GEE338 Linear Control Systems

Chapter 4
Design of Compensators and PID
using Root Locus
Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim and Eng. Medhat Toubar
Electronics and Communication Department
Misr International University (MIU)

1 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

 Chapter Contents
4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
4.1.1 Concepts of Compensation
4.1.2 Effects of the Addition of Poles or Zeroes on the Root Locus
4.1.3 Types of Compensators

4.2 Design of Lead Compensators

4.3 Design of Lag Compensators
4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.1 Concepts of PID
4.5.2 PID Circuits
4.5.3 Tuning Rules For PID-Controllers

2 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
4.1.1 Concepts of Compensation
• If a system is designed to have a root locus or transient response as shown in
Fig. 4.1 with poles at the point A.
• Assume that the desired response defined by percent overshoot and settling
time, is represented by point B.
• One way to solve the problem is to replace the existing system with a system
whose root locus intersect the desired design point B.
• Rather than change the existing system, we augment, or compensate, the
system with additional poles and zeroes, so that the compensated system has
a root locus that goes through the desired pole location.
• Therefore, compensation is a modification of an existing system to satisfy the
given specifications as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
Performance Time Domain Specification
1. Transient response requirements:
- Undamped natural frequency, n of the desired dominant closed-loop poles.
- The damping ratio, ξ.
- Maximum Percentage Overshoot PO.
- Rise time,  and Settling time, ts.
2. Steady state requirements
- Static Position Error Constant (Kp), Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv), Static
Acceleration Error Constant (Ka) and steady state errors, ess.
3 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
4.1.1 Concepts of Compensation
Transient response requirements
  t  
d  n 1   2
tr 
d
p

d

3
P.O  e 1 2
x100% t s 
 5%
 n
Steady state requirements

ess  lim e(t )  lim sE ( s )

t  s 0

sR ( s )
 lim
s 0 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

Fig. 4.1 Control system

response:
(a) Sample root locus, showing
possible design point (A) and
desired design point (B);
(b) Transient responses from
poles at A and B.
4 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
4.1.2 Types of Compensators
• The root-locus approach to design is very powerful when the specifications are
given in terms of time-domain quantities.
• The design by the root-locus method is based on reshaping the root locus of
the system by adding poles and zeros to the system’s open-loop transfer
function and forcing the root loci to pass through desired closed-loop poles in
the s plane.
• This reshaping may be done by inserting an appropriate compensator in
cascade or parallel with the feedforward transfer function as shown in Fig. 4.2.
• In this course we only analyze and design the cascade compensator.
Commonly Used Compensators:
1. Lead Compensator: If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network,
and the steady-state output (which is also sinusoidal) has a phase lead. It is
used to the improve the high frequency system performance parameters (ξ,
n). So, it affects the transient response specifications (, PO and ts).
2. Lag Compensator: If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network, and
the steady-state output (which is also sinusoidal) has a phase lag. It is used to
the improve the low frequency system performance parameters or the steady
state error( Kp, Kv, Ka or ess).

5 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
4.1.2 Types of Compensators
3.Lead-Lag Compensator: If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a
network, and the steady-state output (which is also sinusoidal) has both phase
lag and phase lead occur in the output but in different frequency regions; phase
lag occurs in the low-frequency region and phase lead occurs in the high-
frequency region. It is used to the improve both low and high frequency system
performance parameters.
4. PID Controller: Another approach to the improve both low and high frequency
system performance parameters is to add a Proportional (P) or gain, an Integral
(I) or integrator and a Derivative (D) or differentiator controls. This system is
simply termed as Proportional Integral Derivative (PID).
• We will soon understand how to design and use each of them to obtain a
desired response.

(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.2 Types of compensators: (a) series; (b) parallel or feedback
6 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
4.1.3 Effects of the Addition of Poles or Zeroes on the Root Locus
1. Effects of the Addition of Poles
• The addition of a pole to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling
the root locus to the right, tending to lower the system’s relative stability and to
slow down the settling of the response as shown in Fig. 4.3. So adding a pole:
- pulls the root-locus to the right - degrades stability
- slows down the settling of the response - reduces of steady stead error

Fig. 4.3 (a) Root-locus plot of a single-pole system; (b) root-locus plot of a two-
pole system; (c) root-locus plot of a three-pole system.
7 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
4.1.3 Effects of the Addition of Poles or Zeroes on the Root Locus
2. Effects of the Addition of Zeroes
• The addition of a zero to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling
the root locus to the left, tending to make the system more stable and to speed
up the settling of the response. (Physically, the addition of a zero in the
feedforward transfer function means the addition of derivative control to the
system as shown in Fig. 4.4. So addition of zero:
- pulls the root-locus to the left - improves the system stability
- speeds up the settling of the response - increases the steady state error

Fig. 4.4 (a) Root-locus plot of a three-pole system; (b), (c), and (d) root-locus
plots showing effects of addition of a zero to the three-pole system.
8 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
Lead or Lag compensator circuit
• Lead or Lag compensators can be implemented using the circuit shown in Fig.
4.5. The compensator transfer function, Gc(s) is derived as:
E s  Z R R R R C s  1 R4C1 s  1 / R1C1 s 1/
Gc ( s )  o  2 x 4  2 4 1 1   Kc
Ei s  Z1 R3 R1 R3 R2C2 s  1 R3C2 s  1 / R2C2 s  1 / 
RC RC
where K c  4 1   R1C1   R2C2   2 2
R3C2 R1C1
j  1 /   j  1 /  1  tan 1  1 
Gc ( j )  K c Gc ( j )  
j  1 /   j   1 /  2  tan 1
 2 
R1
Z1  R2
Lead network: sR C  1 Z 
R2C2 s  1
1 1 2

 1   2   1   2
R1C1  R2C2 or   1
Similarly
Lag network:
R1C1  R2C2 or   1 Lead or Lag Network Sign Inverter
Fig. 4.5 Lead or Lag compensator circuit.
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4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
The designing a lead compensator for the system shown by the root-locus
method may be stated as follows:

Step #1: From the performance specifications, determine the desired location for
the dominant closed-loop poles.
Step #2: By drawing the root-locus plot of the uncompensated system then
calculate the angle deficiency, d. This angle must be contributed by the lead
compensator if the new root locus is to pass through the desired locations for
the dominant closed-loop poles.
s 1/
Step #3: Assume the lead compensator 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) to be: G ( s )  K
s  1 / 
c c
where 𝛼 and  are determined from the angle deficiency, d.
Step #4: Determine the value of 𝐾𝑐 of the lead compensator from the magnitude
condition.
Step #5: Calculate the hardware components and draw the circuit diagram of the
compensator.
10 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.1
Consider the position control system with the feedforward transfer function, G(s)
of Fig. 4.6(a) is: 10
G (s) 
s ( s  1)
It is desired to design a lead compensator Gc s as in Fig. 4.6 (b) so that the
dominant closed-loop poles have the damping ratio,  = 0.5 and the undamped
natural frequency, ωn = 3 rad/sec.
Solution: Step # 1 Determine the desired closed loop pole location
The root locus of is shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). The closed-loop transfer function for
the system of Fig. 5.7(a) is given by:
10
C (s) G (s) s ( s  1) 10 10
T (s)     2 
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) 1  10 s  s  10 ( s  0.5  j 3.1223)( s  0.5  j 3.1223)
s ( s  1)

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.6 (a) Control system; (b) Control system with compensator.
11 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
Step # 1 Determine the desired closed loop pole location
10 10
T (s)  2 G (s) 
s  s  10 s ( s  1)

 1.5  j 2.5981

s 2  2n s  n2  s 2  3s  9  1.5  j 2.5981

 ( s  1.5  j 2.5981)( s  1.5  j 2.5981)
Fig. 4.7 (a) Root locus plot.
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4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.1 Solution
Step # 1 Determine the desired closed loop pole location as in Fig. 4.7(b)
  cos 1   cos 1 0.5  600
 1.5  j 2.5981

Fig. 4.7 (b) Desired closed loop pole location.

13 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus

as in Fig. 4.7(c)

10
   220.894
s ( s  1) s  1.5 j 2.5981

  d  180o  d  180o  220  40o

Fig. 4.7(c) Desired closed loop pole.
14 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.1 Solution
Step #3 Pole and zero selection of compensator [Refer to Fig. 4.7(d) and (e)]
• First, draw a horizontal line passing through point P (line PA).
• Draw also a line connecting point P and the origin O.
• Bisect the angle between the lines PA and PO.
• Draw two lines PC and PD that make angles ± d /2 with the bisector PB.
• The intersections of PC and PD with the negative real axis give the necessary
locations for the pole and zero of the lead network.

Fig. 4.7(d) Pole and zero selection of compensator.

15 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus

s  1 /  lead s  1.9432
Gc ( s )  Glead ( s )  K lead  K lead
s  1 /  lead s  4.6458

Fig. 4.7(e) Pole and zero selection of the lead compensator.

16 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus

17 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.1 Solution:
Step #5 Compensator components calculation, the draw its circuit:
From the previous results we have: Klead= 1.2287, 1/lead = 1.9432,  lead = 0.515
sec and 1/lead= 4.6458  lead= 0.215 sec, so  = 0.215 / 0.515 = 0.418 < 1.
RC RC
K lead  4 1  lead  R1C1  lead  R2C2   2 2
R3C2 R1C1
Since, lead = R1C1 = 0.515 sec, let C1 = 10 F  R1 = 51.5 k.
Since,  lead = R2C2 = 0.215 sec, let C2 = 10 F  R2 = 21.5 k.
R4C1 K c R3C2 1.2287 x10 x10
K lead   R4  let R3  10 k  R4   12.2387 k
R3C2 C1 10
The desired Lead compensator
circuit is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Lead compensator circuit.

18 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.1 Solution Note: The solution to such a problem is not unique,
there are infinitely many solutions.
Solution (Method -2) One possible solution is shown in Fig. 4.9(a). If we choose
the zero of the lead compensator at 𝑠 = −1.5, then the compensator pole must be
located at 𝑠 = −3.6 and Klead is calculated as before.

s  1 /  lead s  1.5
Glead ( s )  K lead  1.03
s  1 /  lead s  3. 6

Fig. 4.9(a) Another possible pole and zero selection of compensator.

19 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.2 Design of Lead Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.1 Solution Note: The solution to such a problem is not unique,
there are infinitely many solutions.
Solution (Method -3): A third possible solution is shown in Fig. 4.9(b) If we
choose the zero of the lead compensator at 𝑠 = −1, then the compensator pole
must be located at 𝑠 = −3. The compensator transfer function is given by:

The value of 𝐾𝑐 can be determined by use

of the magnitude condition as:

Hence, the lead compensator, 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 is:

Fig. 4.9 (b) A third possible pole and zero selection of compensator.
20 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.3 Design of Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
• The design a lag compensator for the system shown in Fig. 4.10 by the root-
locus method may be stated as follows:
Step #1 Assume the lag compensator transfer function, 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) to be:
s  1 /  lag
GC ( s )  Glag ( s )  K lag and   1
s  1 /  lag
Then the open-loop transfer function of the compensated system
becomes 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠).
Step #2 Evaluate the particular static error constant specified in the problem.
Determine the amount of increase in the static error constant necessary to
satisfy the specifications.
Adjust gain, Klag of the compensator from the magnitude condition so that the
dominant closed-loop poles lie at the desired location. (Klag will be
approximately one), i.e.: K lag  1

Fig. 4.10(a) Control system with lag compensator.

21 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.3 Design of Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Step #3 Determine the pole and zero of the lag compensator that produce the
necessary increase in the particular static error constant without appreciably
altering the original root loci. (Note that the ratio of the value of gain required in
the specifications and the gain found in the uncompensated system is the
required ratio between the distance of the zero from the origin and that of the
pole from the origin.)
Step #4 Study the effect of the compensator on the system phase
Step #5 Calculate the hardware components and draw its circuit.
Example 4.2
Consider the control system shown in Fig. 4.10(b). Design a lag compensator
𝐺𝑙𝑎𝑔 (𝑠) such that the static velocity error, 𝑘𝑣 is 50 sec −1 without appreciably
changing the location of the original closed-loop poles.
Solution T ( s )  2 10
s  4 s  10

s 2  4 s  10 
s1, 2  2  j 6

Fig. 4.10 (b) Control system with lag compensator.

22 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.3 Design of Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.3 Solution
Step #1 Assume the lag compensator transfer function, 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) to be:
s  1 /  lag
Gc ( s )  Glag ( s )  K lag and   1
s  1 /  lag
Step #2 Evaluate the particular static error constant specified in the problem:
Since 𝑘𝑣 is specified as 50 sec −1 , from Chapter 2, we have:
1
K v  lim sG ( s ) H ( s ) and the steady-state error is: ess 
s 0 Kv
 s  1 /  lag 10 
K v  lim sxK lag x   2.5 K lag   50
s 0  s  1 /  lag s ( s  4) 

Thus Klag  = 20, Now choose Klag = 1 then  = 20.
Step #3 Determine the pole and zero of the lag compensator that produce the
necessary static error constant, 𝑘𝑣 without appreciably altering the original root
loci as follows:
Choose the zero of the compensator at s = – 0.1 so its time constant, its time
constant, lag = 10 sec. Then the lag compensator can be given by:
s  1 /  lag s  0.1
Glag ( s )  K lag 
s  1 /  lag s  0.005
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4.3 Design of Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.2 Solution
Step #4 Study the effect of the compensator on the system phase:
The angle contribution of the lag compensator at the closed - loop poles:
𝑠 = − 2 ± 𝑗√6 is given by:
 2  j 6  0.1  6   6 
Glag ( s )   tan 1    tan 1 

  1.3616 o
  1.995 
 2  j 6  0.005   1.9 
s  2  j 6
 
which is small. The magnitude of 𝐺l𝑎𝑔 (𝑠) at this pole is 0.981. Hence the
change in the location of the dominant closed-loop poles is very small.
Step #5 Compensator Components Calculation:
From the previous results we have: Klag = 1.0, lag = 10 sec and lag = 200.
Since, lag = R1C1 = 10 sec, let C1 = 10 F  R1 = 1 M.
Since, lag = R2C2 = 200 sec, let C2 = 10 F  R2 = 20 M.

R4C1 K lag R3C2

K lag   R4 
R3C2 C1
1.0 x10 x10
let R3  10 k  R4   10 k
10
The desired Lag compensator
circuit is shown in Fig. 4.11.
Fig. 4.11 The desired Lead compensator circuit.
24 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
1. Lead-Lag Transfer Function
• Lead meets transient response specifications. So design a lead compensator to
improve the transient response.
• There is a need to a lag section to reduce the steady state error. So improve
the steady-state response by adding a lag compensator.
• Because the lag compensator will cause a deterioration in the transient
response, it is advisable to use a somewhat conservative lead design.
• The Lead-Lag compensator transfer function, Gc(s) to be:
s  1 /  lead s  1 /  lag
Gc ( s )  K c x   1 and   1
s  1 /  lead s  1 /  lag
• Where lead is the time constant of the Lead section and lag is the time constant
of the Lag section of the compensator.

25 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Lead-Lag compensator circuit
• Lead-Lag compensators can be implemented using the circuit shown in Fig.
4.12.
R1C1s  1R3
Z1 
R1  R3 C1s  1 Z2 
 R2C2 s  1R4
R2  R4 C2 s  1
where

Sign Inverter
Lead-Lag Network

Fig. 4.12 Lead-Lag compensator circuit.

26 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Lead-Lag compensator circuit
• The compensator transfer function, Gc(s) is derived as:
• The impedance Z1 is given by:
1 1 1 Z1 Z2
 
Z1 R  1 R3
1
C1s

 Z1 
R1C1s  1R3
R1  R3 C1s  1
• Similarly Z2 is given by:
1 1 1
 
Z2 1 R4
R2 
C2 s

 Z2 
R2C2 s  1R4
R2  R4 C2 s  1
Eo s  Z R R R2C2 s  1R4 R1  R3 C1s  1
Gc ( s )   2 x 6  6 x
Ei s  Z1 R6 R6 R2  R4 C2 s  1 R1C1s  1R3

R4 R6 R1  R3 C1s  1 R2C2 s  1

Gs ( s )  x
R3 R6 R1C1s  1 R2  R4 C2 s  1
27 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.1 Design of Compensators by Root-Locus Method
Lead-Lag compensator circuit
• The compensator transfer function, Gc(s) is given by :
 1  s  1 
 s  
 lead   lag 
Gc ( s )  K c 
 1  1 
 s   s  
  lead   lag 
where Z2
The gain is:
Z1

R R R  R1  R3 
K c   2 4 6  
 R1 R3 R5  R2  R4 
The time constants are:
 lead  R1  R3 C1
 lead  R1C1
 lag  R2C2
 lag  R2  R4 C2
28 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.3 For the control system shown in Fig. 4.13, design a lead-lag
compensator for the system to obtain closed-loop dominant poles with a damping
ratio, ξ = 0.5, an undamped natural frequency, n = 4 rad/sec and reduce the static
velocity error by a factor of 5.
Solution The static velocity error, Kv of the uncompensated system is:
K v  limsG ( s ) H ( s )    lim s
4 1
2 ess 
s 0 s 0 s ( s  2) Kv
• The desired location of the dominant closed-loop poles can be determined
from: 2
s  2n s  n  s  4 s  16  s1, 2  2  j 2 3  2  j 3.464
2 2

The desired Kv = 10 and closed-loop poles are located at: s = -2 ± j3.464

Step #1 Design the lead compensator as discussed in section 4.2.
• Characteristic equation is 1  G ( s ) H ( s )  0  s  2 s  4  s1, 2  1  j 3
2

• The angle the desired closed loop,  calculated analytically and is given by:
4
  G ( s ) s  2 j 2   
3 s ( s  2) s  2 j 2 3

4

(2  j 2 3 )  (2  j 2 3  2)
2 3
  tan 1    90  120  90  2100

 2  Fig. 4.13 The desired Lead compensator circuit.
29 of 20 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.3 Solution
Step #1 Design the lead compensator as discussed in section 4.2.
• Hence, the angle deficiency, d is given by:
d = 180 -  = -180 – (-210) = + 30o.
• Thus, if we need to force the root locus to go through the desired closed-loop
pole, the lead compensator must contribute, d = 30o at this point.
• Then the locations of the zero and pole are found as follows:
Zero at s = -2.9 and pole at s = -5.4.
• The compensator transfer function, Glead is(s) is:
s  1 /  lead s  2.9
Glead ( s )  K lead  K lead
s  1 /  lead s  5.4
• The value of Klead can be determined
by use of the magnitude condition as:
s  2.9 4
K lead 1  K lead  4.68
s  5.4 s ( s  2) s  2 j 2 3

s  2.9
so Glead ( s )  4.7
s  5.4
Fig. 4.14 The desired Lead compensator circuit.
30 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.3 Solution
Step #2 Design the lag compensator as discussed in section 4.3.
• Sine the desired Kv = 10, so we need.
K v  limsGlead ( s )Glag ( s )G ( s ) H ( s ) 
s 0

 s  2. 9 s  1 /  lag 4 

 lim ( s ) x 4.7 xK lag x 
s 0  s  5. 4 s  1 /  lag s ( s  2) 

 ( 4.7)(2.9 / 5.4)(4 / 2)   10  2
• Klag is assumed to be unity, choose the zero of the lag compensator at s = – 0.1
so its time constant, its time constant, lag = 10 sec. Then the lag compensator
transfer function can be given by:
s  1 /  lag s  0.1
Glag ( s )  K lag 
s  1 /  lag s  0.05
• The Lead-Lag compensator transfer function, Gc(s) to be:
s  1 /  lead s  1 /  lag s  2.9 s  0.1
Gc ( s )  K lead xK lag  4.7 x
s  1 /  lead s  1 /  lag s  5.4 s  0.05

31 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

4.4 Design of Lead-Lag Compensators by Root-Locus
Example 4.3 Solution
Step #3 Compensator Components Calculation:
 1  s  1 
 s  
 lead   lag 
Gc ( s )  K c 
 1  1 
 s    s   
 lead  lag 
s  2.9 s  0.1
Gc ( s )  4.7 x
s  5.4 s  0.05

From the previous results we have: The desired Lead-Lag compensator circuit.
Kc = 4.7, 1/load = 2.9,  load = 0.345 sec  R2 R4 R6  R1  R3 
and 1/lead = 5.4  lead = 0.185 sec, K    
 R1 R3 R5  R2  R4 
c

so  = 0. 185 / 0. 345 = 0.537 < 1.

1/lag = 0.1,  lag = 10 sec  lead  R1  R3 C1  lead  R1C1
and 1/ lag = 0.05  lag = 20 sec,  lag  R2C2  lag  R2  R4 C2
so  = 20/ 10 = 2 > 1.
Since, lead = R1C1 = 0.185 sec, let C1 = 10 F  R1 = 18.5 k.
Since, lead = (R1+R3) C1 = 0.345 sec  = R3 =21.5 - 18.5 = 3 k.
Similarly calculate the other components.
32 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.1 Concepts of PID
• A PID controller is shown in Fig. 4.15. This section examines a particular
control structure that has become almost universally used in industrial control.

Fig. 4.15 PID controller.

33 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.1 Concepts of PID
• It is based on a particular fixed structure controller, called PID controller family,
where, PID stands for: P (Proportional), I (Integral) and D (Derivative).
• These controllers have proven to be robust and extremely beneficial in the
control of many important applications.
• The transfer function, Gc(s) of the PID controller looks like the following:
In time domain:
de(t )
cPID (t )  K P e(t )  K I  e(t )dt  K D
dt
 1 
In s domain: C PID ( s )   K P  K I  K D s  E ( s )
 s 
 1 
So the TF is: G PID ( s )   K P  K I  K D s 
 s 
 1 
G
or PID ( s )  K 
P 1    s 
D  , where I and D are I and D time constants
 Is 
• A proportional controller (KP) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and
will reduce, but never eliminate, the steady-state error.
• An integral control (KI) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error,
but it may make the transient response worse.
• A derivative control (KD) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the
system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.
34 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.1 Concepts of PID
• Effects of each of controllers KP, KI, and KD on a closed-loop system are
summarized in the Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Effects of the controllers KP, KI, and KD.
Steady-State
RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME
Response
KP Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
KI Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
KD Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change

35 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.2 PID Circuits
• PID controller circuits
are shown in Fig. 4.16.

 1 
G PID ( s )  K P 1    D s 
 Is 
KP is proportional controller
gain as:
KP = Rf / Rp

I is I time constant as:

I = R1C1

D is D time constant as:

D= R2C2

Fig. 4.16 PID controller circuits.

36 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
5.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.3 Tuning Rules For PID-Controllers
• Ziegler and Nichols proposed rules for determining values of the proportional
gain, KP, integral time constant, I, and derivative time constant, D based on
the transient response characteristics of a given plant by:
- Experiments on the plant, or - Exploiting the model of the plant.
• Based on one of the following methods:
- Ziegler-Nichols First-Method of Tuning Rule in time domain.
- Ziegler-Nichols Second-Method of Tuning Rule in frequency domain.
• We will utilize Ziegler and Nichols Second-Method. They suggested that we set
the values of the parameters: KP, I and D according to the formula shown in
Table 4.2.

37 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.3 Tuning Rules For PID-Controllers
• In the second Ziegler and Nichols proposed rules for determining values of the
proportional gain, KP, integral time constant, I, and derivative time constant, D
are determined as follows:
• Using the proportional control action only as shown in Fig. 5.17, increase KP
from 0 to a critical value Kcr at which the output first exhibits sustained
oscillations. This is done theoretically if the system model is known, or the
critical gain Kcr and the corresponding period Pcr are determined practically.

Fig. 4.17 Sustained oscillation with period Pcr (measured in sec).

38 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.3 Tuning Rules For PID-Controllers
Example 4.4 For the control system shown in Fig. 4.18, design a PID controller by
applying the Ziegler-Nichols Second-Method Ziegler-Nichols Second-Method of
Tuning Rule in frequency domain to get its transfer function GPID(s).
Solution Step #1 Calculation of critical gain value Kcr
• Here, since the transfer function of the plant is known we can find Kcr using the
Root Locus or Routh-Herwitz Stability Criterion. G ( s )  K 1  1   s 
P D 
PID
  I s 
• By setting I = ∞ and D = 0 the resulting control system is shown in Fig. 4.19
and its closed loop transfer function is given by: G PID ( s )  K P
K PG (s) H (s) KP
T (s)  
1  K P G ( s ) H ( s ) s ( s  1)( s  5)  K P

Fig. 4.18 Control system with PID controller.

39 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.3 Tuning Rules For PID-Controllers
Example 4.4 Solution
Step #1 Calculation of critical gain value Kcr
The value of KP that makes the system marginally unstable so that sustained
oscillation occurs can be obtained from the catachrestic equation as:
s ( s  1)( s  5)  K P  0
so s 3  6 s 2  5s  K P  0
The Routh array is obtained as
Examining the coefficients of first column
of the Routh array we find that sustained
oscillations will occur if KP = 30.
Thus the critical gain Kcr is Kcr = 30.

Fig. 4.19 Control system with P controller only.

40 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.3 Tuning Rules For PID-Controllers
Example 4.4 Solution
Step #2 Calculation of critical period value Pcr
To find the frequency of sustained oscillations, find the intersection points the 𝑗𝜔
axis as we did in the root locus. So we get:
6 s 2  K P  0  6 s 2  30  0 s1, 2   j 5
jcr  j 2.4  cr  j 2.4
Hence  = 2.24 rad/sec and the period of sustained oscillations Pcr is given by:
2 2
Pcr    2.81 sec
cr 5
Referring to Table 4.2, we get:
Kp =0.6 Kcr = 18, I = 0.5 Pcr = 1.405 sec and D = 0.125 Pcr = 0.35124 sec

So the transfer function of PID controller is obtained as:

Step #3 Calculation of the PID parameters
 1   1 
G PID ( s )  K P 1    D s   181   0.531 s
 
 Is   1.405 s 
41 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
4.5 Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) Controller
4.5.3 Tuning Rules For PID-Controllers
Example 4.4 Solution
Step #4 Components Calculation of the PID:
From the previous results we have:
Kp = 18, I = 1.405 sec and
D = 0.125 Pcr = 0.35124 sec

KP is proportional controller
gain as: KP = Rf / Rp
let Rp = 10 k  Rf = 180 k.

I is the Integrator time constant as:

I = R1C1
Let C1 = 10 F  R1 = 140.5 K.

D is Defrentatior time constant as:

D= R2C2
Let C2 = 10 F  R2 = 35.124 k.

42 of 45 GEE338 Ch.4 Compensators Prof Fawzy Ibrahim