overhang. Another good solution for providing shade to
South facing windows is the use of an arbor or pergola, to reduce the amount of light hitting
the glass without obstructing the view. See Chapter 1 for more detail on site planning.

2. Quality of framing and installation of insulation and windows. In order to have infiltration
control of a house all the pieces must be fit together tightly. Any cracks must be sealed by a
material that will last and conform to any changes that occur. Discontinuous or compacted
insulation does not perform as it would if installed properly. Some critical areas are shown in
Figures 3-2, 3-3, and 3-4.

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 33

 Figure 3-2
Envelope Construction Ideas

Raised top plate or

raised heel trusses
By stacking the wall framing, Attic storage areas-add 2x4 framing on
provide ample room for
ceiling joists, and rafters, the edge on top of joists to provide room
insulation
second top plate of the wall for required insulation
is not needed
Continuous coverage of
R-30 insulation

Insulated attic cover Sealed attic access or

If using single top - either attached to place in unconditioned,
plate, studs should be attic door or foam lockable, space
1 ½” longer insulated cover

Continuous foam sheathing with wall R-13 exterior wall insulation, including all wall areas
drainage plane of 30# felt paper or vapor between conditioned rooms and exterior or non-attic
permeable house wrap and furring strips unconditioned rooms (such as garages and other
unheated rooms.) In walls between conditioned
spaces and attics, such as knee walls, use a minimum
of R-19 insulation.

3. Attention to detail in sealing air leaks.

Figure 3-3
Sealing Holes in Framing

Caulk or foam all utility penetrations

through the framing to reduce air
infiltration caused by pressure imbalances
between the conditioned envelope and
outdoor air.
Seal all penetrations
(holes) in framing

34
 Figure 3-4
More Sealing Techniques

Use sheet rock clips to

minimize corner framing

Install framing gasket or continuous

sealant under sole plate and behind
drywall along the top and bottom plates
and all penetrations to provide an air
barrier from over and under walls.

Seal thermal bypasses at ceilings/attic floors in

vented attics and in vented crawl spaces of
raised houses.

4. Design and installation of the heating and cooling equipment. Make sure that the HVAC
contractor knows he is dealing with a well designed, energy efficient house before he sizes
the equipment. Excessive air conditioning can cause moisture problems by cooling the air
before it removes the moisture. This can cause moisture condensation in wall cavities,
promoting the growth of mold inside walls and ducts. Many air handler cabinets come from
the factory with leaks. Use mastic to seal holes and seams. Seal removable panels with
approved metal duct tape.

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 35

 5. Effectiveness in sealing duct leaks. Well sealed ducts keep your conditioned air inside your
dwelling rather than trying to cool the whole world. Cloth duct tape will fail too quickly to
be used on ducts or air handlers. See Chapters 7 and 8 for more detail.

Economics of Energy Efficient Improvements

Unlike nice granite counter tops, energy efficiency features pay for themselves. World economics
change and to set a price for any one feature and its value/savings is not possible. Prices shown
below were representative when this book was written and illustrate how they can pay back their
initial cost many times over. You will have to determine the cost at the time you build. If utility
rates do not go up as expected, the payback will be longer.

All energy efficient features will produce a return on your investment, but sometimes you are better
off investing the dollars in those features that will save you more or provide a higher return. Ways
to determine this are shown later in this chapter.

The Energy Star Home

The criteria for an Energy Star Home is that it be at least 15% more efficient than a house built to the
International Residential Code of 2003 and its supplement of 2004. The economic benefits for an
Energy Star Home are seen in Tables 3-1 and 3-2. The minimum design requirements to meet the
2006 IRC, the Louisiana state building code, are shown in Table 3-3.

Table 3-1
Estimated Extra Costs of a 2,000 sq ft Energy Star Home in Baton Rouge

Unit Cost Total Estimated

Energy Efficiency Improvement: Quantity
$ Cost

Attic- Increase insulation from R30 to R38 insulation

$0.30/sq.ft. 2,000 sq.ft. $660
of roof rather than ceiling with sealed attic

Seal air leakage to unconditioned space $0.20/sq.ft. 2,000 sq.ft. $400

Install fluorescent fixtures throughout home $31 each 12 lamps $372
Install Energy Star Appliances $200 each 4 $800
Perform RESNET Energy Rating $200 each 1 $200
Insulation wrap on water heater & hot pipes $100 each 1 unit $100
Perform ACCA Manual J, D and S to properly design
$300 each 1 $300
the complete HVAC system
Upgrade HVAC system from SEER 13 to 14 $600 each 1 unit $600
Install Heat Recovery Ventilation System $600 each 1 unit $600
Install humidistat controlled exhaust fans $200 each 2 units $400
Cost Subtotal $4,332
Savings from Properly designed HVAC* ($1,500)
Net Total Cost $2,932

*A properly designed HVAC system for a well insulated and sealed house including the above
modifications can have a lower rated output with shorter duct runs, providing for a major cost reduction.

36
 Table 3-2
Energy Savings for an Energy Star Home
Louisiana Code Home Energy Star Home
Annual Annual Annual Extra
Total Cumulative
Year Energy* Energy* Energy Mortgage
Cost savings
Cost Cost Savings Cost
1 1613 1371 242 581 -339 -339
2 1645 1398 247 81 166 -173
3 1678 1426 252 81 171 -2
4 1712 1455 257 81 176 173
5 1746 1484 262 81 181 354
6 1781 1514 267 81 186 541
7 1816 1544 273 81 192 732
8 1853 1575 278 81 197 929
9 1890 1606 284 81 203 1132
10 1928 1638 289 81 208 1340
15 2128 1809 319 81 238 2470
20 2350 1997 353 81 272 3760
25 2594 2205 389 81 308 5226
30 2864 2435 430 81 349 6887
*Energy prices are assumed to escalate 2% per year. Savings determined by RemRate modeling
software based on Baton Rouge and prevailing utility rates. Your savings for the same design and
equipment will vary. A home energy rater can provide more accurate results for your house
design and location as well as advise you on other options.

Table 3-3
Design Requirements to Meet the 2006 International Residential Code

FEATURE: Climate Zone 2 Climate Zone 3

Fenestration U-Factor 0.75 0.65
Skylight U-Factor 0.75 0.65
Glazed Fenestration SHGC 0.4 0.4
Ceiling R-Value 30 30
Wood Frame Wall R-Value 13 13
Mass Wall R-Value 4 5
Elevated Floor R-Value 13 19
Basement Wall R-Value 0 0
Slab R-Value and Depth 0 0
Crawl Space Wall R-Value 0 5

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 37

Evaluating Energy Efficient Products
The energy efficient builder seeks to minimize the lifetime costs of a home rather than the first cost.
Making such calculations is often time-consuming and confusing. One of the best ways to determine
whether an investment is sound is to compare the annual energy savings with the additional annual
mortgage costs to find the Net Annual Savings.

Simple Payback
An example: suppose you want to know whether it is worthwhile to install efficient, low-e windows
which use special coatings to reduce heat loss and gain. You receive the following information
comparing low-e windows to plain double-glazed windows from a window dealer:

• Additional Cost for 20 Windows = $500

• Annual Energy Savings = $75

You can easily calculate that the simple payback period on the above investment is slightly less than
7 years (500/75). However, you are unsure whether the payback is acceptable.

Net Annual Savings

To find the Net Annual Savings, find the extra mortgage costs for the windows:

• Mortgage Interest Rate = 8.5%

• Term of Mortgage = 30 years
• Monthly Payment per $1,000 (from Table 3-5 below) = $7.69
• Annual Payment per $1,000 (Monthly payment x 12 months/year)
= $7.69 * 12 = $92.28 per year for $1,000 of principal
• Extra Annual Payment (multiply the additional cost of the windows by the
above factor/l ,000) = $500/$1,000 * $92.28 = ~$46 per year mortgage payment
• Net Annual Energy Savings (subtract the annual payment from annual energy savings)
= $75 – $46 = $29 annual savings

Since the Net Annual Energy Savings is positive, the investment is sound, especially when
considering that energy costs will increase over time, while mortgage costs will remain constant.

Internal Rate of Return

It is often useful to calculate the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) for an energy investment. The IRR
represents the interest rate you would have to receive on the amount to equal the savings generated
by the energy efficiency you have invested in. Homeowners can compare the annual return from an
energy measure to that earned by a typical financial investment at a bank. To find the IRR for the
above example:

Find the payback period (divide the total cost by the annual savings) = 500/75 = about 7 years.
Determine the life of the energy measure in this case over 20 years.
To find the IRR, locate the row in Table 3-4 for the 7 year payback; then slide across to the 20-year
column and find the IRR, which is 15% in this example (and it is tax free).

Note: A zero indicates the rate of return is either negligible or negative.

Energy prices are assumed to escalate 2% per year.

38
 Table 3-4
Rate of Return for Energy Investments (%)
Simple
Lifetime of Energy Investments (Years)
Payback
Years 5 10 15 20
1.5 62% 68% 69% 69%
2 43% 51% 52% 52%
3 21% 33% 35% 35%
4 9% 23% 26% 27%
5 1% 17% 20% 21%
6 0% 12% 16% 18%
7 0% 9% 13% 15%
8 0% 6% 11% 13%
9 0% 4% 9% 11%
10 0% 2% 7% 10%
11 0% 0% 6% 8%
12 0% 0% 5% 7%
13 0% 0% 4% 6%
14 0% 0% 3% 6%
15 0% 0% 2% 5%
16 0% 0% 1% 4%
17 0% 0% 0% 3%
18 0% 0% 0% 3%
19 0% 0% 0% 2%
20 0% 0% 0% 2%

Mortgage Rate Tables

The following Table 3-5 shows the monthly payment for principal and interest for a $1,000 loan at
various interest rates and amortization periods. According to the chart, a mortgage of 20 years at
10% annual interest would have monthly payments of $9.65 per $1,000 of principal or 12 x 9.65=
$1l5.80 per year of payments per $1,000 of principal.

If the extra energy features of a home cost an additional $2,500, the extra annual mortgage would be:

$2,500 x $115.80/ $1,000 = $289.50.

This approach is useful in comparing different methods of financing construction loans and
permanent mortgages and their effect on the economics of energy efficient construction techniques.

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 39

 Table 3-5
Mortgage Rate Table by Interest Rate by Term- $/$1000
Years of Amortization
% 5 7 10 15 20 25 30
5.00 18.87 14.13 10.61 7.91 6.60 5.85 5.37
5.25 18.99 14.25 10.73 8.04 6.74 5.99 5.52
5.50 19.10 14.37 10.85 8.17 6.88 6.14 5.68
5.75 19.22 14.49 10.98 8.30 7.02 6.29 5.84
6.00 19.33 14.61 11.10 8.44 7.16 6.44 6.00
6.25 19.45 14.73 11.23 8.57 7.31 6.60 6.16
6.50 19.57 14.85 11.35 8.71 7.46 6.75 6.32
6.75 19.68 14.97 11.48 8.85 7.60 6.91 6.49
7.00 19.80 15.09 11.61 8.99 7.75 7.07 6.65
7.25 19.92 15.22 11.74 9.13 7.90 7.23 6.82
7.50 20.04 15.34 11.87 9.27 8.06 7.39 6.99
7.75 20.16 15.46 12.00 9.41 8.21 7.55 7.16
8.00 20.28 15.59 12.13 9.56 8.36 7.72 7.34
8.25 20.40 15.71 12.27 9.70 8.52 7.88 7.51
8.50 20.52 15.84 12.40 9.85 8.68 8.05 7.69
8.75 20.64 15.96 12.53 9.99 8.84 8.22 7.87
9.00 20.76 16.09 12.67 10.14 9.00 8.39 8.05
9.25 20.88 16.22 12.80 10.29 9.16 8.56 8.23
9.50 21.00 16.34 12.94 10.44 9.32 8.74 8.41
9.75 21.12 16.47 13.08 10.59 9.49 8.91 8.59
10.00 21.25 16.60 13.22 10.75 9.65 9.09 8.78
Annual Percentage Rate ( APR)

10.25 21.37 16.73 13.35 10.90 9.82 9.26 8.96

10.50 21.49 16.86 13.49 11.05 9.98 9.44 9.15
10.75 21.62 16.99 13.63 11.21 10.15 9.62 9.33
11.00 21.74 17.12 13.78 11.37 10.32 9.80 9.52
11.25 21.87 17.25 13.92 11.52 10.49 9.98 9.71
11.50 21.99 17.39 14.06 11.68 10.66 10.16 9.90
11.75 22.12 17.52 14.20 11.84 10.84 10.35 10.09
12.00 22.24 17.65 14.35 12.00 11.01 10.53 10.29
12.25 22.37 17.79 14.49 12.16 11.19 10.72 10.48
12.50 22.50 17.92 14.64 12.33 11.36 10.90 10.67
12.75 22.63 18.06 14.78 12.49 11.54 11.09 10.87
13.00 22.75 18.19 14.93 12.65 11.72 11.28 11.06
13.25 22.88 18.33 15.08 12.82 11.89 11.47 11.26
13.50 23.01 18.46 15.23 12.98 12.07 11.66 11.45
13.75 23.14 18.60 15.38 13.15 12.25 11.85 11.65
14.00 23.27 18.74 15.53 13.32 12.44 12.04 11.85
14.25 23.40 18.88 15.68 13.49 12.62 12.23 12.05
14.50 23.53 19.02 15.83 13.66 12.80 12.42 12.25
14.75 23.66 19.16 15.98 13.83 12.98 12.61 12.44
15.00 23.79 19.30 16.13 14.00 13.17 12.81 12.64
15.50 24.05 19.58 16.44 14.34 13.54 13.20 13.05
16.00 24.32 19.86 16.75 14.69 13.91 13.59 13.45
16.50 24.58 20.15 17.06 15.04 14.29 13.98 13.85
17.00 24.85 20.44 17.38 15.39 14.67 14.38 14.26
17.50 25.12 20.73 17.70 15.75 15.05 14.78 14.66
18.00 25.39 21.02 18.02 16.10 15.43 15.17 15.07
18.50 25.67 21.31 18.34 16.47 15.82 15.57 15.48
19.00 25.94 21.61 18.67 16.83 16.21 15.98 15.89
19.50 26.22 21.91 19.00 17.19 16.60 16.38 16.30
20.00 26.49 22.21 19.33 17.56 16.99 16.78 16.71
20.50 26.77 22.51 19.66 17.93 17.38 17.19 17.12
21.00 27.05 22.81 19.99 18.31 17.78 17.60 17.53

40
Home Energy Features
A well-designed, energy efficient home requires close attention to detail on the parts of the builder
and the designer. Insulation and high quality windows are not enough. To eliminate energy waste
the homebuilder must have a well planned approach with careful management of details. The
designer and builder should compare the initial cost of features to long term energy savings.
Successful builders realize that efficiency not only saves money, but also improves the quality,
comfort, and durability of the home. Quality construction reduces the builder’s risk and liability;
comfort provides a satisfied customer; and durability means fewer callbacks and higher profits.

Home Energy Features are a planning and marketing tool that can prove valuable to those involved
in home construction and sales. Two typical levels of efficiency features are:

• Code – The construction of the home must meet the requirements of the 2006 version of the
International Residential Code, which includes energy efficiency requirements based on the
International Energy Conservation Code of 2006. It specifies insulation R factors for the
attic, walls and the floor. It also affects the maximum allowable solar heat gain coefficient of
the glass in fenestration and the allowable U factor of the building shell. It mandates the R
value of the duct insulation (Louisiana amended this portion to a minimum of R-6). Such a
home, if given an energy rating, could score 100 or better on the Residential Energy Services
Network (RESNET) scale.

• Energy Star – A modest effort beyond the standard IRC 2006 Code
requirements that includes a Home Energy Rating System (HERS)
test of the home to determine the air infiltration and duct leakage of
the home. To earn the ENERGY STAR, a home must meet
guidelines for energy efficiency set by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. These homes are at least 15% more energy
efficient than homes built to the 2004 International Residential Code
(IRC).
(http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bldrs_lenders_raters.nh_IRC)

There are two ways to achieve Energy Star compliance. The first is a prescriptive list of components
that may be picked from to complete the house. It is called the Builder Option Package (BOP). The
second way, the National Performance Path, is performance based. If the complete house meets the
15% energy reduction goal, it qualifies, even if some of the components are not energy efficient.
There are prescriptive parts, but it offers more flexibility in some areas. The National Performance
Path requirements include a minimum number of Energy Star labeled light fixtures, appliances, etc.,
as well as a maximum allowable amount of duct leakage per square foot of conditioned space.
These homes must have an Energy Star label on the breaker box showing that it has been energy
rated by a certified RESNET Energy Rater. It must score no higher than an 85 index in Climate
Zones 2 & 3.

Energy Star features go beyond simple conservation measures. The features, costs and energy
savings of different systems are compared in Tables 3-6 and 3-7.

Special Note: Energy Star ratings are based on meeting basic performance required of the 2003 IRC
and 2004 supplements, not the IRC 2006. However, Louisiana law requires the 2006 IRC version,

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 41

so the builder and the energy rater will have to take this into consideration when planning the home
to meet either the Energy Star or the High Performance Homes.

Table 3-6
IRC 2006 Code and Energy Star Homes for Climate Zones 2 & 3

IRC 2006 Code Minimum

Energy Star Home
Compliant Home
RESNET Home Energy Rating Score
100+/- index 85 index

Insulation
Ceiling or Roof Insulation -Zone 2 & 3 R-30 R-30
Raised Floor R Value -Zone 2 / Zone 3 R-19 R-13 / R-19
2x4 Wood Frame Wall R Value R-13 R-13
Crawl Space Wall - Zone 3 Only R-5 or 13 R-5 or 13

Infiltration Control Construction Systems

Standard Details w/ Energy Efficient Details
2x4 Wood Frame
Batt or Cellulose w/ quality installation
Structural Insulated Panels (Option) Exceeds Code Continuous Air Barrier
Insulated Concrete Forms (Option) Exceeds Code Continuous Air Barrier

Windows and Doors (Fenestration)

U Factor -Zone 2 / Zone 3 0.75 / .65 0.55
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient - both 0.4 0.35

Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Furnace (AFUE) = 80 = 80
Heat Pump (HSPF) = 7.7 = 8.2; EER = 11.5
Air Conditioner (SEER) = 13 = 14; EER = 11.5
0.35 Natural Air Changes per
Ventilation Same
Hour
Thermostat Standard ENERGY STAR qualified
Sizing not specified in La. Manual J required

Duct Work Leakage

In a Vented Attic of Crawl Space = 13 cfm/sf conditioned space ≤ 4 cfm to outdoors/100 sq. ft.
Non-vented Attic or Crawl Space = 13 cfm/sf conditioned space (waived if inside envelope)
Duct insulation R-6 insulation R-6 insulation
Design not specified in La. Manual D required

Water Heating Standard Storage Tank Tankless (Option)

Lighting & Appliances

5 Energy Star fixtures or
Interior Not defined
appliances minimum
Exterior Not defined >40 lumens per watt

Energy Rating Confirmed None Energy Star label

42
 Table 3-7
Economic Analysis of Energy Efficient Features
Annual Energy Costs*
IRC 2006 Energy
Compliant Star
Home Home
Heating 269 233
Cooling 339 301
Water Heating 303 251
Lighting 213 115
Other (Appliances; Service Charges) 593 590
Total 1717 1490

Annual Energy Savings 227

Total Additional Construction Costs 1710**
Extra Mortgage ($/yr) 127**
Payback Period (years) 8.1**
Estimated Rate of Return (IRR) 14.9%**
*For a home with a 2,000 square-foot floor located in Baton Rouge.
Analysis assumes 2% annual fuel price escalation; mortgage is 30-year, 7%
loan; the energy savings were estimated using REMrate v.12.0 software.
**Compared to IRC baseline compliant home.

The energy efficiency features provide an excellent investment to the homeowner; the energy
savings exceed the added annual mortgage costs incurred from the first year on.

One thing that builders must understand about high performance home design is that mechanical
system designs must take into account the performance of the components of the building shell with
regard to heat transfer, condensation, and vapor transmission.

For example, an old, poorly-insulated home with single pane, metal frame windows, leaky envelope,
and a dark roof is considered. Combined with these deficiencies, a poorly planned return path to the
air handler and poorly sealed and insulated ductwork in a vented attic or crawl space will require
much more air conditioning tonnage to keep the home cool. If the ducts are in the attic, which can
be over 140 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer, the conditioned air temperature from the air handler
will rise. Also, the air that is leaked is lost to the surrounding environment, causing the air handler
to draw outside ‘make-up’ air from unfiltered locations. This air is often filled with humidity,
pollen, and pollution. Windows may form condensation on the outside because of the low thermal
resistance through metal and glass.

Conversely, a high performance home with an air tight shell, well-insulated walls, roof or attic, and
floor (if on piers), and high performance windows will not be losing its ‘cool’. Its duct work will be
better sealed and have more insulation. If in a sealed, roof insulated attic or crawl space, the duct
work can leak a small amount since the attic or crawl space is part of the conditioned envelope. A
sealed, roof insulated attic will be only a few degrees different than the living space.

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 43

Building a much tighter and better insulated envelope means excess water vapor (latent load) must
be removed for the comfort of the occupants. The builder/mechanical contractor can no longer base
his sizing of the HVAC system or the duct runs on a ‘rule of thumb.’ He should employ Air
Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA) Manuals D-“Residential Duct Systems,” J-
“Residential Load Calculation,” and S-“Residential Equipment selection,” to properly size the
system for the latent load and the sensible load and plan the duct layout to move the correct amount
of air into and out of each space. The equipment load will often be smaller and the ductwork
shorter. The reduction in overall cost of the home and air conditioning system makes the owners’
time to recover his investment short. See Chapters 7 and 8 for more detail on this.

High Performance Homes – There are other construction systems that can reduce energy costs more
than 30% compared to the standard 2006 IRC home. Such a home will have much tighter envelope,
ductwork inside of the conditioned envelope, and a higher efficiency HVAC system than either the
Energy Star or the 2006 IRC house. It may be built using sprayed foam as the sealing and insulation
system, including between the roof rafters, in the walls, and under the floor if built off the ground. It
may be built with foam core panel systems called Structural Insulated Panels (SIPS) or Insulated
Concrete Forms (ICF). Both SIPS and ICF homes, when tested during a standard HERS rating for
air infiltration, are several times tighter than a standard, wood frame home.

Due to the reduction in load combined with solar or wind power generation systems such a house
may produce all the power needed to operate making it a “Net Zero” structure. “Net Zero” means
that the energy used from the utility is replaced by the generation system(s) when they exceed the
needs of the house. If not connected to the distribution system, it will have to have a battery bank or
other storage device for those times when the sun isn’t shinning or wind blowing adequately.

Figure 3-5
Typical Insulated Concrete Forms (ICF)
Concrete pouring in
between foam form

Reinforcing steel bars

Insulated concrete form

(ICF) made from expanded
polystyrene foam

Plastic or metal furring strips are used

to attach finishing materials

44
 Figure 3-6
Typical Structural Insulated Panel

Vapor permeable house wrap

on oriented strand board ½” drywall on SIP
portion of SIP.

3.5” of Foam Core of SIP

Base Plate : EPS R – value = 13
sealed to slab : XPS R – value = 21

Siding attached over

house wrap and furring
strips.

One side benefit of homes built with these two systems is that they are often much more wind
resistant and secure from natural disasters. Wood or steel frame homes that have sprayed high
density foam in the cavities of the walls, roofs, and floor joists, are significantly stronger than
standard frame construction. The insulated concrete form homes are built with steel reinforced
concrete that does not burn easily, will resist impact loads, and may be able to withstand tornadic
winds. A home built with a structural insulated panel system is a much tighter and stronger home, as
well. All of these with the foam insulation will more easily recover from flooding than fiberglass or
cellulose insulated homes, since both of those insulation materials can hold large amounts of water.

Should you wish to build houses to a higher standard than the Energy Star criteria, please visit the
following websites for more information:

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy at DOE

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/residential/

Hot and humid climates present several challenges for home building.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/residential/hot_humid.html

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has posed a challenge to the homebuilding industry - to build
220,000 high performance homes by 2012. The initiative is called the Builders Challenge, and
homes that qualify must meet a 70 or better on the EnergySmart Home Scale (E-Scale). The E-Scale
is a scale that allows homebuyers to understand - at a glance - how the performance of a particular
home compares to that of others.

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 45

EnergySmart Home http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/challenge/

U.S. Green Building Association

The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a non-profit organization committed to expanding
sustainable building practices. The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green
Building Rating System™ encourages and accelerates global adoption of sustainable green building
and development practices through the creation and implementation of universally understood and
accepted tools and performance criteria. http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=222
Publications: http://www.usgbc.org/Store/PublicationsList.aspx?CMSPageID=1518

For those that are interested in building energy efficient homes that produce their own power and
make little use of non-renewable resources, sometimes called “Green” Homes or “Sustainable”
Homes, please visit the following websites:

PATH - The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH) is dedicated to accelerating
the development and use of technologies that radically improve the quality, durability, energy
efficiency, environmental performance, and affordability of America's housing. PATH is a
voluntary partnership between leaders of the homebuilding, product manufacturing, insurance, and
financial industries and representatives of Federal agencies concerned with housing.
http://www.pathnet.org/ .

ToolBase Services is the housing industry's resource for technical information on building
products, materials, new technologies, business management, and housing systems. The NAHB
Research Center provides the services, with funding from the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) through The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH)
program, and other industry sponsors. The Zero Energy Homes Project :
http://www.toolbase.org/Home-Building-Topics/zero-energy-homes/seven-steps-zeh

46
Appendix - Energy Star Homes Technical Resources
Guidelines for ENERGY STAR Qualified New Homes:
There are two ways to qualify a house for Energy Star’s guidelines for energy efficiency. Both paths
require that the home must meet minimum requirements set forth by the Energy Star Thermal
Bypass Checklist and that the finished house be tested by an independent, qualified Home Energy
Rater. See http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bldrs_lenders_raters.homes_guidelns for the
most current required.

The Energy Star Thermal Bypass Checklist can be found at:

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bldrs_lenders_raters.thermal_bypass_checklist

The National Prescriptive Path: A Builder Option Package (BOP), where a builder constructs the
home using a prescribed set of construction specifications that meet program requirements.
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/bldrs_lenders_raters/downloads/Nat_BOP_Final_062807.pdf

The National Performance Path: A means to qualify a house based on its total efficiency verified by
a home energy rating which uses software to model the home’s energy use showing that it meets a
target energy efficiency score.
(http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bldrs_lenders_raters.nh_HERS)
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/bldrs_lenders_raters/downloads/PerfPathTRK_060206.pdf

ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes National Builder Option Package

ENERGY STAR Builder Option Package (BOP) requirements are specified in the table below.
To qualify as ENERGY STAR using this BOP, a home must meet the requirements specified, be
verified and field-tested in accordance with the HERS Standards by a RESNET-accredited Provider,
and meet all applicable codes.

Feature Hot Climates 1 (2004 IRC Climate Zones 1, 2, 3)

Right-Sized2:
Cooling Equipment
• ENERGY STAR qualified A/C (14 SEER / 11.5 EER); OR
(Where Provided)
• ENERGY STAR qualified heat pump 3 (14 SEER / 11.5 EER / 8.2 HSPF)
• 80 AFUE gas furnace; OR • ENERGY STAR qualified heat pump 2, 3
Heating Equipment
(14 SEER / 11.5 EER / 8.2 HSPF); OR • 80 AFUE boiler; OR • 80 AFUE oil furnace
Thermostat 3 ENERGY STAR qualified thermostat (except for zones with radiant heat)
Leakage 4: ≤ 4 cfm to outdoors/100 sq. ft.;
Ductwork
AND R-6 min. insulation on ducts in unconditioned spaces 5

• Infiltration 6,7 (ACH50): 7 in CZ 2 │ 6 in CZ 3; AND • Insulation levels that meet or

Envelope exceed the 2004 IRC 8; AND
• Completed Thermal Bypass Inspection Checklist 9
ENERGY STAR qualified windows or better
Windows
(additional requirements for CZ 2)10, 11, 12
Gas (EF): 40 Gal = 0.61 │ 60 Gal = 0.57 │ 80 Gal = 0.53
Water Heater 13 Electric (EF): 40 Gal = 0.93 │ 50 Gal = 0.92 │ 80 Gal = 0.89
Oil or Gas 14: Integrated with space heating boiler
Lighting and Five or more ENERGY STAR qualified appliances, light fixtures, ceiling fans equipped
Appliances 15,16 with lighting fixtures, and/or ventilation fans

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 47

ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes National Builder Option Package Notes

1. The appropriate climate zone shall be determined by the 2004 International Residential Code
(IRC), Figure N1101.2.

2. Cooling equipment shall be sized according to the latest editions of ACCA Manuals J and S,
ASHRAE 2001 Handbook of Fundamentals, or an equivalent procedure. Maximum
oversizing limit for air conditioners and heat pumps is 15%. The following operating
conditions shall be used in the sizing calculations and verified where reviewed by the rater:

i. Outdoor temperatures shall be the 99.0% and 1.0% design temperatures as published
in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals for the home’s location or most
representative city for which design temperature data are available.
ii. Indoor temperatures shall be 75 F for cooling and 70 F for heating. Infiltration rate
shall be selected as “tight”, or the equivalent term. In specifying equipment, the next
available size may be used. In addition, indoor and outdoor coils shall be matched in
accordance with ARI standards.

3. Homes with heat pumps in Climate Zones 4 and 5 (Not applicable to Climate Zones 2 & 3)

4. Ducts must be sealed and tested to be ≤ 4 cfm to outdoors/100 sq. ft. of conditioned floor
area, as determined and documented by a RESNET-certified rater using a RESNET-approved
or equivalent ASTM-approved testing protocol. Duct leakage testing can be waived if all
ducts and air handling equipment are located in conditioned space (i.e., within the home’s air
and thermal barriers) AND the envelope leakage has been tested to be ≤ 3 ACH50 OR ≤ 0.25
CFM 50 per sq. ft. of the building envelope.

5. EPA recommends, but does not require, locating ducts within the home’s conditioned space
(i.e., inside the air and thermal barriers), and using a minimum of R-4 insulation for ducts
inside the conditioned space to prevent condensation.

6. Envelope leakage must be determined by a RESNET-certified rater using a RESNET-

approved testing protocol.

7. To ensure consistent exchange of indoor air, whole-house mechanical ventilation is

recommended, but not required.

8. Insulation levels of a home must meet or exceed Sections N1102.1 and N1102.2 of the 2004
IRC. These sections allow for compliance to be determined by meeting prescriptive
insulation requirements, by using U-factor alternatives, or by using a total UA alternative.
These sections also provide guidance and exceptions that may be used. However, note that
the U-factor for steel-frame envelope assemblies addressed in Section N1102.2.4 shall be
calculated using the ASHRAE zone method or a method providing equivalent results, and not
a series-parallel path calculation method as is stated in the code. Additionally, Section
N1102.2.2, which allows for the reduction of ceiling insulation in space constrained
roof/ceiling assemblies, shall be limited to 500 sq. ft. or 20% of ceiling area, whichever is

48
 less. In all cases, insulation shall be inspected to Grade I installation as defined in the
RESNET Standards by a RESNET-certified rater, with the following exceptions:

i. Rim/Band Joists - the interior sheathing/enclosure material is optional in all climate

zones, provided insulation is adequately supported and meets all other requirements.

ii. Wall Insulation - the interior sheathing/enclosure material is optional in climate zones
1-3, provided insulation is adequately supported and meets all other requirements.

iii. Sealed, Unvented Attic/Roof Assemblies - the interior sheathing/enclosure material is

optional in climate zones 1-3, provided insulation is adequately supported and meets
all other requirements, including full contact with the exterior (roof) sheathing.

iv. Floor insulation over unconditioned basements or enclosed crawlspaces, either vented
or unvented, need not be enclosed (though floor insulation over ambient conditions
does).

9. The Thermal Bypass Inspection Checklist must be completed for homes to earn the
ENERGY STAR label. The Checklist requires visual inspection of framing areas where air
barriers are commonly missed and inspection of insulation to ensure proper alignment with
air barriers, thus serving as an extra check that the air and thermal barriers are continuous and
complete.

10. All windows and skylights must be ENERGY STAR qualified or meet all specifications for
ENERGY STAR qualified windows. Windows in Climate Zones 2 must exceed ENERGY
STAR specifications (CZ 2: U-value ≤ 0.55 and SHGC ≤ 0.35). Visit
www.energystar.gov/windows for more information on ENERGY STAR qualified windows.

i. Note that the fenestration requirements of the 2004 IRC do not apply to the
fenestration requirements of the National Builder Option Package. Therefore, if UA
calculations are performed, they must use the IRC requirements (with the exception
of fenestration) plus the fenestration requirements contained in the national BOP. For
more information, refer to the “Codes and Standards Information” document.

11. All decorative glass and skylight window area counts toward the total window area to above-
grade conditioned floor area (WFA) ratio. For homes with a WFA ratio >18%, the following
additional requirements apply:

i. In IRC Climate Zones 1, 2, and 3, an improved window SHGC is required, and is

determined by:

a. Required SHGC = [0.18 / WFA] x [ENERGY STAR SHGC]

ii. Where the ENERGY STAR SHGC is the minimum required SHGC of the climate-
appropriate window specified in this BOP.

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 49

 12. Up to 0.75% WFA may be used for decorative glass that does not meet ENERGY STAR
requirements. For example, a home with total above-grade conditioned floor area of 2,000
sq. ft. may have up to 15 sq. ft. (0.75% of 2,000) of decorative glass.

13. To determine domestic hot water (DHW) EF requirements for additional tank sizes, use the
following equations: Gas DHW EF ≥ 0.69 - (0.002 x Tank Gallon Capacity); Electric DHW
EF ≥ 0.97 - (0.001 x Tank Gallon Capacity).

14. In homes with gas or oil hydronic space heating, water heating systems must have an
efficiency ≥ 0.78 EF. This may be met through the use of an instantaneous water heating
system or an indirect storage system with a boiler that has a system efficiency ≥ 85 AFUE.
Homes with tankless coil hot water heating systems cannot be qualified using this BOP, but
can earn the label using the ENERGY STAR Performance Path requirements.

15. Any combination of ENERGY STAR qualified products listed may be installed to meet this
requirement. ENERGY STAR qualified ventilation fans include range hood, bathroom, and
inline fans. ENERGY STAR qualified lighting fixtures installed in the following locations
shall not be counted: storage rooms (e.g., closets, pantries, sheds), or garages. Eligible
appliances include ENERGY STAR qualified refrigerators, dish washers, and washing
machines. Further efficiency and savings can be achieved by installing ENERGY STAR
qualified products, in addition to those required (e.g., additional lighting, appliances, etc.).

16. Efficient lighting fixtures represent a significant opportunity for persistent energy savings
and a meaningful way to differentiate ENERGY STAR qualified homes from those meeting
minimum code requirements. In 2008, EPA intends to propose and solicit industry
comments on adding the ENERGY STAR Advanced Lighting Package (ALP) as an
additional requirement for ENERGY STAR qualified homes in 2009. To learn more about
the ALP, refer to www.energystar.gov/homes.

ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes National Performance Path Requirements:

To qualify as ENERGY STAR, a home must meet the minimum requirements specified below, be
verified and field-tested in accordance with the RESNET Standards by a RESNET-accredited
Provider, and meet all applicable codes.
Maximum HERS Index Required to Earn the ENERGY STAR in Climate Zone 2 and 3 is 85.

50
 Table 3-8
ENERGY STAR Mandatory Requirements
Envelope 2,3,4 Completed Thermal Bypass Inspection Checklist
5,6
Ductwork Leakage ≤ 6 cfm to outdoors / 100 sq. ft.
Include at least one ENERGY STAR qualified product category:
Heating or cooling equipment 7; OR
ENERGY STAR
Windows 8; OR
Products 13,14
Five or more ENERGY STAR qualified light fixtures 9,10, appliances11, ceiling fans
equipped with lighting fixtures, and/or ventilation fans12
On-site power generation may not be used to decrease the HERS Index to qualify for
ENERGY STAR ENERGY STAR.
Scoring A maximum of 20% of all screw-in light bulb sockets in the home may use compact
Exceptions fluorescent lamps (CFLs) to decrease the HERS Index for ENERGY STAR compliance.
CFLs used for this purpose must be ENERGY STAR qualified.
Note: Due to the unique nature of some state codes and/or climates, EPA has agreed to allow regionally-
developed definitions of ENERGY STAR in California, Hawaii, and the Pacific Northwest to continue to define
program requirements. The States of Montana and Idaho may use either the requirements of the national
program or the regionally-developed program in the Pacific Northwest.

1. The appropriate climate zone for each building site shall be determined by the 2004 International
Residential Code (IRC), Table N1101.2. The HERS Index must be calculated in accordance with the
RESNET Mortgage Industry National Home Energy Rating Standards.

2. The Thermal Bypass Inspection Checklist must be completed for homes to earn the ENERGY STAR
label. The Checklist requires visual inspection of framing areas where air barriers are commonly
missed and inspection of insulation to ensure proper alignment with air barriers, thus serving as an extra
check that the air and thermal barriers are continuous and complete.

3. Envelope leakage must be determined by a RESNET-certified rater using a RESNET-approved testing

protocol.

4. To ensure consistent exchange of indoor air, whole-house mechanical ventilation is recommended, but
not required.

5. Ducts must be sealed and tested to be ≤ 6 cfm to outdoors / 100 sq. ft. of conditioned floor area, as
determined and documented by a RESNET-certified rater using a RESNET-approved testing protocol.
If total duct leakage is < 6 cfm to outdoors / 100 sq. ft. of conditioned floor area, then leakage to
outdoors does not need to be tested. Duct leakage testing can be waived if all ducts and air handling
equipment are located in conditioned space (i.e., within the home’s air and thermal barriers) AND the
envelope leakage has been tested to be ≤ 3 ACH50 OR ≤ 0.25 CFM 50 per sq. ft. of the building
envelope. Note that mechanical ventilation will be required in this situation.

6. EPA recommends, but does not require, locating ducts within conditioned space (i.e., inside the air and
thermal barriers), and using a minimum of R-4 insulation for ducts inside conditioned space to prevent
condensation.

7. All cooling equipment, regardless of whether it is used to satisfy the ENERGY STAR products
requirement, must be sized according to the latest editions of ACCA Manuals J and S, ASHRAE 2001
Handbook of Fundamentals, or an equivalent computation procedure. Maximum oversizing limit for
air conditioners and heat pumps is 15% (with the exception of heat pumps in Climate Zones 5 - 8,
where the maximum oversizing limit is 25%). This can be accomplished either by the rater performing
the calculations or reviewing documentation provided by the professional contractor or engineer who

Chapter 3 Energy Efficient Features 51

 calculated the sizing (e.g., HVAC contractor). The following operating conditions shall be used in the
sizing calculations and verified where reviewed by the rater:

i. Outdoor temperatures shall be the 99.0% and 1.0% design temperatures as published in the
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals for the home’s location or most representative city for which
design temperature data are available.

ii. Note that a higher outdoor air design temperature may be used if it represents prevailing local
practice by the HVAC industry and reflects extreme climate conditions that can be documented
with recorded weather data; Indoor temperatures shall be 75° F for cooling; Infiltration rate shall be
selected as “tight”, or the equivalent term.

iii. In specifying equipment, the next available size may be used. In addition, indoor and outdoor
coils shall be matched in accordance with ARI standards.

8. Where windows are used to meet the ENERGY STAR qualified product requirement, they shall be
ENERGY STAR qualified or meet all specifications for ENERGY STAR qualified windows.
Additional information can be found at www.energystar.gov/windows.

9. For the purposes of meeting the ENERGY STAR requirement, qualified lighting fixtures in the
following locations cannot be counted: storage rooms (e.g., closets, pantries, sheds), or garages.

10. Efficient lighting fixtures represent a significant opportunity for persistent energy savings and a
meaningful way to differentiate ENERGY STAR qualified homes from those meeting minimum code
requirements. In 2008, EPA intends to propose and solicit industry comments on adding the ENERGY
STAR Advanced Lighting Package (ALP) as an additional requirement for ENERGY STAR qualified
homes in 2009. To learn more about the ALP, refer to www.energystar.gov/homes.

11. Eligible appliances include ENERGY STAR qualified refrigerators, dish washers, and washing
machines.

12. ENERGY STAR qualified ventilation fans include range hood, bathroom, and inline fans.

13. Further efficiency and savings can be achieved by installing ENERGY STAR qualified products, in
addition to those required (e.g., additional lighting, appliances, etc.). For more information, visit
www.energystar.gov.

14. In homes with heat pumps that have programmable thermostats, the thermostat must have "Adaptive
Recovery" technology to prevent the excessive use of electric back-up heating.

52
Chapter 4

Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques

Air leakage is a major problem for both new and existing homes and can:

• Contribute 30 percent or more to heating and cooling costs

• Create comfort and moisture problems
• Draw in pollutants such as radon and mold
• Occur in openings which also serve as a prime entry for insects and rodents

To reduce air leakage effectively requires a continuous air barrier system (sometimes called an air
retarder system) — a combination of materials linked together to create a tight building envelope.
An air barrier also minimizes air currents through insulation, helping maintain R-values. The air
barrier should minimize air leakage through the building envelope - the boundary between the
conditioned portion of the home and the unconditioned area.

Most standard insulation products are not effective at sealing air leakage. The R-value for these
materials may drop if air leaks through the material. Some spray applied insulation materials, such as
higher density fiberglass, rock wool, cellulose, and foam can seal against air leakage. However,
these materials are often only applied in framing cavities; therefore, additional air sealing must be
done between framing components.

The builder should work with his or her own crew and subcontractors to seal all holes through the
envelope. Then, he or she should install a continuous air barrier material, such as drywall or
housewrap, around the envelope. It is critical in the air sealing process to use durable materials and
install them properly.

The air barrier constitutes the pressure boundary of the home as discussed in Chapter 3. The
pressure, moisture, and thermal boundaries should coincide: otherwise, cold winter air may leak past
the insulation, or water vapor may enter an uninsulated space where it encounters building materials
below the dew point. Always draw sections of your home similar to Figure 4-1 in order to locate the
pressure boundary distinctly.

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 53

 Figure 4-1
Creating a Pressure Boundary

Location of Air Barrier

1. Install continuous Insulation

2. Seal penetrations and bypasses
3. Install and seal air-barrier material

Air Leakage Driving Forces

Air leakage requires two main ingredients:

• Holes - the larger the hole, the greater the air leakage. Large holes have higher priority for air
sealing efforts.
• Driving force - a pressure difference that forces air to flow through a hole. Holes that
experience stronger and more continuous driving forces have higher priority. The common
driving forces are:

o wind - caused by weather conditions

o stack effect - upward air movement of warmer air
o mechanical blowers - induced pressure imbalances caused by operation of fans and
blowers

Wind is usually considered to be the primary driving force for air leakage. When the wind blows
against a building, it creates a high pressure zone on the windward areas. Outdoor air from the
windward side infiltrates into the building while indoor air exits on the leeward side. Wind acts to
create areas of differential pressure which causes both infiltration and exfiltration. The degree to
which wind contributes to air leakage depends on its velocity and duration.

54
 Figure 4-2
Wind Driven Infiltration

On average, wind may generate a pressure difference

of 10 to 20 Pascals on the windward side. However;
most homes have only small cracks on the exterior,
and winds are variable.

Stack Effect: Heat transfer through the “envelope” causes warm air inside the home to rise and the
heavier cool air to fall, creating a driving force known as the stack effect. The stack effect can vary
from weak to strong, but is almost always present. Most homes have various sized holes leading into
the attic and crawlspace or basement. Because the stack effect is so prevalent and the holes through
which it drives air are often so large, it is usually a major contributor to air leakage, moisture, and air
quality problems. Air may infiltrate at low elevations, and exfiltrate at upper elevations due to this
effect. This brings in outside air at temperature and humidity level which is ambient. The HVAC
may use far more energy. Air already heated or cooled may be forced to the outside in upper level
holes or openings.

Figure 4-3
The Stack Effect

The stack effect can create pressure differences between 1 to

3 Pascals due to the power of rising warm air. Crawlspace and
attic holes are often large.

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 55

Forced-air heating and cooling systems that are either poorly designed or installed can create three
types of driving forces for air leakage:

• Suction pressures that pull outside air into return duct leaks.
• HVAC blower forces heated or cooled air out of the supply ductwork which ends up
leaking to the exterior.
• Duct-related problems can create pressure imbalances in the home that increases air
leakage through holes in the pressure boundary.

Figure 4-4
Mechanical System Driven Infiltration

Leaks in supply and return ductwork can cause pressure

differences of up to 30 Pascals. Exhaust equipment such as
kitchen and bath fans and clothes dryers can also create
pressure differences.

Measuring Air tightness with a Blower Door

While there are many well-known sources of air leakage, virtually all homes have unexpected air
leakage sites called bypasses. These areas can be difficult to find and correct without the use of a
blower door. This diagnostic device consists of a temporary door covering installed in an outside
doorway and a fan which pressurizes (forces air into) or depressurizes (forces air out of) the
building. When the fan operates, it is easy to feel air leaking through cracks in the building
envelope. Blower doors have gauges which measure the building’s air leakage rate.

One measure of a home’s leakage rate is air changes per hour (ACH), which estimates how many
times in one hour the entire volume of air inside the building leaks outside. To determine the
number of air changes per hour, many experts use the blower door to create a negative pressure of 50
Pascals. A Pascal is a small unit of pressure — about 0.004 inches water gauge. A quarter resting
on your hand exerts about 120 Pascals. Fifty Pascals is approximately equivalent to a 20 mile per
hour wind. Energy efficient builders should strive for less than four air changes per hour when
testing their home at 50 Pascals pressure (4ACH50). The rate of natural air changes per hour
(NACH) can be estimated from the ACH50 and certain characteristics of the home.

56
Some building scientists use a different criterion — the air leakage rate per square foot of exterior
envelope (CFM50/sq.ft.). The goal is often 0.30 CFM50/sq.ft. or less. An expert blower door
technician can perform more advanced tests to find major sources of air leakage.

Table 4-1
Typical Infiltration Rates
(in air changes per hour – ach)

ACH50 NACH
Description (blower door test
(natural rate)
result)
New home with special airtight 0.5 - 2.5 0.03 - 0.15
construction and controlled ventilation
Home with air barrier 3.0 - 5.0 0.15 - 0.3
Standard new home 7.0 - 15.0 0.4 - 1.0
Standard existing home 10.0 - 25.0 0.5 - 1.3
Older, leaky home 20.0 - 50.0 1.0 - 3.0

Figure 4-5
Blower Door

Gauges

Pressure
measurement
tubes

Door cover

Fan

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 57

 Figure 4-6
Home Blower Door Test

Additional readings to find

major sources of leakage
30
Pa

50
Pa
Blower door exhausts
1,600 CFM50

If the house has:

Volume of 16,000 cubic feet and
1,600 CFM50 (cubic feet per minute at 50 Pascals);
then ACH50 =

1,600 cfm50 x 60 minutes / hour = 6 ACH50

16,000 cubic feet Volume of house

Materials
Most air barrier systems rely on a variety of caulks, gaskets, weatherstripping, and sheet materials,
such as plywood, drywall, and housewrap. The extra cost of these materials is usually under $500 for
standard house designs. Polyethylene can serve as an air barrier in addition to a vapor barrier;
however, vapor barriers are not recommended for homes in Louisiana.

Seal Penetrations and Bypasses

The first step for successfully creating an air barrier system is to seal all of the holes in the building
envelope. Too often, builders concentrate on air leakage through windows and doors and ignore
areas of much greater importance. Many of the key sources of leakage — called bypasses — are
hidden from view behind soffits over cabinets, behind bath fixtures, dropped ceilings, as well as
chases for flues and ductwork, as shown in Figure 4-7. Attic access openings and whole house fans
are also common bypasses. Sealing these bypasses is critical to reduce air leakage and maintain the
performance of insulation materials.

58
 Figure 4-7
Air Leakage through Bypass

Chase for ducts or

flues

Dropped soffit

Figures 4-8, 4-9, and 4-10 show key areas that must be sealed to create an effective air barrier. The
builder must clearly inform his or her subcontractors and workers of these details to ensure that the
task is accomplished successfully. Make certain all sealants have at least 40-year service lives.

Table 4-2
Leaks and Sealants

Type of Leak Commonly Used Sealants

Thin gaps between framing and wiring, pipes or 40-year caulking; one part polyurethane is
ducts through floors or walls recommended
Leaks into attics, cathedral ceilings or wall
Firestop caulking
cavities above first floor
Gaps, cracks or holes over 1/8 inch in width not Gasket, foam sealant, or stuffed with fiberglass or
requiring firestop sealant backer rod, and caulk on top

Attach and caulk a piece of plywood or foam sheathing

material that covers the entire opening. Seal
Open areas around flues, chases, plenums,
penetrations. If a flue requires a noncombustible
plumbing traps, etc.
clearance, use a noncombustible metal collar, sealed in
place, to span the gap.

Use Airtight Drywall Method, continuous housewrap or

Final air barrier material
other air barrier system.

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 59

 Figure 4-8
Typical Home Air Leakage Sites

1. Slab Floors - seal all holes in the slab to prevent entry of water vapor and soil gas. A 4- to
6-inch layer of gravel under the slab is important to stop the seepage of water by capillary
action.

2. Sill Plate and Rim Joist - seal all sill plates above basements and unvented crawlspaces.
Seal rim or band joists between floors in multistory construction with caulking or gaskets.

3. Bottom Plate - use caulk or gasket between the plate and subflooring (or slab).

4. Subfloor - use an adhesive to seal the seams between pieces of subflooring.

5. Electrical Wiring - use wire-compatible caulk or spray foam to seal penetrations.

6. Electrical Boxes - use approved caulk or tape to seal around wiring holes of electrical
boxes. Seal between the interior finish material and boxes.

7. Electrical Box Gaskets - caulk foam gaskets to all electrical boxes in exterior and interior
walls before installing cover plates.

8. Recessed Light Fixtures - consider using surface-mounted light fixtures rather than
recessed lights. When used, specify airtight models rated for insulation contact (IC).

9. Exhaust Fans - seal between the fan housing and the interior finish material. Choose
products with tight-fitting backdraft dampers.

60
 10. Plumbing - locate plumbing in interior walls, and minimize penetrations. Seal all
penetrations with foam sealant or caulk.

11. Attic Access - weatherstrip attic access openings. For pull-down stairs, use latches to hold
the door panel tightly against the weatherstripping. Cover the attic access opening with an
insulated box.

12. Whole House Fan - use a panel made of rigid insulation or plastic to seal the interior
cover or a box made from duct board to seal on top.

13. Flue Stacks - install a code-approved flue collar and seal with fire-rated caulk.

14. Combustion Appliances - closely follow local codes for fire stopping measures, which
reduce air leakage as well as increase the safety of the appliance. Make certain all
combustion appliances, such as stoves, inserts, and fireplaces, have an outside source of
combustion air and tight-fitting dampers or doors.

15. Return and Supply Registers - seal all boots connected to registers or grilles to the
interior finish material.

16. Ductwork - seal all joints in supply and return duct systems with mastic.

17. Air Handling Unit (for heating and cooling system) — seal all joints and holes with
mastic. Seal service panels with tape.

18. Dropped Soffit - use sheet material such as drywall and sealant to stop leaks from attic
into the soffit or wall framing; then insulate.

19. Chases (for ductwork, flues, etc.) - prevent air leakage through these bypasses with
approved sheet materials and sealants.

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 61

 Figure 4-9
Sealing Bypasses

Plumbing – Seal penetrations, especially under

bathtubs and other fixtures. Install drywall or
housewrap behind bathtub to provide an air barrier.

Dropped Soffit – If kitchen

cabinets or bath / shower
enclosures have a dropped
soffit, provide a continuous
seal at the attic floor

Drywall extends
behind bathtub Major leak
sealed
Drywall or
plywood covers
air leakage path

Seal chase with

Open chase sheetgood like
connects attic to plywood or
house gypsum board

Apply sealant

Return and Supply Plenums – Seal framed areas for ductwork.

62
 Figure 4-10
Sealing More Bypasses

Air leaks in flue /

chimney chase

flue
Noncombustible
flue collar (sheet
metal)

plywood
Heat-resistant
caulking

Glass doors

Outside source of
combustion air

Attic hatches and Standard recessed lights

stairs may not be cannot be insulated and
insulated or have high suffer substantial air
air leakage; Insulate leakage; Install IC
and weatherstrip (insulated contact), air
these key openings tight recessed fixtures

Insulated box available

Batt insulation over hatch cover commercially

Weatherstripping

Air tight, I.C.,

recessed can light

Or Install outside the conditioned space

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 63

Airtight Drywall Method
The Airtight Drywall Method (ADM) is an air sealing system that connects the interior finish of
drywall and other building materials together to form a continuous barrier. ADM has been used on
hundreds of houses and has proven to be an effective technique to reduce air leakage as well as keep
moisture, dust, and insects from entering the home.

In a typical drywall installation, most of the seams are sealed by tape and joint compound. However,
air can leak in or out of the home in the following locations:

• Between the edges of the drywall and the top and bottom plates of exterior walls
• From the attic down between the framing and drywall of partition walls.
• Between the window, door frames and drywall
• Through openings in the drywall for utilities and other services

Figure 4-11
Airtight Drywall Method Air Barrier
Seal around rough
Seal interior walls of openings in envelope
top floor at top plate For exterior walls
seal at top and
bottom plates

Seal corner studs on

exterior and interior
walls

Seal electrical
Seal all penetrations
boxes to drywall

64
ADM uses either caulk or gaskets to seal these areas and make the drywall a continuous air barrier
system. ADM gaskets are pliable materials with “memory” – when compressed and then released by
drywall that is shrinking or expanding. They quickly return to their previous shape and position.
The gaskets can be applied long before the drywall crew arrives – just make sure they do not remove
the gaskets.

ADM Advantages

Effective - ADM is a reliable air barrier.

Simple - does not require specialized subcontractors or unusual construction techniques. If gasket
materials are not available locally, they can be shipped easily.

Does not cover framing - the use of ADM does not prevent the drywall from being glued to the
framing.

Scheduling - gaskets can be installed anytime between when the house is “dried-in” and the drywall
is attached to framing.

Adaptable - builders can adapt ADM principles to suit any design and varying constructions
schedules.

Cost - materials and labor for standard designs should only cost $100 - $300.

Not a vapor barrier - Vapor barriers are not recommended in climate zones 2 and 3; such as in
Louisiana.

ADM Disadvantages

New - although ADM is a proven technique, many building professionals and code officials are not
familiar with its use.

Requires thought - while ADM is simple, new construction techniques require careful planning to
ensure that the air barrier remains continuous. However, ADM is often the most error-free and
reliable air barrier for unique designs.

Requires care - gaskets and caulking can be damaged or removed by subcontractors when installing
the drywall or utilities.

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 65

 Figure 4-12
Creating an Air Barrier Between Floors
Batt insulation
in stud cavity

Continuous
drywall system
Bottom (sole)
wall plate

Caulk between band

joists and floor joists and
plates after framing
Or
Caulk and gasket
between plates and band
joists during framing
Floor joists

Insulation at
band joist

ADM Installation Techniques

Wood Framed Floors

• Seal seams in and around the band joist to minimize air leakage.

• For unvented crawlspaces or basements, seal or gasket beneath the sole plate.

• Seal the seams between pieces of subflooring with good quality adhesive.

Slab Floors
• Seal expansion joints and penetrations with a sealant such as one-part urethane caulk.

Windows and Doors

• Seal drywall edges to either framing or jambs for windows and doors.

• Fill rough opening with dry foam gasket or nonexpanding caulk, spray foam sealant, or
suitable substitute.

• Caulk window and door trim to drywall with clear or paintable sealant.

Exterior Framed Walls

• Seal between the bottom plate and subflooring with caulk or gaskets.

66
 • Install ADM gaskets or caulk along the face of the bottom and top plate so that when drywall
is installed it compresses the sealant to form an airtight seal against the framing.

• Use drywall joint compound or caulk to seal the gap between drywall and electrical boxes;
install foam gaskets behind cover plates and caulk holes in boxes.

• Homes in Louisiana do not need a vapor barrier. Sealing air leaks is more effective as
moisture control.

• Seal penetrations through the top and bottom plates for plumbing, wiring, and ducts; local
fire codes may require fire stopping for penetrations through top plates.

Partition Walls
• Seal the drywall to the top plate of partition walls where attics and other unconditioned
spaces are above.

• Install gaskets or caulk on the face of the first stud in the partition wall. Sealant should
extend from the bottom to the top of the stud to keep from leaking inside or outside.

• Seal around ductwork where it projects through partition walls.

• Seal penetrations through the top and bottom plates for plumbing, wiring, and ducts.

Ceiling
• Seal openings above or into chases and dropped soffits.

• Follow standard finishing techniques to seal the junction between the ceiling and walls.

• When installing ceiling drywall, do not damage ADM gaskets on wall studs, especially in
tight areas such as closets and hallways.

• Seal all penetrations in the ceiling for wiring, plumbing, ducts, attic access openings, and
whole house fans.

• Avoid recessed lights; where used, install airtight, IC-rated fixtures and caulk or gasket
between fixtures and drywall.

Housewrap Air Barriers

Housewrap materials can reduce air leaks through exterior walls if installed properly. They are
advantageous in Louisiana because they are permeable to water vapor, thus helping prevent moisture
buildup in walls.

One of the major problems with housewraps has been poor field installation. In fact, many homes
with exterior housewraps do not reap the full energy savings because of sub-par installation. To stop
air leakage, the housewrap material must be sealed to the sheathing at framing openings, all

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 67

penetrations and seams. Follow manufactures recommendations. Check perm rating to ensure that
the material is not a vapor barrier (< 1 perm).

Figure 4-13
Housewrap – Window Connection
Housewrap

1x3 furring strips to Gypsum board

provide drainage plane.
Sheathing

Siding

Drip mould

Housewrap
sealed directly
to window head
flashing with Window head
sealant
Housewrap Advantages
Air barrier - housewraps allow water vapor to pass through.
Availability - housewraps have been used for years on homes and are usually available in local
building supply houses.
Installation - housewraps require no special tools and can be installed in large sheets with
relatively few joints. Tears can be repaired with approved tapes.
Cost - materials and labor for completely air sealing standard home designs should only cost a
few hundred dollars.
Marketing - the visibility of housewraps help advertise the home as "energy efficient".

Housewrap Disadvantages
Sealing penetrations and seams - it can be difficult to seal housewraps to plumbing, wiring, and
ducts; between overlapped seams; and at the junctions between floors, walls and ceilings.
Many standard caulks do not provide an effective, long-term seal, so select products with 30
to 50-year guarantees.
Connection to floor and ceiling - housewraps can seal air leaks through exterior walls easily,
but the builder must take care to connect the seal membrane over sheathing at ceiling and
floor assembly areas.

68
 Figure 4-14
Recommended Housewrap
Installation Process & Procedures
Seal at top plate

Seal opening at
floodlight

Cut housewrap at
corners, fold in,
and seal to
framing at window
opening

Window

Install bottom plate

gasket or set bottom Seal gap between
plate in continuous electrical box and
sealant bead sheathing
Seal hose bib
at penetration
Seal or tape seams
Housewrap: seal in sheet goods
overlaps with tape

Foam Sheathing Barrier

Foam exterior sheathing can serve as both insulation and an exterior drainage plane. Detailing is, of
course, critical especially at joints and penetrations. All seams should be sealed, as shown in Figure
4-15. Horizontal seams must be flashed with Z-flashing or comparable sealants.

The exterior sheathing material can either serve as a moisture shedding / air sealing membrane or as
a moisture absorbing surface that may contribute to the degradation of the building envelope.

Chapter 4 Air Leakage Sealing – Materials and Techniques 69

 Figure 4-15
Sealing Sheathing as Exterior Air Barrier

Seal at top plate Seal opening

at floodlight

Sheathing

Seal gap between

electrical box and
Sheathing
sheathing

Seal hose bib

at penetration

Install bottom plate gasket or

set bottom plate in
Seal or tape seams
continuous sealant bead
in sheet goods

The keys to having a beneficial sheathing surface are:

• Protect sheathing materials, such as OSB, plywood, and exterior dry wall that will degrade
with exposure to sun, water, or other environmental hazards.
• Always lap protective materials such as housewrap and exterior felt higher over lower
courses (shingle style) to shed water.
• Do not use tape to seal horizontal seams, install flashing instead.

Provide moisture and vapor a place from which to escape —a drain for moisture at the bottom and a
vent for removing vapor at the top of the wall.

It is important in Louisiana to allow the wall to dry — usually by eliminating the interior vapor
barrier and allowing water vapor to move through the wall cavity, into the home to be removed from
the home (in liquid form) through the condensate pan drain in the air handler. Avoid applying vinyl
wall coverings and other interior vapor barrier materials on exterior walls in this hot – humid
climate. High humidity areas like baths and kitchens need special treatment, like exhausting vapor
laden air.

70
Chapter 5

Insulation Materials and Techniques

The key to an effective insulation system is proper installation of quality insulation products. A
house should have a continuous layer of insulation around the entire building envelope. Studies
show that improper installation can cut performance of the insulation by 30% or more.

Figure 5-1
Insulating the Building Envelope
Recommended Insulation Values

Attic:
R-30 Knee Walls:
R-13

Walls:
R-13

*Floors:
R-13, R-19 *Windows:
U-0.75, U-0.65

Below-grade foundation Walls:

None required

*Where two numbers are listed, first number is for climate

zone 2 and the second number is for climate zone 3.

Insulation Materials
The wide variety of insulation materials makes it difficult to determine which products and
techniques are the most cost effective.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 73

Fiberglass insulation products come in batt, roll, and loose-fill form, as well as a high-density board
material. Many manufacturers use recycled glass in the production process. Fiberglass is used for
insulating virtually every building component – from foundation walls to attics to ductwork.

Table 5-1
Fiberglass Batt Insulation Characteristics

Thickness Cost
R-value
(inches) ($/sq ft)
3 1/2 11 0.28 - 0.35
3 1/2 13 0.34 - 0.37
3 1/2 15 0.64 - 0.67
6 to 6 1/4 19 0.43 - 0.55
8 30 0.64 - 0.91
9 1/2 to 9 3/4 30 0.61 - 0.81
12 38 0.78 - 0.83

This chart is for comparison only. Determine actual thickness, R-value,

and cost from manufacturer or local building supply.

• Cellulose insulation, made from recycled newsprint, comes primarily in loose-fill form.
Cellulose batt insulation has also been introduced in the marketplace. Loose-fill cellulose is used
for insulating attics and can be used for walls and floors when installed with a binder, netting, or
covering.
• Rock wool insulation is mainly available as a loose-fill product and can be installed in attics or
blown using damp spray methods into walls. It is fireproof and manufacturers use recycled
materials in the production process.
• Molded-expanded polystyrene, often known as beadboard, is a foam product made from molded
beads of plastic. While it has the lowest R-value per inch of the foam products, it is also the
lowest in price. It is used in several alternative building products discussed in this chapter,
including insulated concrete forms and structural insulated panels. It performs well in below-
grade applications.
• Extruded polystyrene, also a foam product, is a homogenous polystyrene product made primarily
by three manufacturers with characteristic colors of blue, pink, and green. It is an excellent
product for below-grade applications or exterior sheathing.
• Polyisocyanurate and closed-cell polyurethane are insulating foams with some of the highest
available R-values per inch. Another benefit of these foams is that they provide structural
support to the bracing members and sheathing.
• Open-cell polyurethane is used primarily to seal air leaks and provide an insulating layer.
Polyurethane is one of the only spray foams which can be used in existing buildings, as it will
not expand and damage the interior finish.
• Isocyanate foam, used primarily to seal air leaks and provide an insulating layer, is foamed with
carbon dioxide.
• Aerated Concrete, including lightweight, autoclaved (processed at high temperature) concrete
can provide a combination of moderate R-values and thermal mass for floors, walls, and ceilings.

Use extra care with all insulation – see the manufacturer’s label for specific product handling
information.

74
 Table 5-2
Comparison of Envelope Insulation Materials
(Environmental Characteristics and Health Impacts)

R-Value Pollution
Type of Installation per from Indoor Air Quality
Insulation Method(s) Inch Raw Materials Production Impacts Comments
Fibrous Insulation
Fibers and
High recycled
loose fill, wet chemicals can be
3.0 - newspaper, borates, content, very
Cellulose spray, dense Negligible irritants, should be
3.7 ammonium sulfate low embodied
pack, stabilized isolated from
energy
interior space
silica, sand,
limestone, boron, Fibers and
batts, loose fill, resin, cullet, some Air pollution chemicals can be some loose-fill
3.0 -
Fiberglass stabilized, rigid types contain trace from energy irritants, should be products have
4.3
board amounts of phenol use isolated from no binder.
formaldehyde in the interior space
binder
Fibers and
loose fill (no steel slag or rock , Air pollution chemicals can be Sound
2.3 –
Mineral Wool binder), batts, phenol from energy irritants, should be deading
4.0
wet spray formaldehyde, use isolated from capacity
interior space
2.5 - Some nuisance
Perlite loose fill volcanic rock Negligible
3.3 dust
Rigid Insulation and Sheathing
Pentane
Concern only for Primary non-
Expanded 3.85 - emissions
rigid boards fossil fuels, pentane those with chemical HCFC foam
Polystyrene 5.0 contribute to
sensitivities board
smog
At one time, a
Concern only for
Extruded 3.1 - fossil fuels, HCFC- Ozone recycled
rigid boards those with chemical
Polystyrene 5.0 142b depletion product was
sensitivities
available
One non-
Concern only for
Polyiso- foil-faced rigid 3.6 – fossil fuels, HCFC- Ozone HCFC-based
those with chemical
cyanurate boards 5.6 141b depletion product is
sensitivities
available
Concern only for
Closed-cell 3.4 – fossil fuels, HCFC- Ozone
sprayed-in those with chemical
Polyurethane 6.2 141b depletion
sensitivities
Doesn't
Open-cell Unknown, appears
sprayed-in 3.5 fossil fuels, soy oil Negligible harden; good
Polyurethane to be very safe
air sealing
sawmill waste,
Fiberboard Dryer
rigid boards 2.6 organic by-products, n/a
Sheathing emissions
asphalt, wax

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 75

Insulation Strategies
As shown in Table 5-3, fiberglass, rock wool, and cellulose products are the most economical and
should serve as bulk insulation in attics, walls, and floors. In attics, loose-fill products are usually
less expensive than batts or blankets. Blown cellulose and rock wool are denser than fiberglass,
helping reduce air leakage.

Foam Insulation Strategies

Foam products are primarily economical when they can be applied as part of a structural system or
to help seal air leaks. Examples include:

• Exterior sheathing over wall framing

• Insulated concrete forms
• As part of a structural insulated panel for walls and roofs
• Spray-applied foam insulation
• Foundation wall or slab insulation – not recommended in Louisiana.

Critical Guidelines
When installing any insulating material, the following guidelines are critical for optimum
performance:

• Seal all air leaks between conditioned and unconditioned areas

• Obtain complete, uniform coverage of the insulation
• Minimize air leakage through the material
• Avoid compressing insulation
• Avoid lofting (installing with too much air) in loose-fill products.

Table 5-3
Cost Comparison of Insulating Materials
(Does not including installation)

Typical
Typical Cost ($/sq
R-Value
ft per R-value)*
(per inch)*
Batts, blankets and loose-fill insulation
Mineral wool, fiberglass, rock wool
Batts or blankets 2.9 - 3.8 .020 - .032
Loose-fill 2.2 - 2.9 .015 - .020
Cellulose (loose-fill) 3.1 - 3.7 .009 - .036
Cotton Insulation 3.0 - 3.7 .048 - .055
Foam insulation and sheathing
Polyisocyanurate and polyurethane 5.0 - 7.0 .172
Extruded polystyrene 5.0 .075 - .091
Expanded polystyrene 4.0 .063 - .084
Fiberboard sheathing (blackboard) 2.6 .082 - .136
Isocyanate Foam 3.6 - 4.3 n/a
*Determine actual R-values and costs from manufacturers or local suppliers.

76
Foundation Insulation
Slab-on-Grade Insulation
Many of Louisiana’s homes have slab-on-grade floors for the first story of conditioned space. Slab
insulation is not recommended anywhere in the state by the IRC due to problems with termites,
which can tunnel undetected through the foam to gain access to the wood framing in the walls.
Because of the severity of the problem, this publication does not recommend foam slab insulation in
Louisiana.

Foundation Wall Insulation

Foundation walls and other masonry walls are usually built of concrete blocks or poured concrete.

Insulating concrete block cores

Builders can insulate the interior cores of concrete block walls with insulation such as:

• Vermiculite – R-2.1 per inch (see http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/verm.html for more

information on vermiculite)
• Polystyrene inserts or beads – R-4.0 to 5.0 per inch
• Polyurethane foam – R-5.8 to 6.8 per inch

Unfortunately, the substantial thermal bridging in the concrete connections between the cores
depreciates the overall R-value. Thus, this approach is only a partial solution to providing a quality,
well-insulated wall.

Figure 5-2
Insulating Concrete Block Cores
(R-4 to R-6 overall)
Loose fill vermiculite or
polystyrene beads

R-13

R-2

Foundation Vents
The purpose of crawl space vents is to dry out the air under the house. The major source of moisture
is the earth floor of the crawl space in most homes. Covering the earth with a layer of polyethylene
will eliminate most of the moisture from this source.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 77

In Louisiana, the second greatest source of moisture is air coming in through the vents. Venting
crawl spaces which have air conditioning ducts can be of particular concern. Often the ductwork is
leaky and poorly insulated, which creates a cold surface that causes water vapor in the air to
condense. Air conditioning often cools the floor framing and crawl spaces below the dew point
temperature of the outside air. Warm, moist outside air coming through the vents can then condense
inside the crawl space as shown in Figure 5-6. In some cases, water accumulating in duct insulation
has become heavy enough to pull the entire duct loose.

Because of the poor ability of outdoor air to aid in dehumidifying crawl spaces in summer and a
desire to avoid ventilation in winter in order to keep crawl spaces warmer, many building
professionals feel that an unvented crawl space is the best option in homes with good exterior
drainage systems and no natural gas piping. However, get approval from local code officials before
omitting vents.

Figure 5-3
Relative Humidity (RH) and
Foundation Vents

92°
75% RH

76º
100% RH

76º

Basement Wall Insulation

Interior Foam Wall Insulation
Foam insulation can be installed on the interior of basement walls; however, it must be covered with
a material that resists damage and meets local fire code requirements. Half-inch drywall will
typically comply. Furring strips will need to be installed as nailing surfaces. Furring strips are
usually installed between sheets of foam insulation. To avoid the direct, uninsulated thermal bridge
between the concrete wall and the furring strips, a continuous layer of foam may be installed
underneath the nailing strips.

78
 Figure 5-4
Interior Foam Wall Insulation
(R-10 to R-14 overall)

2 x 2 furring strips
½” drywall

R-11 to R-15

R-8 to R-13

Weatherproofing

1” to 1-1/2” foam insulation

Interior Framed Wall

In some cases, designers will specify a framed wall on the interior of a masonry wall. Standard
framed wall insulation and air sealing practice can then be applied.

Figure 5-5
Interior Framed Wall
(R-11 to R-13 overall)

R-13 Batt insulation

2 x 4 stud

Weatherproofing ½” drywall

CMU

Lightweight Concrete Products

Lightweight, air entrained concrete is an alternative wall system. The aerated concrete, which can be
shipped as either blocks or panels, combines elevated R-values (compared to standard concrete) with
thermal mass.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 79

Integrated Foam and Concrete Wall Systems
Polystyrene or polyurethane foam can be used as formwork for poured or spray-on structural
concrete. Only products containing termiticides should be in direct contact with the ground.

Insulated Concrete Form (ICF) – Several companies manufacture foam blocks that can be installed
quickly on the footings of a building. Once stacked, reinforced with rebar, and braced, they can be
filled with concrete. ICFs that serve as formwork for concrete basement walls or the entire exterior
wall system of the home can save on the cost of materials and reduce heat flow. Advantages include
improved termite control due to lack of wood in the exterior structure, durability, hurricane
resistance, continuous insulation, and noise control.

Figure 5-6
Insulated Concrete Form Wall Systems
(R-17 to R-24 overall)

Poured concrete

Rebar

Foam block:
R-16 to R-23

Plastic or metal furring

strips for attaching
finishing materials

Foam Panel or Snap Tie Systems – Some companies produce systems in which insulation panels are
locked together with plastic snap ties. A space, typically eight inches, is created between the foam
panels. This space is then filled with concrete. As with foam block systems, installers must follow
the manufacturer’s recommendations carefully for a successful system. Key considerations are:

• Bracing requirements – the cost of bracing the foam blocks before construction may outweigh
any labor savings from the system. Some products require little bracing while others need
substantially more.
• Stepped foundations – make sure of the recommendations for stepping foundations – some
systems have 12” high blocks or foam sections, while others are 16” high.
• Reinforcing – follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for placement of rebar and other
reinforcing materials.
• Concrete fill – make sure that the concrete ordered to fill the foam foundation system has the
correct slump to meet the manufacturer’s requirements. These systems have been subject to
blowouts when the installer did not fully comply with the manufacturer’s specifications. A
blowout is when the foam or its support structure breaks and concrete pours out of the form.

80
• Termites – follow the guidelines in this chapter concerning termite prevention strategies with any
foam product. Homes built completely with ICFs will reduce termite risks because they
eliminate framing lumber.

Spray-on Systems – Concrete can be sprayed onto foam panels which are covered by a metal
reinforcing grid, part of which is exposed. A structural concrete mixture is sprayed onto the exposed
reinforcing metal. As with foam block systems, installers must follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations carefully for a successful system.

Note: These systems should not be used below grade to reduce potential for termite infestation.

Framed Floor Insulation

Insulating Under Floors
Many Louisiana homes have floor structures consisting of 2x10 or 2x12 wood joists, wood I-beams,
or trusses over unconditioned crawl spaces or basements. Insulation should be installed underneath
the subfloor between the framing members. To meet the International Residential Code for floor
insulation, R-13 is required in Zone 2 and R-19 in Zone 3.

Most builders use insulation batts with an attached vapor barrier for insulating framed floors. The
batts should be installed flush against the subfloor without any gaps, which may serve as a
passageway for cold air between the insulation and floor. Special rigid wire supports called “tiger
teeth” hold the insulation in place.

Figure 5-7
Insulated Wood Framed Floors
2 6
1
1. Bottom Plate
3 2. Sealant
7 3. Exterior Finish
4. Insulated Sheathing
4 5. Band Joist
8 6. Subfloor
5 7. Insulation flush against subfloor (R-13
for zone 2, R-19 for zone 3)
9 8. Wire stave or tiger tooth
10 9. Sill plate (pressure treated)
10. Foundation wall
11. 10-mil, high density polyethylene
ground cover
11

Run wiring, plumbing, and ductwork below the bottom of the insulation so that the continuous layer
can be installed. Be certain to insulate all plumbing and ductwork in the unconditioned spaces such
as crawl spaces, basements, and attics.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 81

 Figure 5-8
Insulated Floor over Pier Foundation
Insulate with batts, blown
insulation, or spray foam insulation,
such as polyurethane or isocyanate
foam

Air-tight, moisture-resistant sheet material,

such as pressure-treated plywood with
housewrap directly above, under floor joists

Table 5-4
Economics of Framed Floor Insulation
Compared to an Uninsulated Floor

Energy Extra Annual Extra

Savings Installed Rate of Mortgage
($/yr) Costs ($) Return Costs ($/yr)
1. R-11 Batt 363 1030 37.2 83
2. R-13 Batts 380 1110 36.2 89
3. R-19 Batts 431 1380 33.2 111
4. R-30 Batts 474 1820 28.0 147
*For a home with a 2,000 square-foot floor located in Baton Rouge. Analysis assumes 2%
annual fuel price escalation; mortgage is 30 year, 7% loan; the energy savings were estimated
using REMRate v 12.0 software.

Insulating Crawl Space Walls Rather Than Floors

For years, building professionals have assumed the optimal practice for insulating floors over
unheated areas was to insulate underneath the floor. However, studies performed in Tennessee
several years ago found that insulating the walls in well-sealed crawl spaces and unconditioned
basements can be an effective alternative to under-floor insulation. While the annual heating bills
in the homes tested were one to three percent higher than those with under-floor insulation, the
cooling bills dropped by approximately the same amount. Because the crawl space remains cool in
summer, the home can conduct heat to the crawl space if there is no insulation under the floor.

82
 Figure 5-9
Insulated, Sealed Crawl Space Walls

3
1. Termite Shield
1 2. 1 to 2-inch insulation
2 4 3. Insulation batt for band
joist
5 4. R-13 batt for zone 3
5. 2-inch termite
inspection strip

Crawl Space Wall Insulation Requirements:

• Cover the entire earth floor with 6- to 10-mil polyethylene (recommended in all homes)
• A one- or two-inch gap should be left at the bottom of the insulation to serve as a termite
inspection strip.
• Insulate the band joist area in addition to the foundation wall.
• The crawl space or basement must have an airtight barrier to the house.
• Review plans for the insulation with local building officials to ensure code compliance

Advantages of Crawl Space Wall Insulation

• Less insulation required (about 800 square feet for a 2000 square-foot crawl space with 4-foot
walls).
• Pipe insulation is not required (spaces should stay warmer in winter).

Disadvantages of Crawl Space Wall Insulation

• The insulation may be damaged by rodents and other pests.
• If the crawl space leaks air to the outside, the home will lose considerably more heat than
standard homes with under-floor insulation.
• Proper site drainage and a continuous ground cover are essential to keep the crawl space and
insulation dry.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 83

 Figure 5-10
Floor Insulation Details

● Dots represent critical air sealing locations

Truss - Band Joist Between Floors Cantilevered Floor

½” to 1” foam Solid wood

insulation *R-13, R-19 block with
Insulation all seams
sealed
R-13 Batt

Cardboard baffle
to hold insulation Continuous foam
in place sheathing

Plywood Soffit
Note: Floor trusses will measure 1” to 3”
shorter than total width of exterior wall
framing, depending on the exact treatment.

Garage Ceiling Under Bonus Room

Wood blocking with all

seams sealed

Drywall R-13 Insulation

*R-13, R-19
Insulation ½” Foam
Sheathing
GARAGE INTERIOR

*Where two numbers are listed, first number is for climate

zone 2 and the second number is for climate zone 3.

84
Wall Construction
Walls are the most complex component of the building envelope to insulate, air seal, and moisture-
proof. Throughout the United States, debates continue on optimal wall construction. Issues include:

• Vapor barrier and air sealing systems

• 2 x 4 versus 2 x 6 framing; energy efficient framing
• Which types of wall insulation are best

Wall Framing with Advanced Framing (See Chapter 2)

Advanced framing increases energy efficiency and reduces annual energy costs because of more
effective insulation. Several approaches used in advanced framing are shown in Figure 5-12,
including:

• Less framing in corners and partition wall intersections

• More efficient headers
• Eliminating curtailed studs (cripples)
• Using single top plates via point loading

2 x 4 Wall Insulation
Table 5-5 summarizes typical problems and solutions in walls framed with 2x4 studs. Solving wall
construction problems requires preplanning. In addition to standard framing lumber and fasteners,
the following materials will also be required during construction:

• Foam sheathing for insulating headers

• 1x4 let-in bracing or metal T-bracing with 1/2” drywall or other interior for corner bracing
• R-13 or R-19 batts for insulating areas during framing behind shower/tub enclosures or other
hidden areas
• 1/2” drywall or other sheet material where needed for air sealing behind enclosures for showers
and tubs and other areas that cannot be reached after construction
• Caulking or foam sealant for sealing areas that may be more difficult to seal later

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 85

 Figure 5-11
Let-in Bracing

2x4 stud

1x4 let-in brace

K-brace when notched into
window or door wall studs
Metal T-bracing is near corner
saves on the labor
cost of 1x4 let-in Saw kerf for
bracing (double for T-brace
added strength);
should be run over
top plate and under
bottom plate

Table 5-5
2x4 Framed Wall Problems and Solutions

Problem Solution

Sometimes there is only a small space available Install continuous exterior foam sheathing and medium
for installation of insulation. (R-13) to high (R-15) density cavity insulation

Enclosed cavities are more prone to cause Install a continuous air barrier system and allow drying
condensation when sheathing materials with low to the inside (no interior vapor barrier). Use continuous
R-values are used foam sheathing on the exterior.

Presence of wiring, plumbing, ductwork, and Locate piping and ductwork in interior walls; avoid
framing members lessens potential R-value and horizontal wiring runs through exterior walls; use air
provides pathways for air leakage sealing insulation system.

86
 Figure 5-12
Advanced Framing Insulation Details

Corner Framing

Standard Advanced Framing

Drywall
clip Stud turned 90° for
nailing end of siding

Partition Wall Framing

Standard Framing Advanced Framing

1x6 or 2x6 Ladder of

Extra studs for No insulation Drywall nailer behind 2x4s spaced
nailing sheetrock clips end stud of vertically 24”
partition wall on center

Partition Wall Framing

Roof framing sits directly
over wall studs

Curtailed studs above

header and below
window maintain
spacing of rafters
Curtailed studs
eliminated unless needed
for attaching trim

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 87

 Figure 5-13
Standard Framing versus Advanced Framing
Standard Framing (16" on center)--10 foot wall

Window located
between studs

Dotted lines Single Exterior

show regularly top Extra studs for corner
spaced studs plate partition wall studs

Window fitted
Insulation conveniently to
batts fit framing
entirely
into
cavities

Advanced framing reduces Ladder of 2x4s

for connecting Let-in bracing allows
percentage of framing material
partition wall continuous foam sheathing
in wall from 18% to 10%

Comparison Standard Framing Advanced Framing

Insulation Voids 3% 0%
Framing Factor 15 to 25% 10 to 15%
Cavity R-value R-13 R-13
Sheathing R-value R-0.5 R-2.5
Average R-value R-11.1 R-14.6 (30% better)

88
Batt Insulation - Use Tight-Fitting, Unfaced Batts
Vapor retarder-faced batts were previously considered the standard in Louisiana. However, this
prevented wall cavities from being dried by the air conditioning inside the house. In Louisiana’s
climate, houses need to dry to the inside because the outdoor air is humid much of the time.

Completely fill wall cavities with insulation. Unfaced batts are slightly larger than the standard 16-
or 24-inch stud spacing and rely on a friction-fit for support. Since unfaced batts are not stapled,
they can often be installed in less time. In addition, it is easier to cut unfaced batts to fit around
wiring, plumbing, and other obstructions in the walls.

Figure 5-14
Insulating Walls with Batts

Properly installed
Potential air batt, full thickness
infiltration

Compressed batt,
poor practice

Drywall

Blown Loose-Fill Insulation

Many contractors select loose-fill cellulose, fiberglass, and rock wool to insulate walls. The
insulation is often installed with a blowing machine and held in place with a glue binder or netting.
This blown insulation can provide good insulation coverage in the stud cavities; however, you must
allow the binder to dry before the wall cavities are enclosed by the interior finish.

Loose-fill materials with high densities, such as cellulose installed at a density of three to four
pounds per cubic foot, not only provide good insulation, but also retard air leaks. Fiberglass is less
dense than cellulose and does not provide as much resistance to air circulation. Slag or rock wool
insulation is denser than either which sound proofs better. All three are similarly priced and provide
about the same insulating capability. The additional benefits of air sealing should be considered
when evaluating the economics of cellulose or rock wool when installed in a dense-pack fashion.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 89

 Figure 5-15
Blown Sidewall Insulation Options

Reinforced mesh
covering

Roller to
clean off
excess
insulation

Hose for
moistening
insulation

Insulation hose from

blowing machine

Spray Foam Insulation

Insulation contractors now spray polyurethane or isocyanate foam insulation into walls of new
homes. This technique provides high R-values in relatively thin space and seals air leaks effectively.
The economics of foam insulation should be examined carefully before deciding on its use.

90
 Figure 5-16
Spray Foam Insulation

Urethane (R-7 per inch)

or Isocyanate foam
(R-3.5 per inch)

Extra foam around

framing members
to seal air leaks

Structural Insulated Panels

Another approach to wall construction is the use of structural insulated panels (SIPs), also known as
stress-skin panels. They consist of 3.5- or 5.5-inch thick foam panels onto which sheets of structural
plywood or oriented strand board (OSB) have been glued. They reduce labor costs and, because of
the reduced framing in the wall, have higher R-values and less air leakage than standard walls.

SIPs come in a variety of sizes up to whole walls. There are a number of manufacturers, each with
its own method of attaching panels together. Procedures for installing windows, doors, wiring, and
plumbing have been worked out by each manufacturer. In addition to their use as wall framing, SIPs
can also form the structural roof of a building.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 91

 Figure 5-17
Structural Insulated Panels (SIP)

Drywall

R-14 or
greater foam

Exterior
siding

OSB Panels

2 x 4 or 2 x 6 plate attached to slab

SIP Panel with sealing material underneath.

Homes built with SIPs are generally more expensive than those with standard framing and
insulation. However, research has shown that they have higher average insulating values and less air
leakage.

92
 Figure 5-18
Structural Insulated Panels Construction

Wiring hole
1
• Install first panel on top
of bottom plate – caulk in
Caulk or glue between place
OSB and framing • Be careful to install panel
plumb and level

Sealant under
bottom plate

2
• Continue installing
panels, caulking all seams
and checking for plumb
and level
• Install continuous top
plate

Second top
plate Inset framing

3
• Install second top plate
• Run wiring
• Cut holes for windows, if
necessary
• Notch into foam using a
special tool to inset
framing around rough
openings
Receptacles and • Install caulk and framing
switches notched
into foam

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 93

Metal Framing
Builders and designers are well aware of the increasing cost and decreasing quality of framing
lumber. As a consequence, interest in alternative framing materials, such as metal framing, has
grown. While metal framing offers advantages over wood, such as consistency of dimensions, lack
of warping, and resistance to moisture and insect problems, it has distinct disadvantages from an
energy perspective.

Metal framing serves as an excellent conductor of heat. Homes framed with metal studs and plates
usually have metal ceiling joists and rafters as well. Thus, the entire structure serves as a highly
conductive thermal grid. Insulation placed between metal studs and joists is much less effective due
to the extreme thermal bridging that occurs across the framing members.

There have been moisture-related problems in metal frame buildings in Louisiana that do not use
insulated sheathing on exterior walls. Metal studs cooled by the air conditioning system can cause
moisture in outdoor air to condense on the exterior sheathing and cause mildew streaks. Similar
problems can also occur on interior walls in winter.

The American Iron and Steel Institute is well aware of the challenges involved in building an energy
efficient steel structure. In their publication Thermal Design Guide for Exterior Walls (Publication
RG-9405), the Institute provides information on the thermal performance of steel-framed homes.
Table 5-6 shows options for meeting the requirements of the IRC in steel framed walls, as well as
the impact of metal framing on the effective insulating value of walls. Even in walls with insulating
foam sheathing, R-values drop 18% to 27% when substituting metal framing for wood.

Table 5-6
Steel Wall Insulation Options

Effective
Cavity Sheathing
R-
R-Value R-Value
Value**
Option 1 13 5 11.5
Option 2 15 4 10.4
Option 3 21 * 3 10.4
*2x6 studs, 16” on center
**Does not include sheathing

Researchers have delved into numerous ways to provide for a thermal break in walls with steel
framing. The most effective solution has been to increase the insulating value of the sheathing.
However, the home still suffers considerable conduction losses up to the attic if the ceiling joists and
rafters are steel-framed. The best solution to the heat gain through steel framing in attics is to install
a thermal break, such as a sill sealer material between wall framing and ceiling joists. Then, install a
layer of foam sheathing underneath the ceiling joists before installing drywall.

94
Wall Sheathings
Many Louisiana builders use 1/2-inch wood sheathing (R-0.6) or asphalt-impregnated sheathing,
usually called blackboard (R-1.3), to cover the exterior walls of a building before installing the
siding. A better method thermally is to use 1/2-inch expanded polystyrene (R-2), extruded
polystyrene (R-2.5 to 3), polyisocyanurate or polyurethane (R-3.4 to 3.6) foam insulated sheathing
with diagonal braces. Check with local building code officials before using this method.

Figure 5-19
Foam Sheathing Keeps Walls Warmer

R-0.5 Plywood Sheathing R-13 Insulation

Sheathing inside
temperature
38°F

Ambient = 35°F Indoor = 68°F

Drywall

R-2.5 Foam Sheathing

Sheathing inside
temperature
43°F

Advantages of foam sheathing over wood or blackboard include:

• Saves energy
• Easier to cut and install
• Protects against condensation (Figure 5-19)
• Less expensive than plywood

The recommended thickness of the sheathing is based on the desired R-value and the jamb design for
windows and doors – usually 1/2-inch. Be certain that the sheathing completely covers the top plate
and any band joist at the floor. Most manufacturers offer sheathing products in 9- or 10-foot lengths
to allow complete coverage of the wall. Once it is installed, patch all holes.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 95

 Table 5-7
Sheathing Costs*

Sheathing Cost ($) R-value

1/2" asphalt impregnated fiberboard 349 1.3

1/2" beadboard (MEPS) 349 2.0

1/2" oriented strand board (OSB) 369 0.60

1/2" extruded polystyrene 480 2.5

1/2" polyisocyanurate 480 3.5 - 3.7

* For a 2,000 square-foot home using 64 sheets of 4 x 8 material.

2x6 Wall Construction

There has been some interest in northern Louisiana about the use of 2x6 lumber for construction.
The International Residential Code 2006 allows 2x6s to be spaced on 24-inch centers, rather than the
16-inch centers required for 2x4s. This permits the use of R-19 or 21 insulation in the cavities.

The Advantages of Using Wider Wall Framing Are:

• More space provides room for R-19 or R-21 wall cavity insulation.
• Thermal bridging across studs is less of a penalty due to the higher R-value of 2x6s.
• Fewer instances of thermal bridging occur in the wall.
• There is more space for insulating around piping, wiring, and ductwork.

Disadvantages of 2x6 Framing Include:

• Wider spacing may not support the interior or exterior finishes adequately, allowing them to bow
slightly between studs.
• Window and door jambs are wider and can add $12 to $15 per opening for jamb extenders.
• Walls with large window and door areas may require almost as much framing as 2x4 walls,
leaving less space for insulation.

The economics of 2x6 wall insulation depends on the number of windows in the wall, since each
window opening adds extra studs and requires the purchase of a jamb extender. Figure 5-20
compares 2x4 and 2x6 framing. Walls built with 2x6s having few windows may provide a positive
economic payback in northern Louisiana. However, in walls where windows make up over 7.5% of
the total area, the economics become questionable because of the cost of jamb extenders and the
minor improvement in average wall R-value.

96
 Figure 5-20
Average Wall R-Value

20
2x6
Wall

15
11.3
2x4
Wall
R-Value 10
6.8
9.65
6.2
5

0% 7.5% 18%

Window/Wall Area

Table 5-8
Economics of Wall Insulation*
(Compared to pre-code “Business as Usual” R-11 Batts with fair installation)

Energy Extra Annual Extra

Savings Installed Rate of Mortgage
($/yr) Costs ($) Return Costs ($/yr)
2 x 4 Wall
R-13 Batts 22 64 36.4% 5
R-15 Batts 38 544 7.6% 44
R-14 Cellulose Insulation (reduced air leakage) 95 534 19.7% 43
R-13 Batts, R-2.5 continuous sheathing 38 424 10.0% 34

2 x 6 Wall
R-19 Batts 94 736 14.4% 59
R-19 Batts, R-5 continuous sheathing 136 1096 14.0% 88

*For a home with a 2,000 square-foot floor located in Baton Rouge. Analysis assumes 2% annual fuel price
escalation; mortgage is 30-year, 7% loan; the energy savings were estimated using REMRate v. 12.0
software.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 97

Ceilings and Roofs
Attics over flat ceilings are usually the easiest part of a home’s exterior envelope to insulate. They
are accessible and have ample room for insulation. However, many homes have cathedral ceilings
that provide little space for insulation. It is important to insulate both types of ceilings properly.

Attic Ventilation
In summer, ventilation reduces roof and ceiling temperatures, thus saving on cooling costs and
lengthening the roof’s life. In winter, properly designed roof vents expel moisture which could
otherwise accumulate and deteriorate insulation or other building materials.

Is Ventilation Necessary?
At present, building science experts are questioning whether attic ventilation is beneficial. For
years, researchers have believed the cooling benefits of ventilating a well insulated attic are
negligible. However, some experts are now questioning whether ventilation is even effective at
moisture removal. Until the results of current research have been accepted, builders should follow
local code requirements.

Unvented Attics
Unventilated attics can provide durable, energy efficient structures if using structural insulated
panels or aerated concrete panels as the roofing system of the structure. Some builders have opted to
pack the rafter space in cathedral ceilings completely with high density insulation, such as cellulose
or rock wool and eliminate attic ventilation. However, this approach will avoid moisture problems
only with careful installations and detailing.

Vent Selection
If ventilating the roof, locate vents high along the roof ridge and low along the eave or soffit. Vents
should provide air movement across the entire roof area. There are a wide variety of products
available including ridge, gable, soffit, mushroom, and turbine vents.

The combination of continuous ridge vents along the peak of the roof and continuous soffit vents at
the eave provides the most effective ventilation. Ridge vents come in a variety of colors to match
any roof. Some brands are made of corrugated plastic that can be covered by cap shingles to hide
the vent from view.

Figure 5-21
Ridge and Soffit Vents

98
Guidelines for Attic/Roof Ventilation
The amount of attic ventilation needed is determined by the size of the attic floor and the amount of
moisture entering the attic. General guidelines are:

• 1 square foot of attic vent for each 150 square feet of attic floor area without a ceiling vapor
barrier, such as the backing on batt insulation.
• The total vent area should be divided equally between high and low vents; thus, if 10 total square
feet of vent are needed, locate 5 square feet at the ridge and another 5 square feet at the soffit.
• Only the net free area is effective – about 70% of the total vent area (discounts the louvers and
flange of the vents).

Powered Attic Ventilator Problems

Electrically powered roof ventilators can consume more electricity to operate than they save on
air conditioning costs and are not recommended for most designs. NEVER use a powered ventilator
with a sealed attic! Power vents can create negative pressures in the home, which may have
detrimental effects such as:

• Drawing air from the crawl space into the home

• Removing conditioned air from the home through ceiling leaks and bypasses
• Pulling pollutants such as pesticides and sewer gases into the home
• Backdrafting fireplaces and fuel-burning appliances

Figure 5-22
Pressure Problems Due to Powered Attic Ventilators

When fan operates, Electrically powered

attic pressure drops attic ventilation fan

Insulation baffles to
prevent insulation from
being displaced blocking
air flow

Air is drawn into

attic, causing house
pressure to drop

Crawl space air is Insulated attic

drawn into house hatch

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 99

Attic Floor Insulation Techniques
Either loose-fill or batt insulation can be installed on an attic floor. Unfaced batts should be
installed. As shown in Table 5-9, blowing loose-fill attic insulation – fiberglass, rock wool or
cellulose – is usually less expensive than installing batts or rolls. Batts are less likely to be moved
by high air flows from storms in a vented attic, but baffles are available to keep loose-fill insulation
in place.

Table 5-9
Typical Attic Insulation Costs ($/sq ft)

R-30 Batt Insulation 1.30

R-25 Blown Insulation 0.79
R-30 Blown Insulation 0.89
R-38 Blown Insulation 0.98

Steps For Installing Loose-Fill Attic Insulation:

1. Seal attic air leaks, as prescribed by fire and energy codes.
2. Follow manufacturer’s clearance requirements for heat-producing equipment found in an
attic, such as flues or exhaust fans. Other blocking requirements may be mandated by local
building codes. Use metal flashing, plastic or cardboard baffles, or pieces of batt insulation
for blocking. Attic blocking requirements are shown in Figure 5-23 on the previous page.
3. Use cardboard baffles, insulation batts, or other baffle materials to preserve ventilation from
soffit vents at eave of roof.
4. Insulate the attic hatch or attic stair. There are foam boxes for providing a degree of
insulation over a pull-down attic stairway.
5. Determine the attic insulation area. Based on the spacing and size of the joists, use the chart
on the insulation bag to determine the number of bags to install. Table 5-10 shows a sample
chart for cellulose insulation.
6. Avoid fluffing the insulation (blowing with too much air) by using the proper air-to-
insulation mixture in the blowing machine. A few insulation contractors have “fluffed”
loose-fill insulation to give the impression of a high R-value. The insulation may be the
proper depth, but if too few bags are installed, the R-values will be less than claimed.
7. Obtain complete coverage of the blown insulation at similar insulation depths. Use attic
rulers to ensure uniform depth of insulation. This is an IRC 2006 requirement – see details
there.

Table 5-10
Typical Blowing Chart for Loose-Fill Insulation (Cellulose Insulation Example)

2x6 Joists Spaced 2x6 Joists Spaced

24 Inches on Center 16 Inches on Center
Coverage per Coverage
R-value Minimum Minimum Weight Bags per Bags per
25-lb bag (sq per 25-lb
at 75° F Thickness (in) (lb/sq ft) 1,000 sq ft 1,000 sq ft
ft) bag (sq ft)
R-40 10.8 2.10 12 83 13 77
R-30 8.1 1.45 17 59 19 53
R-24 6.5 0.98 21 48 23 43
R-19 5.1 0.67 37 27 41 24

100
 Figure 5-23
Attic Blocking Requirements

3-inch clearance around

standard recessed light

2-inch clearance around double-wall insulated

or triple wall metal chimney, or follow
manufacturer’s recommendations

Object Recommended Action*

Recessed light Use insulation-contact

rated recessed lights

Doorbell transformer Do not cover; no

clearance on sides
required

Masonry chimney 2-inch clearance

Metal chimney 2-inch clearance or follow

manufacturer’s
recommendations
2-inch clearance
around masonry Vent pipes from Follow manufacturer’s
Kitchen/bath
chimney fuel-burning recommendations
exhaust fan may
equipment
require clearance
Kitchen/bath exhaust Duct to the outside

Heat/light/ventilator 3-inch clearance on all

sides

Uncovered electric Cover the box and insulate

junction boxes over it; if it is left
uncovered, leave a 3-inch
clearance.

Whole house fan Install blocking up to the

fan housing; leave 3-inch
clearance around fan
motor

Attic access door Block around the door if

blowing in loose-fill
insulation
Put covers on all electric
junction boxes and insulate. *These are general guidelines. Follow specific
manufacturer’s guidelines.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 101

Steps for Installing Batt Insulation
1. Seal attic air leaks, as prescribed by fire and energy codes.
2. Block around heat-producing devices, as described in Step 2 for loose-fill insulation.
3. Insulate the attic hatch or attic stair as described in Step 4 for loose-fill insulation.
4. Determine the attic insulation area based on the spacing and size of the joists; order sufficient
R-30 insulation for the flat attic floor. Choose batts that are tapered cut – wider on the top –
so that they cover the top of the ceiling joists. (Figure 5-24)
5. When installing the batts, make certain they completely fill the joist cavities. Shake batts to
ensure proper loft. If the joist spacing is uneven, patch gaps in the insulation with scrap
pieces. Try not to compress the insulation with wiring, plumbing, or ductwork. In general,
obtain complete coverage of full-thickness, non-compressed insulation.
6. Attic storage areas can pose a problem. If the ceiling joists are shallower than the depth of
the insulation (generally less than 2x10s), raise the finished floor using 2x4s or other spacing
lumber. Install the batts before nailing the storage floor in place. (Figure 5-25)

Figure 5-24
Full Width Batts
Batts are cut wider
on top to cover tops
of ceiling joists

Figure 5-25
Insulating under Attic Floors

Plywood
floor

2x4 on edge
allows for full
insulation depth

Ceiling joist
Seal all penetrations
at ceiling

Increasing the Roof Height at the Eave

One problem area in many standard roof designs is at the eave, where there is often insufficient
space for full insulation without blocking air flow from the soffit vents. If the insulation is
compressed, its R-value will decline. Figure 5-26 shows several solutions to this problem. If using a

102
truss roof, purchase raised heel trusses that form horizontal overhangs. They should provide
clearance for both ventilation and insulation.

In stick-built roofs, where rafters and ceiling joists are cut and installed at the construction site, an
additional top plate that lays across the top of the ceiling joists at the eave will prevent compression
of the attic insulation. The rafters sitting on this raised top plate allow for both insulation and
ventilation.

The raised top plate design also minimizes windwashing of the attic insulation, where air entering
the soffit vents flows through the attic insulation. Place a band joist over the open joist cavities of
the roof framing. The band joists help prevent windwashing, which can reduce attic insulation R-
values on extremely cold days and can add moisture to the insulation. Another method of preventing
windwashing is to use preformed cardboard or foam forms which fit snugly between rafters and are
designed for this purpose.

Raised top plates also elevate the overhang of the home, which may enhance the building’s
attractiveness. The aesthetic advantage is especially useful in one-story homes with standard 8-foot
ceilings. However, raised top plates can reduce shading on exposed windows.

Table 5-11
Economics of Attic Insulation*
Compared to R-19 Blown Insulation

Extra Annual Extra

Energy Savings
Installed Rate of Mortgage
($/yr)
Costs ($) Return Costs ($/yr)
R-25 Blown Insulation 38 210 20.0% 17
R-30 Blown Insulation 59 385 17.1% 31
R-38 Blown Insulation 81 665 13.7% 54
R-50 Blown Insulation 102 1085 10.6% 87

*For a home with a 2,000 square-foot attic located in Baton Rouge. Analysis assumes 2% annual fuel price
escalation; mortgage is 30-year, 7% loan; the energy savings were estimated using REMRate v. 12.0
software.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 103

 Figure 5-26
Insulation Options for Eaves

Problem – Roof deck compresses insulation and blocks

air flow from soffit vent

Truss Roof

Solution – raised heel trusses

Insulation not compressed; air flow path is open

Wood-Framed Roof

Solution – raised top plate

Insulation not compressed; air flow path is open

104
Problems with Recessed Lights
Standard recessed fixtures require a clearance of several inches between the lamp’s housing and the
attic insulation. Even worse, recessed fixtures leak air between the attic and the conditioned space.
IC-rated (insulation contact rated) fixtures have a heat sensor switch that allows the fixture to be
covered with insulation. However, these units also leak air. Airtight, IC-rated fixtures are permitted
by the 2006 International Residential Code and the 2006 International Energy Conservation Code.
Otherwise the non-airtight fixture must be installed in a sealed recess. Alternatives to recessed lights
include surface-mounted ceiling fixtures and track lighting, both of which typically contribute less
air leakage to the home. For more information on lighting, see chapter 9.

Figure 5-27
Airtight, IC-rated Recessed Lamps

IC-rated
recessed lamps Airtight “can”
can be fully leaks less than 2
insulated on all cubic feet per
sides, including minute at test
top conditions

Airtight seal to
ceiling finish,
required

Cathedral Ceiling Insulation Techniques

Cathedral ceilings are a special case because of the limited space for insulation and ventilation
within the depth of the rafters. Fitting in a 10-inch batt (R-30) and still providing ventilation is
impossible with anything less than a 2x12 rafter. For the entire state, R-30 insulation is now
required.

Building R-30 Cathedral Ceilings

Cathedral ceilings built with 2x12 rafters can be insulated with standard R-30 batts and still have
adequate space for ventilation. Some builders use a vent baffle between the insulation and roof
decking to ensure that the ventilation channel is maintained. If 2x12s are not required structurally,
most builders find it cheaper to construct cathedral ceilings with 2x10 rafters and high density R-30
batts, which are 8¼- inches thick.

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 105

Some contractors wish to avoid the higher cost of 2x10 lumber and use 2x8 rafters. These roofs are
usually insulated with R-19 batts. However, 2x10 rafters can be spaced 24 inches on center and may
cost little more than 2x8 rafters spaced 16 inches on center.

If framing with 2x6 or 2x8 rafters, insufficient space is available for standard R-30 insulation.
Higher insulating values can be obtained by installing rigid foam insulation between the rafters.
However, foam is expensive and using deeper rafters with batt or loose-fill insulation may be
substantially less costly.

Figure 5-28
Cathedral Ceiling Insulation Options
1” ventilation space between
insulation and roof deck
Construction Options:
• 2x8 Rafter, R-30 foam
• 2x10 Rafter, R-30 foam
• 2x10 Rafter, moderate density
R-30 batt
• 2x12 Rafter, R-30 batt
• 2x12 Rafter, blown-in cellulose,
fiberglass or rock wool held in
place
Cover end of batt with
cardboard of foam baffle to
prevent windwashing

Scissor Trusses
Scissor trusses are another cathedral ceiling efficiency framing option. They have a greater roof
pitch than ceiling pitch, thus creating more space than standard framing provides between the roof
and the ceiling. Make certain that they have adequate room for both R-30 insulation and ventilation,
especially at their ends, which form the eave section of the roof.

Table 5-12
Economics of Cathedral Ceiling Insulation*
Compared to R-19 Batts

Energy Extra Annual Extra

Savings Installed Rate of Mortgage
($/yr) Costs ($) Return Costs ($/yr)
R-25 Batts 28 87 34.2% 7
R-30 High Density Batts 43 150 30.7% 12

*For a 2,000 square-foot home with 25% vaulted ceiling located in Baton Rouge. Analysis assumes 2%
annual fuel price escalation; mortgage is 30-year, 7% loan; the energy savings were estimated using
REMRate v. 12.0 software.

Ceilings with Exposed Rafters

A cathedral ceiling with exposed rafters or roof decking is difficult and expensive to insulate well.
Often, foam insulation panels are used over the attic deck as shown in Figure 5-29. However, to
achieve R-30, 4- to 7-inches of foam insulation, costing $1 to $3 per square foot, is needed.
Ventilation is also a problem and some shingle manufacturers do not offer product warranties unless
106
the outer roof decking is ventilated. In homes where exposed rafters are desired, it may be more
economical to build a standard, energy efficient cathedral ceiling and then add exposed decorative
beams underneath. Note that homes having tongue-and-groove ceilings can experience substantially
more air leakage than those with, drywall ceilings. Install a continuous air barrier, sealed to the
walls, above the tongue-and-groove roof deck.

Figure 5-29
Cathedral Ceiling – Exterior Roof Insulation

Outer roof decking

Exposed beam

3- to 4-inch rigid
insulation

Air barrier covering

extends completely
Exposed ceiling decking over tongue-in-groove
(drywall or tongue-in- roof deck and is
groove interior finish) sealed to sidewalls
Ventilation channel

R-30 high-density
insulation batt

2x10 rafter Decorative beam

Radiant Heat Barriers

Radiant heat barriers (RHBs) are reflective materials that can reduce summer heat gain in attics and
walls. While not generally a substitute for insulation, they can be used in concert with minimum
levels of insulation to lower air conditioning costs during warm and hot weather. Their use should
be carefully considered as they may also act as vapor barriers causing condensation within structures
and insulation. If used, in most cases a perforated material should allow water vapor to pass through
the material.

The chapter on Natural Cooling provides more detailed information on radiant heat barriers. They
have a controversial history in the Southeastern United States because manufacturers oversold their

Chapter 5 Insulation Materials and Techniques 107

benefits during the late 1980s and early 1990s. In particular, some sales representatives made
excessive claims about the performance of the product and priced it too high to provide a reasonable
payback.

Radiant heat barriers do not have to be expensive. Many are available for less than $0.15 per square
foot. Because RHBs can reduce cooling bills by 10% to 20%, inexpensive products can be cost
effective.

108
Chapter 6

Windows and Doors

Windows and doors are often the architectural focal point of residential designs, yet they typically
provide the lowest insulating value in the building envelope. Although recent developments in
energy efficient products have markedly improved the efficiency of windows and doors, they still
pose a major energy liability.

Windows
Windows connect the interior of a house to the outdoors, provide ventilation and daylight, and are
key aesthetic elements. In passive solar homes, windows can provide a significant amount of heat
for the homes during the winter.

The type, size, and location of windows greatly affect heating and cooling costs. Select high quality
windows, but shop wisely for the best combination of price and performance. Many home
construction budgets have been exceeded by spending thousands of additional dollars on premium
windows with marginal energy savings. Good windows do not have to be expensive.

In general, windows need to be double-glazed, low-e, well-built, and have good weather stripping in
order to meet the provisions of the building code. Carefully evaluate added features, such as inert
gas fill between glazing layers and tinted or reflective units – they may provide additional energy
savings at relatively low extra cost.

Table 6-1
Economics of Energy Conserving Windows and Doors
Type of Treatment Energy Extra Rate of Extra
Savings Costs Return Annual
($/yr) ($)* Mortgage
($/yr)**
Windows (compared to single-glazed windows)
Double-glazed (R-1.8) 116 660 19% 53
Double-glazed with low-e coating (R-2.4) 157 1,110 16% 89
Double-glazed with low-e coating and inert gas fill (R-2.7) 186 1,260 17% 101
Triple-glazed, low-e coating, inert gas fill (R-3.2) 235 1,710 15% 138
Quadruple-glazed, low-e coating, inert gas fill (R-5) 245 2,900 8% 232

Doors (compared to solid wood doors)

Foam-insulated doors (R-5) 5 20 26% 2
Storm doors over wood doors (R-3.2) 3 90 n/a 9

*Savings and costs are for a home with 300 square feet of windows and 2 exterior doors located in Baton
Rouge, LA
**Extra annual mortgage for 30 year loan @ 7% annually.

Chapter 6 Windows and Doors 109

 Figure 6-1
Window Anatomy

Inside casing

Outside casing

Foam sealant

Parting stop Head

Meeting rails

Lower sash

Rail

Stool

Sill
Apron

To understand window technologies, it is helpful to know how they lose and gain heat. See the
following list of ways that heat is moved through windows:

• Conduction through the glass, center and edge of glazing unit, and frame
• Convection across the air space in double- and triple-glazed units
• Air leakage around the sashes and the frame
• Radiant energy from the sun transmitted through the glazing
• Radiant energy from inside emitted to the to the cold winter air

110
 Figure 6-2
Winter Heat Loss in a Typical Double-glazed Window

Radiant heat
30° flow to cool 68°
outside Conduction window inside
from glass to surfaces
outside air
Natural
convection
Conduction current
through spacer
Metal spacer
channel filled
Conduction
with desiccant
through frame

Figure 6-3
Summer Heat Gain in a Typical Double-glazed, Low-e Window
Low-e coating
on interior
surface
100° Radiant heat
Incoming Sunlight warms cool
95° interior surfaces 72°
outside inside

Radiant heat
Reflected Transmitted solar
absorbed
Sunlight heat gain no
greater than 40%

Convection
current Conduction
through spacer

Conduction
through frame

Goals of Efficient Windows:

• Low U-values – a minimum of double-glazed glass (U-0.65) with thermal breaks in metal-
framed units.
• Low air leakage rates
o Less than 0.25 cfm per linear foot of sash opening for double hung windows
o Less than 0.10 cfm per linear foot for casement, awning, and fixed windows
• Moderate to high transmission of visible light (Visible Transmittance of 50% to 80%)
• Low transmission rates of ultraviolet and infrared light

Chapter 6 Windows and Doors 111

Measurements of Window Performance
When shopping for windows, it is useful to know some of the following basic window terminology:

NFRC - The National Fenestration Rating Council is a national nonprofit organization that publishes
a directory of windows that have been tested according to their criteria. The NFRC rating system is
described later in the chapter. Builders should use windows with an NFRC label, as their listed
insulating values and air tightness have been verified by independent laboratories.

• NFRC Label - NFRC adopted a new energy performance label in 2005. It lists the
manufacturer, describes the product, provides a source for additional information, and
includes ratings for one or more energy performance characteristics.

R-value and U-value – These are ratings given for the insulating values of components. R-values
refer to the resistance to heat flow; therefore, the higher the R-value, the better the insulation. U-
values measure the ability of the component to conduct heat and are the inverse of R-values,
meaning that a low U-value corresponds to a high R-value. Standard wood, double-glazed windows
have U-values of 0.5 (1/2), thus having R-values of about 2. A typical new window having a low-
emissivity coating and an inert gas fill might have a U-value of about 0.30 and R-value of 3.3.

Solar Heat Gain Coefficient – Commonly referred to as SHGC on NFRC labels, it is the
percentage of solar energy that actually penetrates a window compared to what would enter through
the total window area. A window with a SHGC of 80% allows 4 times as much solar radiation to
enter a home as a window with a SHGC of 20%. To reduce summer cooling bills, windows with
low SHGC values should be used. Tinted and reflective windows, or units with solar films,
generally have low SHGCs compared to clear glass, but not low enough to comply with 2006 IRC.

To better understand solar heat gain, it is important to recognize that sunlight consists of more than
just visible light. Figure 6-3 shows the relative energy intensity of the full spectrum of sunlight. The
spectrum is broken into ultraviolet (UV), visible, and near infrared. The percentage of energy
coming from each range of the spectrum is determined using the areas under the curve.

Figure 6-4
Relative Intensity of the Solar Spectrum
UV Visible Near Infrared
7% 45% 48%
Relative Energy Intensity

Full Intensity radiation

(no atmosphere)

Direct Radiation

Diffuse Radiation

300 380 500 760 1000 1500 2000

112
Shading Coefficient – This is an older method of measuring solar heat transfer. This method of
indicating the relative solar transmission through windows assigns single-glazed, clear windows a
shading coefficient of 1.0. Double-glazed, clear windows have a shading coefficient of 0.87. If you
know the shading coefficient of a window, you can find the SHGC by multiplying the shading
coefficient by 0.88.

Visible Light Transmittance - Commonly denoted as VT, this is a measure of the percentage of
available light normally visible to humans that penetrates a window. Higher visible transmittances
are typically desirable. Allowing more visible light to enter the home will reduce the amount of
power required for the lighting system.

Infiltration – The rated air leakage of a window is usually measured in cubic feet per minute (cfm)
per linear foot of the seam around the window unit. Double-hung units are typically the leakiest,
while fixed units are the tightest.

Window Types – There are several different window types available on the market today. All
types are generally available with wood, pre-primed wood, aluminum clad, or vinyl frames.

• Double-hung and single-hung windows – most traditional, leakiest, can only open
halfway when ventilating.

• Fixed windows – very low air leakage, provide no ventilation, have the least interrupted
view, less expensive.

• Casement, Awning, and Hopper windows – low air leakage, open fully for ventilation
but sash may receive direct rainfall, more expensive.

High Efficiency Windows

The window industry has unveiled an exciting array of higher efficiency products. The most notable
developments include:

• Low-emissivity coatings which reduce radiant heat flow

• Tighter weather stripping systems to lower air leakage rates
• Inert gas fills, such as argon and krypton that help reduce convection in the air space between
layers of glazing, thus increasing the insulating values of the windows
• Thermal breaks to reduce heat losses through highly conductive glazing systems and metal
frames
• Windows with low transmission rates of infrared and ultraviolet light

Chapter 6 Windows and Doors 113

 Table 6-2
Cost Comparison of Window Alternatives
($/square foot of rough opening)

Type of Window Builder's Quality Premium Quality

Single Glazed:
Double-hung wood 5 11 - 18
Double-glazed:
Double-hung - wood 8 11 - 18
Double-hung - vinyl or aluminum clad 10 12 - 25
Casement or awning - wood 14 - 18 20 - 27
Casement or awning - vinyl or aluminum clad 19 - 23 25 - 31
Sliding glass door - metal 5-8 7 - 10
Sliding glass door - wood 9 - 14 10 - 15
Fixed/hinged operable door combination n/a 11 - 18
*Sealed, double-glazed glass units cost about $2.50 per square foot. Labor and trim may cost about $7
per square foot of rough opening.

Table 6-3
Sample Window Performance Characteristics

Solar Heat Infiltration

Gain Visible Light (cfm/linear ft of
Type U-value Coefficient Transmittance crack)
DH, 1G, wood* 1.10 0.79 0.90 0.20 - 0.35
DH, 1G, metal 1.30 0.79 0.90 0.50 - 0.98
DH, 2G, wood, bronze tint 0.49 0.55 0.61 0.15 - 0.30
DH, 2G, wood or vinyl, Low-E 0.39 0.31 0.53 0.15 - 0.30
CS, 2G, low-e, wood 0.38 0.50 0.74 0.07 - 0.15
CS, 2G, low-e, inert gas fill, wood 0.30 0.50 0.74 0.07 - 0.15
CS, 2G, low-e, inert gas fill, wood, tinted 0.29 0.31 0.72 0.07 - 0.15
DH, 3G, low-e inert gas fill, wood 0.24 0.37 0.68 0.15 - 0.30
DH, 4G, low-e, inert gas fill, wood 0.17 0.30 0.62 0.15 - 0.30
*Ratings shown are for the entire window unit, not just the center of glass. Double and triple glass systems
have 0.5" air spaces between the layers of glass.
**DH = Double Hung, CS = Casement (awning and hopper would have similar air leakage values, fixed
would have lower air leakage). 1G = Single glazed, 2G = double glazed, etc.

114
Thermal Breaks and Window Spacers
Thermal breaks in metal window frames are of particular importance. Metal is a very poor insulator,
thus it conducts heat well. A thermal break improves insulating values by separating inside and
outside pieces of the metal window frame with an insulating material. Always specify windows with
thermal breaks, listed as “T.I.M.” (thermally insulated metal) when purchasing metal windows.
When shopping for windows, you can find the total U-value on the NFRC label.

Figure 6-5
Metal Window with Thermal Break

Insulating
thermal
break

Metal frames
for panes

Low-Emissivity Coatings
Low-emissivity (Low-e) coatings are designed to reduce radiant heat flow through multi-glazed
windows. Some surfaces, such as flat black metal used on wood stoves, have high emissivities and
radiate heat easily. Other surfaces, such as shiny aluminum, have low emissivities and radiate little
heat, even at low temperatures. Most low-e coatings are composed of a layer of silver applied
between two protective layers.

There are many benefits of low-e windows in addition to reducing the summer heat gain and winter
heat loss. They screen ultraviolet radiation, which can, in turn, reduce fading of interior surface
finishes. In winter, the interior surface of the glass is warmer, which increases comfort and helps
prevent condensation from forming.

Spectrally Selective Low-E Coatings

These are the most advanced form of Low-E coatings, usually multiple coatings, which provide the
lowest SHGCs while providing good visible transmission. They stop nearly 100 percent of the
ultraviolet and infrared from passing through.

Figure 6-6 shows window surfaces numbered 1 to 4 from the exterior surface, 1, to the interior
surface, 4. In Louisiana and other areas where the cooling is more prevalent than heating, the low-e
coating should be on surface 2.

Chapter 6 Windows and Doors 115

 Figure 6-6
Low-e, Gas-filled Windows
Winter Performance
Numbers assigned to
glazing surfaces
1 2 3 4
Low-e layer on interior of
outside pane reflects
radiant heat inside

Heavier inert gas

increases insulating value
and reduces convection
current

Outdoors Indoors

Summer Performance Less radiant heat gain

through low-e layers on
window surface 2

More infrared light

reflected outside

Convection current
reduced by inert gas

Caution about Window Insulating Values

New energy codes require manufacturers to report window R-values consistently and accurately.
The National Fenestration Rating Council, NFRC, offers a testing program for window and door
products. The NFRC reports an average whole window U-value. If windows used in your home are
listed by the NFRC, they will include a label showing test data for your windows.

Window insulating values are reported in U-values, the inverse of R-values. Single-glazed windows
generally have average R-values of 1.0 and thus have U-values of 1.0. Double-glazed products may
have R-values higher than 4.0, or U-values of lower than 0.25 (1/R = 1/4 = 0.25).

Sometimes insulating values are reported through the glass surface alone. However, these values do
not apply to the entire window assembly.

116
Windows have a frame or sash; spacer strips that hold apart the sections of glass in a double-glazed
window; and a jamb. These components each affect the insulating value of the window. Window
frames and sashes reduce the transparent glass area, thus reducing the solar heat gain coefficient of
the window. Spacer strips separating the glass layers add areas of direct conduction through the
edge of the glazing unit. Thermal breaks reduce the conduction, improving the performance of the
window. The claimed U-value should reflect the overall insulating value of all of the components.

NFRC labels show the following key window performance features:

• Air leakage rates
• Solar heat gain coefficient
• Visible light transmittance
• Condensation Resistance

Figure 6-7
NFRC Label

Proper Window Installation

Step 1: Make sure window fits in rough opening and that the sill is level
Step 2: Install window level and plumb according to the manufacturer’s instructions
Step 3: Use a dry, pliable foam gasket or non-expanding foam sealant to seal between the jamb and
the rough opening, or stuff the gap with backer rod or insulation and cover the insulation
with caulk (remember, most insulation does not stop air leaks – it just serves as a filter)
Step 4: If using an interior air barrier (such as drywall) or an exterior air barrier (such as
housewrap), seal the barrier to the window jamb with long-life caulk or other appropriate,
durable sealant.

Chapter 6 Windows and Doors 117

 Figure 6-8
Inside Window Temperatures in Cold Weather
(when 75°F inside and 20°F outside)

33°F 54°F 57°F 64°F

Double-glazed Double-glazed, Double-glazed,

Single-glazed
low-e low-e, argon filled

Window Shading Options

Well-designed homes carefully consider window location and size. In summer, unshaded windows
can double the cost of cooling the home. Year round, poorly designed windows can cause glare,
fading of fabrics, and reduced comfort.

The effectiveness of different window shading options depends on the composition of the incoming
sunlight. Sunlight reaches the home in three forms: direct, diffuse, and ground reflected. On a clear
day, most sunlight is direct, traveling as a beam from the sun to a home’s windows without
obstruction. Figure 6-8 shows that most of the direct sunlight striking windows in winter is
transmitted into the home. However, in summer, sunlight hits south-facing windows at a steeper
angle, and much of the direct sunlight is reflected.

The majority of the sunlight entering south-facing windows in the summer is either diffuse –
bounced between particles in the sky until it arrives as a bright haze – or is reflected off of the
ground. In developing a strategy for effectively shading windows, consider both direct and indirect
sources of sunlight. Overhangs, long thought to be totally effective for shading south-facing
windows, are best at blocking direct sunlight and are therefore only a partial solution. Other shading
options include landscaping and trees, awnings, exterior and interior shades, window films, and solar
window screens.
Figure 6-9
Composition of Solar Heat Gain into Home
SUMMER WINTER

Direct: 10-20%
Direct: 60-75%
Diffuse: 40-50%
Diffuse: 15-20%
Ground Reflected:
Ground Reflected:
30-40%
10-15%

118
Overhangs
Overhangs shade direct sunlight on windows facing within about 30 degrees of south. Overhangs on
east and west windows are less effective because of the low angle of the sun around sunrise and
sunset. Overhangs above south-facing windows should provide maximum shade for the glazing in
midsummer – around July 21- yet still allow access to winter sunlight. For a standard 8-foot wall
with windows, the overhang should be 2 to 2 ½ feet in length. Figure 6-10 shows how to size
overhangs for south-facing windows.

Retractable awnings allow full winter sunlight, yet provide effective summer shading. They should
have open sides or vents to prevent accumulation of hot air underneath. Awnings may be more
expensive than other shading options, but they also serve as an attractive design feature.

Figure 6-10
Guidelines for Overhangs

3 Size south overhangs using the adjacent diagram and

these steps:

1. Draw to scale the window and wall to be shaded.

4
5 2. Draw the summer sun angle upward from the
bottom of the glazing.
3. Extend the overhang until it intersects the
summer sun angle line.
1 4. Draw the line at the winter sun angle from the
2 bottom edge of the overhang to the wall.
5. Use a solid wall above the line where the winter
sun hits. The portion of the wall below that line
should be glazed.

Table 6-4
Summer and Winter Sun Angles
(Degrees from Horizon at Mid-day)

July 21 January 21
Alexandria 78.5 38.5
Baton Rouge 79.5 39.5
New Orleans 80.0 40.0
Shreveport 77.5 37.5

Interior Shading Options

Shutters and shade located inside the house include curtains, roll-down shades, and Venetian blinds.
More sophisticated devices such as shades that slide over the windows on a track and interior
movable insulation are also available.

Chapter 6 Windows and Doors 119

Interior shutters and shades are generally the least effective shading measures because they block
sunlight that has already entered the room. However, if windows do not have exterior shading, use
interior measures. The most effective interior treatments are solid shades with a reflective surface
facing outside. In fact, simple white roller blinds keep the house cooler than more expensive
louvered blinds, which do not provide a solid surface and allow trapped heat to migrate between the
blinds and the house.

Reflective film, which adheres to glass and is found often in commercial buildings, can block up to
85% of incoming sunlight. It is best suited for use on west-facing windows. These films are not
recommended for windows that experience partial shading because they absorb sunlight and heat the
glass unevenly. This uneven heating may break the glass or ruin the seal between double-glazed
units.

The installed cost of reflective films is higher than $4 per square foot. Price should not be the sole
criterion when selecting an installer – quality is a vital consideration affecting the appearance of the
house and the beauty of the view to the outside.

Most window manufacturers offer tinted windows, which reduce Solar Heat Gain Coefficients. The
window tints add color, such as green, amber, gray, or a reflective finish to the window. These tints
are often inexpensive, costing only $3 to $10 extra per window for many units. However, the tint is
permanent, so incoming sunlight will be blocked in both summer and winter.

Exterior Shading Options

Exterior window shading treatments are effective cooling measures because they block both direct
and indirect sunlight outside of the home. Hinged decorative exterior shutters which close over the
windows are excellent shading options. However, they obscure the view, block daylight completely,
may be expensive, are subject to wear and tear, and may be difficult for many households to operate
on a daily basis. They work best in hot, sunny climates, like that of Louisiana, where they can be
closed for weeks at a time.

If they are hurricane protection shutters as well they may be worth the price to some. They can be
closed on those windows that need shading and open on all the rest letting in daylight. When storms
approach they can be fastened closed to protect the windows from wind blown debris.

Solar shade screens are an excellent exterior shading product with a thick weave that blocks 70
percent or more of all incoming sunlight. The screens absorb sunlight, so they should be used on the
exterior of the windows only. From outside, they look slightly darker than regular screening, but
from the inside many people do not detect a difference. Most products also serve as insect screening
and come in several colors. They may be removed in winter to allow full sunlight through the
windows. More expensive alternatives to the fiberglass shade screen are thin, louvered metal
screens that block sunlight, but still allow a view from inside to outside.

According to the U.S. Department of Energy Report, “Landscaping for Energy Efficiency”
(DOE/GO-10095-046), careful landscaping can save up to 25% of a household’s energy
consumption for heating and cooling. Trees and vines are very effective means of shading in the
summer month, as well as providing protection from winter winds. Also, shrubs or groundcover
outside of windows can reduce the amount of ground reflected light entering the home.

120
Select Shading Options Wisely
It is important to understand that not all shading is created equally. Exterior shading is inherently
more effective than interior shading. This is because exterior shading stops the heat before it enters
the home, whereas interior shading tries to stop the heat after it has already entered the home. Each
type of shading also has its own benefits and drawbacks. Selecting shading options depends on
several variables to determine effectiveness. Not only are there different types of products for
shading windows, but variations of effectiveness of products. For instance, vinyl blinds do not reject
as much heat as aluminum blinds. It is important to consider all factors including window
orientation, aesthetic value, and cost when selecting shading options.

Special Considerations for Hurricane Prone Regions

A large part of Louisiana is required to have added protection from the effects of hurricanes.
Portions of Louisiana falling south of the 100 MPH wind load line, as per the 2003 version of the
IRC, must either have impact-resistant glass installed or be protected from windborne debris by
storm shutters or other covering. These windows must also be able to resist the cyclical loading of
high pressure differences between the inside and outside of the home. One drawback of impact-
resistant glass is that it poses a safety hazard in the event of a fire. When a window must be entered
to rescue an occupant, the impact-resistant glass seriously impedes the firemen, as it will not shatter
and allow entry. Storm shutters, when used properly, provide protection from windborne debris
while allowing safety personnel to enter through the window in the event of an emergency.

Future Window Options

Electronic Windows
A new type of windows is composed of special materials that can darken the glazing by running
electricity through the unit. Some manufacturers already have prototypes of these technologically
advanced windows in operation. At night and on sunny days, an electric switch can be turned on to
render the windows virtually opaque.

“Solid” Windows
Another new window technology uses an aerogel up to one inch thick between layers of glazing.
Aerogels are produced by replacing the liquid in a gel with a gas. The result is a very low-density
material that feels similar to expanded polystyrene. Aerogels are effective at reducing all three
forms of heat transfer. However, the effectiveness against each form of heat transfer depends on the
type of aerogel used. These windows offer increased insulating values, but are not completely
transparent and are not economical in Louisiana.

Doors
Exterior wooden doors have low insulating values, typically R-1.8 to 2.2. Storm doors increase the
R-value only to about R-3.0 and are not good energy investments. The best energy-conserving
alternative is a metal or fiberglass insulated door. Metal doors have a foam insulation core which
can increase the insulating value to R-7 or greater. They usually cost no more than conventional
exterior doors and come in decorative styles, complete with raised panels and insulated window
panes.

Insulated metal or fiberglass doors usually have excellent weatherstripping and long lifetimes. They
resist warping and offer increased security; however, they are difficult to trim, so careful installation
is required. Table 6-1 includes the costs and savings of energy conserving doors.

Chapter 6 Windows and Doors 121

As with windows, it is important to seal the rough openings. Thresholds should seal tightly against
the bottom of the door and must be sealed underneath. After the door is installed, check it carefully
when closed to see if there are any air leaks.

Glass in Doors
Special consideration must be given to doors that include glass areas. Whereas solid doors must
only deal with conduction through the unit, doors with glass areas must also contend with solar heat
gain. Doors with half height glass must meet the SHGC requirements of the IRC.

Accessible Design
Almost one out of ten people will suffer from physical disabilities during their lifetime. Designing
homes to provide accessibility for the physically impaired adds little to the cost of a home. One
important feature is to design both exterior and interior door openings and hallways 3’ wide to allow
passage of a wheelchair or walker.

Overall Window and Door Recommendations

• Use double-glazed windows with low-e coatings as required by IRC.
• South-facing windows should be shaded with about a 2-foot horizontal overhang for single-
story windows.
• East and west facing windows should have low Solar Heat Gain Coefficients (under 0.40)
through the use of tinting, reflective or selective coatings, or window films. West window
areas, in particular, should be limited to avoid afternoon solar gain.
• North-facing windows are excellent for indirect lighting and ventilation.
• Insulated doors should be used.

122
Chapter 7

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

One of the most important decisions regarding a new home is the type of heating and cooling system
to install. Equally critical is the heating and cooling contractor selected, as the operating efficiency
of a system depends as much on proper installation as it does on the performance rating. Keys to
obtaining the design efficiency of a system in the field include:

• Sizing and selecting the system for the heating, cooling, and dehumidification load of the
home being built
• Correct design of the ductwork or piping
• Proper installation and charging of the HVAC unit
• Insulating and sealing all ductwork or piping

Types of HVAC Systems

There are two primary types of central heating systems - forced-air systems and radiant heating
systems. Most new homes have forced-air heating and cooling systems - either using a central
furnace and air conditioner or a heat pump. Figure 7-1 shows that in forced-air systems a series of
ducts distribute the conditioned heated or cooled air throughout the home. The conditioned air is
forced through the ducts by a blower, located in a unit called an air handler.

Most homes in Louisiana have three choices for central, forced-air systems: electric resistance heat
or fuel-fired furnaces with electric air conditioning units or electric heat pumps, which can be either
air-source or ground-source (geothermal). The best system for each home depends on many factors -
- cost, comfort, efficiency, annual energy use, availability, and local prices for fuels and electricity.

Figure 7-1
Components of Forced-Air Systems
Heating Supply Branch
Source Plenum Duct

Return Trunk
Plenum Duct

Condensate
Filter should be Line
in a convenient Blower Refrigerant Evaporation
location Lines Coil

When considering a HVAC system for a residence, remember that energy efficient homes have less
demand for heating and cooling, so substantial cost savings may be obtained by installing smaller
units that are properly sized to meet the load. Because energy bills in more efficient homes are

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 123

lower, higher efficiency systems will not provide as much annual savings on energy bills and may
not be as cost effective as in less efficient houses.
Sizing
It is important to size heating and air conditioning systems properly. Not only does oversized
equipment cost more, but it can waste energy and may decrease comfort. Do not rely on rule-of-
thumb methods to size HVAC equipment. Many contractors select air conditioning systems based
on a rule such as 500 square feet of cooled area per ton of air conditioning (a ton provides 12,000
Btu per hour of cooling). Instead, use a sizing procedure such as:
• Calculations in Manual J published by the Air Conditioning Contractors Association
• Similar procedures developed by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
• Software procedures developed by electrical or gas utilities, the U.S. Department of Energy,
HVAC equipment manufacturers, or private software companies

The heating and cooling load calculations rely on the size and type of construction for each
component of the building envelope, as well as the heat given off by the lights, people, and
equipment inside the house. If a zoned heating and cooling system is used, the loads in each zone
should be calculated separately.

Simplified rules of thumb typically provide oversized heating and cooling systems for more efficient
homes. Oversized units cost more to install, increase energy bills, suffer greater wear and tear, and
often may not provide adequate dehumidification. It takes about 15 minutes for most air
conditioners to reach peak efficiency. During extreme outside temperatures (under 32°F in winter
and over 88°F in summer) the system should run about 80% of the time. Oversized systems cool the
home quickly and often do not operate long enough to reach peak efficiency.

Proper sizing includes designing the cooling system to provide adequate dehumidification. In
Louisiana's humid climate it is critical to calculate the latent load - the amount of dehumidification
needed for the home. If the latent load is ignored, the home may become uncomfortable due to
excess humidity.

The Sensible Heating Fraction (SHF) designates the portion of the cooling load for reducing indoor
temperatures (sensible cooling). For example, in a HVAC unit with a 0.75 SHF, 75% of the energy
expended by the unit goes to cool the indoor air. The remaining 25% goes for latent heat removal -
taking moisture out of the air in the home. The Manual J system sizing procedure includes
calculations to estimate latent load.

Many homes in Louisiana have design SHFs of approximately 0.7, that is, 70% of the cooling will
be sensible and 30% latent. Systems that deliver less than 30% latent cooling may fail to provide
adequate dehumidification in summer.

Temperature Controls
The most basic type of control system is a heating and cooling thermostat. Programmable
thermostats, also called setback thermostats, can be big energy savers for homes by automatically
adjusting the temperature setting when people are sleeping or are not at home. Be certain that the
programmable thermostat selected is designed for the particular heating and cooling equipment it
will be controlling. This is especially important for heat pumps, as an improper programmable
thermostat can actually increase energy bills.

124
A thermostat should be located centrally within the house or zone on an interior wall. It should not
receive direct sunlight or be near a heat-producing appliance. A good location is often 4 to 5 feet
above the floor in an interior hallway near a return air grille.

The interior wall, on which the thermostat is installed, like all walls, should be well sealed at the top
and bottom to prevent circulation of cool air in winter or hot air in summer. Some homeowners have
experienced excessive energy bills and discomfort for years because air from the attic leaked into the
wall cavity behind the thermostat and caused the cooling or heating system to run much longer than
needed.

Multiple HVAC Zones

Larger homes often use two or more separate heating and air conditioning units for different floors
or areas. Multiple systems can maintain greater comfort throughout the house while saving energy
by allowing different zones of the house to be at different temperatures. The greatest savings come
when a unit serving an unoccupied zone can be turned off.

Rather than install two separate systems, HVAC contractors can provide automatic zoning systems
that operate with one system. The ductwork in these systems typically has a series of
thermostatically controlled dampers that regulate the flow of air to each zone. Although somewhat
new in residential construction, thermostats, dampers, and controls for zoning large central systems
have been used for years in commercial buildings.

If your heating and air conditioning subcontractor feels that installing two or three separate HVAC
units is needed, have them also estimate the cost of a single system with damper control over the
ductwork. A single, larger system running longer is usually more efficient than separate systems.

Such a system must be carefully designed to ensure that the blower is not damaged if dampers are
closed to several supply ducts. In this situation, the blower still tries to deliver the same air flow as
before, but now through only a few ducts. The reduced air flow creates back pressure against the
blades of the blower and may cause damage to the motor. There are three primary design options:

1. Create two zones and size the ductwork so that when the damper to one zone is closed, the
blower will not suffer damage. The higher pressure can possibly damage the duct work as
well, but that will not be noticed.

2. Install a manufactured system that uses a dampered bypass duct connecting the supply
plenum to the return ductwork. The control system always allows the same approximate
volume of air to circulate.

3. Use a variable speed HVAC system. Because variable speed systems are usually more
efficient than single-speed systems, they will further increase savings.

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 125

 Figure 7-2
Automatic Zoned System with Dampered Bypass Duct

Air flow to both zones:

Air flow to one zone: Bypass damper Damper closed by

opens automatically thermostat in zone 2

Return air
from zone 1
Air flow to
zone 1

Air Conditioning Equipment

Air conditioners and heat pumps work similarly to provide cooling and dehumidification. In the
summer, they extract heat from inside the home and transfer it outside. In winter, a heat pump
reverses this process and extracts heat from outside and transfers it inside.

Both systems typically use a vapor compression cycle, which is described in Figures 7-3 and 7-4.
This cycle circulates a refrigerant - a material that increases in temperature significantly when
compressed and cools rapidly when expanded. The exterior portion of a typical air conditioner is
called the condensing unit and houses the compressor, which uses most of the energy, and the
condensing coil.

The inside mechanical equipment, called the air handling unit, houses the evaporator coil, the indoor
blower, and the expansion or throttling valve. The controls and ductwork for circulating cooled air
to the house complete the system.

126
 Figure 7-3
Air Conditioning with the Vapor Compression Cycle

4. Air Handling Cabinet

2. Condensing Coil

1. Compressor 3. Expansion Valve

1. Cold, liquid refrigerant circulates through evaporator coils. Inside air is blown across the
coils and is cooled. This warms and evaporates the refrigerant. The cooled air is blown
through the ductwork. The refrigerant, now a gas, flows to the outdoor unit.

2. The compressor (in the outside unit) pressurizes the gaseous refrigerant. The refrigerant
temperature rises, but remains a gas.

3. Fans in the outdoor unit blow air across the hot, pressurized gas in the condensing coil. The
refrigerant cools and condenses into a liquid.

4. The pressurized liquid flows inside to the air handling unit. It passes through an expansion
valve, where its temperature drops as it vaporizes. The refrigerant flows to the evaporator
coil and the process starts over.

The exterior, air-cooled condensing unit should be kept free from plants and debris that might block
the flow of air through the coil or damage the thin fins of the coil. Ideally, locate the condensing
unit in the shade. However, do not block air flow to or from this unit with dense vegetation, fencing
or overhead decking.

The SEER Rating

The cooling efficiency of a heat pump or an air conditioner is rated by the Seasonal Energy
Efficiency Ratio (SEER), a ratio of the average amount of cooling provided during the cooling
season to the amount of electricity used. Current national legislation mandates a minimum SEER 13
for most residential air conditioners. Pending federal policies may further increase minimum
efficiencies. Some units can meet SEER 23 ratings. Packaged units have a minimum SEER of 13.

Builders should be aware that the SEER rating is a national average based on equipment
performance in Virginia. Some equipment may not produce the listed SEER in actual operation in
Louisiana's homes, particularly during the cooling season.

One of the main problems with HVAC systems has been the inability of some higher efficiency
equipment to dehumidify homes adequately. If units are not providing sufficient dehumidification,
the typical homeowner response is to lower the thermostat setting. Since every degree the thermostat

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 127

is lowered increases cooling bills 3 to 7%, systems that have nominally high efficiencies, but
inadequate dehumidification, may suffer from higher than expected cooling bills.

In fact, poorly functioning "high" efficiency systems may actually cost more to operate than a well
designed, moderate efficiency unit. Make certain that the contractor has used Manual J techniques to
size the system so that the air conditioning system meets both sensible and latent (humidity) loads at
the manufacturer's claimed efficiency.

Variable Speed Units

The minimum standard for air conditioners of SEER 13 provides for a reasonably efficient unit.
However, higher efficiency air conditioners may be quite economical. In order to increase the
overall operating efficiency of an air conditioner or heat pump, multi-speed and variable speed
compressors have been developed. These units can operate at low or medium speeds when the
outdoor temperatures are not extreme. They can achieve a SEER of 15 to 16.

The cost of variable speed units is generally about 30% higher than standard units. Advantages they
offer over standard, single-speed blowers:
• They usually save energy.
• They are quieter, and because they operate fairly continuously, there is far less start-up noise
(often the most noticeable sound in a standard unit).
• They dehumidify better; some units offer a special dehumidification cycle, which is triggered
by a humidistat that senses when the humidity levels in the home are too high.

Proper Installation
Too often, high efficiency cooling and heating equipment is improperly installed, which can cause it
to operate at substantially reduced efficiencies. A SEER 15 unit that is installed poorly with leaky
ductwork may only deliver SEER 10 performance. Typical installation problems are:
• Improper charging of the system – the refrigerant of the cooling system does the bulk of the
work, flowing back and forth between the inside coil and the outside coil, changing states,
and undergoing expansion and compression. The HVAC contractor should use the
manufacturer’s installation procedures to charge the system properly. The correct charge
cannot be ensured by pressure gauge measurements alone. In new construction, the
refrigerant should be weighed in based on the length and size of the refrigerant lines and the
HVAC system. Then, use either the supercharge temperature method or, for systems with
certain types of expansion valves, the supercooling method to confirm that the charge is
correct.
• Reduced air flow – if the system has poorly designed ductwork, constrictions in the air
distribution system, clogged or more restrictive filters, or other impediments, the blower may
not be able to transport adequate air over the indoor coils of the cooling system.
• Inadequate air flow to the outdoor unit – if the outdoor unit is located under an overhang or a
deck, or within an enclosure such as fencing or bushes, air may not circulate freely between
the unit and outdoor air. In such cases, the temperature of the air around the unit rises,
thereby making it more difficult for the unit to cool the refrigerant. The efficiency of a unit
surrounded by outdoor air that is 10 degrees warmer than the ambient outside temperature
can reduce the efficiency of the unit by about 10%.

128
For all types of HVAC systems, the best way to ensure proper installation is to include a set of
specifications with the plans that dictate the following:
• The system shall be sized for the load using Manual J or other approved methods.
• The refrigerant charge shall be calculated, weighed in, and confirmed using manufacturer’s
suggested procedures.
• Ductwork shall be sized using Manual D, or other approved method, and fully sealed.
• Make certain supply air has a pathway back to the return. Many homes rely on undercut
interior doors to let air flow from the room to a central return. However, as discussed in
Chapter 8, many rooms, especially those with multiple supply ducts, become pressurized
when the HVAC operates. As a consequence, when several interior doors are closed, the
main section of the home where the central return is located becomes negatively pressurized.
Rooms with more than one supply duct and no return should be connected to the central
section of the home with a transfer grille, which permits air flow between the two spaces.
• The system's operation shall be checked, balanced, and confirmed.

Heating Systems
Two types of heating systems are most common in new homes - furnaces, which burn natural gas,
propane, fuel oil, or electricity, and electric heat pumps. Furnaces are generally installed along with
central air conditioners. Heat pumps provide both heating and cooling, so separate units are not
necessary. Some homes also use electric resistance heating. Resistance heating turns nearly all of
the electricity used into heat. However, resistance heaters are only about 50% as efficient as heat
pumps. Also, because of electrical losses in the power distribution grid, the resistance heater may
use only about 30% of the energy of the original fuel source.

Heat Pump Equipment

Air-source heat pumps

The most common type of heat pump is the air-source heat pump, which serves as an air conditioner
during the cooling season. In winter, it reverses the cycle and obtains heat from cool outside air.
Most heat pumps operate at least twice as efficiently as conventional electric resistance heating
systems. They have rated lifetimes of 15 years, compared to 20 years for most furnaces; however,
many homeowners have well maintained equipment over 20 years old that continues to work
effectively.

At outside temperatures of 30°F to 45°F, at a temperature known as the balance point, heat pumps
can no longer meet the entire heating load of the home. Most systems use electric resistance coils
called strip heaters to provide supplemental backup heat. Strip heaters, located in the air handling
unit, are much more expensive to operate than the heat pump itself. They should not be oversized,
as they can drive up the peak load requirements of the local electric utility.

A staged, heat pump thermostat used in concert with multistage strip heaters will minimize strip heat
operation. Dual-fuel or piggyback systems heat the home with natural gas or propane when
temperatures drop below the balance point.

Air-source heat pumps should have outdoor thermostats, which prevent operation of the strip heaters
at temperatures above 38°F. The International Energy Conservation Code requires controls to
prevent strip heater operation during weather when the heat pump alone can provide adequate

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 129

heating. In addition, tight ductwork is especially important in air-source heat pumps to prevent an
uncomfortably low delivery temperature of supply air into the living areas.

Figure 7-4
Air Source Heat Pump
1. Evaporator Coil
3. Air-handling Cabinet

2. Compressor

4. Expansion Valve 5. Supplemental Heating Strip

1. The outdoor coil, which serves as the evaporator coil in heat pump mode, uses outside air to boil the
cold, liquid refrigerant.
2. The compressor pressurizes the refrigerant.
3. The hot, gaseous refrigerant enters the inside coil, which is serving as the condensing coil. Inside air
passes over the coil and is heated. The refrigerant is cooled and condenses into a liquid.
4. The pressurized, liquid refrigerant flows outside to the expansion valve. The expansion valve
reduces the pressure and further lowers the temperature of the refrigerant. This completes the
cycle.
5. If the outdoor air is too cold for the heat pump to adequately heat the home, supplemental heating
must be provided. In Louisiana, a gas-fired heater or electric resistance strip heater is normally used
for supplemental heating.

Periodically in winter, the heat pump must switch to a defrost cycle, which melts any ice that may
accumulate on the outside coil.

Geothermal heat pumps

Unlike an air-source heat pump with its outside coil and fan, a geothermal heat pump relies on fluid-
filled pipes buried beneath the earth as a source of heating in winter and cooling in summer. In each
season, the temperature of the earth is closer to the desired temperature of the home than outdoor air,
so less energy is needed to maintain comfort. Eliminating the outside equipment means higher
efficiency, less maintenance, greater equipment life, less noise, and no inconvenience of having to
mow around that outdoor unit.

Geothermal heat pumps have SEER ratings above 15 and can save up to 40% on the heating and
cooling costs of a standard air-source heat pump. Some geothermal products have greater
dehumidification ability as well. Many units can also provide hot water at much greater efficiency
than standard electric water heaters.

Types of closed loop designs for piping include:

• In deep well systems, a piping loop extends several hundred feet under ground.

130
 • Shallow loops placed in long trenches, typically about 6-feet deep and several hundred feet
long; coiling the piping into a "slinky" reduces the length requirements but a relatively large
ground area is required.
• For homes located on private lakes, loops can be installed on the bottom, which decreases the
installation costs or a plate type heat exchanger can be suspended vertically below the
surface.

The buried piping in geothermal systems usually has a 25-year warranty. Most experts believe the
piping will last longer, because it is made of a durable plastic with heat-sealed connections, and the
circulating fluid has an anticorrosive additive.

The actual costs of geothermal heat pumps vary according to the difficulty of installing the ground
loops as well as the size and features of the equipment. Because of their high installation cost,
geothermal heat pumps may not be economical for homes with low heating and cooling needs.
However, their lower operating costs, reduced maintenance requirements, and greater comfort may
make them attractive to many homeowners. Proper installation of the geothermal loops is essential
for high performance and the longevity of the system, so choose only qualified, experienced
geothermal heat pump contractors.

Measures of efficiency for heat pumps

The heating efficiency of a heat pump is measured by its Heating Season Performance Factor
(HSPF), which is the ratio of heat provided in Btu per hour to watts of electricity used. This factor
considers the losses when the equipment starts up and stops, as well as the energy lost during the
defrost cycle. The HSPF averages the performance of heating equipment for a typical winter in the
United States, so the actual efficiency will vary in different climates.

Typical values for the HSPF are 7.7 for standard efficiency and 8.0 for high efficiency. Variable
speed heat pumps have HSPF ratings as high as 9.0. Geothermal heat pumps are not rated by HSPF
as yet; however, they are much more efficient than air-source heat pumps and work well at sub-zero
temperatures. They are also quieter than conventional systems and include water heating
capabilities. The ARI Directory of Air Conditioning Equipment lists the efficiencies of many
different products.

Furnace Equipment
Furnaces burn fuels such as natural gas, propane, and fuel oil to produce heat and provide warm,
comfortable indoor air during cold weather in winter. They come in a variety of efficiencies. The
comparative economics between heat pumps and furnaces depend on the type of fuel burned, its
price, the home's design, and the outdoor climate. Recent increases in energy prices have improved
the economics of more efficient heating and cooling systems. However, at this point in time it is
difficult to compare furnaces and heat pumps of various types due to long-term fuel price
uncertainty.

Furnace operation
Fuel-fired furnaces require oxygen for combustion and extra air to vent exhaust gases. For many
years, atmospheric or natural draft furnaces were the standard. These units draw in air from around
them whether located in the house, crawlspace or attic. They have a single, unsealed exhaust stack
to carry the hot exhaust gases out of the home. Older units used a continuously burning gas flame as
a pilot light to ignite the fuel when the home's thermostat detected a need for heat.

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 131

Homes today are generally built much tighter, have central air conditioning, and a variety of exhaust
fans including range hoods, bathroom exhaust fan, and clothes dryers. As discussed in Chapter 2
and in Chapter 8 on ductwork, operating exhaust fans and even closing interior doors can cause
negative pressure in the area around the furnace, especially in tighter homes. If the negative pressure
is sufficiently high, the furnace may backdraft, pulling the exhaust gases down the flue and into the
home and creating potentially deadly levels of carbon monoxide.

Because negative pressures can occur in virtually any home, atmospheric furnaces should not be
installed in the conditioned space. If located inside the conditioned area of a home, they must be
installed in a sealed and insulated closet, as shown in Figure 7-5, with two sources of incoming
combustion air - one entering near the floor and the other near the ceiling. The unit must include an
exhaust vent that extends through the roof.

Figure 7-5
Sealed Mechanical Room Design for Non-direct Vent Furnace
Furnace
Screened high and low Exhaust
ventilation ducts into Flue
mechanical room
(Must be used in
vented attics only)

Insulated and
sealed walls
between
Alternative mechanical room
combustion air and home or
duct locations if exterior
mechanical room
is adjacent to an
external wall

More modern furnaces, known as direct vent or uncoupled furnaces, have a duct that supplies
combustion air from the outside directly to the burner and a sealed exhaust vent to the outside.
Because their combustion system is totally isolated from the living space, these units can operate
safely inside a home, when in proper working order. They are recommended unless the furnace is
completely outside the conditioned area of the home.

132
Measures of efficiency for furnaces
The efficiency of a gas furnace is measured by the Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE), a
rating which takes into consideration losses from pilot lights, start-up, and stopping. Unlike SEER
and HSPF ratings, the AFUE does not consider the unit's electricity use for fans and blowers, which
may exceed $50 annually.

An AFUE rating of 78% means that for every $1.00 worth of fuel used by the unit, $0.78 worth of
usable heat is produced. The remaining $0.22 worth of energy is lost as waste heat exhausted up the
flue.

Several years ago, the federal government mandated that furnaces have AFUE ratings of at least
78%. Old, atmospheric furnaces with pilot lights had AFUE ratings of only 50 to 60%.
Manufacturers were able to meet the new standard by first replacing pilot lights with electronic
ignition. Some of these units are able to operate at an AFUE of 78% and are being sold today in
Louisiana.

Most manufacturers took the next steps of improving the heat exchanger inside the unit and
installing a fan to force exhaust gases out of the flue. These furnaces are usually non-direct vent
units because they do not have a sealed source of combustion air. They must be treated in the same
manner as atmospheric furnaces, as described in the previous section. However, they are much less
susceptible to backdrafting because of the fan for exhausting flue gases. Their AFUE ratings are
typically 80% to 83%.

Models with efficiencies over 90% and up to 97%, commonly called condensing furnaces, contain
secondary heat exchangers that actually cool flue gases until they partially condense. Heat losses up
the flue are virtually eliminated. A drain line connected to the flue drains the condensate. One
advantage of cooler exhaust gas is that you can use a plastic flue pipe that can be vented horizontally
through a side wall. Metal flues, sometimes required by code, will quickly corrode when used with
these high efficiency units. Make sure your local building official is aware of the need to install a
plastic flue before ordering a condensing furnace.

There are a variety of condensing furnaces available. Some rely primarily on the secondary heat
exchanger to increase efficiency, while others, such as the pulse furnace, have revamped the entire
combustion process.

Because of the wide variety of condensing furnaces on the market, compare prices, warranties, and
service. Also, compare the economics carefully with those of moderate efficiency units.
Condensing units may have longer paybacks than expected in energy efficient homes due to reduced
heating loads.

Integrated Space and Water Heating

An integrated space heating and domestic water heating unit provides a single, multipurpose system.
The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has
developed standards by which to evaluate such systems, as well as methods of measuring the
efficiency of integrated systems with either space heating or water heating as their primary purpose.

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 133

 Figure 7-6
Integrated Space and Water Heating System

Supply ducts

Cooling coil

Blower

Heating coil
with pump
Return duct

Hot water for Incoming

space heating cold water

Hot water for

domestic use
High recovery,
fuel-fired water
heater or heat
pump

Gas-fired integrated systems

One type of integrated space and water heater system uses a quick recovery, high efficiency gas
water heater to provide 140°F water that provides space heating and hot water. Heating needs are
met by pumping hot water from the water heater to a heating duct coil in the air handling unit.

Household air passing through ductwork connected to this coil is heated to between 110°F and
120°F. The water, cooled to about 120°F by the air, returns from the heating coil to the integrated
water heater for reheating. The air handler can also incorporate a cooling coil for air conditioning.
The economics of these units can be quite favorable; however, it is often difficult to obtain an
objective comparison between integrated systems and more conventional space and water heating
equipment.

Some advantages of integrated systems are:

• They can save floor space, as some air handling units mount to the wall or within the wall
cavity above the water heater tank.
• They may have lower installed costs - only one gas hookup and a single flue are required.
• They often have a more efficient water heater than standard homes.

134
Another integrated approach uses a central boiler to provide space and water heating. Typically, the
boiler can provide hot water even in non-heating seasons more efficiently than standard water
heaters. However, the greater initial cost of this type of system may limit its use to families with high
hot water demands.

Electric integrated systems

There are several products that use central heat pumps for water heating, space heating and air
conditioning. These integrated units are available in both air-source and geothermal models.

Make sure the unit is not substantially more expensive than a separate energy efficient heat pump
and electric water heater. Units within $1,500 may provide favorable economic returns. The SEER
of the unit should exceed 13.0. To be a viable choice, any type of integrated system should:
• Have a proven track record in the field.
• Cost about the same, if not less, than comparable heating and hot water systems of
approximately the same efficiencies.
• Provide at least a five-year warranty.
• Be properly sized for both the heating and hot water load.

Wood Heating
Wood can be a thrifty alternative to conventional heating sources. However, if the homeowner must
purchase wood fuel, the savings will diminish. Wood heating also requires work, and a fire-safe
installation is essential.

Although there are wood-burning furnaces designed for homes, most homeowners interested in
wood heating use a fireplace or wood heater — either freestanding stove or fireplace insert.
Fireplaces and wood heaters are primarily space heaters. They radiate heat to people and objects
close by and, to a lesser degree, heat the surrounding air.

Like other fuel-burning equipment, fireplaces and wood heaters need air for combustion and must
vent exhaust products to the outside. In standard construction, air infiltration provides the necessary
combustion air. However, in energy efficient homes, the sources of air infiltration are greatly
reduced so special measures to supply outside combustion air must be provided.

An energy efficient fireplace must have a direct vent that brings air from outside the home to the
firebox. The vent should be designed so that it remains clear of ashes, wood, and other materials
when a fire is burning. It should be located toward the front of the firebox and have a damper or lid
that prevents infiltration when the fireplace is not in use.

In addition to an outside source of combustion air, a fireplace should have a tight-fitting flue damper
and glass doors to reduce air leakage further. The flue damper should be opened before lighting a
fire and closed after combustion is complete.

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 135

 Figure 7-7
Efficient Wood Heater Design

Rated flue
installed Flue damper
properly

Radiant Secondary
surfaces combustion
chamber

Catalytic
device to aid
combustion

Outside
All doors should be tight-fitting combustion
air source

Some fireplace designs provide a means of heating room air by circulating it around the firebox
where it is heated and then passed back into the house. These systems are more efficient than
standard fireplaces.

Homeowners serious about using wood as a heat source should choose a high efficiency wood
heater, such as an airtight wood stove. As with fireplaces, wood heaters in energy efficient homes
should have an outside source of combustion air. In fact, even standard houses may not have
adequate infiltration levels to maintain proper combustion and venting for a wood heater.

To ensure safety, select a wood heater designed to use outside combustion air. These units are
required by code in manufactured housing and are usually sold by businesses supplying wood
heaters and fireplaces. The wood heater should also be properly sized for the home. Many energy
efficient homes have small heating loads, so large or even moderate-sized wood heaters may
produce too much heat.

Figure 7-8
Direct Vent Heaters
Exhaust gases

Outside
Combustion
Air

136
Unvented Fuel-Fired Heaters
Unvented heaters that burn natural gas, propane, kerosene, or other fuels are strongly discouraged.
While these devices usually operate without problems, the consequences of a malfunction are life-
threatening; they can exhaust carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides directly into
household air. They also can create serious moisture problems inside the home.

Most devices come equipped with alarms designed to detect air quality problems. However, many
experts question putting a family at any risk of carbon monoxide poisoning - they see no rationale
for bringing these units into a home. There are a wide variety of efficient, vented space heaters
available. Examples of unvented units to avoid include:
• Flueless gas fireplaces - use sealed combustion, direct vent units instead
• Room space heaters - choose forced-draft, direct-vent models instead

Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality

All houses need ventilation to remove stale interior air and excessive moisture. There has been
considerable concern recently about how much ventilation is required to maintain the quality of air
in homes. While there is substantial disagreement on the severity of indoor air quality problems,
most experts agree that the solution is not to build an inefficient, “leaky” home. Because make-up
air is brought in at outside temperatures, it often requires more energy to condition the home.
However, the ventilation may reduce energy use by removing excess humidity. With Louisiana’s
humid environment, though, the outside air will typically be more humid than the inside air.

Research studies show that standard houses are almost as likely to have indoor air quality problems
as energy efficient ones. Most building researchers believe that no house is so leaky that the
occupants can be relieved of concern about indoor air quality. They recommend mechanical
ventilation systems for all houses.

The amount of ventilation required depends on the number of occupants and their lifestyle, as well
as the design of the home. The ASHRAE standard, “Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality”
(ASHRAE 62) recommends that houses have 0.35 natural air changes per hour (nach) or 15 cubic
feet per minute of ventilation per occupant.

Older, drafty houses can have infiltration rates of 1.0 to 2.5 nach. Standard homes built today are
tighter and usually have rates of from 0.5 to 1.0 nach. New, energy efficient homes often have less
than 0.35 nach.

Infiltration is not a successful means of ventilation because it is not reliable and the quantity of
incoming air is not controllable. Air leaks are unpredictable, and infiltration rates for all houses
vary. For example, air leakage is greater during cold, windy periods than during muggy, hot
weather. Thus, pollutants may accumulate during periods of calm weather even in drafty houses.
These homes will also have many days when excessive infiltration provides too much ventilation,
causing discomfort, high energy bills, and possible deterioration of the building envelope.

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 137

Concerns about indoor air quality are leading more and more homeowners to install controlled
ventilation systems that provide a reliable source of fresh air. The simplest approach is to provide
spot ventilation of bathrooms and kitchens to control moisture. Nearly all exhaust fans in standard
construction are ineffective — a prime contributor to moisture problems in Louisiana homes.
Builders should select quality fans with low noise ratings.

Figure 7-9
Ventilation with Spot Fans

Spot fan Air drawn in

through inlet
vents

General guidelines call for providing a minimum of 50 cubic feet per minute (cfm) of air flow for
baths and 100 cfm for kitchens. Manufacturers should supply the cfm rating for any exhaust fan.

The cfm rating typically assumes the fan is working against an air pressure resistance of 0.1 inch of
water - the resistance provided by about 15 feet of straight, smooth metal duct. In practice, most
fans are vented with flexible duct that provides much more resistance. Many ventilation experts
suggest choosing a fan based on a resistance of 0.30 inches of water.

While larger fans cost more, they are usually better constructed and therefore last longer and run
quieter. The level of noise for a fan is rated by sones. Choose a fan with a sone rating of 1.5 or less.
Top quality models are often below 0.5 sones.

Many ceiling- or wall-mounted exhaust fans can be adapted as “in-line” blowers located outside of
the living area, such as in an attic or basement. Manufacturers also offer in-line fans to vent a single
bath or kitchen, or multiple rooms. Distancing the in-line fan from the living area lessens noise
problems.

138
Bath and kitchen exhaust fans should vent to the outside - not just into an attic or crawlspace. Avoid
side-vented stove units whose exhaust fans pull 400 to 700 cfm from the house. Unless some form
of make-up air is supplied, these units can create high levels of negative pressure.

Always test a home for pressure imbalance problems when fans are operating. In tighter homes, a
single bathroom exhaust fans may backdraft fireplaces or combustion appliances. If pressure
problems exist, the home should have a source of make-up air, which is described in the next
section.

While improving spot ventilation will certainly help control moisture problems, it may not provide
adequate ventilation for the entire home. A whole house ventilation system can exhaust air from the
kitchen, all baths, and perhaps the living area or bedrooms.

Figure 7-10
Whole House Ventilation System

Air vented away from

any inlet vents

Ducts remove air from

several rooms in house

Reduced pressure in
house draws fresh air
in through inlet vents

Whole house ventilation systems usually have large single fans located in the attic or basement.
Ductwork extends to rooms requiring ventilation. These units typically have two-speed motors. The
low speed setting gives continuous ventilation – usually 10 cfm per person or 0.35 ach. The high
speed setting can quickly vent moisture or odors.

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 139

Supplying Outside Make-up Air

From air leaks

The air vented from the home by exhaust fans must be replaced by outside air. Air leaks can provide
the make-up air, but this does not guarantee fresh air. It is far better to provide a controlled
mechanism for make-up air as an integral part of the house design. Relying on air leaks requires no
extra equipment; however, the occupant has little control over the air entry points. Plus, many of the
air leaks come from undesirable locations, such as crawlspaces or attics. If the home is too airtight,
the ventilation fans will not be able to pull in enough outside air to balance the air being exhausted.
This may threaten air quality by pulling exhaust gases from flues and chimneys back into the home.
The homeowner can alleviate the pressure problems by opening windows slightly though this may
pose a home security risk.

From inlet vents

Providing fresh outside air through inlet vents is another option. These vents can often be purchased
from energy specialty outlets by mail order. They are usually located in exterior walls. The amount
of air they allow into the home can be controlled manually or by humidity sensors.

Locate inlet vents where they will not create uncomfortable drafts. They are often installed in
bedroom closets with louvered doors or high on exterior walls. Ideally, they should be filtered and
located as far as possible from all exhaust vents.

Via ducted make-up air

Outside air can also be drawn into and distributed through the home via the ducts for a forced-air
heating and cooling system. This type of system usually has an automatically controlled outside air
damper in the return duct system. The blower for the ventilation system is either the air handler for
the heating and cooling system or a smaller unit that is strictly designed to provide ventilation air.

Dehumidification Ventilation Systems

Louisiana homes are often more humid than desired. A combined ventilation-dehumidifier system
can bring in fresh, outdoor air, remove its moisture, and supply it to the home. These systems can
also filter incoming air. Because these systems require an additional mechanical device - a
dehumidifier installed on the air supply duct - they should be designed for the specific needs of the
home.

Heat Recovery Ventilators

Air-to-air heat exchangers, or heat recovery ventilators (HRV — described in Figure 7-11), typically
have separate duct systems that draw in outside air for ventilation and distribute fresh air throughout
the house. In winter, heat from stale room air is “exchanged” to the cooler incoming air. In
summer, the hot outdoor air is cooled and may be partially dehumidified by the cooler exhaust air.
Some models, called enthalpy heat exchangers, can also recapture cooling energy in summer by
exchanging moisture between exhaust and supply air.

While energy experts have questioned the value of the heat saved in Louisiana homes for the cost for
an HRV, recent studies on enthalpy units indicate their dehumidification benefit in summer offers an
advantage over ventilation-only systems. The value of any heat recovery ventilation system should
not be determined solely on the cost of recovered energy. The improved quality of the indoor
environment must be considered as well.

140
Sample Ventilation Plans

Design 1: Upgraded Spot Ventilation

This relatively simple and inexpensive whole house ventilation system integrates spot ventilation
using bathroom and kitchen exhaust fans with an upgraded exhaust fan (usually100 to 150 cfm) in a
centrally located bathroom. When the fan operates, outside air is drawn through inlets in closets
with louvered doors. The fan is controlled by a timer set to provide ventilation at regular intervals.
Interior doors are undercut to allow air flow to the central exhaust fan. The fan should be a long life,
high-quality unit that operates quietly. In addition to the automatic ventilation provided by this
system, occupants can turn on all exhaust fans manually as needed.

Design 2: Whole House Ventilation System

Whole house ventilation systems use a centralized, two-speed exhaust fan to draw air from the
kitchen, bath, laundry, and living area. The blower is controlled by a timer. The system should
provide approximately 0.35 ach on low speed and 1.0 ach on high speed. Outside air is supplied by
a separate dampered duct connected to the return air system. When the exhaust fan operates, the
outside air damper opens and allows air to be drawn into the house through the forced-air ductwork.

Design 3: Heat Recovery Ventilation System

HRV systems draw fresh outside air through ducts into the heat exchange equipment and recaptures
heating or cooling energy from stale room air as it is being exhausted. Some systems, called
enthalpy heat exchangers, also dry incoming humid air in summer - a particular benefit in the
Southeast. Fresh air flows into the house via a separate duct system, which should be sealed as
tightly as the HVAC ductwork. Exhaust room air can either be ducted to the exchanger from several
rooms or a single central source.

Figure 7-11
Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV) System

Exhaust Air

Fresh Air
Return Duct
Fresh Air Supplied
to Rooms

Chapter 7 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 141

Overall HVAC Recommendations
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning are very important components of a healthy, comfortable,
and efficient house. Be sure to have the HVAC contractor size all HVAC equipment properly.
Also, ensure that the house receives proper ventilation. Using leaks to provide fresh air can be a
problem, because the air could be pulled from a polluted source. Ensure that all inlet vents are
located in an area that will remain free from pollutants like car exhaust.

Notes:

142
Chapter 8

Duct Design and Sealing

Duct Materials
The three most common types of duct material used in home construction are metal, rigid fiberglass
duct board, and flex-duct. Both metal and fiberglass duct board are rigid and installed in pieces,
while flex-duct comes in long sections.

Flex-duct is usually installed in a single, continuous piece between the register and plenum box or
plenum box and air handler. Be careful not to tear the soft lining material. The flex-duct must also
not be pinched or constricted. Long flex-duct runs can restrict air flow, so they must be installed
carefully. Flex-duct takeoffs, while often airtight in appearance, can have substantial leakage and
should be sealed with mastic. Always select duct insulation with a shiny, metal foil exterior covering
to reduce radiant heat gain and to act as a vapor barrier.

Round and rectangular metal duct must be sealed with mastic and insulated during installation. It is
important to seal the seams and joints first, because the insulation does not stop air leaks.

Metal ducts often use fiberglass insulation having an attached metal foil vapor barrier. The duct
insulation should be at least R-6, and the vapor barrier should be installed to the outside of the
insulation - facing away from the duct. The seams in the insulation are usually stapled together
around the duct and then taped. Duct insulation in homes at least two-years old provides visible
clues about duct leakage – if the insulation is removed, lines of dirt in the fiberglass often show
where air leakage has occurred. Sometimes, rectangular metal duct used for plenums and larger
trunk duct runs is insulated internally with duct liner, a high density material that should be at least
1-inch thick. Many homeowners have concerns about the long term effects of the duct liner exposed
to the air flowing through the system. They prefer to insulate the outside of the ductwork, rather
than the inside. Internally insulated metal ducts cannot be cleaned as easily as externally insulated
ducts. For acoustical dampening in transfer ducts (from room to room or hall) the internal lining is
preferred.

Figure 8-1
Types of Ductwork

Rigid metal without

insulation sleeve Duct board
Flex-duct

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 143

The Problem of Duct Leakage
Studies conducted throughout the country have found that poorly sealed ductwork is often the most
prevalent yet easily solvable problem in new construction. Duct leakage contributes 10% to 30% of
heating and cooling loads in many homes. In addition, duct leakage can decrease comfort and
endanger health and safety.

Locating ducts in the conditioned space eliminates many problems with leakage. They are installed
in vertical chases or horizontal furred areas (framed duct passageways situated below the ceiling).
To be effective they must be completely sealed from unconditioned spaces.

Duct insulation does not provide an airtight seal. The heating and cooling contractor should use
proper materials when sealing ductwork - in particular, duct sealing mastic with embedded
reinforcing mesh tape. To ensure ducts are tight, a home energy rater will conduct a duct leakage
test, which is necessary to qualify for possible tax credits.

The International Residential Code requires that HVAC contractors use mastic and mesh tape to seal
leaks. This provision reflects the universal recognition that duct sealing is not only a cost effective
energy efficiency measure, but it also improves comfort and, more importantly, makes our homes
healthier places in which to live. Chapter 2 explains some of the health risks of leaky ductwork in
detail.

Duct Leaks and Air Leakage

Forced-air heating and cooling systems should be balanced - the amount of air delivered through the
supply ducts should be equal to that drawn through the return ducts. If the two volumes of air are
unequal, the pressure inside the house can be affected. Pressure imbalances increase air leakage into
and out of the home increasing air conditioning run-time to condition the infiltrated air. Pressure
imbalances can also create air quality hazards in homes including:

• Pulling pollutants into the air handling system via return leaks.
• Draws in dust, mold, and humidity from the crawlspace.
• Potential back drafting of combustion appliances such as fireplaces, wood stoves and gas
burners.
• Homes with central (non ducted) returns can have pressure imbalances when the interior
doors to individual rooms or suites are closed:
• The rooms having supply registers and no returns become pressurized, while the areas
with centralized returns become depressurized (negative pressure relative to other
areas of the house).
• If the returns are open to rooms with fireplaces or combustion appliances (gas water
heaters, for instance), these spaces can become sufficiently depressurized to draw
combustion products, including carbon monoxide, into the air stream.

Typical causes of and concerns about pressure imbalances are addressed more fully in Chapter 2.

Figure 8-2 shows the impact of return and supply leaks on HVAC equipment efficiency when the
makeup air is drawn from a hot attic. For example, a HVAC system having 15% return leakage in a
moderately hot attic (125°F) can suffer a 50% drop in efficiency - from SEER 10 to SEER 6. The

144
SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio) measures the number of Btu's per hour of cooling each
watt of electricity provides.

Figure 8-2
Efficiency Losses Due to Attic Return Leaks
(15% Supply Leaks)
14

12
EER Equipment Efficiency

10

8
95 Degree Attic Air
110 Degree Attic Air
125 Degree Attic Air
6

0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
Percent of Make-up Air from Attic in Return Air Supply

When HVAC supply ducts leak air to the outside, the return side of the system still requires the full
amount of air back. In a home with 15% supply leaks, if 100% of the replacement air comes from
the attic at 125 degrees, the efficiency of the system will drop from SEER 13 to about SEER 8.0, a
40% reduction in efficiency. Note that duct leakage of only 5% results in efficiency losses of 5% to
15%.

Leaky ducts can, therefore, be a significant cause for higher utility bills. They can also lower supply
air temperatures in winter and increase them in summer, which may pose major comfort problems
for the occupants.

Sealing Air Distribution Systems

Duct leakage should be minimized. Many duct seams and joints are poorly sealed with ineffective
materials such as cloth “duct tape,” unrated aluminum tape, or similar products with low quality
adhesives not designed to provide an airtight seal over the life of the home. Use only the following
products and techniques for sealing the components of the air distribution system:

• Nontoxic duct sealing mastic (UL labeled 181A or B) with fiberglass mesh tape is highly
preferred and provides a lifetime seal. It may add 1 to 2% to the cost of a system.

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 145

 • Aluminum tape with a UL-181 A or B rating or "mastic" tapes with improved adhesives.
o The duct surface must be clean of oil and dirt, and the tape must fully adhere to the
duct with no wrinkles.
o A squeegee must be used to remove air bubbles from beneath the taped surface.
o Costs only slightly more than “silver tape," which has an inferior adhesive.

• High quality caulking or foam sealant at register boots.

Proper sealing and insulation of the ductwork in unconditioned areas requires careful attention to
detail and extra time on the part of the HVAC contractor. The cost of this extra time is well worth
the substantial savings on energy costs, improved comfort, and better air quality that a properly
designed, constructed, and sealed duct system offers.

Figure 8-3
Sealing Flex-duct Collar with Mastic

Attach flex-duct to take-

off collar with strap.

Apply mastic to seal flex-

duct to collar and collar to
plenum.

Pull insulation and outer

liner over sealed take-off;
strap outer liner in place

146
The easiest answer to the question of where to seal air distribution systems is “everywhere.” A list of
the key locations is as follows:

High priority leaks

• Disconnected components, including takeoffs that are not fully inserted, ducts that have
been dislodged, tears in flex-duct, and strained connections between ductwork (visible
where ducts are bent without a metal elbow).

• All of the seams in the air handling unit, the supply and return plenums, and rectangular
ductwork - look particularly underneath components and in any other tight areas. Also,
seal the holes for the refrigerant, thermostat, and condensate lines with non-hardening
putty. Use tape rather than mastic to seal the seams in the panels of the air handling unit
so they can be removed for servicing. After completing service and maintenance work,
such as filter changing, make sure the seams are re-taped.

• The return takeoffs, elbows, boots, and other connections. If the return is built into a wall,
all connections and seams must be sealed carefully.

• The takeoffs from the main supply plenum and branch lines.

• Any framing in the building used as ductwork, such as a “panned” joist in which sheet
metal nailed to floor joists provides a space for conditioned air to flow. It is preferable to
avoid using framing cavities as a part of the duct system.

• Between the branch ductwork and the boot, the boot and the register, the seams of any
elbows, and other potential leaks in this area.

Low Priority Leaks

• Longitudinal seams in round metal ductwork.

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 147

 Figure 8-4
Disconnected Ducts Are High Priorities

Disconnected duct. Also, regardless of the type of duct

material, in order to maintain designed air flows to each
register no bends greater than 45 degrees should ever be
made in the duct run.

Ducts can become disconnected during initial installation, maintenance, or even normal operation.
They should be checked periodically for problems.

Testing for Duct Leakage

The best method to ensure airtight ducts is to perform a pressure test on the entire duct system,
including all boot connections, duct runs, plenums, and the air handler cabinet. Much like a pressure
test required for plumbing, ductwork can be tested during construction so that problems can be more
easily corrected.

In most test procedures, a technician temporarily seals the ducts by taping over the supply registers
and return grille(s). Then, the ducts are pressurized to a low pressure, usually 25 Pascals, using a
duct testing fan. This pressure is comparable to the average pressure the ducts experience when the
air handler operates.

While ducts are pressurized, the technician can read the total duct leakage of the HVAC system.
Some energy efficiency programs require that the cubic feet per minute of duct leakage measured at
a 25 Pascal pressure (CFM25) be less than 3% of the floor area of the house. For example, a 2,000
square-foot house should have less than 60 (2,000 x 0.03) CFM25 of duct leakage.

Another test is to use a blower door (described in Chapter 3) and a duct testing fan together to
measure duct leakage after construction is complete. This procedure gives the most accurate
measurement of duct leakage to the outside of the home. A duct leakage test can usually be done in
about one hour for an average-sized home.

148
 Figure 8-5
Duct Test on Return Grille

Registers sealed
before testing

Pressure gauge
Air
Handler

Fan Duct testing fan @

control return grille
switch

Figure 8-6
Duct Leaks in Inside Spaces

Leaks at boot seal of

ceiling register

Vented Attic

Fiberglass, Rock Wool,

or Cellulose Insulation

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 149

 Figure 8-7
Seal All Leaks in Air Handling Unit

Virtually all air handling cabinets come from the factory with leaks, which should be sealed with
duct-sealing mastic. Removable panels should be sealed with tape.

Figure 8-8
Shelf-Mounted Systems without Returns

Non-ducted returns can severely The return should be connected to

depressurize mechanical room closets, not the home via well-sealed ductwork.
only sapping the system's efficiency, but All holes to other spaces should be
also creating ideal conditions for back completely sealed.
drafting and other air quality problems.

150
 Figure 8-9
Seal All Leaky Takeoffs

Leaky return takeoff pulls

in surrounding air

Figure 8-10
Sealing Leaky Boots

Mastic

Use mastic to completely seal all leaky seams and holes. Use
mesh tape with mastic to cover cracks over 1/8-inch wide.

Duct Design
Sizing and Layout
The size and layout of the ductwork affects the efficiency of the heating and cooling system and
comfort levels in the home. The proper duct size depends on:

• The estimated heating and cooling load for each room in the house.
• The length, type, and shape of the duct.
• The operating characteristics of the HVAC system (such as the pressure, temperature, and
air speed).

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 151

The lower temperature of the heated air delivered by a heat pump affects the placement of the
registers. A heat pump usually supplies heated air between 90°F and 100°F. At these temperatures,
air leaving registers may feel cool. They should be placed so as to avoid blowing air directly onto
people. Fuel-fired furnaces typically deliver heated air at temperatures between 110°F and 120°F,
40°F to 50°F greater than room temperature, so placement of the supply registers is less important to
maintain comfort.

HVAC contractors usually locate supply registers on room centerlines and place the return air
grille(s) near the interior, typically in a central hallway. Most standard designs have only one return
for each floor.

Figure 8-11
Comparison of Air Flow in Different 6-inch Ducts

Regardless of the type of duct material, in order to

maintain designed air flows to each register no
bends greater than 45 degrees should ever be made
in the duct run.

Some contractors try to use one size duct through out the house. One size does not fit all situations.
The standard approach of using all one size branch ducts with a single return works for some homes,
but can create operating problems for others, including:

• Too much heating and cooling supplied to small rooms, such as bathrooms and bedrooms
with only one exterior wall.
• Inadequate airflow, and thus, insufficient heating and cooling, in rooms located at the
greatest distance from the air handler.

The heating and cooling industry has developed comprehensive methods to size supply and return
ductwork properly. These procedures are described fully in Manual D, Residential Duct Systems
published by the Air Conditioning Contractors of America. The advantage of proper design is that
each room receives air flow proportionate to its heating and cooling load, thus increasing overall
comfort and efficiency. The following thoughts, while no substitute for a Manual D calculation,
should improve system performance:

• If two rooms have similar orientation, window area, and insulation characteristics, but
one room is considerably farther from the air handling unit than the other, the ductwork
going to the farthest room may need to be larger.

152
 • Bonus rooms over garages often need larger supplies because of the extra heat passing
through the roof, and the floor area over ambient air. Insulation installed to code
requirements will reduce the need for extra cooling and heating capacity.
• Rooms with large window areas may warrant a larger supply duct, regardless of room
size. Proper calculation of solar load will determine requirements. Double pane, low-e
windows and shading can reduce the solar load.
• Likewise, large, well-insulated rooms with few windows, only one exterior wall, and with
conditioned space above may need only one small duct.
• Ductwork air flow can be adjusted to meet each room's needs using manually controlled
dampers and an air flow measurement device. However, velocity will increase for a
given plenum pressure, and may increase noise at the register if the duct is oversized.

Return Air Flow Considerations

Air conditioning systems not only supply air flow to rooms, but they pull air out of the rooms, also.
If the return flow is not free to exit the space, the pressure will build up in the room and it will look
for the path of least resistance. This alternate path could be to either the outdoors or the attic.
Window frames can be leak sites to the outdoors. Electrical outlets and switch boxes often
communicate with the attic. Bathroom plumbing has vent pipes running up through the attic and is
often closed off to limit moisture escape into the rest of the house.

Besides the loss of conditioned air, which you have paid for, the lost air must be replaced before
reaching the fan or the remainder of the house would be at a lower pressure than the air outside the
house. This causes infiltration, which can bring additional heat, humidity and other undesirable
elements with it as described in Chapter 2. (Less than 3 Pascals pressure differential is acceptable
for a well balanced system.)

Each space that has a door that is commonly closed, bedrooms, bathrooms, etc. should have
adequate provision for air return flow. There are several ways this can be done. A complete return
duct system could be used, but would add to the cost substantially. Since most house duct systems
in Louisiana are located high on the wall or in the ceiling, floor level return is desirable to provide
good ventilation, and to de-stratify the rising hot air in the winter. With under floor supply ducts,
high mounted returns can be best.

The return openings will need to be 2 to 3 times the size of the supply duct depending on system
design velocities. (Although not always a good basis for design, a “Rule of Thumb” to consider is 1
square inch of wall opening per cfm delivered to the room.) This can take the form of cutting off the
bottom of the doors with a ¾ inch undercut of a 32” door (24 sq. in.) combined with a standard
transfer grille having a width of 14 inches and 80% net free area whose height increases per the cfm
delivered to the room divided by 25.

For typical bedroom having 70 cfm supplied and 24 square inches of return opening under a 2’8”
door undercut ¾ inch and a nominal 14 inch wide transfer grille in the wall, the height of the transfer
grille would need to be 4.1”, yielding approximately 70 square inches of total return opening from
the bedroom to the air handler’s return grille.

32” X .75” + [(14” X 4”) X .80] = 68.8 square inches

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 153

Other Alternatives
A “jump” duct can be installed over the door frame or some other convenient point such as an
interior wall as long as it is insulated.

Figure 8-12
Jump Duct

10” rigid duct

Sealant
Sealant

Ceiling
grille Ceiling
grille

Interior
Wall

154
A baffled (for sound) vent above the door may suit the situation if planned for in the framing.

Figure 8- 13
Transfer Grilles – Over Doors

Back to back grilles on both sides of

partition with interior baffles or offset
grills when no partial stud present.
Rigid duct board makes a good baffle.

Sound and light baffles; use a

“soft” material for baffle.
Seal framing cavity around
both sides.

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 155

 Figure 8-14
Transfer Grilles – In Wall

Grille located in partition

between master bedroom
closet and the return
closet or hallway leading
to main return grille.

Bedroom
Side
Return
Side
Caulk/glue to studs and plates all
around on both sides. Cavity must
be sealed tight to drywall or it will
provide a connection to the attic.

Louvered passage doors are also a good solution if sound or moisture is not a problem.

Figure 8-15
Louvered Passage Doors

156
Conclusion
Proper air flow provides comfort and temperature control in the house. Good duct design moves the
right amount of air to each space with little sound. Although simple in appearance, the duct system
is just as critical to a comfortable and economical home as a high seer air conditioner or abundant
insulation. In fact, a leaky, inadequate duct system can undo all the effort put into these other
systems.

Insist on a properly sized and designed duct system to compliment the other equipment you are
buying. This is no place to save a few dollars as you will be paying for it on every utility bill for the
life of the house. If the house will have high ceilings in some parts, investigate keeping equipment
and all duct work inside the envelope. By doing this leaks don’t hurt performance nearly as much.
If duct work must be located in the attic, make certain that it is well sealed permanently and well
insulated. It may cost a little more but it will save you money every month.

Chapter 8 Duct Design and Sealing 157

Notes:

158
Chapter 9

Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting

Water heating, appliances, and lighting account for a large portion of a home’s overall energy
consumption. When considering the purchase of this equipment, it is important to consider the
energy costs of operating the equipment along with the initial cost of the equipment.

Water Heating
Energy costs for water heating can be as great as those for heating or cooling a house. However, it is
easy to cut those bills dramatically with conservation measures and water heating alternatives.

Energy Conservation for Water Heating

No matter what type of energy source is used to heat water, be certain to take advantage of the
savings from conservation measures:

• Lower the temperature setting on the water heater to 120°F.

o Saves energy
o Reduces the risk of injury from scalding
o Provides plenty of hot water
o If hotter temperatures are needed for washing dishes, select a dishwasher with a
booster heater
• Wrap the outside of the water heater tank with an insulation jacket. Simple to install –
payback is less than 1 year
o Do not cover the relief or drain valve
o For gas water heaters, do not block the air inlet to the burner or the flue vent on the
top
• Insulate at least four feet of all pipes connected to the unit, but pipe insulation is inexpensive
and the slit foam tube type is easy to apply. Therefore, it will pay to insulate as much of the
outlet run that is accessible. If the inlet pipes are exposed to cold temperatures, insulate
those, too.
• Low-flow showerheads provide a 1-year payback. Well-designed fixtures deliver water at
2.5 gallons per minute or less and still provide plenty of force.
• Heat traps keep heat from escaping from the water heater.
• Low-flow aerators on sink and lavatory faucets.
o Kitchen sink may need a higher volume flow faucet for filling pots and pans more
quickly.

Water heaters come in a range of efficiencies, warranties, and fuel sources. Their efficiencies are
measured by a rating known as the energy factor (EF).

Chapter 9 Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 159

 Figure 9-1
Typical Breakdown of Hot Water Use
Sinks
11%

Baths Showers
12% 37%

Dishwasher
14%

Clothes Washer
26%

Gas Water Heaters

Gas water heaters are typically less efficient, but also cost less to operate than electric water heaters.
This is because of the energy loss associated with electrical distribution. Also, with gas-fired power
plants providing electricity, any increases in the price of natural gas will be reflected on the price of
electricity. One major advantage of gas water heaters is reliability. During hurricanes, natural gas
supplies are more reliable than electricity supplies. When a hurricane knocks out electricity for a
week or longer it is nice to be able to take a warm shower. A gas water heater can make this
possible.

High efficiency gas water heaters can have energy factors above 0.80. In addition to variations in
insulation, gas water heater efficiency is also affected by burner design, the shape of the flue baffles
which slow the hot exhaust gases down to increase heat transfer to the water, and the amount of
surface area between the flue gases and the water.

Higher efficiency gas water heaters have blowers for venting or delivery of combustion air. Most of
these units can be vented out of the sidewall of the home rather than the roof because of the forced
air blower.

Fuel-fired water heaters should be located in unconditioned spaces that are isolated in terms of
pressure and air leakage from the living area. If fuel-fired water heaters are located in the interior
spaces, such as interior mechanical rooms connected to conditioned spaces or laundry rooms, they
should include provisions for outside combustion air, such as a direct-vent unit. Direct-vent units
have a double flue pipe that includes both an intake for combustion air and a flue for exhaust gases.

When shopping for a water heater, use the Energy Guide sticker to compare the estimated annual
energy cost for a specific water heater with comparable models. The estimated annual cost shown in
bold print on the sticker uses a national average cost of fuel, which could differ significantly in your
area.

160
Electric Water Heaters
For electric water heaters, higher efficiency units have energy factors up to 0.97. Often, the
additional cost of a high efficiency unit is quite low compared to the savings. Because of the high
cost of electric water heating, more efficient options such as heat recovery units, heat pump water
heaters, and solar water heaters should be considered.

Figure 9-2
Insulating Jackets for Electric and Gas Water Heaters

Heat traps or
check valves
reduce heat
loss

Insulate at
least first four
feet of all
metal pipes
extending out
of water heater

Electric Water Heater Gas Water Heater

Heat Recovery Units

A heat recovery unit, also called a desuperheater, recovers excess heat from an air conditioner or
heat pump to provide “free” hot water. The heat is captured from the air conditioner’s refrigerant
piping between the outlet of the compressor and the inlet of the condenser (outside unit). A heat
exchanger on this line extracts heat from the superheated, high pressure refrigerant gas. The
refrigerant is hot enough to lose some heat without condensing into a liquid. The refrigerant gas
then continues to condenser at a lower temperature. For more information on residential air
conditioning, see Chapter 7.

During the summer, the desuperheater can usually provide 100% of the hot water needs of a family
while also improving the efficiency of the air conditioner or heat pump. In the spring and fall, with
no heating or cooling, the desuperheater is ineffective. In the winter, if connected to a heat pump,
the desuperheater will still provide hot water more efficiently than a conventional electric water
heater. The energy savings from a desuperheater connected to a central air conditioner depend on
how often the air conditioner is used. Savings are typically 20% to 40% of annual water heating
costs.

The size and efficiency of the water heater and cooling equipment will affect the performance of the
desuperheater. Combining desuperheaters with new, higher efficiency air conditioners or heat
pumps, which have lower refrigerant temperatures, can reduce the energy savings. The HVAC

Chapter 9 Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 161

system should be at least 2 tons in size to be used effectively with a desuperheater. Before installing
a unit, make sure that it will not void warranties on mechanical equipment.

Heat Pump Water Heaters

Heat pump water heaters operate at about twice the efficiency of standard electric water heaters.
They use surrounding air as a heat source. As they extract heat from the air, they provide some
dehumidification and cooling.

Figure 9-3
Heat Pump Water Heaters

Standard
water
heater

Hot water
out

Cooled air
out
Warm
water in

Warm air in

While the cool dry air is an advantage in summer, it is detrimental in winter. It is best to locate the
unit in an unconditioned area, such as an unheated basement, where the cooling effect will not cause
winter discomfort or higher heating bills. The area must stay above 45°F for the unit to operate
properly.

Heat pump water heaters are sold either as separate cabinets which are connected to a conventional
water heater or as packages complete with the hot water storage tank. When operating, they are
about as loud as an air conditioner, so do not locate them where noise will be a problem.

Solar Water Heaters

For homes that use a large amount of hot water and receive full sun year-round, solar water heaters
may be economical. Most solar water heaters operate by preheating water for a standard water
heater. Normally, gas or electric water heaters bring incoming cold water to a desired temperature of
about 120°F. A solar water heater uses sunlight to preheat cold water and stores it, often at
temperatures well above 120°F.

162
If the solar-heated water is hot enough, the standard water heater does not need to add more heat. If
the water is cooler than needed, the standard water heater will operate as a backup to increase the
temperature. Thus, the temperature or availability of hot water is never affected. Of course, even
when the solar-heated water is at temperatures below 120°F, the backup unit will use less energy
than it would to heat incoming cold water.

A variety of solar water heaters are available commercially, most of which should last 15 years or
longer. They are divided into three categories: active, thermosiphon, and batch. In active and
thermosiphon water heaters, solar panels or collectors trap the sun’s heat. Water or other fluid
running through the collectors absorbs heat and increases in temperature. The liquid then travels to a
storage tank where the heat it gains is stored.

Active systems use electric pumps to move the liquid from the collectors to the storage tank.
Thermosiphon water heaters require no outside power because they use the natural tendency of water
to rise as its temperature increases to push water from the collectors to the storage tank, which must
be located higher than the collectors. The hot fluid then passes through a heat exchanger where it
heats the domestic water or the incoming water passes through a heat exchanger in the storage tank.

Figure 9-4
Active Solar Water Heating Systems

Collector

Solar storage
tank with heat
exchange coil
inside to heat
Pump circulates water
working fluid
through the
system

Some solar water heaters use a single, large storage tank that has a backup source of water heating.
Other systems use a standard water heater as a backup and a separate solar storage tank. Active and
thermosiphon systems can supply up to 70 percent of a family’s annual hot water needs.

The tilt angle of the collector — the angle between the glazing and the horizon — should be within
15 degrees of the latitude. For Louisiana, the tilt angle can be between 18 and 50 degrees. The best
tilt angle for a year-round solar device, such as a solar water heater, is 35 to 45 degrees. For solar
collectors used only for winter heating, tilt angles can be raised to between 50 and 60 degrees.

Chapter 9 Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 163

Solar water heaters must be protected from freezing. Active and thermosiphon systems use
nonfreezing fluids or automatic drain systems to prevent freezing.

Batch water heaters, also called breadbox water heaters, are simpler than active or thermosiphon
systems. However, they provide less hot water, usually about 15 to 40 percent of a family’s yearly
demand. Batch water heaters combine the collector and storage tank in one box. The box has
insulated sides, a clear cover, and one or more tanks inside. In some cases, large tubes are used
instead of tanks. A batch water heater can typically store 30 to 60 gallons of hot water.

On a sunny day, sunlight travels through the glazing of the batch unit and strikes the tanks, which are
flat black in color. In most cases, the tanks are covered with a special selective surface coating that
readily absorbs sunlight, but reduces heat loss from the tank. When the tanks absorb the sun’s
energy, the water inside the tanks is heated. Local water pressure pushes the solar-heated water into
the regular water heater whenever a fixture or appliance, such as a shower or dishwasher, is drawing
hot water. Batch heaters are manufactured and sold commercially. However, because of the
simplicity of the design, some people build their own.

The collectors for any type of solar water heater should be located as close as possible to the water
heater tank to minimize the connecting piping. The glazing should face within 45 degrees of due
south. Collectors are usually located on the roof, but they can be attached to supports on the side of
a house or on the ground. Because batch water heaters combine collectors, storage tanks, and water,
they are heavy. Adequate structural support must be provided when they are located on the roof.

Figure 9-5
Batch Solar Water Heating System

Incoming water
supply (cold)

Hot water
to house

Backup water
heater
Batch water heater
with tank inside

Water inside the tanks of a batch water heater will only freeze on extremely cold nights. However,
the water in the pipes that connect the batch heater to the inside can freeze at temperatures around
32°F. A special freeze prevention drip valve should be used on a batch water heater.

Solar water heating can provide year round savings. Households that use a large amount of hot
water and can adapt the time when hot water is used to match when it is available will benefit the
most. Savings will be greatest if laundry, dishes, and bathing are done between noon and early
evening - after the sun has heated the water stored in the tank.

164
Instantaneous Water Heaters
Instantaneous water heaters use higher capacity electric coils or gas burners to heat cold water only
when there is a need for hot water. They save energy in two ways: they have no storage tank so
there is no need to keep stored water continuously warm, and gas-fired burners on these units usually
heat water more efficiently than gas tank-type water heaters. Conventional water heaters keep 30 to
50 gallons of water at a constant temperature - 24 hours a day.

Instantaneous units must be sized carefully for their planned use. A small unit may provide heating
for only one faucet or appliance at a time, so a higher capacity model or several units are generally
needed to provide hot water for conventional residential uses. By eliminating the standby losses and
increasing efficiency, instantaneous water heaters may save 10 to 20 percent of a household’s usual
water heating bill.

In general, instantaneous water heaters are not particularly cost-effective investments. It is usually
more economical to use conservation measures such as low-flow showerheads, insulated tank
jackets, reduced thermostat settings to lower standby losses, and to install conventional, high
efficiency water heaters.

Appliances
Heating, cooling, and hot water are usually the biggest portion of energy needs in Louisiana homes.
However, the cost of operating major appliances is significant. While most new appliances offer a
wide variety of features, many models are not designed to be energy efficient. When choosing
appliances, it is important to consider their operating costs - how much energy they require to run -
as well as the purchase price and the various features and conveniences they offer.

Appliances which operate efficiently may cost more to buy, but the energy savings they provide
make them a good investment. For example, running a standard refrigerator over its life of 15 to 20
years costs about three times as much as its purchase price. An energy efficient model can save
hundreds of dollars over the life of the appliance. Table 9-1 shows typical annual energy costs for a
variety of appliances.
Table 9-1
Typical Energy Costs for Appliances

Appliance Standard High Efficiency 10-year

Model Model ($/yr)* Savings
($/yr)*
Top Mount Refrigerator 47 38 $90
Side-by-side Refrigerator 68 54 $140
Chest Freezer 39 35 $40
Upright Freezer 76 67 $90
Electric Range 45 36 $90
Gas Range 34 27 $70
Clothes Washer 68 15 $530
Electric Clothes Dryer 48 37 $110
Gas Clothes Dryer 23 19 $40
Dishwasher 47 19 $280
*Analysis assumes cost of electricity to be $0.10 per kWh.

Chapter 9 Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 165

In addition to saving money on operating costs, energy efficient appliances give off less waste heat
than standard models. Therefore, they help keep rooms inside the house cooler during warm
weather.

EnergyGuide Label
To compare the energy usage of an appliance, use the EnergyGuide label. Federal law requires that
manufacturers display this label on all new refrigerators, freezers, water heaters, dishwashers,
clothes washers, and room air conditioners. Energy Guide labels are not currently required on
kitchen ranges, microwave ovens, clothes dryers, demand-type water heaters, and portable space
heaters.

The large number on the EnergyGuide label tells how much that appliance will cost to operate each
year based on an estimate of the amount of energy used and an average national energy costs. The
rating for a particular model is shown on a line scale that compares its energy cost against the model
with the lowest and highest annual energy costs. Much like the federal miles per gallon ratings for
automobiles, the actual amount of energy used and its cost will vary according to local prices and
each family’s lifestyle.

The EnergyGuide label also provides the name of the manufacturer, model number, type of
appliance, and capacity. It has a yearly cost table that shows a range of energy rates and the total
annual cost to operate that particular appliance at each rate. Use exact energy rates from local
utilities to estimate operating costs for the appliance.

Figure 9-6
EnergyGuide Label

166
Appliance Shopping Checklist

All Appliances
• Use EnergyGuide label to help select unit. Find the savings in operating costs for more
efficient appliances. Divide the savings per year into the extra purchase price to get the
payback period. Paybacks of less than five years are generally attractive.

Refrigerators
• The most efficient models are in the 16 to 20-cubic foot range.
• Side-by-side refrigerator/freezers use more energy than similarly sized models with freezers
on top.
• Features such as automatic icemakers and through-the-door dispensers add somewhat to
energy use.
• Units that are more square, rather than rectangular, also save energy, but may not be as
convenient to use.
• Manual defrost units save considerably more than frost-free units, but create more work for
the homeowner.
• Look for a power-saving switch that turns off a condensation-prevention heater. Keep this
switch off unless the unit experiences significant condensation.
• New generations of refrigerators that do not use chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) exceed the
minimum standards of NAECA by about 30% - the result of the electric utility-funded Super
Efficient Refrigerator Program (SERP).
• Try to install the refrigerator in a cooler location - in particular, it should not receive direct
sunlight.
• The refrigerator should operate between 36°F and 38°F, and the freezer should be 0°F to 5°F.
Adjust temperatures to this range.

Dishwashers
• Water heating accounts for about 80% of energy use.
• Models that use less water also use less energy.
• Models should have light, medium, and heavy cycle options — water use for one dishwasher
is 7.5 gallons for a light cycle, 11 gallons for medium, and 13 gallons for heavy.
• Models should have an energy saving "air dry" or "no heat dry" switch.
• Choose a unit that contains a supplemental or booster water heater; then set your water heater
to 120°F. Make certain the unit still provides 160°F to the sanitary cycle if desired.
• Minimize pre-rinsing of dishes unless necessary; always rinse in cold water.
• Wash only full loads.

Clothes Washing Machines

• Choose a machine that offers several wash and rinse cycles and several sizes of loads.
• Front-loading models feature faster spin cycles, which dry clothes better, and use less water
than top-loading models; in addition, frontloading models usually get clothes cleaner.

Clothes Dryers
• Energy-saving switches and models that detect "dryness" and shut off automatically offer
considerable energy savings.
• Some units have moisture sensors in the drum, which save about 15% over standard dryers.
Chapter 9 Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 167
 • Others have a temperature sensor in the dryer exhaust, which saves about 10% over standard
units.
• If clothes that usually need ironing are removed while slightly damp, they can be hung up to
save on dryer and ironing energy use.

Cooking
• Convection ovens are about 1/3 more efficient than standard ovens, but cost much more.
• Electric cooktops with ceramic glass covers are slightly more efficient than coil or disk
electric stoves; induction elements, which use electromagnetic energy to heat the pan, are the
most efficient, but also cost much more.
• Higher cost models may not save enough energy to make up the cost increase.
• Large kitchen exhaust fans, especially those for side-vented stoves, which can exhaust 400 to
700 cfm should be avoided. They can create considerable negative pressures in tight homes
and may cause backdrafting of combustion appliances. The code only requires 100 cfm of
ventilation.

Lighting
Standard incandescent bulbs are the most common lighting source for homes. However,
incandescent lamps are quite inefficient. They convert only 10 percent of the electricity to lighting;
the remainder is waste heat. The lighting industry has responded to the need for energy efficiency
with a wide range of excellent products. The most notable of these options are:

• Compact fluorescents that use thin tubes and require less than 1/3 of the electricity to provide
as much light as standard incandescent lamps. These products can also provide the same
quality of light as incandescent lamps.
• Lower wattage fluorescent tubes, along with efficient electronic ballasts, can reduce the
energy needed by a standard 2-lamp, 4-foot fixture from 92 watts to about 60 watts. There
are many products available with a high color rendition index (CRI), which measures the
ability of a lamp to illuminate colors accurately.
• High pressure sodium and metal halide lamps, mainly intended for exterior use in residences,
are four to six times more efficient than standard exterior lamps.

There is great opportunity for originality and ingenuity in residential lighting design. A home
combines more functions and needs than most other buildings, yet energy efficient lighting can be
achieved at minimal cost. Of course, the needs of each home must be considered individually, but
certain conservation measures are applicable to all home designs, including:

• Energy efficient fixtures and lamps for areas of high continuous lighting use, such as the
kitchen, sitting areas, and outside the home for safety and security.
• Local task lighting for specific activities such as working at a desk, on a kitchen counter, or
in a workshop.
• Accent lighting for areas that need more light enables the overall level of lighting in a room
to be reduced.
• Timers and light-sensitive switches for exterior lighting.
• Daylighting – using sunlight as the light source in areas normally occupied during the day.
• Solid-state dimmers and multilevel switches which allow variable lighting levels.

For help in selecting the right bulb, go to: http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cfls.pr_cfls

168
The amount of light a lamp provides is measured in lumens. The electrical energy used to provide
that light is measured in watts. The efficiency – called efficacy – of a lamp is measured in lumens of
light produced per watt of electricity consumed. Figure 9-7 provides comparative efficacies of
different lamp types.

Figure 9-7
Efficacy of Different Lighting Types
(Lumens per Watt)

Standard incandescent (10 – 17)

Tungsten Halogen (12 – 22)

Reflector (12 – 19)

Mercury Vapor (25 – 60)

Circline Fluorescent (40 – 50)

Linear Fluorescent (30 – 110)

Compact Fluorescent (50 – 70)

Metal Halide (70 – 115)

High-Pressure Sodium (50 – 140)

Low-Pressure Sodium (60 – 150)

0 50 100 150 200 250

The lighting level depends on the efficacy of the light source and the ability of the lighting fixture to
distribute the light effectively. High efficacy lamps and efficient lighting fixtures reduce wattage
requirements while still providing the desired light levels.

In designing a lighting plan, consult knowledgeable professionals about optimum lighting levels and
different types of fixtures and lamps. Table 9-2 shows sizing guidelines for tube-type fluorescent
lighting systems.

Chapter 9 Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 169

 Table 9-2
Fluorescent Lighting Guidelines
(using T-8 lamps and electronic ballasts)

Size of Room Lighting Needed

Type of Room (Watts)
Living room, bedrooms, Under 150 sq. ft. 40 to 60
family room, or 150 to 250 sq. ft. 60 to 80
recreation rooms
Over 250 sq. ft. .33 watt/sq. ft.

Under 75 sq. ft. 55 to 70

Kitchen, laundry, or
workshop 75 to 120 sq. ft. 60 to 80
Over 120 sq. ft .75 watt/sq. ft.

Compact Fluorescent Lamps

Table 9-3 shows the purchase and operating costs of incandescent bulbs and compact fluorescent
lamps. The options are grouped by comparable lumen output so lamps for similar uses can be
compared. The total cost is determined for a period of 10,000 hours, which is the typical life of a
compact fluorescent lamp.

For example, a standard 75-watt incandescent lamp costs $54 for electricity and bulb replacements
over 10,000 hours of operation. Compare that to a new 19-watt CFL, which has a similar light
output. For the same 10,000 hours of operation, the cost of the lamp will be $2.50 and no
replacements will be needed.

Table 9-3
Purchase and Operating Costs of Incandescent Lamps and CFLs
Wattage Typical Lumens Rated Efficacy
Electricity Total Cost
Purchase Life (Lumens/Costs for for 10,000
Cost ($) (Hours) Watt) 10,000 Hrs
Hrs*
Incandescent and Compact Fluorescent (Cost is for bulbs only)
Double-life Incandescent 60 $0.50 780 2,000 13 $60 $62.50
Compact Fluorescent 13 $2.00 900 10,000 69 $13 $15.00

Double-life Incandescent 75 $0.50 1,085 1,500 14 $75 $78.33

Compact Fluorescent 19 $2.50 1,200 10,000 63 $19 $21.50

Double-life Incandescent 100 $0.50 1,530 1,500 15 $100 $103.33

Compact Fluorescent 23 $3.00 1,600 10,000 70 $23 $26.00
*Analysis assumes cost of electricity to be $0.10 per kWh.

Concerns about Mercury in Fluorescent Lighting

Some consumers remain concerned about the mercury contained in compact fluorescent lamps. All
fluorescent lamps contain very small amounts of mercury. The lamps create light be exciting the
mercury molecules with an electric charge. The molecules then emit ultraviolet light, which is
converted to visible light by the lamps phosphor coating.

170
The amount of mercury in the lamp is different for each lamp, but the lamps typically contain only
about 5 milligrams of mercury. This mercury is sealed inside of the tube of the lamp and will only
escape if the lamp is destroyed. By contrast, using an incandescent bulb requires almost four times
the power required by a comparable CFL. The increased electricity use causes a proportional
increase in the power plant emissions required to provide that power. One of the emissions
produced by coal-fired power plants is mercury.

With coal-fired electricity generation, a 75 watt incandescent bulb will produce approximately 13.2
milligrams of mercury over the standard life of a CFL. During that same period, a comparable CFL
will only contribute to the emission of 3.5 milligrams. This means that replacing an incandescent
lamp with a CFL can reduce the overall amount of mercury entering the environment, even if all
mercury escapes from the CFL.

Economics of Improved Lighting Designs

When choosing lighting fixtures, consider the long-term energy costs of the fixture as well as the
purchase price. Energy efficient lighting alternatives reduce waste heat in summer, thereby saving
money on cooling costs and increasing comfort levels. In addition, they typically last much longer
than standard incandescent lamps.

Table 9-4 shows a sample lighting comparison between a home with standard, incandescent lighting
and a home with a variety of efficient lighting technologies. The energy efficient design costs an
extra $104, but saves $285 per year on lighting energy bills.

Table 9-4
Sample Improved Lighting Design
Standard Design Energy Efficient Design
Room Type* Watts Hrs/ kWh/ Type* Extra Watts kWh/ Annual
day yr Cost yr Savings**
Kitchen I 150 4 438.0 F $30.00 60 87.6 $13.14
Living I 150 5 328.5 CFL $8.28 56 102.2 $17.16
Dining
I 75 1 136.9 I --- 75 27.4 $0.00
(decorative)
Bathrooms (2) I 180 4 262.8 CFL $4.50 39 56.9 $20.59
Hallway I 150 4 547.5 F $30.00 38 55.5 $16.35
Bedrooms (3) I 225 2 328.5 CFL $4.50 57 41.6 $12.26
Laundry / Utility I 100 2 146.0 F $25.00 30 21.9 $5.11
Closets (5) I 300 1 109.5 I --- 300 109.5 $0.00
Porch I 75 4 328.5 CFL $2.00 19 27.7 $8.18
Exterior
H 360 8 1576.8 CFL $0.00 92 268.6 $78.26
Floodlight
Total Lighting
System 4203.0 $104.28 1353.1 $284.99
*I=Incandescent; F=Fluorescent; CFL=Compact Fluorescent
** Analysis assumes cost of electricity to be $0.10 per kWh.

Like any component of a home, the selection of lighting system depends on the needs of the
occupants and the economics of the systems. Select a lighting system with a low power density and
adequate controls. Less efficient systems can be used in rooms which are rarely used, like closets.
In rooms that are used frequently, savings associated with a high efficiency lighting system will
grow more rapidly, making the system more cost effective. Make sure that the systems selected are
economic for the way the system will be used.
Chapter 9 Water Heating, Appliances and Lighting 171
Notes:

172
Chapter 10

Energy Efficient Roofing

Roofing is often ignored as an energy efficient component of a house, but it has a profound effect on
the other systems, especially air conditioning. An efficient total roof system can lower the energy
required for cooling a Louisiana home by 30 percent or more. Subdivision covenants may preclude
making a good roofing choice and should be checked before planning a new home or buying an
existing home if energy bills are important to you.

Dark asphalt shingles have been used for years due to mildew problems associated with our warm,
moist climate. These are the worst choice from an energy efficiency perspective. There are new
products on the market that are better and are less prone to this problem. There are some Energy
Star roofing shingles currently available, with more to come. There are metal roofs that reflect much
of the sun’s energy, cool off quickly, and can save energy available today, many of which do not
look like metal. No matter the style selected, it is important to consider energy costs when selecting
a roof system.

The Roof Structure (A Good Foundation!)

To some, anything above the walls is the “roof”. To clarify, there is a roof structure which includes
rafters or trusses and above that, the roof deck which is a structural diaphragm resisting live loads
and shear forces from wind loads on it and the walls. There are several types of roof decks which
are of interest here. The common roof deck in residential construction is 7/16” Oriented Strand
Board (OSB). This is a popular option because it is less expensive than plywood. The span between
rafters of the roof deck and its load determines the required thickness. The typical truss or rafter
spacing is 24” on center. A nominal ½” thickness of the roof deck may be fine for most light loads
like composition shingles, but may deflect, or sag, between supports with a 24” span under heavier
roof loads. For even larger spans, such as spaced beams (as opposed to rafters), a thicker tongue and
groove deck should be considered. This could be 1 ¼” or thicker tongue and groove plywood, or
tongue and groove deck boards with thickness dependant on the span. The Latin phrase “caveat
emptor” (let the buyer beware) certainly applies to choosing roofing and roofing contractors.

There are numerous roofing products on the market. We will briefly examine several basic types
and address the advantages and disadvantages of each. Many roof types will “choose themselves”
based on the desire for increased energy efficiency, the character of the structure, style of
architecture, the slope of the roof deck, the annual rainfall, the high/low seasonal temperatures, the
cost, or the presence of deciduous trees nearby. These trees loose their leaves in winter so they are
apt to clog up gutters and downspouts, but are helpful for preventing the low summer sun from
penetrating windows, and good when bare in winter for letting light/heat into windows.

Non-Vented Attics Affect Shingle Life

Shingles over unvented attics are kept at a slightly higher temperature (2 or 3 degrees), which will
shorten their life. The effect is equivalent to a 10 degree higher ambient temperature or the

Chapter 10 Energy Efficient Roofing 173

installation of radiant barrier. More significant is that this effect is less than the color of the shingles
or the roof orientation.1

SIPS
Another type of roof deck performs both as structure and insulation. It is about 6 or more inches
thick, and can span long distances, or clear the span between eave and ridge. The material is
referred to as the Structural Insulated Panel (SIP). It can easily provide R-20 to R-30 insulation with
its foam core. This is an excellent deck when one chooses to use a non-vented attic. There are a
number of energy efficiency and economic reasons one should examine this alternative. One benefit
is being able to place ducts and HVAC equipment in semi-conditioned space. With this
construction, the common insulated ceiling joist space is not necessary or desirable. Even without
the use of SIPs, the non-vented attic concept can be accomplished by spraying insulating foam on
the roof deck and rafters. See www.buildingscience.com for more information on non-vented attics
in hot, humid climates.

The underlayment between the top of the roof deck and the roofing above is often asphalt saturated
organic (or fiberglass) felt. There are also more expensive and possibly far better materials. These
underlayments are a peel and stick type which is water proof. The actual roofing material, as
discussed below, is the waterproof (water-resistant) exposed surface on the topmost layer of the
sandwich of components.

Energy Efficient Roof Study

The Florida Solar Energy Center, with the sponsorship of Florida Power and Light and the Metal
Roofing Alliance performed a study2 of the heat gains in houses with different metal roofing
materials. The experiment monitored indoor cooling energy use for seven side-by-side homes in Ft.
Myers during the summer of 2000. Each home was virtually identical except for roofing material
(one had a non vented attic and roof deck insulation). Seven identical, side-by-side, newly
constructed Habitat for Humanity homes were built using various roofing materials: dark gray
shingles, white shingles, white flat tile, white S-shaped tile, terra cotta S-shaped "Spanish" tile, and
white metal. The seventh had an unvented attic with insulation under the deck and standard dark
gray shingles. The homes were operated identically to ensure study accuracy. Temperature controls
on the air conditioning thermostats of all the houses were set at a constant 77º F. Both occupied and
unoccupied homes were studied.

The study showed that white S-tile produced the lowest attic heat gain. However, the home with the
white metal roof posted the lowest overall cooling cost. Compared to a dark gray shingle roof, the
study reported, "a white, galvanized metal roof should save a customer who lives in an average-sized
1,770 square foot home approximately $128 or 23 percent annually in cooling costs." Flat white tile
offered a savings of 17 percent. Terra cotta roofing, the most popular roofing material in Florida,
netted a modest $15 or 3 percent savings over dark shingle.

The study found that energy savings are most strongly influenced by the solar reflectance of roof
materials. The study proves dark gray roofs reflect a mere eight percent of the heat associated with
sunlight, while white shingle and terra cotta tile roofs reflect 25 and 34 percent, respectively. White
metal and cement tile roofs provide the most dramatic results, reflecting 66 to 77 percent of the sun's
energy. The following two tables concisely illustrate the results of this energy savings comparison:

1
Joseph Lstiburek, pages 18-19; “Understanding Attic Ventilation”, Building Science Digest 102, October 2006

174
 Table 10-1
Cooling Performance During Unoccupied Period July 8-31, 2000 2

Total Savings Saved Demand Savings Saved

Roof Description kWh kWh Percent kW kW Percent
Standard dark shingles (control home) 17.03 0.00 0.0% 1.63 0.00 ----
Above with sealed attic, R-19 roof deck insulation 14.73 2.30 13.5% 1.63 0.01 0.30%
Terra cotta S_tile roof 16.02 1.01 5.9% 1.57 0.06 3.70%
White shingles 15.29 1.74 10.2% 1.44 0.19 11.80%
White "Barrel" S_tile roof 13.32 3.71 21.8% 1.07 0.56 34.20%
White flat tile roof 13.20 3.83 22.5% 1.02 0.61 37.50%
White metal roof 12.03 5.00 29.4% 0.98 0.65 39.70%

Table 10-2 makes corrections for the variations in equipment performance and is scaled up to the
average size Florida home of 1770 sq. ft. This is a better estimate of savings possible with a more
reflective roof material.

Table 10-2
Normalized Annual Savings & Demand Reductions from Regression Estimates 1

Cooling Savings Peak Demand Reduction

Roof Description
kWh Percent kW Percent
Standard dark shingle (control) 0 0% 0 0%
Sealed Attic 620 9% 0.13 5%
Terra Cotta S Tile 180 3% 0.36 13%
White Shingles 300 4% 0.48 17%
White "Barrel" S-Tile 1,380 20% 0.92 32%
White Flat Tile 1,200 17% 0.98 34%
White Metal 1,610 23% 0.79 28%

Cool Roof Color Pigments

The California Energy Commission (CEC) has Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) working collaboratively on a 3-year, $2 million
project with the roofing industry to develop and produce the new reflective, colored roofing
products. Cool Roof Color Materials (CRCMs), made of complex inorganic color pigments, reduce
the energy needed to cool buildings, and reduce hot-weather strain on electrical grids by reducing
summer peak loads.

2
Source: Parker, D.S., J.K. Sonne, J.R. Sherwin, and N. Moyer, November 2000. "Comparative Evaluation of the Impact
of Roofing Systems on Residential Cooling Energy Demand." Contract Report FSEC-CR-1220-00, Florida Solar
Energy Center, Cocoa, FL.

Chapter 10 Energy Efficient Roofing 175

The key to the energy savings is the coating’s ability to maintain a high reflectance and a high
emissivity. The CRCMs compare favorably to the “white” metal roofing in the tables above. A roof
covered with this special coated granular surface absorbs less solar energy and can reduce air
conditioning costs by 20%. This in turn could lead to national energy savings of about 0.5 to 2 quads
per year by 2010.

For tile, painted metal and wood shakes, the goal is products with over 45% reflectance. For
residential shingles, the goal is a solar reflectance of at least 35% to 40%. The new CRCMs contain
mixtures of chromic oxide and ferric oxide. The materials look dark in color yet reflect most of the
sun’s energy. How can dark roofs reflect as much energy as white roofs, or even more? The trick is
in the eye of the beholder. Solar radiation consists of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared (IR) energy,
but our eyes see only the visible portion. White roofs reflect most of the visible light spectrum,
which mixes together to look white to our eyes, while dark roofs absorb most of the visible light,
looking dark. Most solar energy, however, is in the IR region, which is not visible. CRCM roofs
reflect more than 60% of the IR solar energy that strikes them.3

Figure 10-1
Color Standard Cool Roof Color Materials
COLOR STANDARD 202 °F
COOL ROOF COLOR MATERIALS 147 °F

Comparative heat buildup and solar reflectance in Distribution of solar energy in the ultraviolet,
cool roof color materials and standard roofing visible, and near-infrared wavelengths.
materials.
What is Emissivity?
The emittance of a material refers to its ability to release absorbed heat. Scientists use a number
between 0 and 1, or 0% and 100%, to express emittance. With the exception of a shiny metallic
surface, most roofing materials can have emittance values above 0.85 (85%). One example is a
chrome plated wrench left in the sun, which is hot to the touch because it has a low emissivity value.

Link Between Energy Savings and Emissivity3

Emissivity-Radiation is a continuous process not related to time of day. Items heat up because they
are absorbing more heat than they are radiating. The hotter they get the more they radiate heat.
High emissivity is important when the sun is shining on a roof. If a ‘black body’ has a reflectivity of
‘0’ and an emissivity of ‘1’ it will not heat above the ambient temperature.

3
Cool Colors Project: Improved Materials for Cooler Roofs, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). Accessed Dec. 12, 2008 from http://eetdnews.lbl.gov/nl19/cool.htm

176
Solar reflectance is the most important characteristic of a roof product in terms of yielding the
highest energy savings during warmer months. The higher the solar reflective value, the more
efficient the product is in reflecting sunlight and heat away from the building and reducing roof
temperature. This is particularly important in warm areas where peak load is a concern.

In warm and sunny climates, highly emissive roof products can help reduce the cooling load on the
building by releasing the remaining heat absorbed from the sun. On the other hand, there is also
evidence that low emissivity may benefit those buildings located in colder climates by retaining heat
and reducing the heating load. Research on the benefits of emissivity is ongoing. Discuss reflectance
and emissivity with the roofing supplier or contractor to determine what characteristics matter most
given the unique local situation.

ENERGY STAR Requirements

ENERGY STAR qualified roof products must meet minimum initial and aged solar reflectance
values. Emissivity is not currently a requirement for ENERGY STAR qualification. However, EPA
began posting emissivity values for all products on the ENERGY STAR Qualified Products List on
December 31, 2007 to assist consumers in their purchasing decision. Longer term, EPA plans to
revisit the possibility of adding an emissivity component to the ENERGY STAR specification.

Materials
Climate and techniques of installation are two factors which will lead to success or failure of our
roofing choices. Please be sure to consider them. Shingles which may often fail in our climate have
been identified the hard way. For example, split-cedar wood “shakes” which look great and may
work well in Oklahoma or New England fail prematurely in Louisiana.

Roof Slopes
The manufacturer of shingles usually specifies a minimum slope for which they will warrant their
product. For composition shingles (asphalt composition) and fiberglass composition shingles, that
minimum slope is usually 3:12. Some will warrant this low slope if two layers of asphalt saturated
felt (so called “tar paper”) are used as underlayment. It is a good idea in Louisiana to get the water
off the roof quickly. Increased slope of the roof minimizes the wind being able to blow water under
shingles or particularly under flashing. For slopes 3:12 or less one should consider one of the types
of metal roofs such as standing seam, or lock seam. When the slope is even less like 1/2:12 or
1/4:12, a membrane type roof is a better choice. The membrane roof, often referred to as a “low
slope roof,” is available in PVC, EDPM, Modified Bitumen, or asphaltic built up roof (BUR) (see
below).

Composition Shingles (also called asphalt shingles)

Composition shingles are either organic-based or fiberglass-based. Fiberglass shingles are more
flexible and durable than organic. Fiberglass composition shingles are made of tiny glass fibers of
varying lengths and then covered with a layer of asphalt and weather-resistant mineral granules. In
2009 Energy Star certifies several brands of shingle roofs in white and 4 colors.

• Strip Shingles – These are made to be three times as long as they are wide. These are
distinguished by the number of tabs they have. The most common type of strip shingle is the
"three-tab" shingle. Different textural and lighting/shadowing effects can be achieved with
strip shingles depending on the number, shape and alignment of the cutouts.

Chapter 10 Energy Efficient Roofing 177

 • Laminated Shingles - These special shingles contain more than Figure 10-2
one layer of tabs to create extra thickness. They are also referred Laminated Shingles
to as three-dimensional or architectural shingles because they
create visual depth on a roof and impart a custom look.
Laminated shingles are a favorite among builders, roofing
contractors and homebuyers. They weigh about 350 pounds per
square, or about 3.5 pounds per square foot.
• Interlocking Shingles - As the name suggests, interlocking
asphalt shingles are individual shingles that mechanically fasten
to each other, and are used to provide greater wind resistance.
They come in various shapes and sizes providing a wide range of
design possibilities. These shingles are not available
everywhere, but they are specially shaped to “hook” on to the
course below to provide uplift resistance.

Clay Tiles
This ancient material is split from clay and formed into special interlocking thin sheets of ceramic.
Then cut to length and width, and finally drilled for nail penetrations. They are an outstanding
example of thermal mass which gathers heat from the sun and reradiates it at night into the space.

Slate Tile Shingles

Traditionally slate roofing tiles were cut and sized by hand, but now manufacturers pre-cut the slate
roofing tile with a machine to assure exact measurements. Nail holes are also pre-drilled and
countersunk to speed construction and repair. Countersunk holes allow the roof tile to lie flat for
longest possible lifetime. A stronger roof structure is needed to withstand the weight of slate roofing
material; therefore many manufacturers require an architect's recommendation on each property
prior to installation of natural slate roofs. There are other alternatives to natural slate which are
considered below.

Figure 10-3
Natural Slate Tiles

Concrete Tile Shingles

Concrete tiles are very wind-resistant, long-lasting, energy efficient and fire-resistant. They can be
cast and dyed to look like slate or clay tile. Their weight does require a stronger roof deck and
structure. The vented voids of the “S” tile cool the space above the roof deck through natural
ventilation at the eave. The heat buildup is removed at the ridge before it can move into the attic.

178
Both Concrete tile types absorb condensation at night and cool by evaporation until dry during the
morning.

Figure 10-4
Concrete Tiles

Concrete “S” Tile Concrete Flat “slate” Tile

Rubber Shingles
These shingles are made from recycled automobile tires and can simulate the look of slate or wood
shakes with relatively low weight. They are also hail resistant.

Figure 10-5
Rubber Shingles

Metal Roofing
EPA’s Energy Star certifies many metal roofing products. According to Energy Star data, coated
metal roofs generally have many advantages:
• Energy Star-rated, coated metal roofs have a high reflectance and a high emissivity. The
former helps reflect infrared energy back to the sky before it can penetrate the structure, and
the latter helps rapidly cool the metal by releasing absorbed energy to the night sky.
• Metal roofing is long lasting: 30 years or more with minimal maintenance.
• Metal roofing is environmentally friendly and is 100% recyclable.
• The recycled content is between 25% and 80%, depending on the steel or aluminum making
process.
• A lightweight metal roof can be installed over an existing roof saving removal and landfill
costs.
• Metal roofing readily adapts to photovoltaic installations.
• Metal roofing can reduce energy consumption and with cool roof coating properties it can
reduce heat transfer through the roof.
• Several methods of insulating are available, to nearly any R factor.
• Forms can vary from shingles, “tiles,” corrugated sheets, or a variety of standing seams.

Chapter 10 Energy Efficient Roofing 179

 • Materials are copper (expensive), coated or uncoated aluminum, galvanized (zinc-coated)
steel, aluminized steel and galvalume (55% zinc, 45% aluminum alloy-coated steel).
• The better coatings have a twenty to fifty year warranty. Kynar 500 and Hylar 5000 are trade
names for two of these fluropolymer coatings.

Table 10-3
Characteristics of Various Metal Roof Types Ranked by Reflectance 4

Initial Solar Initial Low Steep Warranty

Company Brand Model
Reflectance Emissivity Slope? Slope? (Years)

Metals USA Building Ltd.

Allmet Autumn Gold 0.93 0.94 N Y
Products Lifetime
CERAM-A-
Millennium Metals Inc. Polar White 0.85 0.88 Y Y 40
STAR
Kirby Building Systems
Kirby-Cool 815W49 0.77 0.85 Y Y 35
Inc.
Petersen Aluminum,
PAC-CLAD Bone White 431X471 0.73 0.85 Y Y 20
Corp.
Metal Sales Mfg.
PVDF Linen White 0.73 0.86 Y Y 45
Corporation
Firestone Bone White UC-11,UR,VR,600,60
0.72 0.84 N Y 20
Bldg.Products SR (Steel) 1,700,5VC,NB1,NB2
Metal Sales Mfg.
PVDF Sierra White 0.72 0.85 Y Y 45
Corporation
Central States Mfg.,
CentralGuard SPW 0295X 0.71 0.85 Y Y 40
Inc.
ATAS Bone PC Panel Standing
ATAS International,
White, ATAS Seam, and Castletop 0.70 0.87 Y Y 30
Inc.
#26 Shingle HCT
Drexel Metal
Regal White DMC 100NS 0.70 0.87 N Y 35
Corporation
Merchant and Evans, Standing Seam Regal
Zip Rib 0.70 0.85 Y Y 30
Inc. White SR
Interlock Roofing Ltd. Alunar Bone White #40 0.69 0.87 N Y 40
Architectural
Fabral Regal White V38 0.68 0.89 N Y 20
Profiles
Medallion-Lok,
Medallion I & II,
McElroy Metal, Inc. Regal White 0.68 0.86 Y Y 40
Maxima, ML-90,
Mirage, Meridian
Exposed Fastener Roof
Alliance Steel, Inc. ASI 0.68 0.84 Y Y 20
Profiles
Butler Mfg. Company Butler MR-24 0.68 0.86 Y Y 20
Corrugated Ind. of FL, Galvalume
Galvalume Plus 0.68 0.86 Y Y 25
Inc. Plus
Custom Metal Bldg. Galvalume
Galvalume Plus 0.68 0.87 Y Y 25
Products Plus
Great
Classic Metal Roofing
American 4001 White 0.68 0.85 N Y 40
System
Shake
LifeTite Metal Products Lifetite Metal
Polar White 0.67 0.87 Y Y 40
LLC Products
Max-Rib, Multi-Rib, R-
McElroy Metal, Inc. Ivory Panel, Mega-Rib, 0.67 0.87 Y Y 40
Corrugated, U Panel

4
Source: Extracted from www.energystar.gov – metal roof characteristics out of 1200+ products

180
Low Slope Roofs
For low slope roofs (so-called “flat roofs”) the roofing manufacturer will not usually warrant the
roof membrane unless the roof deck has a minimum slope of ¼” per foot of run. This is to minimize
ponding of water which may cause deterioration of the membrane. For this type of roof, a
membrane system is applicable. From an energy conservation standpoint, the membrane is almost
always applied over insulation which may be flat on a sloped roof deck, or may be tapered to
provide the required slope on a flat roof deck. By including the insulation over the roof deck energy
conservation performance is far more effective than if the insulation were placed between the roof
joists below the roof deck. The former insulation is continuous and the latter is cavity. Continuous
insulation has a uniform R-factor everywhere, whereas cavity insulation R value is a mix of the area
weighted average of the R-factor of the joist (low R-factor) and the R-factor of the insulation, which
is interrupted at each joist.

Membrane roofs fall into the following categories: Built-up roofs (BUR); single- or multi-ply roofs,
which often may have a base sheet and a cap sheet (so may be considered 2 or 3 ply roofs). The
generic classes of membrane types are asphalt hot-mopped over organic or fiberglass felt, which is
unrolled from rolls during the installation. They overlap at the edges and are installed in multiple
layers. One of the best membrane roofs was the coal tar pitch built-up roof. Installation was very
labor intensive and it was self-healing in hot weather. These roofs often lasted for 50 plus years
without problems or failures. Unfortunately, today’s economy doesn’t tolerate labor intensive work
because of the cost. A further blow to this type of roof was that the coal tar pitch was determined to
be a carcinogen. Thus, these gravel topped roofs have largely been replaced by the “single” ply
roofs. These roofs are made from PVC, or EDPM (rubber), or modified bitumen which is either hot
mopped or torched applied. Each has different properties which make it appropriate for a particular
application.

Modified Bitumen Roofing

APP (Atactic Polypropylene): Prior problems with coal tar pitch roofs were caused when they
became inflexible in cold weather, causing them to crack and fissure. The modified bitumen roofs
today are chemically designed to eliminate this to a large degree. There are several varieties of an
APP-modified bitumen sheet, which incorporate the features of a tough, non-woven, polyester mat
saturated and coated with a blend of APP polymer and high quality asphalt. Low temperature
flexibility is maintained to 14°F (-10°C). The APP is a waste product from the manufacture of
polypropylene and found a productive recycled use in this type of roof.

SBS (Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene): Even more resilient is another type of modified bitumen sheet
incorporating the features of a strong fiber glass mat with a blend of SBS rubber, high-quality
asphalt and fire-retardant additives. The elastomeric asphalt blend has full recovery properties after
100% elongation and provides elasticity and flexibility to the sheet. Low temperature flexibility is
maintained to -10°F (-23°C).

Rubber Membrane
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) Rubber: EPDM is a flexible, black roofing membrane
available in .045 inch, .060 inch, and .090 inch thicknesses. Due to its superior flexibility and
strength, EPDM can easily contour to unusual roof shapes. A white-coated EPDM has been installed
on RV's since 1983. Advantages are low maintenance, ease of repair, clean appearance, noise
reduction, and thermal insulation. Now the energy efficiency of white on black EPDM is available

Chapter 10 Energy Efficient Roofing 181

for all sorts of roofs. It is sold in sheets up to 50’ wide and 100’ long. It can be seamed for wider
applications. It is typically held down by mechanical fasteners or ballasted with gravel.

Hypalon® (chlorosulfonated polyethylene): Made in Louisiana by DuPont, this material has

demonstrated long life in harsh environments since 1957. It is thermoplastic enabling welding by
hot air or solvents. Once installed the Hypalon® polymer slowly cures in place to reach its final
mechanical properties.

TPO (Thermoplastic polyolefin): TPO is a generic group of chemicals. White and some colored
TPO roofing membranes meet Energy Star Roof Requirements.

PVC (polyvinylchloride): This membrane material is often bright white and is highly reflective,
making it a very energy efficient roofing choice. It is most often adhered as a single-ply membrane
to the roof deck or insulation, or mechanically fastened. Joints are glued at the head and side lap.
The material can be heat welded.

Table 10-4
Cool Roof Rating Council Top Rated Membrane Products Typical Properties 5

(CRRC) Reflectance Emissivity

Material Initial Weathered Initial Weathered
PVC 0.87 0.61 0.95 0.86
Hypalon 0.85 0.69 0.87 0.82
Modified Bitumen 0.79 0.68 0.87 0.75
TPO 0.79 0.70 0.90 0.86
EPDM 0.76 0.64 0.90 0.87

Attic Ventilation
What is the purpose of attic ventilation? Attic ventilation has been traditional in residential (wood
frame) construction. If water enters the attic due to roof leaks, condensation, spills, or other means,
it must have a way to dry out or the structure will suffer damage. The air introduced by soffit vents
and expelled through ridge, gravity or turbine vents allow air to circulate through the attic. This
assists in keeping the attic air circulating, able to remove moisture from the attic. Another primary
reason for this ventilation in the South has been to help reduce the very high attic temperature which
builds up in the summer. Actually, this benefit turns to a detriment in winter. With a cold attic
gaining heat from the house, attic air circulation accelerates the heat lost from the living space. This
is actually efficient in summer, and inefficient in winter.

One of the best arguments for insulating and sealing an attic space is the large reduction in attic
temperature. Now that the roof rafters are insulated, the attic temperature buildup is slowed down.
Due to less heat from the attic flowing into the conditioned house, the house and the sealed attic are
both cooler than the house with the ventilated attic in summer. The sealed attic is also far warmer in
winter as the heat flow reverses from house to attic. Why is this so beneficial? In today’s typical
house, the ducts, if not the entire HVAC (heating ventilating and air conditioning) system, are
located in the attic. The homeowner first pays to cool air from the living space, and then send it
5
Source: http://www.coolroofs.org/products/search.php accessed 5 Nov. 2008

182
through (nominally R-6) insulated attic ductwork across the attic where it may be as hot as 130°-
150°F. The heat, which has been removed from the air, is regained through the duct material on the
air’s journey through the attic ducts. The fan propels the air through the coil, plenum and air ducts
in the attic continuously, where the attic heats it prior to reaching the living space. This is far from
efficient.

In a sealed attic, the insulation is placed between or above the sloped rafters, rather than between the
horizontal ceiling joists (attic floor joists). This retards heat from the sun in penetrating the house
envelope at the roof. The attic volume becomes semi-conditioned space. Semi-conditioned space is
adjacent to conditioned space, but has no (or less than optimal) supply air registers present. Much
like a closet within the envelope, the attic is not directly air conditioned, but loses or gains heat from
adjacent conditioned spaces which moderate the temperature within. Compared to a ventilated attic
which may be as hot as 140°F in summer, the sealed semi-conditioned attic space may be more like
75-85°F in summer. The supply air duct heat gain from the attic is reduced. Without insulation on
the floor of the attic, heat flows from the semi-conditioned attic to the conditioned space where the
slightly warmer air is mixed with cooled air. In winter, heat easily flows up into the semi-
conditioned attic, keeping it warmer and thereby protecting any pipes that are located there. In
winter, heat loss through the roof to the exterior is retarded by the roof deck insulation.

Another large energy saving from an insulated attic is related to air conditioning. A supply leak in
the ductwork in a ventilated attic can waste large amounts of cooled air. Not only is this expensive,
but when the cool air from the supply duct hits the very hot attic air, we introduce a water problem
into the attic through condensation increasing the potential for mold and mildew growth from the
water in a wood structure. This can be a big efficiency and maintenance problem.

If, on the other hand, there is a return air duct leak from the attic, hot air is sucked into the coil, and
into supply air stream. If the attic were insulated, sealed, and at the far lower (semi-conditioned)
temperature, a supply duct leak would only be another useful but unintended supply air register. The
return leak may add a little extra heat into the air stream, but would not have the devastating effect
on the energy use or monthly bill. Of course neither leak type would be conducive to the lowest
possible utility bill. Therefore, in all spaces, it is extremely important to properly seal duct leaks
with fiberglass tape, coated with duct-sealing mastic.

Attic Vents – common mistakes:

Vented attics are still the norm and required by some building officials. Proper use of ventilation
products is important. Too many times, homeowners install products that short-circuit their
ventilation system. When designing a ventilation system, avoid these common pitfalls:

• Using a combination of different types of exhaust vents, such as power vents with ridge vents
where competing vents pull air from each other, instead of from the soffit vents.
• Underestimating your ventilation needs. Remember that 11 louvered type roof vents or five
turbine vents would be needed to provide the same ventilation as a ridge vent installation on
a gable roof.
• Installing exhaust vents without adequate intake. An effective balance of intake and exhaust
must be achieved to properly ventilate your home. The flow of air in your attic is limited to
the amount of intake or conditioned air will be pulled from the house.
• Installing a ridge vent that doesn't have an external baffle to increase air flow and protect
from weather infiltration.

Chapter 10 Energy Efficient Roofing 183

Green Roofs
NRCA (National Roofing Council of America) is beginning to use the term “landscaped roof
systems” in lieu of “green roof systems” to prevent confusion in the building industry. Landscaped
roof systems require a combination of roofing concepts and waterproofing concepts. A landscaped
roof system is a wet environment and a waterproofing membrane is mandatory. Roof system details
are modified to accommodate growth medium and green components. On a typical low slope roof,
the insulation would be found under the water proof membrane. NRCA recommends a
waterproofing membrane be adhered with insulation above it. Therefore, a landscaped roof system
membrane is thermally stabilized and protected from damage and puncture by the insulation itself.
However in the case of Green or “landscaped roofs, the turf or planting will be at the surface, with
soil drainage created by crushed stone or gravel below the plants, but above the rigid insulation
which sits on top of the waterproof membrane at the lowest level. Positive drainage is strongly
recommended. Water must be free to drain from all of the planted area, to collect at common points,
and to be directed away from the building. There may be other areas designed specifically to hold
the water for use by the planting. The idea of these roofs is illustrated below:

Table 10-5
Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Roofs

Advantages of Green Roofs Disadvantages of Green Roofs

Environmentally friendly. Increased roof weight may require increased
structural member sizes and cost.
Can create usable outdoor space. Safety/liability may be an issue for public access.
Increase thermal efficiency of the building.
Reduces HVAC equipment and operating cost.
Reduces interior noise levels.
Extends roof membrane service life. If a roof membrane leak does occur, it may be
difficult to locate.
Provides storm-water management, aesthetic Cost to repair roof and then to replace living flora
benefits, rating system benefits (e.g., LEED™ and and soil above may be very high by comparison.
Green Globes).
Reduces rooftop temperatures.
Mitigates urban heat islands.
Improves, urban air quality, wildlife habitats,
community green space.

The 2007 edition of the NRCA Green Roof Systems Manual has much more detail. Also NRCA
University’s Roofing 101 program offers an interactive, cost-effective online training tool to learn
roofing fundamentals. Go to www.nrca.net for a link to Roofing 101.

184
 Figure 10-6
Landscaped “Green Roof”

This landscaped roof is over the east addition to the Louisiana State Capitol. The subterranean
space below grade functions as the House of Representative’s Committee Rooms. A similar addition
on the west side is over the Senate Committee Rooms. The difficulty of aesthetically matching this
1937 high rise historical structure with flanking additions played a role in making the additions
below grade. The energy savings and creation of public spaces were also a benefit.

To Top It OFF
The roof receives the most solar radiation of any building component under normal circumstances.
A Louisiana home owner can save money while helping the environment by having a cool roof color
(CRC) on Energy Star Approved metal panels, CRCM covered shingles or other high-reflectance,
high-emissivity roof. A sealed attic can provide even more help. Wise use of shade trees can help
inside and out. The goal is to keep the sun’s heat from entering the conditioned space rather than
admit it and then have to remove it through air conditioning. It is this kind of thinking about how
heat flows and where it can be blocked or slowed down that will lead to advances in energy
efficiency in the 21st Century.

Chapter 10 Energy Efficient Roofing 185

Notes:

186
Chapter 11

Fingertip Facts
This fact sheet contains statistical energy information-conversion factors, R-values, fuel prices,
energy efficiency recommendations, and climatic data for Louisiana. It serves as a reference guide
for those seeking a quick answer to an energy question.

Abbreviations
Btu British Thermal Unit, the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of one
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit (about the amount of heat released when a
kitchen match burns)
1° F one degree Fahrenheit cf cubic foot
MMBtu one million Btu cfm cubic foot per minute
kWh kilowatt-hour bbl barrel
kW kilowatt gal gallon

Energy and Fuel Data

Energy Units Power Units
1 kWh = 3,412 Btu 1 kW = 3,412 Btu/hour
1 MMBtu = 293 kWh 1 horsepower = 746 watts
1 Btu = 252 calories 1 ton of heating/cooling = 12,000 Btu/hour
1 Btu = 1,055 joules

Fuel Units
1 cf of natural gas ≈ 1,000 Btu
1 therm = 100,000 Btu
1 bbl fuel oil = 42 gallons = 5.88 MMBtu
1 ton fuel oil = 6.8 bbl
1 gallon fuel oil = 136,000 Btu
1 gallon of propane = 91,500 Btu
1 ton bituminous (Eastern) coal = 21-26 MMBtu
1 ton subbituminous (Western) coal = 14-18 MMBtu
1 cord wood = 128 cubic feet (4 ft x 4 ft x 8 ft)
1 cord dried pine = 14.2 MMBtu

Average Daily Solar Radiation

(Btu/sq ft on a Vertical, South-Facing Surface)

Latitude January July

Baton Rouge 30.5 889 786
Lake Charles 30.1 790 795
New Orleans 30.0 950 801
Shreveport 32.5 920 804

Chapter 11 Fingertip Facts 187

Insulating Values
The R-value is the measure of resistance to heat flow via conduction. R-values vary according to
specific materials and installation.

Insulation R-value per inch

Fiberglass batts/rolls 3.1 to 4.3
Fiberglass loose-fill 2.2 to 2.6
Rock wool loose-fill 2.6
Cellulose 3.7
Vermiculite 2.1
Perlite 3.3

Rigid Insulation Boards R-value per inch

Fiberboard sheathing (non-insulating blackboard) 2.6
Expanded polystyrene (beadboard) 4.0
Extruded polystyrene 5.0
Polyisocyanurate and polyurethane 6.8 to 7.2

Building Materials R-value per inch

Drywall 0.9
Wood siding 0.9 to 1.2
Common brick 0.2
Lumber and siding
Hardwood 0.8 to 0.94
Softwood 0.9 to 1.5
Plywood 1.3
Particle Board (medium density) 1.1
Asbestos-cement (entire shingle) 0.21
Concrete block (entire block)
Unfilled 0.4 to 1.2
Filled with vermiculite/perlite 1.3 to 2.0
Filled with cement mortar 0.2

Dead Air Spaces R-value of air space

1/2-inch 0.75
3/4-inch 0.77
3–1/2-inch 0.80
3–1/2-inch, reflecting surface on one side 1.6
3–1/2-inch, reflecting surface both sides 2.2

Air Films R-value of air film

Still air (vertical wall) 0.68
15 mph wind (winter) 0.17
7.5 mph wind (summer) 0.25

188
HVAC Equipment Efficiencies
Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE) shows the average annual efficiency at which fuel-
burning or electric resistance furnaces operate.

Coefficient of Performance (COP) measures how many units of heating or cooling are delivered for
every unit of electricity used in a heat pump or air conditioner.

Heating Season Performance Factor (HSPF) measures the average number of Btu of heating
delivered for every watt-hour of electricity used by a heat pump.

Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) measures how readily air conditioners convert
electricity into cooling—a SEER of 10 means the unit provides 10,000 Btu's of cooling per kilowatt-
hour of electricity.

Ranges of Efficiency Low Moderate High

Gas furnaces (AFUE) 0.78 0.80 0.95
Air conditioning (SEER) 10 13 15
Heat Pump (HSPF) 6.8 7.2 8.0

Climatic Data for Louisiana

Heating Degree Days (HDD) are a measure of how cold a location is in winter. Heating degree
days are calculated by multiplying the difference in temperature below 65°F by the amount of time
at that temperature. For example, if the temperature were 41°F for 10 hours, it would mean 10
heating degree days: (65°F - 41°F) * (10 hrs) / (24 hrs per day).

Cooling Degree Days (CDD), are a measure of how hot a location typically is during summer.
They are calculated similarly to heating degree days, but for temperatures above 65°F. For example,
if the temperature were 89°F for 6 hours, it would mean 6 cooling degree days: (89°F - 65°F) * (6
hrs) / (24 hrs per day).

Winter and Summer Design Temperatures should be used by heating and cooling contractors
when sizing heating and cooling systems. They show the temperatures that are exceeded in summer
or dipped below in winter only 2.5% of the time.

Chapter 11 Fingertip Facts 189

 Table 11-1
Climatic Data for Louisiana
Winter Heating Summer Cooling
Design Degree Design Degree
Location Temperature Days Temperature Days
Alexandria 27 2066 94 2991
Baton Rouge 29 1526 93 3275
Lafayette 30 1547 94 3238
Lake Charles 31 1646 93 3095
Monroe 25 2484 96 2754
New Orleans 33 1374 92 3213
Shreveport 25 2286 96 2974

Table 11-2
Average Monthly Temperatures
Baton Lake New Shreveport
Rouge Charles Orleans

JAN 50.1 50.9 52.6 46.4

FEB 53.5 54.4 55.7 51.2
MAR 60.3 61.0 62.4 58.5
APR 66.6 67.3 68.2 65.2
MAY 74.0 74.9 75.6 73.0
JUN 79.7 80.5 80.7 79.9
JUL 81.7 82.6 82.7 83.4
AUG 81.4 82.4 82.5 82.9
SEP 77.5 78.4 78.9 77.0
OCT 68.1 69.5 70.0 66.7
NOV 59.0 60.1 61.4 56.1
DEC 52.4 53.3 55.1 48.4

YEAR 67.1 68.0 68.9 65.8

190
 Table 11-3
Comparative Climatic Data
*For February 2006 through February 2009

Average *Heating *Cooling

Location Temperature Degree Days Degree Days
Honolulu, HI 77 11 4,746
Miami, FL 76 182 4,791
Brownsville, TX 74 707 4,396
Houston, TX 69 1,561 3,459
Tucson, AZ 68 1,969 3,390
Mobile, AL 67 1,894 2,867
Jackson, MS 65 2,434 2,788
Birmingham, AL 62 2,902 2,535
Atlanta, GA 61 3,721 2,099
Memphis, TN 62 3,222 2,650
New York, NY 55 5,007 1,258
Washinton, DC 54 4,274 1,804
Chicago, IL 51 6,539 1,189
Glasgow, MT 42 9,100 941
Fargo, ND 41 9,622 826
Caribou, ME 39 9,974 351
International Falls, MN 37 11,169 418
Fairbanks, AK 20 14,746 159

Chapter 11 Fingertip Facts 191

Notes:

192
Glossary
Absolute Humidity - Air moisture content expressed in grains (or pounds) of water vapor per
pound of dry air.

Absorptance - The ratio of the radiation absorbed by a surface to the total energy falling on that
surface described as a percentage.

Active Solar Energy - Solar radiation used by special equipment to provide space heating, hot
water or electricity.

Air Barrier - Any part of the building shell that offers resistance to air leakage. The air barrier is
effective if it stops most air leakage. The primary air barrier is the most effective of a series of air
barriers.

Air Change - The replacement of a quantity of air in a space within a given period of time, typically
expressed as air changes per hour. If a building has one air change per hour, this is equivalent to all
of the air in the building being replaced in a one-hour period.

Air Changes At 50 Pascals - The number of times that the complete volume of a home is
exchanged for outside air when a blower door depressurizes the home to 50 pascals.

Air Conditioner - An assembly of equipment for air treatment consisting of a means for
ventilation, air circulation, air cleaning, and heat transfer (either heating or cooling). The unit usually
consists of an evaporator or cooling coil, and an electrically-driven compressor and condenser
combination.

Air Film - A layer of air adjacent to a surface which provides thermal resistance.

Air Film Coefficient - A measure of the heat transfer through an air film.

Air Handler - A steel cabinet containing a blower with cooling and/or heating coils connected to
ducts.

Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger - A device with separate air chambers that transfers heat between the
conditioned air being exhausted and the outside air being supplied to a building.

Ambient Air Temperature - Surrounding temperature, such as the outdoor air temperature
around a building.

Ambient Lighting - Lighting spread throughout the lighted space for safety, security, and
aesthetics.

Alternating Current (AC) - Flow of electricity that constantly changes direction between positive
and negative sides. Almost all power produced by electric utilities in the United States moves in
current that shifts direction at a rate of 60 times per second.

Glossary 193
Ampere (Amp) - The unit of measure that tells how much electricity flows through a conductor. It
is like using cubic feet per second to measure the flow of water. For example, a 1,200 watt, 120-volt
hair dryer pulls 10 amperes of electric current (watts divided by volts).

Angle of Incidence - The angle that the sun's rays make with a line perpendicular to a surface. The
angle of incidence determines the percentage of direct sunshine intercepted by a surface.

AFUE (Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency) - A measure of heating efficiency, in consistent

units, determined by applying the federal test method for furnaces. This value is intended to
represent the ratio of heat transferred to the conditioned space by the fuel energy supplied over one
year.

ASHRAE - Acronym for American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Conditioning
Engineers.

Backdraft Damper - A damper, installed near a fan, that allows air to flow in only one direction.

Backdrafting - Continuous spillage of combustion gases from a combustion appliance.

Backer Rod - Polyethylene foam rope used as a backer for caulking.

Baffle - A plate or strip designed to retard or redirect the flow of gases.

Ballast - A device that provides starting voltage and limits the current during normal operation in
electrical discharge lamps (such as fluorescent lamps).

Band Joist - See Rim joist.

Batt - A narrow blanket of fiberglass insulation, often 14.5 or 22.5 inches wide.

Beam - A strong horizontal building support used to carry the weight of a floor or roof.

Bimetal Element - A metal spring, lever, or disc made of two dissimilar metals that expand and
contract at different rates as the temperature around them changes. This movement operates a switch
in the control circuit of a heating or cooling device.

Black Body – A (theoretical) material that absorbs all radiation that hits it. It has an emissivity of
100% or 1.0. Black bodies are used by thermal imaging camera manufacturers to calibrate their
temperature measuring cameras.

Blower - The fan in a furnace or air handler, typically a squirrel-cage type fan.

Blower Door - A device that consists of a fan, a removable panel, and gauges used to measure and
locate air leaks.

Boot - A duct section that connects between a duct and a register.

194
British thermal unit (Btu) - The standard measure of heat energy. It takes one Btu to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit at sea level. For example, it takes about
2,000 Btu to make a pot of coffee. One Btu is equivalent to 252 calories, 778 foot-pounds, 1055
joules, and 0.293 watt-hours. Note: In the abbreviation, only the B is capitalized.

Btuh - British thermal units per hour.

Building Cavities - The spaces inside walls, floors, and ceilings between the interior and exterior
sheeting.

Building Envelope - The assembly of exterior partitions of a building which enclose conditioned
spaces, through which thermal energy may be transferred to or from the exterior, unconditioned
spaces, or the ground.

Building Science – A branch of science dealing with construction, maintenance, safety, and the
energy efficiency of buildings.

Calorie - (energy calorie - small "c" - as opposed to food Calorie - capital "C") Any of several
approximately equal values of heat, each measured as the quantity of heat require to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius from a standard initial temperature, esp. from
3.98° Celsius, 14.5° Celsius, or 19.5° Celsius, at 1 atmosphere pressure. A calorie is the unit of heat
equal to 4.184 joules. One food calorie equals 1,000 energy calories.

Capillary Action - The ability of water to move through materials, even upward against gravity,
through small tubes or spaces.

Capillary Barrier - A material or air space designed to stop capillary action from carrying water
into a building.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a normal part of the air.
Carbon dioxide, also called, is exhaled by humans and animals and is absorbed by green growing
things and by the sea.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) - A colorless, odorless, highly poisonous gas made up of carbon and
oxygen molecules formed by the incomplete combustion of carbon or carbonaceous material,
including gasoline. It is a major air pollutant on the basis of weight.

Caulking - Material used to make an air-tight seal by filling in cracks, such as those around
windows and doors.

Cellulose Insulation - Insulation, packaged in bags for blowing, made from newspaper or wood
waste and treated with a fire retardant.

Centigrade - See Celsius

Celsius - A temperature scale based on the freezing (0°C) and boiling (100°C) points of water.
Abbreviated as C in second and subsequent references in text-formerly known as Centigrade.

Glossary 195
CFM50 - The number of cubic feet per minute of air flowing through the fan housing of blower
door when the house pressure is 50 pascals (0.2 inches of water). This figure is the most common
and accurate way of comparing the air tightness of buildings that are tested using a blower door.

Chiller - A device that cools water, usually to between 40 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit for eventual
use in cooling air.

Circuit - One complete run of a set of electric conductors from a power source to various electrical
devices (appliances, lights, etc.) and back to the same power source.

Circuit Breaker - A device that disconnects an electrical circuit from electricity when it senses
excessive current.

Clerestory - A wall with windows that is between two different (roof) levels. The windows are
used to provide natural light into a building.

COP (Coefficient of Performance) - Used to rate the performance of a heat pump, the COP is
the ratio of the rate of useful heat output delivered by the complete heat pump unit (exclusive of
supplementary heating) to the corresponding rate of energy input, in consistent units and under
specific conditions.

Coil - A piece of copper tubing through which a working fluid passes in order to transfer heat to a
second medium (air, water, or soil). The coil may be surrounded by rows of aluminum fins that
clamp tightly to the tubing in order to aid in heat transfer.

Color Temperature - A measurement of the color of light provided by a light source. The color
temperature is determined by the temperature, in Kelvin, at which an ideal black body emits light of
the same color.

Color Rendering Index - A measurement of a light source’s ability to render colors the same as
sunlight. CRI has a scale of 0 to 100. A lower CRI means that some colors will be not appear as
vibrant as in natural sunlight.

Combustion - Rapid oxidation, with the release of energy in the form of heat and light.

Combustion Analyzer - A device used to measure steady-state efficiency of combustion heating

units.

Combustion Chamber - The area inside the heat exchanger where the flame burns.

Combustion Efficiency - A simple measure of the heating efficiency of a boiler. It is equal to 100
percent minus the percentage of heat lost up the vent (called "flue loss" or "stack loss").

Commissioning - The process of testing and adjusting building mechanical systems after building
construction or as a retrofit measure.

Comfort Zone - The range of temperatures over which the majority of persons feel comfortable
(neither too hot nor too cold).

196
Condensate - Liquid formed by condensing vapor.

Condense - When a gas turns into a liquid as it cools, we say it condenses. Condensation is the
opposite of evaporation.

Condenser - A heat exchanger in which the refrigerant, compressed to a hot gas, is condensed to
liquid by rejecting heat.

Conditioned Space - Enclosed space that is either directly conditioned space or indirectly
conditioned space.

Conductance – A measure of the ability of a material to transfer heat. Typically, it is the quantity
of heat, in Btu's, that will flow through one square foot of material in one hour, when there is a 1
degree F temperature difference between both surfaces. Conductance values are given for a specific
thickness of material, not per inch thickness.

Conduction - The transfer of heat energy through a material (solid, liquid or gas) by the motion of
adjacent atoms and molecules without gross displacement of the particles.

Conductivity (k) - The quantity of heat that will flow through one square foot of homogeneous
material, one inch thick, in one hour, when there is a temperature difference of one degree
Fahrenheit between its surfaces.

Convection - Heat transfer by the movement of fluid.

Conventional Gas - Natural gas occurring in nature, as opposed to synthetic gas.

Cooling Capacity, Latent - Available refrigerating capacity of an air conditioning unit for
removing latent heat from the space to be conditioned.

Cooling Capacity, Sensible - Available refrigerating capacity of an air conditioning unit for
removing sensible heat from the space to be conditioned.

Cooling Capacity, Total - Available refrigerating capacity of an air conditioner for removing
sensible heat and latent heat from the space to be conditioned.

Cooling Degree Day - A unit of measure that indicates how heavy the air conditioning needs are
under certain weather conditions.

Cooling Load - The rate at which heat must be extracted from a space in order to maintain the
desired temperature within the space.

Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) - A value used in cooling load calculations for
the effective temperature difference (delta T) across a wall or ceiling, which accounts for the effect
of radiant heat as well as the temperature difference.

Glossary 197
Cord - A measure of volume, 4 by 4 by 8 feet, used to define amounts of stacked wood available for
use as fuel. Burned, a cord of wood produces about 5 million calories of energy.

Cubic Foot - The most common unit of measurement of natural gas volume. It equals the amount
of gas required to fill a volume of one cubic foot under stated conditions of temperature, pressure
and water vapor. One cubic foot of natural gas has an energy content of approximately 1,000 Btus.
One hundred (100) cubic feet
Curtain wall: A wall between columns and beams that supports no weight but its own.

CFM (cubic feet per minute) - A measure of flow rate.

Daylighting - The use of sunlight to supplement or replace electric lighting.

Daylighting Control - A control system that varies the light output of an electric lighting system
in response to variations in available daylight.

Degree Days - A measure of the temperature element of climate produced by multiplying

temperature difference by time.

Delta - A Greek letter used as a mathematical term meaning the difference in one thing and another.
Also it is called the remainder of a subtraction problem between two numbers. Often used in the
context of the difference between the temperature of one area and another.

Demand – Power consumption.

Density - The mass per volume of a substance.

Depressurize - Cause to have a lower pressure or vacuum with respect to a reference of a higher
pressure.

Desiccant - A liquid or solid material used to absorb water or water vapor.

Design Temperature - A high or low outdoor temperature used for designing heating and cooling
systems.

Desuperheater - A heat exchanger that removes the superheat from a compressed refrigerant and
transfers that heat to another fluid, usually water.

Dew Point - The warmest temperature of an object in an environment where water condensation
from the surrounding air would form on that object.

Diffuse Radiation - Solar radiation, scattered by water vapor, dust and other particles as it passes
through the atmosphere, so that it appears to come from the entire sky. Diffuse radiation is higher on
hazy or overcast days than on clear days.

Direct Current (DC) - Electricity that flows continuously in the same direction because of constant
polarity.

198
Direct Expansion (refrigeration) - Any system that, in operation between an environment
where heat is absorbed (heat source), and an environment into which unwanted heat is directed (heat
sink) at two different temperatures, is able to absorb heat from the heat source at the lower
temperature and reject heat to the heat sink at the higher temperature. The cooling effect is obtained
directly from a fluid called a refrigerant that absorbs heat at a low temperature and pressure, and
transfers heat at a higher temperature and higher pressure.

Direct Radiation - Radiation that has traveled a straight path from the sun, as opposed to diffuse
radiation.

Direct Solar Heat Gain - Solar energy collected from the sun (as heat) in a building through
windows, walls, skylights, etc.

Distribution System (Electric utility) - The substations, transformers and lines that convey
electricity from high-power transmission lines to ultimate consumers.

Dormer - A vertical window projecting from a roof.

Double Glazing - Windows having two sheets of glass with airspace between.

Dry Bulb Temperature - is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer freely exposed to
the air but shielded from radiation and moisture.

Drywall - Gypsum interior wallboard used to produce a smooth and level interior wall surface and
to resist fire. Also called sheetrock.

Duct - A passageway made of sheet metal or other suitable material used for conveying air or other
gas at relatively low pressures.

Duct Blower - A device used for testing duct leakiness and air flow by pressuring the duct system.

Efficacy, Lighting - The ratio of light from a lamp to the electrical power consumed, including
ballast losses, expressed as lumens per watt.

Efficiency - The ratio of the useful energy delivered by a dynamic system (such as a machine,
engine, or motor) to the energy supplied to it over the same period or cycle of operation. The ratio is
usually determined under specific test conditions.

Energy Efficiency - Using less energy/electricity to perform the same function. Programs
designed to use electricity more efficiently - doing the same with less. For the purpose of this paper,
energy efficiency is distinguished from DSM programs in that the latter are utility-sponsored and -
financed, while the former is a broader term not limited to any particular sponsor or funding source.
"Energy conservation" is a term which has also been used but it has the connotation of doing without
in order to save energy rather than using less energy to do the some thing and so is not used as much
today. Many people use these terms interchangeably.

EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) - the ratio of cooling capacity of an air conditioning unit in Btus
per hour to the total electrical input in watts under specified test conditions.

Glossary 199
Electric Resistance Heater - A device that produces heat through electric resistance. For
example, an electric current is run through a wire coil with a relatively high electric resistance,
thereby converting the electric energy into heat which can be transferred to the space by fans.

Electric Radiant Heating - A heating system in which electric resistance is used to produce heat
which radiates to nearby surfaces. There is no fan component to a radiant heating system.

Electricity - A form of energy, caused by the behavior of electrons and protons, properly called
"electrical energy".

Elevation - 1) The height above sea level (altitude); 2) A geometrical projection, such as a
building, on a plane perpendicular to the horizon.

Emissivity - The measure of an amount of radiation produced by a material that transfers energy
from itself to the surrounding environment; expressed in a percentage. It consists a combination of
three factors related to the material’s surface texture, and transmissive characteristics. These factors
are expressed in terms of its reflectivity, its transmissivity, and its absorptivity. Each factor,
expressed as a percentage, when added together equals a sum that is less than 1.0.

Emittance - The emissivity of a material, expressed as a fraction. Emittance values range from
0.05 for brightly polished metals to 0.96 for flat black paint.

Energy - The capacity for doing work. Forms of energy include: thermal, mechanical, electrical
and chemical. Energy may be transformed from one form into another.

Energy Recovery Ventilator - A ventilator that recovers latent and sensible energy from the
exhaust air stream and transfers it to the incoming air stream.

Enthalpy - The quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a substance from one point to
a higher temperature. The quantity of heat includes both latent and sensible.

Envelope - The building shell. The exterior walls, floor, and roof assembly of a building.

Equivalent Full Load Compressor Hours (EFLCH) add up the total minutes a typical air
conditioner would operate per year and divide by 60 minutes per hour.

Evaporation - The change that occurs when a liquid becomes a gas. Evaporation is the key process
in the operation of air conditioners and evaporative coolers.

Evaporative Cooling - Cooling by exchange of latent heat from water sprays, jets of water, or
wetted material.

Evaporator - The heat transfer coil of an air conditioner or heat pump that cools the surrounding
air as the refrigerant inside the coil evaporates and absorbs heat.

Exfiltration - Air flow outward through a wall, building envelope, etc.

200
Expansion Valve - A valve that meters refrigerant into the evaporator.

Exhaust - Air removed deliberately from a space, by a fan or other means, usually to remove
contaminants from a location near their source.

Fahrenheit - A temperature scale in which the boiling point of water is 212 degrees and its
freezing point is 32 degrees.

Fan Coil - A component of a heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system containing a
fan and heating or cooling coil, used to distribute heated or cooled air.

Fenestration - In simplest terms, windows or glass doors. Technically fenestration is described as

any transparent or translucent material plus any sash, frame, mullion or divider. This includes
windows, sliding glass doors, French doors, skylights, curtain walls and garden windows.

Fiberglass - A fibrous material made by spinning molten glass.

Fire Stop - Framing member designed to stop the spread of fire within a wall cavity.

Flat Plate - A device used to collect solar energy. It is a piece of metal painted black on the side
facing the sun, to absorb the sun's heat.

Flammable - The rating for building materials that will burn readily when exposed to a flame.

Flashing - Waterproof material used to prevent leakage at intersections between the roof surface at
walls or penetrations.

Floor Joists - The framing members that support the floor.

Flue - A channel within an appliance or chimney for combustion gases.

Flue Gas - Gas that is left over after fuel is burned and which is disposed of through a pipe or stack
to the outer air.

Fluorescent Lamp - A tubular electric lamp that is coated on its inner surface with a phosphor and
that contains mercury vapor whose bombardment by electrons from the cathode provides ultraviolet
light which causes the phosphor to emit visible light either of a selected color or closely
approximating daylight.

Foamboard - Plastic foam insulation manufactured most commonly in 4'x8' sheets in thicknesses
of 1/4" to 3".

Footcandle - A unit of illuminance on a surface that is one foot from a uniform point source of
light of one candle and is equal to one lumen per square foot.

Footing - The part of a foundation system that actually transfers the weight of the building to the
ground.

Glossary 201
Forced Air Unit (FAU) - A central furnace equipped with a fan or blower that provides the primary
means for circulation of air.

Framing Effects - The effect of framing (wood or metal studs, joists, beams, etc.) on the overall
U-value of a wall, roof, floor, window or other building surface. Framing generally increases the U-
Value and decreases the R-Value of insulated surfaces.

Framing Percentage - The area of actual framing in an envelope assembly divided by the overall
area of the envelope assembly. This percentage is used to calculate the overall U-value of an
assembly.

Frequency - The number of cycles which an alternating current moves through in each second.
Standard electric utility frequency in the United States is 60 cycles per second, or 60 Hertz.

Frost Line - The maximum depth of the soil where water will freeze during the coldest weather.

Furring - Wood strips providing a space for insulation.

Gable - The triangular section of an end wall formed by the pitch of the roof.

Gallon - A unit of volume. A U.S. gallon has 231 cubic inches or 3.785 liters.

Gas - Gaseous fuel (usually natural gas) that is burned to produce heat energy. The word also is
used, colloquially, to refer to gasoline.

Gasket - Elastic strip that seals a joint between two materials.

General Lighting - Lighting designed to provide a substantially uniform level of illumination

throughout an area, exclusive of any provision for special visual tasks or decorative effects.

Geothermal Gradient - The change in the earth's temperature with depth. As one goes deeper, the
earth becomes hotter.

Grid - A system of interconnected power lines and generators that is managed so that the generators
are dispatched as needed to meet the requirements of the customers connected to the grid at various
points. Gridco is sometimes used to identify an independent company responsible for the operation
of the grid.

Glass Load Factor - A number combining glass’ solar heat transmission and its heat conduction.
Used for cooling load calculations.

Glazing - Glass installation-pertaining to glass assemblies or windows.

Gross Area - The area of a surface including areas not belonging to that surface (such as windows
and doors in a wall).

Head - Foot pounds of mechanical energy per pound of fluid created by a pump.

202
Heat Capacity - The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a given mass one
degree. Heat capacity may be calculated by multiplying the mass by the specific heat.

Heat Gain - an increase in the amount of heat contained in a space, resulting from direct solar
radiation, heat flow through walls, windows, and other building surfaces, and the heat given off by
people, lights, equipment, and other sources.

Heat Loss - A decrease in the amount of heat contained in a space, resulting from heat flow through
walls, windows, roof and other building surfaces and from ex-filtration of warm air.

Heat Pump - An air-conditioning unit which is capable of heating by refrigeration, transferring heat
from one (often cooler) medium to another (often warmer) medium, and which may or may not
include a capability for cooling. This reverse-cycle air conditioner usually provides cooling in
summer and heating in winter.

Heat Rate - A number that tells how efficient a fuel-burning power plant is. The heat rate equals
the Btu content of the fuel input divided by the kilowatt-hours of power output.

Heat-Recovery Ventilator - A central ventilator that transfers heat from exhaust to intake air, or
vice versa.

Heat Transfer - Flow of heat energy induced by a temperature difference. Heat flow through a
building envelope typically flows from a heated, or hot area to a cooled, or cold area.

Heat-Transfer Coefficient - See U-value.

Heating Degree Day - A unit that measures the space heating needs during a given period of time.

Heating Load - The rate at which heat must be added to a space in order to maintain the desired
temperature within the space.

Heating Season Performance Factor - A representation of the total heating output of a central
air-conditioning heat pump in Btus during its normal usage period for heating, divided by the total
electrical energy input in watt-hours during the same period.

Home Heating Index - The number of Btus of energy used by a home divided by its area in square
feet, then divided by the number of heating degree days during the time period.

House Pressure - The difference in pressure between the indoors and outdoors measured by a
manometer.

Horsepower (HP) - A unit for measuring the rate of doing work. One horsepower equals about
three-fourths of a kilowatt (745.7 watts).

Humidistat - An automatic control that switches a fan, humidifier, or dehumidifier on and off to
control relative humidity.

Glossary 203
HVAC (Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning) - A system that provides heating,
ventilation and/or cooling within or associated with a building.

Hydronic Heating - A system that heats a space using hot water which may be circulated through
a convection or fan coil system or through a radiant baseboard or floor system.

Illumination - The light level measured on a horizontal plane in footcandles.

Incandescent Lamp - The common light bulb found in residential lamps and light fixtures and
sold in stores everywhere. They produce light by passing an electric current through a filament
(resistor), which also produces significant heat.

Inch of Water Column - Small air pressure differences are measured in inches of water column in
the American measurement system. The linear measurement (inches of water) is determined by the
height of water column that can be supported by the pressure force.

Infiltration - The inflow of outdoor air into the indoors, which is accompanied by an equal outflow
of air from indoors to the outdoors.

Infrared - Pertaining to the wavelengths of light that is longer than the visible spectrum of light
emitted by the sun or warm objects on Earth. Although sometimes referred to as heating rays, in fact
all wavelengths of light produce heat. The infrared spectrum encompasses wavelengths from 750
nanometers or microns to 1 millimeter.

Insolation - The amount of solar radiation striking a surface.

Insulated Glass - Two or more glass panes spaced apart and sealed in a factory.

Insulation - Material with relatively high thermal resistance.

Intermediate Zone - A zone located between the building’s conditioned spaces and outdoors, like
a crawl space or attic.

Intermittent-Ignition Device - A device that lights the pilot light on a gas appliance when the
control system calls for heat, thus saving the energy wasted by a standing pilot.

Internal Gains - The heat generated by bathing, cooking, and operating appliances, that must be
removed during the summer to promote comfort.

Jamb - The side or top piece of a window or door frame.

Joist - A horizontal wood framing member that supports a floor or ceiling.

Kilowatt - A unit of electric power equal to 1000 joules per second or 3412 Btus per hour.

Kilowatt-Hour - A unit of electric energy equal to 3600 kilojoules or 3412 Btus.

Kinetic Energy - Energy in transition or motion.

204
Lamp - A generic term for a man-made light source often called a bulb or a tube. Sometimes refers
to the portable luminaires on tables and floors of homes.

Latent Heat - The heat absorbed or released by a substance when it changes state-for instance,
from a liquid to a gas.

Lath - Perforated base for plaster or stucco, formerly wood, now metal.

Low-E - Short for low emissivity, which means the characteristic of a metallic glass coating to resist
the flow of radiant heat.

Low-Water Cutoff - A float-operated control for turning the burner off if a steam boiler is low on
water.

Lumen - A unit of light output from a lamp.

Luminaire - A light fixture.

Main Panel Box - The service box containing a main switch, and the fuses or circuit breakers
located inside the home.

Make-Up Air - Air drawn into a space to replace exhausted air.

Manometer - Measuring device for fluid pressures.

Mastic - A thick creamy substance used to seal seams and cracks in building materials.

Metering Device - In refrigeration, an orifice or capillary tube that meters refrigerant into an
evaporator.

Natural Ventilation - Ventilation using natural air movement, without fans.

Net Free Area - The area of a vent after that area has been adjusted for insect screen, louvers, and
weather coverings. The net free area is always less than the actual area.

Open-Combustion Heater - A heater that takes its combustion air from the surrounding room.

Output - The useful energy that a device produces after accounting for waste involved in the energy
transfer.

Oxygen Depletion Sensor - A safety device for unvented combustion heaters that shuts gas off
when oxygen is depleted.

Packaged Air Conditioner - An air conditioner that contains the compressor, evaporator, and
condenser in a single cabinet.

Pascal - A unit of measurement of air pressure. (See Inch of water.)

Glossary 205
Payback Period - The number of years that an investment in energy conservation will take to
repay its cost in energy savings.

Perlite - A heat-expanded mineral used for insulation.

Permeability - A measurement of how much water vapor a material will let pass through it per
unit of time.

Photoresistor - Electronic sensing device used to sense flame, daylight, artificial light.

Plate - A piece of lumber installed horizontally to which the vertical studs in a wall frame are
attached.

Plenum - The piece of ductwork that connects the air handler to the main supply duct.

Polyethylene - Polymer plastic used for vapor barriers, air barriers, and foam backer rod.

Polyisocyanurate - Plastic foam insulation sold in sheets, similar in composition to polyurethane.

Polystyrene - Rigid plastic foam insulation, usually white or blue in color.

Polyurethane - Versatile plastic foam insulation, usually yellow in color.

Potential Energy - Energy in a stored or packaged form.

Pressure - A force encouraging flow by virtue of a difference in some condition between two areas.

Pressure Boundary - An air barrier--usually the primary air barrier.

Pressure Pan - A device used to block a duct register, while measuring the static pressure behind
it, during a blower door test.

Psychometrics - The science of the relationship between air, water vapor, and heat.

Purlins - Framing members that sit on top of rafters, perpendicular to them, designed to spread
support to roofing materials.

R-Value - A measurement of thermal resistance.

Radiant Barrier - A foil sheet or coating designed to reflect heat rays or retard their emission.

Radiant Temperature - The average temperature of objects in a home such as walls, ceiling,
floor, furniture, and other objects.

Radiant - Heat energy, which originates on a hot body like the sun, and travels from place to place
through the air.

206
Radon - A radioactive gas that decomposes into radioactive particles.

Rafter - A roof beam that follows the roof’s slope.

Recovery Efficiency - A water heater’s efficiency at actually heating incoming water.

Reflectance - The ability of a material’s surface to reflect radiant heat-also called reflectivity.

Refrigerant - A special fluid used in air conditioners and heat pumps that heats air when it
condenses and cools air when it evaporates.

Register - A grille covering a duct outlet.

Relative Humidity - The percent of moisture absorbed in the air compared to the maximum
amount possible. Air that is saturated has 100% relative humidity.

Reset Controller - A device that adjusts fluid temperature or pressure in a central heating system
according to outdoor air temperature.

Resistance - The property of a material resisting the flow of electrical energy or heat energy.

Retrofit - An energy conservation measure that is applied to an existing building. Also means the
action of improving the thermal performance or maintenance of a building.

Return Air - Air circulating back to the furnace from the house, to be heated by the furnace and
supplied to the rooms.

Rim Joist - The outermost joist around the perimeter of the floor framing.

Room Air Conditioner - A unitary air conditioner installed through a wall or window, which cools
the room by removing heat from the room and releasing it outdoors.

Room Heater - A heater located within a room and used to heat that room.

Sash - A movable or stationary part of a window that frames a piece of glass.

Saturation – The point at which a material has absorbed its maximum amount of a liquid.

Savings-to-Investment Ratio - Measures how many times an energy retrofit pays for itself
during its lifetime.

Scale - Dissolved minerals that precipitate inside boilers and storage tanks.

Sealed Combustion Heater - A heater that draws combustion air from outdoors and has a sealed
exhaust system.

Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating - A measurement of energy efficiency for central air
conditioners. The SEER is computed by dividing cooling capacity, measured in Btuh, by the watts.

Glossary 207
Sensible Heat - The heat absorbed by a substance which raises its temperature.

Sequencer - A bimetal switch that turns on the elements of an electric furnace in sequence.

Service Equipment - The electric meter and main switch, usually located outside the building.

Shading Coefficient - A decimal describing how much solar energy is transmitted through a
window opening, compared to clear single glass, which has an SC of 1.0.

Sheathing - Structural sheeting, attached on top of the framing, underneath siding and roofing of a
building.

Sheeting - Any building material used for covering a building surface.

Sheetrock – See drywall

Shell - The building’s exterior envelope—consisting of walls, floor, and roof of a building.

Short Circuit - A dangerous malfunction in an electrical circuit, where electricity is flowing

through conductors without going through an electric resister, like a light or motor.

Sill - The bottom of a window or door frame.

SIR - See savings-to-investment ratio.

Sling Psychrometer - A device holding two thermometers that is slung through the air to measure
relative humidity.

Soffit - The underside of a roof overhang or a small lowered ceiling, as above cabinets or a bathtub.

Solar Gain - Heat from the sun that is absorbed by a building and contributes to the need for
cooling.

Solar Heat - Radiant energy from the sun with wavelengths between 0.7 and 1 micrometers.

Solar Heat Gain Coefficient - The ratio of solar heat gain through a window to incident solar
heat. Includes both transmitted heat and absorbed and reradiated heat.

Solar Transmittance - The percent of total solar energy transmitted by a material.

Space Conditioning - Heating, cooling, or ventilation of an indoor space.

Space Heating - Heating the living spaces of the home.

Specific Heat - The ratio of a material’s heat storage capacity to the heat storage capacity of water.

208
Split-System Air Conditioner - An air conditioner that has the condenser and compressor
outdoors and the evaporator indoors.

Stack Effect - The draft established in a building from air infiltrating low and exfiltrating high.

Standing Losses - Losses from a hot water storage tank through its shell.

State Point - Air at a particular temperature and humidity occupies a single point on the
psychrometric chart called a state point.

Steady-State Efficiency - The efficiency of a heating appliance, after an initial start-up period,
that measures how much heat crosses the heat exchanger. The steady-state efficiency is measured by
a combustion analyzer.

Steam Trap - An automatic valve that closes to trap steam in a radiator until it condenses.

Steam Vent - A bimetal-actuated air vent that allows air to leave steam piping and radiators, but
closes when exposed to steam itself.

Stop - A thin trim board for windows and doors to close against or slide against.

Strike Plate - The metal plate attached to the door jamb that the latch inserts into upon closing.

Stucco - Plaster applied to the building’s exterior walls.

Stud - A vertical framing member used to build a wall.

Subcooling - The number of degrees Fahrenheit that a condenser and nearby piping cools the liquid
refrigerant below its saturation temperature.

Subfloor - The sheathing over the floor joists and under the flooring.

Substrate - A layer of material to which another layer is applied.

Superheat - The number of degrees Fahrenheit that an evaporator and nearby piping heats gaseous
refrigerant above its saturation temperature.

Supply Air - Air that has been heated or cooled and is then moved through the ducts and out the
supply registers of a home.

Task Lighting - Lighting provided at the area where a visual task is performed.

Therm - A unit of energy equaling 100,000 Btus or 29.3 kilowatt-hours.

Thermal Break - A piece of relatively low conducting material between two high conducting
materials.

Glossary 209
Thermal Bridging - Rapid heat conduction resulting from direct contact between very thermally
conductive materials like metal and glass.

Thermal Conductance - General term applied to K-value, meaning conduction heat-flow rate.

Thermal Resistance - Same as R-value, expressing ability to retard heat flow.

Thermal Transmittance - Expressed as U-value, thermal transmittance is heat flow by

conduction, convection, and radiation through a non-uniform layered building component like a
wall.

Thermistor - An electronic resistor used to sense temperature.

Thermocouple - A bimetal-junction electric generator used to keep the safety valve of an

automatic gas valve open.

Thermodynamics - is the study of the conversion of heat energy into different forms of energy.
Threshold - The raised part of a floor underneath a door that acts as an air and dust seal.

Tracer Gas - A harmless gas used to measure air leakage in a building.

Transformer - A double coil of wire that increases or decreases voltage from a primary circuit to a
secondary circuit.

Truss - A lightweight, rigid framework designed to be stronger than a solid beam of the same
weight.

U-Factor - The amount of heat that will flow through a square foot of a building assembly
consisting of multiple sections of materials.

U-Value - See U-factor

Ultraviolet Radiation - Solar radiation having wavelengths shorter than visible light.

Unconditioned Space - An area within the building envelope that is not intentionally heated or
cooled.

Underlayment - Sheeting installed to provide a smooth, sound base for a finish material.

Vapor Barrier - A material that retards the passage of water vapor.

Vapor Diffusion - The flow of water vapor through a solid material.

Vapor Diffusion Retarder - See vapor barrier.

Vaporize - Change from a liquid to a gas.

Vent Connector - The vent pipe carrying combustion gases from the appliance to the chimney.

210
Vent Damper - An automatic damper powered by heat or electricity that closes the chimney while
a heating device is off.

Ventilation - The movement of air through an area for the purpose of removing moisture, air
pollution, or unwanted heat.

Venting - The removal of combustion gases by a chimney or other type of combustion vent.

Vermiculite - A heat-expanded mineral used for insulation. Sometimes contains asbestos.

Visible Transmittance (VT) - The percent of visible light transmitted by a glass assembly.

Volt - The electrical potential contained in each unit of charge in joules per coulomb.

Watt - A unit of electrical power equivalent to one joule per second or 3.4 Btuh.

Watt-Hour - A unit of electrical energy equivalent to 3600 joules or 3.4 Btus.

Weatherization - The process of reducing energy consumption and increasing comfort in

buildings by improving energy efficiency of the building.

Weatherstripping - Flexible gaskets, often mounted in rigid metal strips, for limiting air leakage.

Webbing - A reinforcing fabric used with mastics and coatings to prevent patches from cracking.

Weep Holes - Holes drilled for the purpose of allowing water to drain out of an area in a building
where it has collected.

Wet-Bulb Temperature - The temperature of a dampened thermometer of a sling psychrometer

used to determine relative humidity, dew point, and enthalpy.

Window Films - Plastic films, coated with a metallized reflective surface that are adhered to
window glass to reflect heat rays from the sun.

Window Frame - The sides, top, and sill of the window which forms a box around window sashes
and other components.

Worst-Case Depressurization Test - A safety test, performed by specific procedures, designed

to assess the probability of chimney backdrafting.

WRT - Acronym meaning “with reference to” used to show that the air pressures between two areas
are being measured and compared.

Zone - A room or portion of a building separated from other rooms by an air barrier--not usually an
effective air barrier.

Glossary 211
Additional Terms:

212
Index
A
ADM see Airtight Drywall Method
Air Barrier 21, 22, 25, 64 - 71
Air Conditioner see Air Conditioning
Air Conditioning 123 - 129
Air Handler 123
Air Handling Unit 61, 126, 127, 150
Air Leakage 53 - 72
Air Movement 13, 15
Air Quality 13, 16, 75, 137, 144
Air Source Heat Pump 123, 129-131, 135
Airtight Drywall Method 64
Appliances 165 – 168
Apron 110
Attic 98 – 103, 173, 182 - 183
Attic Access 61
Attic Blocking 100 - 101
Attic Ventilation 98 – 99, 182
Awning 118 - 119

B
Baffle 22, 99 - 100, 105
Band Joist 66, 81, 84
Batch Solar Water Heating 164
Batt insulation 74, 89, 102
Blower 54, 56, 123, 140
Blower Door 56 - 58
Blown Loose-fill Insulation 89
Boots 151
Bottom Plate 60, 81
Branch Duct 123
Btu 31, 187
Building Envelope 32, 53, 73
Bulk Moisture Transport 23, 27
Bypass damper 126
Bypasses 56, 58 – 59, 62 - 63

C
Cantilevered Floor 84
Capillary Action 24 – 25, 27
Capillary Break 22, 24
Carbon Monoxide 13, 29, 136
Carbon Monoxide Detector 29
Casement 113 - 114
Catalytic Device 136
Cathedral Ceiling 105 - 107
Caulking 23, 59
Caulking, Firestop 59
Caulking, Heat-Resistant
Ceiling 67, 98 – 99, 105 - 107
Ceiling Joist 102 - 103
Cellulose Insulation 74 - 75

Index 213
Central Exhaust Fan 141
Chases 61
Chimney 101
Code 41
Collector 163 - 164
Compressor 126 – 128, 130
Condensation 17 – 20, 117
Condensing Coil 126 – 127, 130
Condensing Unit 126 - 127
Conduction 14, 28, 110 – 111
Convection 15, 110 - 111
Convection current 111, 116
Cooling coil 134
Cooling Equipment 48
Corner Framing 87
Corner Studs 88
Crawlspace 25, 66

D
Damper 125 - 126
Dehumidification 123 – 124
Dehumidification Ventilation Systems 140
Direct Vent Heater 137
Dishwasher 165 – 167
Doorbell Transformer 101
Doors 109, 121
Double-glazed Window 109, 111 – 113, 122
Double-hung Windows 113 - 114
Drainage Plane 23 - 26
Dropped Soffit 61 – 62, 67
Dryer, Clothes 167 - 168
Duct Design 151 - 157
Duct Leakage 29, 144 - 151
Duct Leaks see Duct Leakage
Duct Materials 143
Duct Sealing 144 - 150
Duct Test 149
Duct Testing Fan 148 - 149
Ductboard 143
Ducts 143 - 157
Ductwork 129, 143 – 144, 146 – 148, 151 - 153

E
Eave 102 – 103
Efficient Windows see Windows, Efficient
Electrical Box 60, 69 - 70
Electric Water Heaters see Water Heaters, Electric
Electronic Windows see Windows, Electronic
EnergyGuide Label 166 - 167
Envelope see Building Envelope
Evergreens 9 - 11
Exhaust Fan 60, 141, 168
Exposed Rafter 106 - 107
Exterior Finish 81, 96

214
F
Fan Control Switch 149
Filter 123
Fixed Window 113 - 114
Flashing 22 – 23, 70
Flex-duct 143, 146 - 147
Floor Insulation 81 – 82, 84
Floor Insulation, Framed 81 - 82
Floor Joists 82
Flue 58 – 59, 61, 132 – 133, 136
Foam Blocks 80
Foam Insulation see Insulation, Foam
Foam Panel 80 – 81, 91
Foam Sheathing 70 – 71, 84 – 86, 95
Footing 2, 22
Forced-air System 123
Foundation 2–3
Foundation Drain 8, 22, 23
Foundation Insulation 77 - 78
Foundation Vent 77 - 78
Foundation Wall 23, 73 – 74, 76 – 77, 81
Framed Wall 66, 79, 86
Full Width Batts 102
Furnaces 131 - 133
Furring Strips 24, 78- 79

G
Gas Water Heaters see Water Heaters, Gas
Geothermal Heat Pumps see Heat Pumps, Geothermal
Ground Cover 10 – 11, 81, 83

H
Heat Exchanger 131, 133, 140 – 141, 161, 163
Heat Pump 129 - 131
Heat Pump, Geothermal 130 - 131
Heat Pump Water Heaters see Water Heaters, Heat Pump
Heat Recovery Unit 161
Heat Recovery Ventilator 140 - 141
Heat-Resistant Caulking see Caulking, Heat-Resistant
Heat Transfer 14
Heating 129 - 137
Heating Coil 134
Heating Source 123
Heating Systems 129 - 137
Holes 34, 54
Home Blower Door Test see Blower Door
Hopper Windows 113
Hot Water See Water Heating
Hot Water Use 160
Housewrap Air Barriers see Air Barrier
Humidity 13 – 14, 18 – 23, 78
HVAC 123 - 142
HVAC, Sizing 124

Index 215
I
ICF see Insulated Concrete Form
Inadequate Air Flow 128
Indoor Air Quality 16, 75, 137 - 138
Infiltration 29, 54 – 57, 113, 137
Infiltration Rates 57
Inlet Vent 139 - 140
Inset Framing 93
Inside Coil 130
Instantaneous Water Heaters see Water Heaters, Instantaneous
Insulated Floor 82
Insulated Sheathing 81
Insulating Jacket 161
Insulation 74 - 108
Insulation baffles 99
Insulation, Fiberglass Batt 74, 188
Insulation, Foam 76, 90 – 91
Insulation, Loose-Fill 74 – 76, 89, 188
Insulation Materials 73 - 75
Insulation Strategies 76
Integrated Space and Water Heating 133 - 135
Interior Foam Wall Insulation 78 - 79
Interior Shading 119 - 120
International Residential Code 32 – 33, 37, 41

J
Jamb 66
Jump Duct 154

K
Kitchen Exhaust 139, 168
Knee Wall 73

L
Landscaping 10 - 11
Let-In Bracing 86
Lighting 168 - 171
Loose-Fill Insulation see Insulation, Loose-Fill
Low-Emissivity Coatings 115
Low-E, Gas-Filled Windows 109, 116
Low-E Windows 109, 111, 114 – 116, 122
Lower Sash 110

M
Manual D 129, 152
Manual J 124, 128 - 129
Masonry Chimney 101
Mechanical System Driven Infiltration 56
Mechanical Ventilation 48, 51, 137
Meeting Rail 110
Metal Chimney 101
Metal Door 121
Metal Duct 143, 147
Metal Window 114 - 115

216
Moisture 14, 17 – 29, 70
Moisture Control 23
Mold 13, 16, 20 – 22, 53, 144
Molded-Expanded Polystyrene 74
Mortgage 37 - 40
Mortgage Rate 39 - 40

N
National Fenestration Rating Council see NFRC
Natural Cooling 4-5
Natural Ventilation 6
NFRC 112, 116 - 117
NFRC Label 112, 117

O
Odors 6, 13
Outdoor Coil 130
Overhang 3, 7 – 9, 119, 122

P
Parting Stop 110
Partition Wall 64, 67, 87 - 88
Passive Solar 4, 28, 109
Penetrations 22, 25, 58 – 60, 66 - 68
Pier Foundation 82
Plumbing 61
Plywood Sheathing 95
Polyethylene 58
Polyisocyanurate 74, 76, 95 – 96, 188
Polystyrene 74 – 76, 96
Polystyrene beads 77
Powered Attic Ventilators 99
Pressure Boundary 53 - 54
Pressure Gauge 149
Pressure Imbalance 29, 144
Pressure Problems 99
Pressure-Treated Sill plate 81
Programmable Thermostats 52, 125

R
R-value 74 - 79, 112, 188
Radiant Heat Barrier 28, 107 - 108
Radiant Heat Flow 11, 113, 115
Radiant Surfaces 136
Radiation 15, 112, 115, 176, 187
Radon 13, 16, 22, 53
Rafters 103, 105 - 107
Rail 110
Raised Heel Trusses 103
Raised Top Plate 103
Recessed Lamp 27, 105
Recessed Lights 60, 63, 67, 101
Reflective Films 120
Reflective Roof Material 175
Refrigerant 126 – 130, 161

Index 217
Refrigerant Lines 123, 128
Registers 61, 144, 152
Relative Humidity 13, 18 – 21, 78
Return Air 126, 145, 153
Return Duct 134, 141
Return Grille 148 - 149
Return Plenum 123
Ridge 98
Ridge Vent 98, 183
Roll-Down Shades 119
Roof Deck 107, 173 - 174

S
Sealant 59, 81
Sealing Bypasses 62
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio see SEER Rating
SEER Rating 127 – 128, 189
Sensible Cooling 124
Sensible Heating Fraction 124
Shading Coefficient 113
Shading Design Strategies 11
Sheathing Costs 96
Shelf-Mounted Systems 150
SHGC see Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
Shrubs 10 - 11
Shutters 119 – 121
Sill 110, 117
Sill Plate 60, 81
Single-glazed Windows 109, 114
Single-hung Windows 113
SIP 92 – 93, 174
Site Planning 1 - 12
Slab-on-Grade 2
Slab-on-Grade Insulation 77
Snap Tie Systems 80
Soffit Vent 102, 104, 182 - 183
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient 112, 114, 117, 122
Solar Storage Tank 163
Solid Windows see Windows, Solid
Spot Fans 138
Spray-on Systems 81
Stack Effect 7, 54 – 55
Standard Framing 85, 88
Stool 110
Structural Insulated Panels see SIP
Structural System 21 - 22
Subfloor 60, 66, 81
Supply Duct 134
Supply Leaks 145
Supply Plenum 123

T
Takeoffs 147, 151
Temperature 13, 18 - 20
Temperature Controls 125, 190
Termites 13, 77, 81

218
Termite Inspection Strip 83
Thermal Break 113 - 115
Throttling Valve 126
Tint 112, 114, 120, 122
Top plate 69 – 70, 85
Trees 10 – 11, 118
Trunk Duct 123
Truss, Floor 81, 84
Truss Roof 103, 173

U
U-value 112, 114, 116 - 117
Unvented Fuel-Fired Heaters 136 - 137

V
Vapor Barrier 25 – 27, 65, 67, 71
Vapor Diffusion 25 - 27
Vapor Transport 26
Venetian Blinds 119
Vent Pipes 101, 153
Ventilation 6, 42, 98 – 99, 137 - 141
Ventilation Channel 105
Ventilation Ducts 132
Ventilation Plans 141
Vermiculite 77, 188
Visible Light Transmittance 113, 114, 117
Visible Transmittance see Visible Light Transmittance

W
Wall Construction 85 - 97
Wall Framing 85, 87
Wall Sheathings 95 - 96
Washing Machines 167
Water Heaters 130, 134 – 135, 159 - 165
Water Heaters, Electric 161
Water Heaters, Gas 160
Water Heaters, Heat Pump 162
Water Heaters, Instantaneous 165
Water Heaters, Solar 162 - 164
Water Heating 159 - 165
Water Vapor see Moisture
Water Vapor Transport see Vapor Transport
Waterproofing 184
Weatherstripping 58, 61, 63, 121
Whole House Fan 61
Wind 5 – 6, 12, 54 - 55
Wind Driven Infiltration 55
Wind Rose 5-6
Window Alternatives 114
Window Anatomy 110
Window Installation 117
Window Insulating Values 116 - 117
Window Performance 112 – 114, 117
Window Shading 118 - 121
Window Spacers 114
Window Temperatures 118

Index 219
Window Types 113
Windows 109 - 121
Windows, Efficient 28, 111
Windows, Electronic 121
Windows, Solid 121
Winter Heat Loss 111
Wiring Hole 60, 93
Wood Heating 135 - 137
Wood-Framed Roof 104

Z
Zoned System 126

220