INTRODUCTION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

-This book is written mainly for Zambian pupils in Grade 10 – 12 pupils, but it can also I would like to say thanks to all mathematicians, authors and publishers, especially to
be useful to anyone seeking a basic knowledge of Mathematics. J F Talbert ‘Success in Examinations Mathematics Syllabus D’, Karen Morisson
-It is intended for both study and revision. ‘IGCSE Mathematics’, Tori Large ‘Usborne Dictionary of Math’, Frank Tapson
-It covers the Mathematics High School Syllabus in Zambia as much as possible, but ‘Barron’s Mathematics Study Dictionary’ and Hidenori KUGA ‘Masamu Ofunica’ for
the contents of this book are not enough to get 100% of knowledge in Mathematics. giving many useful ideas.
-Teacher’s explanation is needed to learn the contents in this book even if all pupils Thanks Peter Kausa and Patience Kabaso for giving the wonderful title and book
have this textbook. cover.
-This book is sold through JOCV (Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers) teacher’s
committee only. I hope that this book helps all Zambian pupils make progress in Mathematics.
-The price can be decided as the lowest price by only JOCV teacher’s committee.
-The price includes only the expense for the materials needed to produce this booklet
and no one will make profit from this booklet.
-Only JOCV can edit this book. March 2009
Motoki KAMIZONO from DENSO
2007 – 2009 Nyimba Boarding Secondary School
Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers - JOCV

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CONTENTS 9 Proportion and Variation 24 19.6 Stretch 50
9.1 Proportion 24 19.7 Shear 51
9.2 Variation 24 20 Earth Geometry 52
1 Basic Arithmetic 1 10 Angles, Polygons and Bearings 25 20.1 Latitude and Longitude 52
1.1 Numbers 1 10.1 Angles 25 20.2 Distance along Circles of Latitude and
1.2 Operations on Real Numbers 1 10.2 Polygons 25 Longitude 53
1.3 Factors and Multiples 2 10.3 Pythagoras Theorem 27 20.3 Time 54
1.4 Conversions of Fractions, Decimals and 10.4 Bearings 28 21 Probability 55
Percentages 2 11 Angle Properties in a Circle 29 21.1 Theoretical Probability 55
1.5 Operations of Fractions 3 11.1 Parts of a Circle 29 21.2 Combined Events 55
1.6 Ratio and Scale 3 11.2 Angles in a Circle 29 22 Statistics 57
2 Commercial Arithmetic 5 11.3 Cyclic Quadrilaterals 30 22.1 Presentation 57
2.1 Profit and Loss 5 11.4 Tangents 30 22.2 Measures 58
2.2 Discount 5 12 Symmetry 32 22.3 Frequency Distributions 59
2.3 Simple Interest 5 12.1 Line Symmetry 32 22.4 Cumulative Frequency 60
3 Indices, Standard Form and Approximations 6 12.2 Rotational Symmetry 32 23 Sequences 62
3.1 Indices 6 13 Similarity 33 Answers 64
3.2 Standard Form 6 13.1 Similar Triangles 33
3.3 Approximations 7 13.2 Areas of Similar Figures 33
4 Sets 8 14 Mensuration 34
4.1 Set Notation and Presentation 8 14.1 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures 34
4.2 Operations on Sets 8 14.2 Surface Areas and Volumes of
5 Basic Algebra 10 Three-Dimensional Figures 35
5.1 Algebraic Expression 10 15 Geometrical Constructions and Loci 37
5.2 Factorisation 10 15.1 Basic Constructions 37
5.3 Algebraic Fractions 11 15.2 Constructing triangles 38
6 Equations 13 15.3 Loci 38
6.1 Rearranging an Equation (Changing the 16 Trigonometry 39
subject of an equation) 13 16.1 Trigonometric Ratios 39
6.2 Linear Equations 13 16.2 Non-right-angled Triangles 40
6.3 Quadratic Equations 14 17 Matrices 42
6.4 Equations Involving Indices 15 17.1 Calculations of Matrices 42
6.5 Functions 16 17.2 Inverse Matrix 43
7 Coordinates and Graphs 17 18 Vectors 44
7.1 Coordinate Systems 17 18.1 Basic Vector 44
7.2 General Graph Terms 17 18.2 Vector Geometry 45
7.3 Straight Line Graphs 17 19 Transformation 47
7.4 Curve Graphs 18 19.1 Translation 47
7.5 Distance-Time and Speed-Time Graphs 19 19.2 Transformations Represented by 2 × 2
8 Inequations and Linear Programming 21 Matrices 48
8.1 Basic Inequation 21 19.3 Reflection 48
8.2 Linear Inequations 21 19.4 Rotation 49
8.3 Linear Programming 22 19.5 Enlargement 50
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 Significant figures (sf): indicate the accuracy of numbers.
1 Basic Arithmetic For any number, the first significant figure is the first non-zero digit. After that,
1.1 Numbers - in case of whole numbers, all digits are counted as significant up to the last non-zero
Integers: are numbers which are not fractions. . . . –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . digit.
The set of integers is denoted by the symbol Z. negative ] [ positive - in case of decimals, all digits are counted as significant.
e.g.
Natural numbers: are the positive integers. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
4 sf 1234 12.34 1.023 0.01234 0.001002
The set of natural numbers is denoted by the symbol N.
3 sf 1230 12.3 1.02 0.0123 0.00100
Whole numbers: are the set of natural numbers and zero. 2 sf 1200 12 1.0 0.012 0.0010
1 sf 1000 10 1 0.01 0.001
Even numbers: are integers which can be divided by 2 without a remainder.
Any integer which ends with 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 must be even.
1.2 Operations on Real Numbers
Odd numbers: are integers which cannot be divided by 2 without a remainder. Order of operationｓ: There is an established order in which operations must be done.
Any integer which ends with 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9 must be odd. Anything in brackets has to be done first, then multiplication and division, and then
Prime numbers: are numbers which can only be divided by 1 and themselves. addition and subtraction. An aid to memorise this order is BoDMAS (Brackets of
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, . . . Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction)
e.g. (2  4)  3  1  6  3  1  18  1  17
There is an infinite number of prime numbers.
2  4  (3  1)  2  4  2  2  8  10
・1 is NOT a prime number.
(2  4)  (3  1)  6  2  12
・2 is the only even prime number.
2  4  3  1  2  12  1  13
a
Rational numbers: are numbers which can be written in the form where a and b are
b The commutative law: states that for any two real numbers, the order of operation of
integers and b is not zero. addition and multiplication doesn’t matter.
e.g.  2.5, 0 .3, 0.09, 3 .142857 and 4 are all rational since they can be re-written as: a  b  b  a , ab  ba e.g. 3  5  5  3, 3  6  6  3
BUT subtraction and division are not commutative.
5 1 1 22 4
 , , , and respectively. a  b  b  a, a  b  b  a e.g. 3  5  5  3, 3  6  6  3
2 3 11 7 1
Irrational numbers: are numbers which are not rational and so cannot be written in the The associative law: states that for any three real numbers, the grouping in an
a expression of addition and multiplication doesn’t matter.
form .
b (a  b )  c  a  (b  c ), ( ab )c  a (bc ) e.g. ( 2  3)  4  2  (3  4), ( 2  3)  4  2  (3  4 )
e.g. 2  1 .41421356 . . . ,   3.141592653 . . . BUT subtraction and division are not associative.
(a  b)  c  a  (b  c ) e.g. ( 2  3)  4  2  (3  4)
Real numbers: The set of real numbers is made up of all rational and irrational
(a  b )  c  a  (b  c ) e.g. (2  3)  4  2  (3  4)
numbers together.
The set of real numbers is denoted by the symbol R.
The distributive law: states that when it is performed on two or more quantities
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already combined by another operation, the result is the same as when it is performed the common factors.
on each quantity individually and the products then combined. Example 2 Find the HCF of 168, 252 and 360.
a (b  c )  ab  ac e.g. 2  (3  4)  2  3  2  4 168 = 2×2×2×3×7 22 and 3 are
252 = 2×2×3×3×7 the only
1.3 Factors and Multiples 360 = 2×2×2×3×3×5 common factors.
Factors of a number: A factor is a whole number which divides exactly into it. Therefore the HCF = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
1 is a factor of every number and every number is a factor of itself.
Multiples of a number: A multiple is a number made by multiplying that number with
e.g. The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.
a whole number.
Any whole number can be written as a product of its factors. e.g. The multiples of 3 are 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, . . .
e.g. 12 = 1 × 12, 12 = 2 × 6, 12 = 3 × 4
Lowest Common Multiple (LCM): The LCM of two (or more) numbers is the
Prime factors: The prime factors of a number are factors which are also prime smallest number which is a multiple of each.
numbers.
To find the LCM, express each number as a product of the prime factors and select all
e.g. The prime factors of 12 are 2 and 3.
the different factors without repetition.
A non-prime number can be expressed uniquely as a product of prime factors.
Example 3 Find the LCM of 6, 12 and 15
e.g. 60 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 22 × 3 × 5
6=2×3
To find the factors of a number, divide by the prime numbers in turn until no further 12 = 2 × 2 × 3
division is possible. 15 = 3 × 5
Example 1 Express 360 as the product of its prime factors. Therefore the LCM = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60

2 360
1.4 Conversions of Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
2 180
Converting a fraction to a decimal: divide the numerator by the denominator.
2 90
 360  2  2  2  3  3  5 0.125
3 45 1
3 15  23  32  5 e.g.  0. 125  8 1.000
8
5
Converting a decimal to a fraction: place the decimal numbers over the appropriate
Highest Common Factor (HCF): The HCF of two (or more) numbers is the largest number of power of 10.
number which is a factor of each. 3 25 1
e.g. 0.3  , 4. 25  4 4
e.g. 12 has 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 as factors. 10 100 4
18 has 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18 as factors. Converting a fraction to a percentage: multiply the fraction by 100 and put %.
The common factors of 12 and 18 are 1, 2, 3 and 6. 2 2 1 1 1
e.g.   100 %  40 % ,   100%  12 % or 12 .5%
The HCF is 6. 5 5 8 8 2
To find the HCF, express each number as a product of the prime factors and select all Converting a percentage to a fraction: divide the percentage by 100 and remove %.

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 5 1 12.5 12. 5 10 125 1
e.g. 5%   , 12 .5%      Example 7 Calculate 6  1 2  2
100 20 100 100 10 1000 8 3 5
Converting a decimal to a percentage: shift the decimal point two places to the 2 1
2 2 6 5 2 6  5  2 2  1  2
RIGHT. 6 1       4
3 5 1 3 5 1  3  5 111
e.g. 0.25 = 25%, 0.0075 = 0.75%, 1.5 = 150% 1 1

Dividing fractions: To divide by a fraction, multiply by its reciprocal. (The reciprocal

Converting a percentage to a decimal: shift the decimal point two places to the LEFT.
e.g. 78.5% = 0.785, 120% = 1.2 of a is b . )
b a

1.5 Operations of Fractions Example 8 Calculate 3  2

5 3
Adding and subtracting fractions: express each fraction in terms of the same
3 2 3 3 3 3 9
denominator (the LCM) and add / subtract the numerators.     
5 3 5 2 5  2 10
Example 4 Calculate 1  2  1
3 5 4
1.6 Ratio and Scale
LCM of 3, 5 ,4 is 60. 1  2  1  20  24  15  29
Ratio: is used to compare the sizes of two (or more) quantities. Ratios are written with
3 5 4 60 60
a colon (:).
With mixed numbers, either convert to improper fractions first or deal with whole e.g. If there are 3 girls and 7 boys in a class, the ratio of girls to boys is said to be 3 : 7
numbers separately. and the ratio of boys to girls is 7 : 3.
Example 5 Calculate 1 1  2 3  3 1 Example 9 If angles a, b and c in a triangle are in the ratio 4 : 3 : 5, what is the size of
5 4 2
each angle?
1 3 1 6 11 7 24  55  70 39  19 
1 2 3       1  Total number of parts = 4 + 3 + 5 = 12 c
5 4 2 5 4 2 20 20  20 
The sum of interior angles in a triangle = 180˚
1 3 1 4  15  10 1 19 a b
or  1  2  3     2  2 1 180 
5 4 2 20 20 20 One part is  15
12
Multiplying fractions: multiply the numerators together and then denominators Angle a is 4 × 15˚ = 60˚ Angle b is 3 × 15˚ = 45˚ Angle c is 5 × 15˚ = 75˚
together (after any cancelling which may be possible).
Simplifying ratios: Ratios can often be simplified. To simplify a ratio, divide or
Example 6 Calculate 3  1  5 multiply both parts by the same number.
4 2 6
1 Example 10 Find in simplest form the ratio of: (a) 1 : 2 (b) 30min : 2hr
3 1 5 3  1  5 11 5 5 3
    
4 2 6 4  2  6 4  2  2 16 (a) Multiply both parts by 3 to convert the fraction into an integer.
2
1  3  1 and 2  3  6 So 1 : 2  1 : 6
3 3
To multiply mixed numbers, first convert them to improper fractions. (b) Express both parts in the same unit and then divide both parts by their HCF.

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 30min : 2hr = 30min : 120min (∵2hr = 2 × 60min = 120min) 7 A map is drawn to a scale of 1 : 20 000.
= 1 : 4 (∵HCF = 30) (a) The distance of an airport runway is represented by 8cm on the map. Calculate its
actual distance in km.
Scales on maps and plans: These are stated in a ratio form 1 : n .This ratio gives the
(b) The actual distance of a railway is 6km. Calculate the distance on the map which
1
representative fraction   of the map. it represents it in cm.
n
(c) The area of a lake on the map is represented by 200cm2. Calculate the actual area
e.g. A scale of 1 : 50 000 means that 1cm on the map represents 50 000cm (0.5km) on
of it in km2.
the ground.
(d) The actual area of the airport is 3km2. Calculate its area on the map in cm2.
Example 11 A map is drawn to a scale of 1 : 50 000.
(a) On the map the length of a straight road is measured as 7.5cm. What is the actual
distance of the road in km?
(b) If the area of a maize field is 2km2, what is its area on the map in cm2?
(a) 1cm on the map represents 50 000cm = 0.5km on the ground.
If x represents the actual distance of the road,
1 : 0.5 = 7.5 : x ∴x = 0.5 × 7.5 = 1.5 km
(b) 1cm2 on the map represents 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25 km2 on the ground.
So if y represents the area of the maize field on the map,

1 : 0.25 = y : 2  y  1  2  8 cm 2
0 .25

Exercise 1
1 Find the number of significant figures. (a) 235 (b) 0.423 (c) 0.004 (d) 24 000
(e) 2.000 (f) 0.0510
2 Calculate the following.

(a) 7  2  3  4 (b) (4)  ( 3)  (3)  2 (c)  5  7  24  3

3 Evaluate the following.

(a) 2 3  1 1  4 1 (b) 2 1  4 1  3 2 (c) 1 1  1 1 (d) 2 1   2 1  1 4   1 3

4 2 8 2 6 5 3 6 3  2 5 4
4 Find the prime factors of 42, 70 and 105, and state their HCF and LCM.
5 The ratio of the numbers of boys to girls in a school is 7 : 6. If there are 455 pupils,
how many boys are there?

6 Find in simplest form the ratio of: (a) 2hr 15min : 13min 30sec (b) 2 : 1 1 : 1
3 4
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K6,000-
 Example 4 K250 000 earns K10 000 interest in 6 months. Calculate the interest rate.
2 Commercial Arithmetic
6 months  6 year  1 year
2.1 Profit and Loss 12 2
Profit / Loss = Income – Cost If the answer is positive, it’s a profit.
10 000  100
If the answer is negative, it’s a loss.  R  I  100   8%
PT 250 000  1
Example 1 A man bought 100 loaves of bread at K3 000 each. He sold half of them at 2
K3 500 each and the rest at K2 700 each. Find his profit or loss.
Cost = 100 × 3 000 = K300 000 Exercise 2
Income = 50 × 3 500 + 50 × 2 700 = K310 000 1 A bookseller bought 10 copies of a book at K45 000 each. He sold 9 copies at
Profit / Loss = 310 000 – 300 000 = K10 000 profit K52 000 per copy and the rest at K40 000 per copy. Find the profit or loss.
2 During a sale, a shop gives 5% discount.
2.2 Discount (a) What is the new price of an article priced at K120 000?
A discount is a reduction in price. (b) What is the original price of an article sold for K28 500?
3 A man borrows K1 200 000 at 9.5% for 8 months. How much does he have to repay?
Example 2 Calculate how much is paid for a television set costing K800 000 if 7%
4 If K832 000 is the total value of an investment at the end of 4 years which has a
discount is allowed.
simple interest rate of 7% per annum, calculate the principal.
7
Discount =  800 000  K 56 000 5 Find the interest rate if the simple interest on K250 000 invested for 6 years is
100
K120 000.
Customer pays 800 000 – 56 000 = K744 000

2.3 Simple Interest

Interest is money paid for borrowing a sum of money which is called the principal. It
is expressed as a percentage rate per annum.
PRT
I
100
where I is the simple interest, P is the principal, R is the rate of interest (as a
percentage) and T is the time (in years). When interest is added to the principal, the sum
is called the amount. The amount A = P + I
Example 3 If a person invests K5 000 000 at the rate of 8% per annum for 2 year.
Calculate: (a) the simple interest (b) the amount
5 000 000  8  2
(a) I  PRT   K 800 000
100 100
(b) A = P + I = 5 000 000 + 800 000 = K5 800 000

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3 Indices, Standard Form and Approximations (g) a  b n  a n  b n To raise a product to a power, raise each number to the power.

3.1 Indices
e.g. 3  5 2  3 2  5 2 because 3  5 2  15 2  225 and 3 2  5 2  9  25  225
Indices indicate how many times a number is multiplied by itself.
e.g. 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 n n
a a
The 3 is the power or index of the base 2. (h)    n To raise a quotient to a power, raise each number to the power.
b b
Laws of indices: for any real number a,
1 2 2 2
e.g. 51 = 5 3 3 3 3 9 3 9
(a) a  a Any number to the power 1 is itself. e.g.    2 because   and 2 
4 4 4 4 16 4 16
0
(b) a  1 Any number to the power 0 is 1. e.g. 100 = 1 1
(i) a n  n a A fractional power indicates a root.
1
(c) a  n  n
A negative power indicates the reciprocal of the number with a
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a   1
e.g. 8 3  3 8  2 because 8 3  8 3  8 3  8 3 3 3
 8  8 and 2  2  2  8
2 1   1  0.01 
positive power. e.g. 10  2   m
10  100 
Further, a n  n a m or
n
am
n n
a 1 b
Further,       2 1
2
n 2
b  a (b)  
2 3 5 6
a Example 1 Find the value of (a) 4 (c) 2  2  2 (d) 27 3 (e)  8  3
   3
b
 
2 2 2
2 1 1 2 3 3 9 1
(a) 4   (b)       2    2 
(d) a m  a n  a m  n To multiply powers of the same base, add the powers. 4
2 16 3 2 2 4 4
1 1 1
3
e.g. 3 2  3 4  3 2 4  3 6 because 3 2  3 4  3  3  3  3  3  3  3 6 (c) 2 3  2 5  2 6  2 3 56  2 2  4 (d) 27 3  3 27  3 or 3 3   3 3 3  31  3
2 2 2
m a
(e) a  a  n  a
nm n
m
To divide powers of the same base, subtract the powers.
(e)  8  3  3  8 2   2 2  4 or  2 3 3   23 3   2 2  4
a
3.2 Standard Form
e.g. 3 5  3 2  3 52  3 3 because 3 5  3 2  3  3  3  3  3  3  3   3 3 Standard form is a method of expressing numbers in the form a×10n , where
1  a  10 and n is an integer. i.e. A number with one digit before the decimal point.
 
(f) a m
n
 a mn To raise a power to a power, multiply the powers.
Example 2 Express in standard form: (a) 452 (b) 0.000268
(a) 452 = 4.52 × 100 = 4.52 × 102
e.g. 5   2 3
 5 23  5 6 because 5  
2 3 2 2
 5 5 5  5
2 2 2  2
5
6
(b) 0.00268 = 2.68 × 0.001 = 2.68 × 10–3

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Example 3 Express as a decimal: (a) 6.45 × 103 (b) 1.07 × 10–2 Exercise 3
3 1 1 1 3
(a) 6.45 × 10 = 6.45 × 1000 = 6450
1 Simplify: (a) x 2  x 3 (b) x  2  x 2  x 2
1
(b) 1.07 × 10–2 = 1.07 × =0.0107
100 2
1
2 Find the value of: (a)  5 3 (b)   6
(c) 5  5
1 3 0
 5  10 (d) 4
2 .5
4
1
2
3.3 Approximations
2
An approximation is a stated value of a number which is close to (but not equal to) the 8 3 
1
1
true value of that number. (e)    (f) 25 2 (g) 3
 27  
22 16 4
e.g. 3.14, 3.142 and are all approximations to  (= 3.14159265358979 . . . )
7 3 Express in standard form: (a) 703 (b) 8405.2 (c) 0.072 (d) 0.000375
4 Express 2.9735 correct to: (a) 1dp (b) 2dp (c) 3dp
Rounding off: is the process of approximating a number.
5 Express 40.974 correct to: (a) 1sf (b) 2sf (c) 3sf (d) 4sf
To round off a number, find the place in the number where the rounding off must be
done and look at the digit to the right.
- If this is 5 or greater, add 1 to the rounded off digit.
- If this is 4 or less, leave the rounded off digit the same.

To a number of decimal places (dp): indicates that rounding off has been done to leave
only the number of digits required after the decimal point.
e.g.  = 3.14 (to 2dp)  = 3.142 (to 3dp)
Example 4 Round off 3.0463 correct to: (a) 3dp (b) 2dp (c) 1dp
(a) 3.0463 = 3.046 to 3dp
(b) 3.0463 = 3.05 to 2dp
(c) 3.0463 = 3.0 to 1dp

To a number of significant figures (sf): indicates that rounding off has been done to
leave only the number of significant figures required.
e.g.  = 3.14 (to 3sf)  = 3.1416 (to 5sf)
Example 5 Round off 13 507 correct to: (a) 1sf (b) 2sf (c) 3sf (d) 4sf
(a) 13 507 = 10 000 to 1sf
(b) 13 507 = 14 000 to 2sf
(c) 13 507 = 13 500 to 3sf
(d) 13 507 = 13 510 to 4sf

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 The number of subsets of a set is 2n where n is the number of elements in the set.
4 Sets
e.g. A set with 3 elements has 23 = 8 subsets.
A set is a collection of well defined objects (numbers, letters, symbols and so on). ∵If A = {a, b, c}, subsets of A are {a, b, c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a}, {b}, {c}
and { }
4.1 Set Notation and Presentation
A set is denoted by a capital letters (such as A).The objects of a set are enclosed in curly
brackets, { } and separated by commas. 4.2 Operations on Sets
e.g. V = {a, e, i, o, u} Intersection of sets: is the set of elements common to all the original sets.
It is not necessary to list every object in the set. Instead, the rule which the objects The intersection is represented by the symbol ∩.
follow can be given in the curly brackets. e.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}, A∩B = {2, 4}
e.g. V = {vowels in English} Union of sets: is the set of all the elements of the original sets.
Elements or members: are objects which belong to a set. The union is represented by the symbol ∪.
The symbol ∈ means “is an element of” or “is a member of”. The symbol ∉ means “is e.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}, A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
not an element of” or “is not a member of”. Complement of a set: is the set of all elements which are not in that set but are in the
e.g. 3 ∈ {odd numbers}, 3 ∉ {even numbers} universal set originally given.
Universal set: is the set which contains all the elements under discussion. The complement is represented by the symbol ′.
The universal set is denoted by E. e.g. If E = {natural numbers less than 10} and A = {prime numbers},
e.g. If V = {vowels} and C = {consonants} are given, E = {alphabet} A′ = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9} (∵A = {2, 3, 5, 7})

Empty set: is the set which has no elements. Venn diagrams: are used to show the relationships between sets.
An empty set is denoted by { } or φ. In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a
E
rectangle and sets by circles or simple closed curves. A
e.g. {triangles with more than three sides} = { } or φ ・a
Elements of a set are often represented by points in the
Finite and infinite set: A finite set is a set which contains a limited number of elements. ・e ・i
circle.
An infinite set is a set which contains an unlimited number of elements.
e.g. {letters of the English alphabet} = {a, b, c, . . . , x, y, z} This set is a finite set. Venn diagrams of some common set relationships
{natural numbers} = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } This set is an infinite set. The considered parts are shaded.

Number of elements: If a set A is a finite set, the number of elements in the set A is E A B E A B E A B
denoted by n(A).
e.g. If A = {letters of the English alphabet}, n(A) = 26

Subset: is a set which also belongs to another set.

The symbol ⊂ means “is a subset of”. Universal set E Set A A∩B
e.g. If V = {vowels} and A = {a, e, i}, A ⊂ V. Intersection of A and B

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 E E n(A) = x + 4 + 2 + 3 = 14 ∴x = 5
A B A B
n(E) = 14 + 3 + y + 6 + 5 = 30 (∵n(A) = 14)
∴y = 2

Exercise 4
A∪B A' 1 E = {natural numbers less than 10}, A = {prime numbers}, B = {odd numbers} and
Union of A and B Complement of A C = {multiples of 3}. List the elements of (a) A′ (b) A∩B (c) B′∩C′
Combined operations (d) A∪(B∩C)
2 If n(A) = 7 and n(B) = 5, what are the largest and smallest possible values of
Example 1 For two sets A and B, n(A) = 6, n(B) = 4 and n(A∪B) = 8. Find n(A∩B).
n(A∪B) and n(A∩B)?
n(A) + n(B) = 6 + 4 = 10 which is 2 more than n(A∪B).
E A B 3 A, B and C are three intersecting sets. On separate E A B
Therefore 2 elements are counted twice, which means
Venn diagrams, Shade the region:
that n(A∩B) = 2.
(a) (A∪B)∩C (b) (A∩C) ∪B (c) A′∩(B∪C)
(d) A∩B∩C′ (e) A′∩B∩C′ C
In general, n(A∩B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∪B)

4 If n(E) = 55, n(A) = 25, n(B) = 22, n(C) = 22, n(A∩B) = 8, n(B∩C) = 7,
Example 2 If E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, B = {1, 2, 3} and
n(A∩C) = 5 and n(A∩B ∩C) = 3, illustrate this information in a Venn diagram.
C = {2, 3, 5, 7}, list the elements of: (a) B′∩C (b) A∩C′ (c) (A∪C)′
(a) B′ = {4, 5, 6, 7} so B′∩C = {5, 7}
(b) C′ = {1, 4, 6} so A∩C′ = {1}
(c) A∪C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7} so (A∪C)′ = {4, 6}

Example 3 Shade the region A∩(B∪C)′ on the E A B

Venn diagram.

B∪C is shaded in Fig 1. Then (B∪C)′ is

C
shaded in Fig 2. So A∩(B∪C)′ is the shaded
region in Fig 3.
E A B E A B E A B

C C C
Fig 1 Fig 2 Fig 3

Example 4 If n(E) = 30 and n(A) = 14, find x and y. E A B

x 4 3 -9-
2
3 y
6
5 C
 Substitution: is the replacement of the letters in an expression with specific values.
5 Basic Algebra
Example 1 Given that a = 3, b =–5 and c = 4, find the value of: (a) ab2 (b) a – b – c2
5.1 Algebraic Expression (a) ab2 = 3 × (–5)2 = 3 × 25 = 75
An expression can contain any combination of letters or numbers, and often involves (b) a – b – c2 = 3 – (–5) – 42 = 3 + 5 – 16 = –8
the arithmetic operations.
e.g. 2x, 6x – 5, 10 + y, x + y, 3(x – y), 3x2 + 4y Expansion: is removing brackets from an expression by the term immediately before
the brackets with every term within them. The distributive law is applied.
Variable: is unknown number or quantity represented by a letter (usually such as x, y). e.g. a(b + c) = ab + ac
Constant: is a value which is always the same. An important type of expansion involves a double set of brackets.
e.g. In an expression y = x + 3, 3 is a constant. Example 2 Expand (x + 3)(2x – 5)
Coefficient: is a constant which is placed in front of a variable. To expand this expression, multiply each term in the first set of brackets with each
e.g. In an expression x + 2y, the coefficient of x is 1 and the coefficient of y is 2. term in the second set of brackets.
(The absence of a coefficient is equivalent to a 1 being present.)
( x + 3 )( 2x – 5 ) = x × 2x + x × (–5) + 3 × 2x + 3 × (–5)
Terms: are the parts which are separated by a + or – sign.
= 2x2 – 5x + 6x – 15
e.g. An expression 2 + 3x – 4xy +5x2 has 4 terms (2, 3x, –4xy and.5x2)
= 2x2 + x – 15
Like terms: are terms which contain exactly the same variables and same indices.
They can be collected together by addition or subtraction. 5.2 Factorisation
e.g. pairs of like terms are 2x and 5x; 5xy2 and 3xy2, 2x + 5x = 7x; 5xy2 – 3xy2 = 2xy2 An algebraic expression can be factorised if each term contains one or more common
factors. It is written as a product of its factors.
Unlike terms: are terms which contain different variables or different indices.
Example 3 Factorise 4x2 – 12x
They cannot be added or subtracted.
e.g. pairs of unlike terms are x and x3; xy2 and x2y 4 and x are the only common factors. Divide the common factor (4x) into each term.
4x2÷4x = x, –12x÷4x = –3
Simplification: is combining the terms in an algebraic expression. And write the resulting expression in the brackets.
Addition and subtraction: Expressions involving addition and subtraction can be 4x2 – 12x = 4x(x – 3)
simplified by adding or subtracting like terms. Check the answer by expansion.
e.g. 3x2 + 2x + 5y – 2y + 3x + 4x2 = (3x2 + 4x2) + (2x + 3x) + (5y – 2y) = 7x2 + 5x + 3y 4x(x – 3) = 4x × x + 4x × (–3) = 4x2 – 12x, so the solution is correct.
Multiplication: Expressions involving multiplication can be simplified by multiplying
Example 4 Factorise 3ax + 6ab + 4x + 8b
out the terms.
e.g. 4x × 3y = 4 × 3 × x × y = 12xy There is no common factor to all the four terms. Take them in pairs.
Division: Expressions involving division can be simplified by cancelling out the terms. 3ax + 6ab + 4x + 8b = 3a(x + 2b) + 4(x + 2b)
31 1 (∵3a is the common factor to the first two terms and 4 is the common factor to the
3  
3 2 6 31 21 2  3 2 6 x  x  x  y  y 2  last two terms.)
e.g. 6 x y  2 xy  x y  3x y  6 x y  2 xy   3x y 
2  2 x y  Now (x + 2b) is the common factor. ∴expression = (x + 2b)( 3a + 4)
1  11 1 
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Factorisation of quadratic expressions: A quadratic expression (ax2 + bx + c) can be 5.3 Algebraic Fractions
factorised into two pairs of brackets by using the following method. A fraction which contains at least one letter is called an algebraic fraction.
Step 1: find the product of a and c. Algebraic fractions can be simplified to their lowest terms by factorising both the
Step 2: find the factors of the product of a and c, whose sum is b. denominator and numerator.
Step 3: express the term bx as a sum of terms, using the factors in step 2. x2 x 1
Example 8 Simplify: (a) (b)
Step 4: factorise by grouping terms with common factors. 4 x  xy x 2  3x  2

Example 5 Factorise x2 + 5x + 6 2
x x
2
x x 1 x 1 1
p 6 (a)   (b)  
The product is 1 × 6 = 6 and the sum is 5. 4 x  xy x4  y  4  y 2
x  3x  2  x  1 x  2  x 2
s 5
6 could be 1 × 6 or 2 × 3.
f 2, 3 Addition and subtraction: Algebraic fractions can be added or subtracted in exactly
2 + 3 = 5 (1 + 6 = 7 ≠ 5) so the factors are 2 and 3.
x2 + 5x + 6 = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6 = x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2) = (x + 2)(x + 3) the same way as arithmetical fractions by expressing them as fractions with the lowest
common multiple (LCM) as the common denominator.
Only if the coefficient of x2 is 1, the expression can be factorised directly by using the
factors. Example 9 Express as a single fraction and simplify where possible.
x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b) x 1 x  3 3 2 1 2x 1
(a)  (b)  (c) 2  2  2
3 2 x2 x3 x  3x  2 x  4 x  x  2
Example 6 Factorise 3x2 – x – 10
p –30 (a) The LCM of 3 and 2 is 6.
The product is 3 × (–10) = –30 and the sum is –1.
30 could be 1 × 30, 2 × 15, 3 × 10 or 5 × 6. s –1 x  1 x  3 2x  1 3 x  3 2 x  2  3 x  9 5 x  11
    
3 2 6 6 6 6
Now the product is negative, so one factor is positive f –6, 5
(b) The LCM of (x – 2) and (x – 3) is (x – 2)(x – 3).
and the other is negative.
–6 + 5 = –1 so the factors are –6 and 5 3  2  3 x  3  2 x  2   3 x  3  2 x  2
x  2 x  3  x  2  x  3  x  2  x  3  x  2 x  3
3x2 – x – 10 = 3x2 – 6x + 5x – 10 = 3x(x – 2) + 5(x – 2) = (x – 2)(3x + 5)
Always check the answer by expansion.  3x  9  2 x  4  x5
 x  2 x  3  x  2 x  3
(x – 2)(3x + 5) = x × 3x + x × 5 – 2 × 3x– 2 × 5 = 3x2 + 5x – 6x– 10 = 3x2 – x – 10
(c) First factorise the denominators each and then find the LCM.
2 2
Difference of two squares: is an expression of the form a – b which can be factorised x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1)(x + 2)
to (a + b)(a – b). a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b) x2 – 4 = (x + 2)(x – 2)
Example 7 Factorise 4x2 – 9 x2 – x – 2 = (x + 1)(x – 2)
∴The LCM = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x – 2)
4x2 – 9 = (2x)2 – 32 = (2x + 3)(2x – 3)
1 2x 1
 
 x  1x  2  x  2  x  2   x  1 x  2 
1   x  2 2 x   x  1 1  x  2
  
x  1 x  2x  2  x  1x  2 x  2  x  1 x  2 x  2
2
2x 2  4x 2 x x  2 
 x  2  2x  2x  x  2  
 x  1 x  2 x  2  x  1 x  2 x  2  x  1 x  2 x  2
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 2
2x
 (e) (2a – 3b)2 (f)  2 x  1 
(c) (a + 5) (a – 2) (d) (x – 2y)(3x + 4y)
 x  1 x  2  x
2 Factorise completely: (a) 3x2 – 6x (b) 3ac – 6ad – 2bc + 4bd (c) x2 + 3x +2
Multiplication and division: Algebraic fractions can be multiplied or divided in
exactly the same way as arithmetical fractions. (d) x2 + 6x + 9 (e) x2 – 4x – 21 (f) 2x2 – 5x – 3 (g) 12x2 – 5xy – 2y2
(h) 49 – 16x2 (i) a2b2 – 4c2 (j) st2 – 4s + 2t2 – 8
Example 10 Simplify where possible.
2
2 2 xyz 3 x  10 x  8 2a 1 2
2z y 4 a b xy y 2 2 3 Simplify: (a) (b) (c) (d) 
(a)  (b)  (c)  (d) x 2  4  x  x2  2 xyz
2 2
6 x  13x  6
2
a 4 2a a
xy 4 z a b 12 6 3x 3x  6 x 9x
1 1 1 1 2x  2 y 3
2 z  y (e)  (f)  (g) 
2z y 1 x y x y x  2 2x 2  7x  6 9 yx
(a)   
xy 4 z xy  4 z 2 x
2 2 2
x 1 2x  8 x  4 xy  3 y x y
2 2 (h)  2 (i) 
(b) First a – b is factorised to (a + b)(a – b) 2
x  7 x  12 x  2 x  1 xy y
4

a  ba  b  4  a  ba  b  a  b
a b 12 a  b  12 3
3

(c) First convert division to multiplication.

xy y xy 3 x xy  3 x x 2
    
6 3x 6 y 6  y 2
2

(d) Convert division to multiplication and factorise.

x 2  4  x 2  x  2   x  2  x  2   9x2
2
3x  6 x 9x 2 3 x x  2   x  2  x  1
3
x  2  9 x 2
  3x
3 x   x  2  x  1 x  1

Exercise 5
1 Expand and simplify where possible: (a) 2x(3x – y) (b) 3(3x – y) – 4(4y + x)

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 (c) First remove fractions by multiplying the LCM (10).
6 Equations
x5 3x  1
10   10   10   3 5(x – 5) – 2(3x + 1) = –30
An algebraic equation is a mathematical statement that two algebraic expressions are 2 5
equal. An equation is solved by finding the value of the unknown variable(s). Any value Then expand, collect like terms and simplify.
of the variable(s) that satisfies the equation is a solution. 5x – 25 – 6x – 2 = –30 –x = –30 + 27 –x = –3 ∴x = 3
(d) Remove fractions by multiplying the LCM (4x).
6.1 Rearranging an Equation (Changing the subject of an equation)
Expressions in an equation can be rearranged so that one of the terms is on its own to 3 1 1
4x   4x   4x  6 – 4 = x ∴x = 2
2x x 4
the left of the equal sign (=). Then the equation can be solved for that term.
Linear equations in two variables: A linear equation in two variables x and y can be
Example 1 Rearrange for x. (a) x + 4y = 3 (b) y  2 x  1
x  3z written in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a and b are not equal to 0.
(a) Leave x on the left side and move 4y to the right side. ∴x = 3 – 4y e.g. x – y = 3, 2x + y = 5, 2x – 4y – 9 = 0
(b) Remove the denominator (x – 3z) by multiplying both sides by it. These equation have an infinite number of pairs of values of x and y which satisfy the
y(x – 3z) = 2x – 1 i.e. xy – 3yz = 2x – 1 equations.
Collect the x terms by themselves on the left side.
Simultaneous equations of linear equations in two variables: are pairs of linear
xy – 2x = – 1 + 3yz i.e. x(y – 2) = 3yz – 1
equations in which the two variables represent the same numbers in each equation.
3 yz  1
Divide both sides by (y – 2).  x  To solve simultaneous equations, find a solution which satisfies both equations.
y 2
There are mainly two methods to solve simultaneous equations.
6.2 Linear Equations (i) Substitution method
A linear equation is an equation involving an expression of the first degree (the highest (ii) Elimination method
power of variables is 1). Unless the question asks for a specific method, you are free to use any method you
Linear equations in one variable: A linear equation in one variable x can be written in prefer.
the form ax + b = 0, where a ≠ 0. e.g. x + 2 = 7, 3x + 2 = 5 Substitution method: One variable is expressed in terms of the other in either of the
To solve a linear equation in one variable, rearrange and solve it for that variable. given equations and this expression is substituted into the other equation.
Example 2 Solve for x: (a) 2x – 1 = x + 3 (b) 7(x + 3) – 2(x – 4) = 4 Example 3 Solve: 2x – y = 5
x  5 3x  1 3 1 1 x – 2y = 4
(c)   3 (d)  
2 5 2x x 4 Rearrange the second equation to solve for x. x = 4 + 2y
(a) Collect like terms. 2x – x = 3 + 1 ∴x = 4 Substitute this expression for x into the first equation. 2(4 + 2y) – y = 5
Check the answer by substituting it into each side of the original equation. Expand, collect like terms and simplify.
Left side = 2 × 4 – 1 = 8 – 1 = 7 Right side = 4 + 3 = 7 8 + 4y – y = 5 3y = 5 – 8 = –3 ∴y = –1
As left side = right side, the answer is correct. Substitute the value of y into the rearranged equation. x = 4 + 2 × (–1) = 4 – 2 = 2
(b) First expand. 7x + 21 – 2x + 8 = 4 The solution is x =2, y = –1
Then collect like terms and simplify. 5x = 4 – 29 5x = –25 Check the solution by substituting it into the other equation.
Divide both sides by 5. x = –5 Left side = 2x – y = 2 × (2) – (–1) = 4 + 1 = 5 = Right side, so the solution is correct.

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Elimination method: One variable is eliminated in order to leave only the other variable. 6.3 Quadratic Equations
Example 4 Solve: (a) 2x – 3y = 4 (b) x + 4y = 7 (c) 2x – y = 5 A quadratic equation in one variable x can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0,
x + 3y = 11 x + 2y = 3 x – 4y = 6 where a, b and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0. e.g. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0, x2 – 4 = 0
The solutions of a quadratic equation are called roots. Quadratic equations will always
(a) Now the coefficients of y are opposite (– 3 and 3), add the equations.
have two roots which may be equal.
2x – 3y = 4
+ x + 3y = 11 There are three methods to solve quadratic equations.
(2x + x ) + (– 3y + 3y) = 4 + 11 3x = 15 ∴x = 5 (i) Factorisation method
Substitute 5 for x into either of the equation (now the second equation). (ii) Completing the square method
5 + 3y = 11 3y = 11 – 5 = 6 ∴y = 2 (iii) Formula method
The solution is x = 5, y = 2.
Factorisation method: involves factorising the equation to give two expressions in
Always Check the solution by substituting it into the other equation.
brackets. In general, given ab = 0, we can say a = 0 or b = 0. So by taking each bracket
Left side = 2 × 5 – 3 × 2 = 10 – 6 = 4 = Right side, so the solution is correct.
at a time, the two possible solutions can be found. Not all quadratic equations can be
(b) Now the coefficients of x are equal (1 and 1), subtract one equation from the solved by factorisation method.
other.
Example 5 Solve: (a) x2 – 5x = 0 (b) x2 – 3x + 2 = 0
x + 4y = 7
– x + 2y = 3 (a) Factorise the left side. x(x – 5) = 0
(x – x) + (4y – 2y) = 7 – 3 2y = 4 ∴y = 2 Since the product of the factors is 0, one of the factors must be 0.
Substitute 2 for y into either of the equation (now the second equation). x = 0 or x – 5 = 0
x + 2 × 2 = 3 x = 3 – 4 = –1 Therefore the roots are x = 0 or x = 5.
The solution is x = –1, y = 2 Check the solutions by substituting them into the original equation.
When x = 0, Left side = 02 – 5 × 0 = 0 – 0 = 0 = Right side
(c) If the coefficients are not equal or opposite, find the LCM of the coefficients of When x = 5, Left side = 52 – 5 × 5 = 25 – 25 = 0 = Right side
one of the variables and make them the same in each equation. So the solutions are correct.
Now choose x, the LCM of 1 and 2 is 2. Multiply the second equation by 2.
(b) Factorise the left side. (x – 1)(x – 2) = 0
2 × (x – 4y = 6) 2x – 8y = 12
(In the quadratic equation, the product is 2 and the sum is –3,
The coefficients of x are equal (2 and 2), subtract one equation from the other.
so factors are –1 and –2.)
2x – y = 5
x – 1 = 0 or x – 2 = 0
– 2x – 8y = 12
Therefore the roots are x = 1 or x = 2.
(2x – 2x) + (–y – (–8y)) = 5 – 12 7y = –7 ∴y = –1
Substitute –1 for y into either of the equation (now the second equation). This method should always be tried first. If it is not possible, then use either of the other
x – 4 × (–1) = 6 x = 6 – 4 = 2 two methods.
The solution is x = 2, y = –1

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Completing the square method: is making the left side of a quadratic equation into a 6.4 Equations Involving Indices
perfect square, the form (x + a)2. This method can be used to solve any quadratic There are two types of equations involving indices.
equation.
Equations of the form xa = b: (where x is a variable and a and b are constants) can be
Example 6 Solve x2 – 4x – 1 = 0 solved by raising both sides of the equation to the reciprocal of the power of a.
x2 – 4x – 1 = 0 cannot be factorised. In general,, xa = b
Move the constant (–1) to the right side. x2 – 4x = 1 (i) 1 1
a
1 1 1

Halve the coefficient of x and complete the square on the left side. The reciprocal of a is 1 .
a
x 
a a
 ba x a  ba x  ba
2
 x  4    x  2 2  x 2  4 x  4 ∴x2 – 4x = (x – 2)2 – 4
1 2
  Example 8 Solve: (a) x3 = 8 (b) x 2  3 (c) x 3
 2  16
2 2
So (i) becomes (x – 2) – 4 = 1 which gives (x – 2) = 5 1 1
3
1 1
(a) The reciprocal of 3 is
1
3
.  
x3 3  8 3 x 3  
 23 3

Take the square root of both sides. x  2   5  2.236

1 1
3
So x = 2 + 2.236 or x = 2 – 2.236 x  2 3  21  2 (or x  8 3  3 8  2 )
Therefore x = 4.24 (2dp) or x = –0.24 (2dp) 2
Formula method: is given by generalising the above method. 1  12  1 2
(b) The reciprocal of is 2.  x   3 2 x2 9 x  9
2  
Take the general quadratic equation as ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2 b c 3
Divide both sides by a. x  x 0  32  2 3 2  3 
  3
a a (c) The reciprocal of  2 is  3 .  x   16 2 x 3  2   4 2  2
3 2  
c 2 b c
Move the constant ( ) to the right side. x  x (ii)
a a a 3
2 3  3
 1
Now
2
 x  b   x2  b x  b
 
2
x  4  2   4 3  13  1
64
(or x  16 2  16 2    16 3  4 3 )
 2 a  a 4a 2
4  
2 2 2 2 2
So (ii) becomes:  x  b   b 2   c  x  b   b  c  b  4 ac
  2 Equations of the form ax = b: (where x is a variable and a and b are constants) can be
 2a  4a a  2a  4a a 4a 2
solved by expressing both sides of the equation in index form with same base, and
2 2
 x  b   b  4 ac b b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac equating the powers.
Then x   x 
 2a  4a 2 2a 2a 2a
Example 9 Solve: (a) 2x = 8 (b) 25x = 5 (c) 27x = 1
9
Example 7 Solve 2x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 (a) Express both sides in index form with common base. 2 x = 23
Compare with ax2 + bx + c = 0: a = 2, b = –5 and c = 1 Then equate powers. x = 3

Then x 
  5    5 2  4  2  1 5  17 5  4.123
x
(b) 5 2   51 5 2 x  51 2x = 1 x  1
  2
22 4 4
(c) 33   12
x

9.123 0.877
or  2.28 or 0.22 (2dp) 33 x  32 3x = –2 x   2
4 4 3 3

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6.5 Functions Exchange x and y. y  3  2x
A function is an operation that is applied to a given set (the domain) of values to give 5
another set (the range) of values. Each element in the domain is related to only one
Let y = f–1(x). f 1
x  3  2 x
element in the range. A function is represented by the letter f. 5
e.g. f(x) = 2x 1 3  2  1 5
(b) Substitute –1 for x into the equation. f  1   1
5 5
domain 1 2 range
2 4
3 6
Exercise 6
1 Rearrange the following equations to make the subject the letter in brackets.
4 8
q t x  1 [x]
5 10 (a) I  PRT [R] (b) V  3 r 3 [r] (c) p  [t] (d) y 
100 4 2t 3x  2
2 Solve for x. (a) 10x + 3 = 4x + 6 (b) 3(x – 1) – (1 – x) = –4
Example 10 If f(x) = 2x + 3, find: (a) f(–2) (b) x when f(x) = 5
4 x  2  x  3 1 2 1 1
(a) Substitute –2 for x into the equation. (c)   (d)  
5 2 10 3x 2x 4
f(–2) = 2 × (–2) + 3 = –4 + 3 = –1 3 Solve the simultaneous equations.
(b) Substitute 5 for f(x) into the equation and then solve for x. (a) x + y = 9 (b) 2y – 3x = –22 (c) x + 2y = 0 (d) 2x + 3y = 4
5 = 2x + 3 5 – 3 = 2x 2 = 2x ∴x = 1 y = 2x x=4–y x – 3y = 2 3x – 2y = –7
4 Solve for x. Where necessary give the answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Notation
(a) x2 = 3x (b) x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 (c) x2 – 6x = –9 (d) 2x2 – 5x – 3 = 0
y = f(x) is a way of expressing that there is a function of x which maps x-numbers onto
(e) 3x2 – x – 1 = 0 (f) 2x2 + x = 5
y-numbers.
2
e.g. Given that f(x) = 2x + 3, then y = f(x) is the same as y = 2x + 3 5 Solve for x: (a) x3 = –27 (b) x 3  4 (c) x 4  1 (d) x 3  8
16
f(x) = y is sometimes written as f: x → y.
e.g. f: x → 2x is the same as f(x) = 2x (e) 2x = 16 (f) 10x = 1 (g) 25 x  1
5
(h) 1
16
  8x

Inverse functions: An inverse function is an operation that reverses a function. This is 6 Given that f  x   2 x  3 , x ≠ 0,
x
written as f–1(x). i.e. If f maps x onto y, then f–1 maps y onto x.
find: (a) f(–3) (b) x when f(x) = 5 (c) an expression of f–1(x) (d) f–1(–4)
The inverse of a function can be found by rearranging an equation for x.

Example 11 Find: (a) the inverse function of f  x   3  5 x (b) f–1(–1)

2

(a) Let y = f(x). y  3  5x

2
3 2y
Rearrange for x. 2y = 3 – 5x 5x = 3 – 2y  x 
5

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 x-intercept: is the point where the line or curve cuts y
7 Coordinates and Graphs y-intercept y = f(x)
across the x-axis. At the x-intercept, y = 0.
7.1 Coordinate Systems y-intercept: is the point where the line or curve cuts
0 x
Cartesian coordinates: give the position of a point in a plane (two dimensions) by across the y-axis. At the y-intercept, x = 0.
reference to two coordinates axes ( the x-axis and the y-axis) at right angles x-intercept
The coordinates (x, y) describe the position of a point in terms of the distance of the 7.3 Straight Line Graphs
point from the origin, (0, 0). i.e. The x-coordinate is the distance of the point from the Constant graphs: are graphs in which the value of a variable is constant.
origin, parallel to the x-axis and the y-coordinate is the distance of the point from the e.g. x = h → The line is parallel to y-axis. y x=h
origin, parallel to the y-axis. The x-coordinate is always written first. At any point on the line, x-coordinate is h. y=k
k
y y = k → The line is parallel to x-axis.
e.g. 0 h
At any point on the line, y-coordinate is k. x
4
(2, 3)
3 Linear graphs: are graphs in which the relationship between variables is given by a
2 The coordinates of linear equation.
(–4, 1) the origin are (0, 0)
1 In the diagram, the line has gradient m and cuts the y-axis at (0, c). gradient:m
y
x c is the y-intercept. P(x, y) is any point on the line. P(x, y)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 yc
Then m  ∴ y = mx + c y–c
–2 x (0, c)
–3 This is the general equation of a straight line which has a x
(–3, –3) 0 x
–4 gradient m and y-intercept c.
(4, –4)
Example 1 State the gradient and y-intercept of the line x + 2y = 2 and draw the line.
7.2 General Graph Terms
Gradient: is the rate at which y increases compared with x between any two points. Rearrange for y. 2y = –x +2  y   1 x 1
2
The gradient is usually written as m.
(x2, y2)
Then gradient   1 and y-intercept = 1.
2
change in y y 2  y1 change in y
gradient (m)   = y2 – y1 To draw a straight line, the coordinates of any two points on the line must be found.
change in x x 2  x1
(x1, y1) (In most cases, x-intercept and y-intercept are useful.)
change in x = x2 – x1 Find x-intercept. At the x-intercept, y = 0. x + 2 × 0 = 2 ∴x = 2
A positive gradient slopes upward to the right. The coordinates of the two points are (0, 1) and (2, 0).
A negative gradient slopes downward to the right. Then join them. y

positive negative
1 y   1 x 1
gradient gradient 2
O 2 x

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Example 2 Find the equation of the line through A(1, 7) and B(–2, –2). Area = area of ① + area of ②
7  2  9
The gradient m   3 y
 1  7  8   1  1  5  8   1  7.5  6.5  14 unit 2
1   2  3 (1, 7) 2 2
The equation is y = 3x + c If each height of a trapezium is 1/2 unit, a better estimate is obtained.
Then find y-intercept c by substituting
In general, completing the square
x = 1 and y = 7 into the equation.
2 2 22
7=3×1+c c=7–3=4 0 y  ax 2  bx  c  a x 2  b x   c  a x  b   a b   c  a x  b   b  4ac
x  a   2a   2a   2a  4a
So the equation is y = 3x + 4 (–2, –2) 2
 
This gives the coordinates of the turning point   b ,  b  4 ac  .
 2 a 4 a 
7.4 Curve Graphs
Quadratic graphs: are graphs in which the relationship between variables is given a a>0 forming a ‘cup’ a<0 forming a ‘cap’
y x b  b 2 
quadratic equation. All quadratic graphs can be written in the form y = ax2 + bx + c. Its y
 ,  b  4 ac 
2a  2 a 4 a 
shape is that of a parabola.
Example 3 The table below shows some of the values of x and the corresponding axis of 0 x
symmetry
values of y for the equation y = –2x2 – x + 8. (0, c)
(0, c)
x –3 –2 –1 –1/2 0 1/2 1 2 3
0 x
y –7 2 7 8 8 7 5 –2 –13
 b 2 
,  b  4 ac 
(a) Draw the graph. 
 2a 4a  x b
2a
(b) By drawing a tangent, find the gradient of the curve at the point (1, 5).
(A tangent is the line which touches the curve at the point.) In general, to draw a quadratic graph (y = ax2 + bx + c), find the coordinates of:
(c) Estimate the area bounded by the curve, the x-axis, x = –1 and x = 1. (i) the y-intercept = (0, c)
y (ii) the x-intercepts = (x, 0) (if it exists and if the expression can be factorised)
(a) Plot these coordinates and draw 10
8 (the values of x are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0)
a smooth curve through them. 6  2

(b) Draw a tangent and find the coordinates of any point 4
(iii) the turning point (the bottom of a parabola) =   b ,  b  4 ac 
 2a 4a 
2
on the line. Now use x-intercept (2, 0).
0 Example 4 Draw the graph of the equation y = x2 + 4x – 5. y
x 2
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5
So the gradient m  0  5  5 -4 -3 -2 -1
First find y-intercept. c = –5
2 1 -4
10 0 x
-6 Find x-intercept. At the x-intercept, y = 0
(c) Draw two trapeziums in 8 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-8 2 -2
which each height is 1 unit. -10 0 = x + 4x – 5 (x + 5)(x – 1) = 0 ∴x = –5, 1
6
Then find the total area -12 Find the turning point by completing the square. -4
4
-14 y = (x + 2)2 – 4 – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 9
of the trapeziums. -6
①2 ② -16
So the coordinates of the turning point are (–2, –9)
0 -8
-2 -1 -2 0 1 2 Plot these points and draw a smooth curve through them.
-10
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Other graphs 7.5 Distance-Time and Speed-Time Graphs
Distance-time graphs: are graphs which show the distance moved by an object with
Example 5 The variables x and y are connected by the equation y  20  12  x 2 .
x time.
The table below shows some corresponding values of x and y. The values of y are given The gradient gives the rate of change in distance i.e. the speed.
correct to one decimal place where appropriate. change in distance
speed 
x 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 time
y 7 9.8 10 7 1 –7.4 –18 a Example 6 The graph below shows the distance of an object over a time 5sec. Find
(a) Calculate the value of a. the speed.
80
(b) Draw the graph of y  20  12  x 2 for the range of 1 ≤ x ≤ 7. distance
x
(m)
(c) By drawing a tangent, find the gradient of the curve at the point where x = 3.
0 time (s)
5
(d) Using your graph, solve the equation 20  12  x 2  x change in distance 80  0
x speed    16 m/s
time 5
(a) Substitute 7 for x into the equation. a  20  12  7 2  30 .7 (to 1dp)
7 Speed-time graphs: are graphs which show the speed of an object with time.
(b) Plot the points and draw a smooth curve.
The gradient gives the rate of change in speed i.e. the acceleration.
y
15 change in speed
y=x
accelerati on 
10 time
5 If acceleration is negative, it is called deceleration or retardation. This means the speed
0 x of an object decreases.
-5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The area under the speed-time graph gives the distance travelled by an object.
-10
-15 tangent Example 7 The diagram below is a speed-time graph of a journey.
-20
-25
speed 20
-30
(m/s)
-35
time (s)
(c) Draw a tangent and then find the coordinates of the x-intercept. x ≈ 4.5 0 10 20 40
Calculate: (a) the acceleration for the first 10sec.
∴the gradient m  0  7   14
4 .5  3 3 (b) the deceleration for the last 20sec.
(d) The solution is obtained by solving the simultaneous equations y = (c) the distance covered in the first 10sec.
(d) the total distance covered in 40sec.
20  12  x 2 and y = x. Draw the line y = x. The point where two lines intersect
x (e) the average speed for the whole journey.
is the solution. ∴x ≈ 3.6 (f) the speed at 25sec.

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 change in speed 20  0 Exercise 7
(a) accelerati on    2 m/s 2
time 10 1 Draw the following lines and write down: (i) the gradient, (ii) the y-intercept each.
(b) The formula of deceleration is the same as that of acceleration. (a) y = x – 2 (b) 2x – y = –4 (c) 2x + 3y = 6
change in speed 0  20 2 Draw the following quadratic graph: (a) y = 2x2 (b) y = –x2 + 3x + 10
decelerati on    1 m/s 2
time 20
3 The variables x and y are connected by the equation y  4  6  x and some
(c) The distance covered in the first 10sec is represented by the shaded area below. x
corresponding values are given in the table below.
20
x 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5
y –7.5 –1 1.5 3 5 6.5 a
0 10 20 40 (a) Calculate the value of a.

distance  shaded area  1  10  20  100 m (b) Draw the graph of y  4  6  x for the range of 0.5 ≤ x ≤ 5.
2 x
(d) The total distance covered is represented by the shaded area below. (c) By drawing a tangent, estimate the gradient of the curve at the point where x = 3.
(d) Estimate the area between the curve, the x-axis, x = 2 and x = 5.
20
(e) Using your graph, solve the equation  5  4  6  x .
x

0 10 20 40 (f) Using your graph, solve the equation 10  6  3 x  0 .

x
distance  shaded area  1  10  40   20  500 m 4 The graph below shows how a car is decelerated uniformly from a speed of 30m/s to
2
20m/s in 20sec and then uniformly brought to rest after a further 5seconds.
(e) average speed  total distance  500  12.5 m/s
total time 40
speed 30
(f) This question asks the speed as shown below. (m/s)
20

20
the required speed
0 10 20 25 time (s)

time (s) Calculate: (a) the deceleration of the car for the first 20sec
0 10 20 25 40
(b) the total distance travelled in 25sec
From the formula of acceleration  a  v  u  , v  u  at is obtained. (c) the average speed
 t 
(d) the speed of the car at 22sec
Now a = –1 m/s2 from (b).
∴ speed = 20 + (–1) × 5 = 20 – 5 = 15 m/s

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 (b) First expand. 2 – 2x ≥ 3x + 12
8 Inequations and Linear Programming Then collect like terms and simplify. –2x – 3x ≥ 12 – 2 –5x ≥ 10
An inequation (inequality) is a mathematical statement that two algebraic expressions Divide both sides by –5. (The sign must be reversed.) x ≤ –2
are not equal. This is illustrated on a number line. A shaded circle (●) means that the value at
8.1 Basic Inequation –2 is included.
Inequation notation
The sign < means “less than”. –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
The sign > means “greater than”. Double inequation: represents two inequations.
The sign ≤ means “less than or equal to” e.g. 1 < x ≤ 3 x is greater than 1 and also less than or equal to 3.
The sign ≥ means “greater than or equal to”. Example 2 Solve 1 ≤ 2x + 3 < 7 and illustrate on a number line.
e.g. x > y means that x is greater than y. Take each inequation separately.
a ≤ b means that a is less than or equal to b. 1 ≤ 2x + 3 2x + 3 < 7
Rules for inequations 1 – 3 ≤ 2x 2x < 7 – 3
If a > b, then –2 ≤ 2x 2x < 4
–1 ≤ x x<2
(i) ax > bx and a  b if x is positive.
x x These solutions can be expressed by the double inequation –1 ≤ x < 2.

(ii) ax < bx and a  b if x is negative.

x x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
If an inequation is multiplied or divided by a negative number, the inequation sign must
be reversed. Linear inequations in two variables: can be shown by the half planes on the
e.g. 6 > –2 coordinate plane.
Example 3 Show the solution of y ≥ x + 1.
then 6 × 2 > –2 × 2 i.e. 12 > –4 and 6  2 i.e. 3 > –1
2 2 First draw the boundary line y = x + 1. Find the two points on the line.
6  2 The y-intercept is 1. (∵1 is constant)
but 6 × (–2) < –2 × (–2) i.e. –12 < 4 and i.e. –3 < 1
2 2 At the x-intercept, y = 0 0 = x + 1 ∴x = –1 y y=x+1
8.2 Linear Inequations Join these points, (0, 1) and (–1, 0)
A linear inequation is an inequation involving an expression of the first degree. To determine the half plane, take the origin (0, 0) y≥x+1
Linear inequations in one variable: can be solved in a similar way to that used in as a test point. Substitute the coordinates of the 1
solving linear equations. origin into the inequation.
Example 1 Solve: (a) 3x – 4 > 5 (b) 2(1 – x) ≥ 3(x + 4) 0 ≥ 0 + 1 = 1 which is not true. –1 0 x

(a) Move –4 to the right side. 3x > 5 + 4 = 9 ∴x > 3 i.e. the inequation does not include the origin.
This is illustrated on a number line. A open circle (○) means that the value at 3 So the solution is above the line.
is not included. If the line does not pass through the origin, it should be used as the test point to
determine the half plane.
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
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 y
If the inequation was y > x + 1, points on the boundary line y=x+1 8.3 Linear Programming
are not included. To show this, a broken (dotted) line is used. y>x+1 Linear programming is a method used to maximise or minimise a linear function subject
expressed by linear inequations. Solutions are usually found by drawing graphs of
For any function, 0 x inequations and looking for optimum values which satisfy the required conditions.
(i) if y ≥ f(x), the solution is above the line. Problems frequently relate to getting maximum profits for output and cost.
(ii) if y ≤ f(x), the solution is below the line.
Example 5 A business man decides to buy two types of chickens, broilers and layers.
y ≥ f(x) y ≤ f(x) Broilers cost K20 000 per each and layers cost K30 000 per each. He has K600 000. He
decides that the total number of chickens should not be less than 20 and there should be
at least 10 layers. He buys x broilers and y layers.
(a) Write down three inequalities which correspond to the above conditions.
(b) Illustrate these inequalities on a graph by shading the unwanted regions.
(c) He makes a profit of K5 000 on each broiler and K5 000 on each layer. Assuming he
Note that up to here the shaded regions are the solutions, the required regions. sells all his chickens, find how many chickens of each type he should buy to
But some questions ask shading the unwanted regions. maximise his profit and calculate his profit.
Example 4 Illustrate the solution set of inequations x ≥ –2, y ≥ –1 and x + 2y ≤ 6 by
(a) Cost must be less than K600 000. ⇒ 20 000x + 30 000y ≤ 600 000
shading the unwanted regions.
Total number of chickens is not less than 20. ⇒ x + y ≥ 20
First draw the boundary lines one by one, then shade the unwanted regions.
There are at least 10 layers. ⇒ y ≥ 10
y
(b) Rearrange the first inequation.
4
20 000x + 30 000y ≤ 600 000 2x + 3y ≤ 60  y   2 x  20
3 3
2
Draw y   2 x  20 and shade above the line  y   2 x  20  .
1 3  3 
Next rearrange the second inequation. x + y ≥ 20 ∴ y ≥ –x + 20
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
y = –1 –1 Draw y = –x + 20 and shade below the line (y < –x + 20).
–2 x + 2y = 6 Then draw the line y = 10 and shade below the line (y < 10).
y
x = –2
Draw x = –2 and shade to the left (x < –2). 20
Next draw y = –1 and shade below the line (y < –1). 15
10 y = 10
Then draw x + 2y = 6 ⇒ y   1 x  3 and shade above the line  y   1 x  3  .
2  2  5
 x  2 y  6  y   1 x  3  0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30
 2 
y = –x + 20 y   2 x  20
The solution set is shown by the unshaded region. 3
- 22 -
K6,000-
 (c) Total profit is 5 000x + 5 000y. (iii) The mass of acid B must not be more than twice that of acid A.
k (iv) The volume of a tablet must not be more than 150mm3.
Let k represent the total profit. 5 000x + 5 000y = k  y   x 
5 000 (b) Show these four inequalities on a graph by shading the regions which are not
k . required.
This is the straight line in which the gradient is –1 and y-intercept is
5 000 (c) Using your graph, find the mass of acid A and the mass of acid B in a tablet
When the y-intercept is maximum, his profit is maximum. containing the greatest possible amount of acid B.
k (d) Find the smallest possible volume of a tablet.
The line y   x  can be drawn as shown below. When this line passes
5 000
through the point (15, 10), the y-intercept becomes maximum.
Therefore x = 15 and y = 10. y
(15 broilers and 10 layers) y  x  k
20 5 000
Profit = 5 000 × 15 + 5 000 × 10
= K125 000 15
10
5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 x

Exercise 8
1 Solve the inequations and show on a number line. (a) 2x > x – 1 (b) 1 – x ≥ x – 5

(c) x  1  6  x (d) –1 < x + 2 ≤ 4

4
2 Find the integer x such that x + 2 < 7 < 2x + 1
3 Given that –2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and –6 ≤ y ≤ 4, find: (a) the smallest possible value of x + y
(b) the largest possible value of x – y (c) the value of y if y2 = 25
4 Shade the solutions of the inequations. (a) y > –x + 3 (b) 3x – 2y ≤ 6
5 Illustrate the solution sets of the inequations by shading the unwanted regions.
(a) x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, x + y < 4 (b) x > –2, y < 4, 2x + 3y ≤ 12
(c) y ≤ x + 2, y ≤ –2x + 6, 3y ≥ –2x + 6
6 A new tablet is being tested with two chemicals, acid A and acid B. Each milligram
of acid A uses a volume of 1mm3 and each milligram of acid B uses a volume of
2mm3. It is given that each tablet contains x mg of acid A and y mg of acid B.
(a) Express each of the following conditions as an inequality involving x and y.
(i) The total mass of the chemicals must be at least 60mg.
(ii) The mass of acid B must be at least more than that of acid A.
- 23 -
 Inverse variation: If y is inversely proportional to x or y varies inversely as x, this is
9 Proportion and Variation
written as y  1 . Then this relationship can also be written as y  k .
A ratio is a comparison of two or more quantities. Ratios are written with a colon(:). x x
y
e.g. If there are 25 girls and 23 boys in a class, the ratio of girls to boys is 25 : 23. y 1  y  k or xy  k
x x
This can also be written as the fraction 25 . The graph for inverse variation is a curve (hyperbola).
23
9.1 Proportion 0 x
A proportion is a relationship of the equality of ratios between two pairs of quantities. Example 3 y varies inversely as x and y = 4 when x = 6. Find y when x = 3
The symbol ∝ means “is proportional to” or “varies as”.
This relationship can be written as y  k .
Direct proportion: is the relationship between quantities, such that both quantities x
increase or decrease in the same ratio. Then k = xy = 6 × 4 = 24  y  24 So y  24  8
e.g. If a speed(v) of a car is constant, the distance(x) travelled by the car is directly x 3
proportional to the time(t) taken as x = vt, i.e. x ∝ t (v is constant). Joint variation: is a variation in which one variable depends on two or more other
Inverse proportion: is the relationship between quantities, such that when one quantity variables.
increases the other decreases in the same ratio. e.g. The volume V of a cylinder is given by V = r2h. V varies directly as the square of
e.g. If a travel distance(x) is fixed, the time(t) taken is inversely proportional to the the radius (r) and directly as the height (h).
Example 4 y varies directly as z and inversely as x2, and when y = 6, z = 3 x = 2. Find
speed(v) of a car as v  x , i.e. v  1 (x is constant).
t t the values of y when z = 6 and x = 4.

This relationship can be written as y  kz2 .

9.2 Variation x
Variation requires you to find a constant in a formula that relates two or more variables
yx 2 6  2 2
in a ratio. Then k   8  y  8 z2 So y  8 26  3
z 3 x 4
Direct variation: If y is directly proportional to x (y varies directly as x), this is written
as y ∝ x. Then this relationship can also be written as y = kx where k is a constant (the
constant of proportionality). negative k y positive k Exercise 9
1 It takes 6 people 12 hours to paint a house. If the work has to be completed in 8
yx  y  kx hours how many people will be needed?
The graph for direct variation is a straight line. 0 x 2 y varies directly as the square of x and y = 8 when x = 2. Find y when x = 5.
3 y varies inversely as (x – 2) and y = 2 when x = 5. Find y when x = 8
4 y varies directly as the square of x and inversely as z when y = 5, x = 1 and z =3.
Example 2 y varies directly as x and y = 6 when x = 2. Find the value of y when x = 5
Find: (a) the equation (b) y when x = 2 and z = 5 (c) x when y = 6 and z = 10
This relationship can be written as y = kx
Then 6 = k × 2 k = 3 ∴y = 3x So y = 3 × 5 = 15

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 Angles associated with parallel lines: transversal
10 Angles, Polygons and Bearings Corresponding angles: are angles which lie on the same a
10.1 Angles sides of the transversal and on the same relative sides b a=b
Types of angles of the parallel lines. Corresponding angles are equal.
Acute angle Right angle Obtuse angle
0  θ  90 θ  90  90   θ  180  Alternate angles: are angles which lie on the opposite
c d c=d
sides of the transversal and on opposite relative sides
of the parallel lines. Alternate angles are equal.

90˚ θ B
A C
θ Example 1 Find: (a) ∠BEG 45˚ 60˚
(b) ∠BFG
D G
Straight angle Reflex angle Full turn E F
(a) ∠BEG = ∠ABE (∵Alternate angles)
θ  180  180   θ  360  θ  360 
= 45˚
180˚ θ 360˚ (b) ∠BFG = 180˚ – ∠BFD (∵Supplementary angles)
= 180˚ – ∠CBF (∵Alternate angles)
= 180˚ – 60˚ = 120˚

10.2 Polygons
Related angles
Angles a and b A polygon is a plane shape enclosed by three or more straight lines.
Adjacent angles: are angles which have a common a are adjacent. A regular polygon is a polygon with all sides equal and all angles equal.
vertex and a common line. b
Types of polygons
Complementary angles: are two angles Supplementary angles: are two angles
Number Name of Number Name of
which add up to 90˚. which add up to 180˚. Shape Shape
of sides polygon of sides polygon

3 Triangle 7 Heptagon
a + b = 180˚
b a + b = 90˚ a
b
a
4 Quadrilateral 8 Octagon

Vertically opposite angles: are the angles on

b 5 Pentagon 9 Nonagon
opposite sides of the point where two straight a=c
c a
lines cross. These pairs of angles are equal. b=d
d 6 Hexagon 10 Decagon

- 25 -
Angles of a polygon Sum of the exterior angles
-An interior angle is the angle inside a polygon
between two adjacent sides.
-An exterior angle is the angle between a side of a interior exterior
angle angle
polygon and an adjacent side extended outwards.

Sum of the interior angles triangle quadrilateral pentagon

e.g. Sum of the interior angles of a triangle
An n-sided polygon has n exterior angles.
A D A E
b c The sum of exterior angle and the interior angle a + b = 180˚
a a
next to it is 180˚ because of a straight angle. a b

b c b c
B C B C ∴Sum of exterior angles + sum of interior angles = n × 180˚
Here sum of interior angles = (n – 2) × 180˚
Draw a parallel line through A to side BC.
∴Sum of exterior angles = n × 180˚ – (n – 2) × 180˚ = 360˚
∠b = ∠DAB (∵Alternate angles) Similarly ∠c = ∠EAC
∴a + b + c = 180˚ (∵Straight angle) Sum of the exterior angles of any polygon = 360˚
e.g. Sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral and a pentagon Example 2 Find the size of each exterior and interior angles of a regular hexagon.
In a quadrilateral, if one diagonal is drawn, A hexagon has 6 exterior and 6 interior angles.
there are two triangles in it.
∴The sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral
2 triangles Each exterior angle = 360   60 
6
= 2 × 180˚ = 360˚ Each interior angle = 180˚ – 60˚ = 120˚
In a pentagon, if two diagonals are drawn, 6  2   180
or  120 
there are three triangles in it. 6
3 triangles
∴The sum of the interior angles of a pentagon
Example 3 ABCD is a kite in which ∠DBC = 65˚ and ∠DAC = 30˚. D
= 3 × 180˚ = 540˚
Find (a) ∠DAB (b) ∠ADB (c) ∠ADC (d) ∠DCB
Name of Number Number of Sum of
polygon of sides triangles interior angles (a) △ABD is an isosceles triangle. 30˚
C A
∴∠DAB = 2 × ∠DAC = 2 × 30˚ = 60˚ 65˚
Triangle 3 1 1 × 180˚ = 180˚
(b) ∠ADB = ∠ABD = 180    DAB  180   60   60
Quadrilateral 4 2 2 × 180˚ = 360˚ 2 2 B
Pentagon 5 3 3 × 180˚ = 540˚ (c) △CBD is an isosceles triangle. ∴∠CDB = ∠CBD = 65˚
・ ・ ・ ・
・
・ ・
・ ・
・ ・
・ ∴∠ADC = ∠ADB + ∠BDC = 60˚ + 65˚ = 125˚
n-sided polygon n n–2 (n – 2) × 180˚ (d) ∠DCB = 180˚ – 2 × ∠BDC = 180˚ – 2 × 65˚ = 50˚

Sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon = (n – 2) × 180˚

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 A
Example 4 ABCDE is a regular pentagon. Find the size of ∠ACD. Example 7 If A is the point (3, 1) and B is the point (5, 5)
5  2   180 B E (a) Plot the points A and B on a coordinate plane.
Each interior angle =  108 y
5 (b) Calculate the distance AB. B B
(a) The diagram is on the right. 5
(or each exterior angle = 360   72 interior angle = 180˚ – 72˚)
5 C D (b) Let C represent a point (5, 1). 4
AC = 5 – 3 = 2, BC = 5 – 1 = 4
∠BCA = 180   ABC  180  108   36 
A
△ABC is an isosceles triangle. 1 C A C
2 2 Use the formula. 2
O 3 5 x
∴∠ACD = 108˚ – 36˚ = 72˚
AB  4 2  2 2  20  4.47

10.3 Pythagoras Theorem

hypotenuse In general, the distance between points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) can be calculated as
In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is c
a follows:
equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

c2 = a2 + b2 b
AB  x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2

This can be rearranged to: c  a 2  b2 Example 8 ABCDEFGH is a cuboid in which AB = 3cm, BC = 4cm and CG = 2cm.
Find the length of AG.
Example 5 Find the length of the side marked x. H G

Use the formula.

xcm C
3cm x2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 2cm G
E F
x 25  5cm
4cm D 4cm 2cm
C
A set of three positive integers (a, b and c) which satisfy Pythagoras theorem (c2 = a2 + A
4cm A B 5cm C
b2) is called a Pythagoras triple. 3cm
There is an infinite number of Pythagoras triples. The most well known are: A 3cm B
3, 4, 5; 5, 12, 13; 7, 24, 25; 8, 15 ,17
First find the length of AC.
Example 6 An equilateral triangle has sides of length 6cm. Find the height of the AC2 = 32 + 42 = 25 ∴ AC  25  5cm
triangle. A Then find the length of AG.
In an equilateral triangle, the lengths of all sides are equal. AG2 = 52 + 22 = 29 ∴ AG  29  5 .39 cm
In the diagram on the right, the height is AD. 6cm
BD is 3cm because of half of BC. h
2 2 2 2 2 2
Use the formula. 6 = 3 + h h = 6 – 3 = 36 – 9 = 27 3cm
B D C
∴ h  27  5 .20 cm

- 27 -
10.4 Bearings N Exercise 10
A bearing is a direction measured in degrees, 1 ∠AOB = ∠BOC = ∠COD = x and ∠AOE = 114˚
bearing of B from A
clockwise from North. B Find x. D
Bearings are written with 3 digits. (e.g. 030˚, 120˚) A C
x B
e.g. x A C
N E
B O
N The bearing of B from A = 065˚ x 32˚
114˚
A from B
B from A B
A
The bearing of A from B = 180˚ + 65˚ 46˚
65˚ 2 Find (a) ∠ABD (b) ∠EBC (c) ∠BEF D E
F
65˚ = 245˚
3 Find the sum of the interior angles of decagon.
A
N
4 Each interior angle of a regular polygon is 135˚. Find the number of sides of this
Example 9 Given that OAB is an equilateral triangle, polygon
find: (i) the bearing of A from O 5 ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB is parallel to DE, AD is parallel to BC, AD =
O 20˚
(ii) the bearing of O from A A DC, ∠ABE = 60˚ and ∠DAF = 35˚. AFC is a straight line.
(iii) the bearing of B from O Calculate (a) ∠BED (b) ∠BAC (c) ∠CFD
(iv) the bearing of A from B A D
(i) B 35˚
The bearing of A from O = 90˚ + 20˚ A
O F B
= 110˚
A 60˚ F
(ii)
B E C
110˚ The bearing of O from A = 180˚ + 110˚ C
O
A = 290˚ 6 ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. Find the size of ∠BAE E
7 Find the values of x and y. D
(iii) 110˚
O Each interior angle of an equilateral triangle is 60˚ B
y 6cm
60˚ The bearing of B from O = 110˚ + 60˚ A
x
= 170˚
26cm 33cm
B
2cm
(iv) 3cm
O N
∠BOC = 180˚ – 170˚ = 10˚ 8 ABCD is a quadrilateral. Find the length of the side AB. D 24cm C
A
∠NBO = 10˚ (∵Alternate angles) 9 The length of the diagonal of a square is 4cm. Find the length of the sides of the
The bearing of A from B = 060˚ – 010˚ = 050˚ square.
10˚
C B 10 Find the distance between the points A(4, 6) and B(10, 14)

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11 ABC is a right-angled triangle in which ∠NAC = 110˚ and ∠ABC = 50˚. Find the
bearing of:
11 Angle Properties in a Circle
N
(a) A from C 11.1 Parts of a Circle
(b) B from A 110˚ circumference
A
(c) A from B segment
(d) C from B C chord
50˚ diameter centre

B sector
radius
arc

A circumference is the distance around the edge of a circle.

An arc is a part of the circumference.
A radius is a straight line from the centre of a circle to a point on the circumference.
A diameter is a straight line through the centre of a circle, joining two opposite points
on the circumference. The diameter is twice the radius.
A chord is a straight line joining any two points on the circumference.
A sector is a part of a circle formed by two radii and an arc.
A segment is a part of a circle formed an arc and a chord.

11.2 Angles in a Circle

Angles in a circle have some important properties.
Angles at the centre and on the circumference P

The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle

x
on the circumference of the circle (subtended by O
the same arc).
2x
ˆ B  2  AP
AO ˆB A B

Angles in the same segment Q

Angles in the same segment, subtended by the same P R
arc, are equal. x
x x
AˆPB  AQ
ˆ B  AR
ˆB

A B

- 29 -
 P Q D
Angles in a semicircle Example 2 ∠BAD = 75˚ and ∠BEC = 25˚.
C
Any angle in a semicircle is a right angle. Calculate: (a) ∠BCD
O B
A (b) ∠ADC
AˆPB  AQ
ˆ B  90 diameter
(c) ∠CBE
75˚ 25˚
A E
B

Example 1 In the diagram, AOC is the diameter. (a) ∠BCD = 180˚ – ∠BAD (∵opposite angles)
Find x, y and z. = 180˚ – 75˚ = 105˚
(b) ∠ADC = 180˚ – ∠BAD – ∠AEC (∵△ADE)
C x  1 AOB  1  100  50 = 180˚ – 75˚ – 25˚ = 80˚
2 2
x (c) ∠CBE = ∠ADC (∵exterior and opposite interior angles)
D z O y  180  100  80  40 = 80˚
2 2
100˚ (∵△OAB is an isosceles triangle)
y
A B or y = 180˚ – 50˚ – 90˚ = 40˚ 11.4 Tangents
(∠ABC = 90˚ ∵ in a semicircle) A tangent to a circle is a straight line which touches
z = y = 40˚ (∵same arc BC) the circle at a point.
O
Radius at the point of contact
tangent A
11.3 Cyclic Quadrilaterals A tangent to a circle is always perpendicular to
A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral which has all its vertices T
the radius at the point of contact.
on the circumference of a circle.
Angles within a cyclic quadrilateral have some important properties. ˆ A  90
OT

Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral Two tangents from an outside point

Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral a Two tangents to a circle from an outside point B
b
add up to 180˚. are equal in length and the line joining the centre
d c of the circle and the point bisects angles between O
a + c = 180˚ and b + d = 180˚
the two tangents.
P
Exterior and opposite interior angles of a cyclic quadrilateral AP = BP and AˆPO  BP
ˆO A

The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral Alternate segment

is equal to the opposite interior angle. B
a The angle formed between a tangent and a chord C
a=x from the point of contact is equal to any angle alternate chord
x segment
subtended by the chord in the alternate segment.
A
ˆ B  BC
AT ˆT T

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 F C
Example 3 In the diagram, ABE and ACF are the D 3 In the diagram below, O is the centre of the circle with diameter BE. A, B, C, D and
tangents to the circle at B and C respectively. BD is 38˚ E are points on the circle. RES is a tangent to the circle. Given that ∠CBP = 68˚,
A
a diameter and ∠BAC = 38˚. Calculate: O ∠CAE= 54˚, CD = DE and PBAQ is a straight line, calculate:
(a) ∠CBA (b) ∠DBA (c) ∠BDC ](a) ∠REC P
B
B (b) ∠BEC 68˚
(a) CBA  180  38  71 (∵isosceles triangle) E
(c) ∠SEA
2 A
C
(b) ∠DBA = 90˚ (∵angle between tangent and radius) (d) ∠CED 54˚
O Q
(c) ∠BDC = ∠CBA = 71˚ (∵Alternate segment)
D
Exercise 11 R
E
S
1 Find the size of each angle marked by letters. O is the centre of the circle.
(a) (b) (c)
x
30˚
x 40˚
O
y
x 35˚
70˚
y 100˚

(d) (e) (f)

47˚
O 40˚
x
x
y 70˚ x

2 In the diagram below, TB and TD are tangents to the circle through A, B, C and D.
DC produced meets TB at E. Given that ∠BCE = 65˚, ∠DTE = 50˚ and ∠CDT=
41˚, calculate: B 65˚
(a) ∠BDC E
(b) ∠CEB A
(c) ∠BAD C 50˚ T
(d) ∠DBC
41˚
D

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 Exercise 12
12 Symmetry 1 Copy the figure below and show its lines of symmetry.
A shape has symmetry when parts of that shape fit exactly onto other parts of the same (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
shape under certain rules of movement.
A plane shape can have two types of symmetry, line symmetry and rotational symmetry.

12.1 Line Symmetry

Line symmetry is the symmetry in which a shape can be fold along a line so that one
2 State the number of lines of symmetry and the order of rotational symmetry for each
half of the shape fits exactly onto the other half.
of the following letters: A D E F H M S T X Y
e.g. symmetrical shapes (lines of symmetry shown in broken lines)
3 State the number of lines of symmetry and the order of rotational symmetry of: (a) a
regular hexagon, (b) a regular octagon, (c) a parallelogram, (d) a kite, (e) a rhombus,
(f) an isosceles triangle, (g) a circle.
4 For each of the following figures, state (a) the number of lines of symmetry and (b)
the order of rotational symmetry.
(i) (ii)
isosceles triangle equilateral triangle rectangle square

12.2 Rotational Symmetry

Rotational symmetry is the symmetry which can be turned about a fixed point and fit
exactly onto itself.
Order of rotational symmetry: is the number of times that a shape can be turned to fit
exactly onto itself within 360˚. Every shape has an order of rotational symmetry of at

least 1. 360 represents the angle of rotation.

order of rotational symmetry
e.g. (The letter A is used only to show the positions of the shape as it turns.)
A A

120˚

A A

An equilateral triangle has a rotational symmetry of order 3.

A A
180˚

A
A rectangle has a rotational symmetry of order 2.
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 13.2 Areas of Similar Figures
13 Similarity D
Geometrical figures are similar if they are the same in shape but different in size, such A
as those produced by enlargement. 6cm
4cm
(They are said to be congruent if they are the same in shape and size.)
B C E F
6cm 9cm
13.1 Similar Triangles
Two given triangles are similar if one of the following conditions can be shown. DE  EF  3 and ∠ABC = ∠DEF.
AB BC 2
(a) the corresponding angles are equal.
Therefore △ABC is similar to △DEF.
(b) the corresponding sides are in the same ratio.
(c) two pairs of corresponding sides are in the same ratio and the angles between these Area of ΔABC  1  6  4  12 cm 2 Area of ΔDEF  1  9  6  27 cm 2
2 2
sides are equal.
2
(a) (b) Area of ΔDEF  27  9   3 
 
kc kb Area of ΔABC 12 4  2 
c b
If the scale factor of two similar figures is k, the ratio of their areas is k2.
a ka (If the ratio of the sides of two similar figures is a : b, the ratio of their areas is a2 : b2.)
(c)
Example 2 The given triangles are similar. If
x θ y
kx θ ky the area of the smaller triangle is 8cm2, find the
area of the larger triangle.
3cm
Ratio of sides = 2 : 3 2cm
The ratio of corresponding sides is called the scale factor (k) of the enlargement.
A So ratio of areas = 22 : 32 = 4 : 9
Example 1 In △ABC, PQ is parallel to BC, Let x represent the area of the larger triangle.
AP = 2PB and BC = 6cm.
4 : 9 = 8 : x 4x = 9 × 8  x  9  8  18 cm 2
(a) Show that △APQ is similar to △ABC. P Q 4
(b) Find the length of PQ, A
B C Example 3 In △ABC, PQ is parallel to BC. If the
(a) ∠A is common. 6cm
∠ABC = ∠APQ and ∠ACB = ∠AQP (∵corresponding angles) area of the trapezium PBCQ is 16 of △ABC, find
25 P Q
The corresponding angles are equal. Therefore △APQ is similar to △ABC.
the ratio of AP : PB.
AQ PQ
(b) AP   △APQ is similar to △ABC. B C
AB AC BC
PQ Area of ΔAPQ  1  16  of ΔABC  9 of ΔABC
Now AP  2 so AP  2   25  25
PB 1 AB 3 BC
Area of ΔAPQ
 9 so AP  9  3  AP  3
 PQ  2 BC  2  6  4 cm Area of ΔABC 25 AB 25 5 PB 2
3 3
∴AP : PB = 3 :2

- 33 -
Example 4 In △ABC, D is a point on BC such that A
∠BAD = ∠ACB. Given that AB = 6cm, BC = 9cm
14 Mensuration
6cm
and the area of △ABD is 12cm2. calculate: Mensuration means the measurement and calculation of perimeters, areas and volumes.
(a) the length of BD D Some basic formulas are given as following. Those should be memorised.
B C
(b) the area of △ABC 9cm
14.1 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
(a) ∠B is common and ∠BAD = ∠ACB.
Therefore △DBA is similar to △ABC. P = perimeter, A = area
Rectangle Parallelogram Trapezium
A a
D
6 breadth (b) height (h)
height (h)

B 9 C B 6 A
length (l) base (b)
b
DB  BA DB  6  DB  2  6  4 cm P = 2(l + b)
AB BC 6 9 3
A = bh A  1 a  b h
A = lb 2
2
(b) BC  3 BA  Area of ΔABC   3   area of ΔABD  9  12  27 cm 2 Triangle Circle Sector of circle
2 2 4 length of arc (l)

radius (r)
h
Exercise 13
1 Calculate the value of x. A θ radius (r)
3cm x base (b)
D E
A  1 bh
P (circumference) l  θ  2πr
6cm 5cm 2 = 2r = d (diameter) 360
A = r2 A  θ  πr 2
B C 360
 1 lr
2 In △ABC, AB = 6cm and the area of △ADE is 4 of △ABC. Calculate the length 2
9
A
of AD. Example 1 The diagram on the right shows a flower
bed consisting of a rectangle and a semicircle.
6cm Taking  = 3.14, find: (a) the perimeter 6m
D E P (b) the area
B C (a) Perimeter = sum of three sides of the rectangle
6cm 8m
3 In △PQR, S is a point on QR such that 4cm + half circumference
∠QSP = ∠QPR. Given that PS = 4cm, QS Q = 8  6  8  1  d  22  1  3.14  6
= 5cm, PR = 6cm and the area of △PQR is 5cm S R 2 2
2
18cm , calculate: (a) the length of PQ (b) the area of △PQS = 22 + 9.42 = 31. 42 m

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 (b) Area = area of rectangle + area of semicircle

= 8  6  1  r 2  48  1  3.14  3 2
2 2
2
= 48 + 14.13 = 62.13 m
B

Example 2 Take  = 22 . In the diagram on the right,

7 A
find: (a) the shaded area
120˚
(b) the perimeter of this area
O 7cm D 7cm C
(a) Shaded area = area of sector OBC – area of sector OAD Volume of regular prisms
area of sector OBC = 120    14 2 area of sector OBC = 120    7 2 In any regular prism (including cuboids and cylinders),
360 360
Volume = area of base (or cross-section) × height
Shaded area = 120    14 2  7 2 
360 In a cuboid, area of base = area of rectangle = lb. So V = lbh
= 1  22  14  7 14  7  2 2
⇐ a – b = (a + b)(a – b) In a cylinder, area of base = area of circle = r2. So V = r2h
3 7
= 154 cm2 Surface area of a cylinder: consists of two circles and a curved face, and can be
(b) Perimeter = sum of lengths of AB, arc BC, CD and arc DA opened as shown below. You will see that the curved face is a rectangle. The length of
the rectangle is equal to the circle’s circumference.
= 7  120  2    14  7  120  2    7
360 360

= 14  1  2  22  14  7  = 14 + 44 = 58 cm r
3 7
r
2r
14.2 Surface Areas and Volumes of Three-Dimensional Figures h h h
A = surface area, V = volume
Cuboid Cylinder Prism

height (h)
OPEN
height (h)
Surface area = area of rectangle + 2 × area of circle
breadth (b) radius (r) height (h)
= 2r×h + 2×r2
length (l) = 2rh + 2r2 = 2r(h + r)
A = 2lb + 2hb + 2hl A = 2rh + 2r2 V = (area of base) × h
V = lbh V = r2h Surface area of a cone: consists of a circle and a curved face, and can be opened as
Pyramid Cone Sphere
- 35 -
slant
h height (L)
r
h
shown below. You will see that the curved face is a sector. The length of the arc is equal same diameter 14cm. The height (H) of the cylinder is 40cm and the height (h) of the
to the circle’s circumference.
cone is 24cm. Taking  = 22 , calculate:
7
L
(a) the slant length (l) of the cone
slant (b) the total surface area of the object
h height (L) (c) the total volume of the object
length of arc
= 2r (a) By Pythagoras theorem,
r
l2 = r2 + h2 h= l
24cm
r l  r 2  h 2  7 2  24 2
OPEN r = 7cm
 49  576  625  25 cm
Surface area = area of sector + area of circle
(b) Total surface area = area of circle + area of curved face of cylinder
= 1  length of arc  radius  r 2  1  2r  L  r 2 + area of curved face of cone
2 2
= r2 + 2rH + rl = r(r + 2H + l)
= rL + r2 = r(L + r)
= 22  7  7  2  40  25  22  112  2464 cm 2
F 7
Example 3 The diagram shows a triangular
(c) Total volume = volume of cylinder + volume of cone
prism ABCDEF such that AB = 4cm, BC = 5cm,
CA = 3cm and BE = 10cm. Calculate: = r 2 H  1 r 2 h  r 2  H  1 h 
C D E 3  3 
(a) the surface area of the prism
(b) the volume of the prism 3cm 5cm 10cm = 22  7 2   40  1  24   22  7  48  7392 cm 3
7  3 
(a) Surface area = area of two triangles
A 4cm B
+ area of three rectangles
Exercise 14
Area of △ABC = 1  4  3  6 cm 2 1 The diagram below shows the floor of a room. OABC and OCDE are trapeziums.
2
OAE is a sector of a circle with centre O, and ∠AOE = 106˚. Taking  = 3.142,
Area of rectangle ABED = 4 × 10 = 40 cm2
calculate: (a) the perimeter (b) the area
Area of rectangle CBEF = 5 × 10 = 50 cm2
Area of rectangle CADF = 3 × 10 = 30 cm2
A E
∴Surface area = 2 × 6 + 40 + 50 + 30 = 132 cm2 10m 10m
(b) Volume = area of base × length of prism 106˚
10m 10m
= area of △ABC × length of prism O
= 6 × 10 = 60 cm3 4m
B 8m C 8m D
Example 4 An object consists of a cylinder and a cone with the
24cm
(h) - 36 -
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40cm
(H)
2 OABC is a quadrant of radius 7cm. Taking  = 22 , calculate A
15 Geometrical Constructions and Loci
7 B
he shaded area. 7cm Never rub out arcs or construction lines because these show how you obtained your
result.
3 Take  to be 22 . The diagram below shows a cross section O C
7 7cm 15.1 Basic Constructions
of a metallic blade that can be fitted to a solid cylindrical rod. To bisect a line 3
1 2
Given a line AB.
1. With the centre at A and a radius of more than half
blade the length of AB, draw an arc on each side.
2. With the centre at B and the same radius, draw
A B
another arc on each side to cut the first arc.
3. Join both points of intersection of the arcs.
The bisector is perpendicular to AB and any point on
rod the bisector is equidistant from A and B. 1 2
(a) Given that the rod has a diameter of 14mm and is 40cm long, calculate the
volume of the rod in cm3. To bisect an angle
A
(b) The blade has a diameter of 14cm and the hole at the centre of the blade is such Given an angle ABC.
that it allows the rod to exactly fit in it. Calculate the surface area of one face of the 1. With the centre at B and a suitable radius, draw an
blade in cm2. arc to cut BA at D and BC at E.
2
2. With the centre at D and E, and a suitable and the 1 D 3
(c) Given that the blade is 20mm thick, calculate the volume of the blade in cm3. F
(d) The density of the metal blade is 3g/cm3 and that of the material from which the same radius, draw arcs to intersect at F. 2
3. Draw a line from B through F. B
rod is made is 6g/cm3. Calculate the total mass of the blade and the rod.
4 ABCDEFGH is a prism of uniform cross-section ABCD. Given that AB = 10cm, BC ∠ABF = ∠CBF 1 E
C
= 15cm, BD = 17cm and CG = 25cm, calculate: E Any point on the bisector is equidistant from the lines AB and BC.
(a) the length of AC
To construct a perpendicular line through a particular point outside a given line
(b) the area of quadrilateral ABCD F H
Given a line AB and a point P. 3
(c) the volume of the prism A
1. With the centre at P, draw an arc to cut AB at C and D.
10cm P
2. With the centre at C and D, and a radius of more than
B half the length of CD, draw arcs to intersect at E.
16cm D
G 1 1
3. Draw a line from P through E. A B
17cm C D
25cm
This construction can be used 2

C even if a given point is on the E

line AB. A B
P
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15.2 Constructing triangles Exercise 15
Given three sides 1 (a) Construct △ABC in which AB = 9cm, BC = 7cm and 5cm.
e.g. △ABC in which AB = 6cm, BC = 4cm and AC = 5cm. C (b) Bisect ∠ABC and ∠CAB, and mark the intersection as O.
1. Draw a straight line AB of length 6cm. (c) With O as the centre and radius to touch AB, draw a circle.
2. With A as the centre and radius of 5cm, draw an arc. 5cm 4cm 2 (a) Construct △ABC in which AB = 6cm, ∠ABC = 40˚ and ∠CAB = 55˚.
3. With B as the centre and radius of 4cm, draw an arc (b) Draw perpendicular bisectors of all the sides and mark the intersection as O.
to cut the first arc The intersection is C. A B
(c) With O as the centre and radius of the length of OA, draw a circle.
6cm
4. Join AC and BC. 3 (a) Construct a triangle ABC in which AB = 9cm, BC = 7cm and ∠ABC = 40˚
(b) On the same diagram, draw the locus of points within the triangle which are
Given two sides and the included angle
C (i) 6cm from B.
e.g. △ABC in which AB = 5cm, BC = 3.5cm and ∠ABC = 60˚.
(ii) equidistant from AC and AB.
1. Draw a straight line AB of length 5cm.
3.5cm (c) P is a point inside △ABC such that it is 6cm from B, and equidistant from
2. Measure the included angle 60˚ at B with a protractor,
AB and AC. Label the point P.
mark it and draw a straight line BC of length 3.5cm. 60˚
A B (d) A point Q lies inside △ABC such that its distance from B is less than 6cm
3. Complete the triangle by joining AC. 5cm
and it is nearer to AC than to AB. Shade the region in which Q must lie.
Given a side and two angles
e.g. △ABC in which AB = 6cm, ∠BAC = 40˚ and ∠ABC = 60˚. C
1. Draw a straight line AB of length 6cm.
2. Measure angle 40˚ at A and angle 60˚ at B with a
protractor and draw AC and BC to meet at C.
40˚ 60˚
A B
6cm
15.3 Loci
‘Loci’ is the plural of ‘locus’. A locus is a set of points which satisfy one or more given
conditions.
Example 1 The points A and B are 4cm apart. Find the set of points that are less than
3cm from A but are closer to B than A.
First, to find the points which are less than 3cm from A,
draw an arc of radius 3cm. 3cm
Then, to find the points which are closer to B than A,
draw the perpendicular bisector of AB. A B
Here the perpendicular bisector is a dotted line.
Points on it are not included because they are the same
distance from A and B.
Finally, shade the region which satisfies the conditions.
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 angle in a right-angled triangle. sin–1, cos–1 and tan–1 give the angle which has a sine,
16 Trigonometry cosine and tangent of θ and are the inverse of the sine, cosine and tangent respectively.
Trigonometry deals with the relations between the sides and angles of a triangle.
Example 2 Calculate the value of θ in each of the following.
16.1 Trigonometric Ratios (a) (b) (c) 11cm

Ratio of sides of a right-angled triangle: There are three ratios in a right-angled 5cm θ 4cm
3cm 2cm 6cm
triangle, namely sine(sin), cosine(cos) and tangent(tan), defined as follows. θ
θ
Opposite
(SOH)
sin θ 
Hypotenuse (a) sin θ  3  θ  sin 1 3  36.86  36.9 (to 1dp)
Hypotenuse 5 5
Adjacent Opposite
cos θ  (CAH) side to θ
Hypotenuse (b) cos θ  2  1  θ  cos 1 1  60
θ 4 2 2
Opposite
tan θ  (TOA)
Adjacent Adjacent (c) tan θ  11  θ  tan 1 11  61.38  61.4 (to 1dp)
side to θ 6 6
SOH CAH TOA is useful to memorise the three ratios.
Angles of elevation: are measured upward from
e.g. In the triangle on the right, B the horizontal when looking up to a point. angle of
sin A  BC  3 cos A  AC  4 tan A  BC  3 5cm Example 3 The angle of elevation of the top
elevation
AB 5 AB 5 AC 4 3cm horizontal
of a pole from the eye-level of the boy standing
sin B  AC  4 cos B  BC  3 tan B  AC  4 A C 10m away from the foot of the pole is 30˚.
AB 5 AB 5 BC 3 4cm
If the height of the boy up to eye-level is 1.5m, find the height of the pole.
Example 1 Calculate the value of x in each of the following. A
tan 30  AB
(a) (b) (c) 10
 AB  10  tan 30  5.77 m
x x x 10cm
5cm 30˚ The height = AB + BC
55˚ 6cm B
30˚ 40˚
10m = 5.77 + 1.5
1.5m
C = 7.27 = 7.3m (to 1dp)
(a) sin 30  5  x  5  5  10 cm
x sin 30 0.5
Identity: The equation sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 is true for all values of θ and it is called the
(b) cos 55  x  x  6  cos 55  6  0.5736  3.4416  3.44 cm (to 3sf) identity.
6
Example 4 Given that sinθ = 0.6 and 0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 90˚, find the value of cosθ.
(c) tan 40  x  x  10  tan 40  10  0.8391  8.391  8.39 cm (to 3sf) cos2θ = 1 – sin2θ = 1 – 0.62 = 1 – 0.36 = 0.64
10
 cosθ  0.64  0.8 (when 0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 90˚, cosθ is positive.)

The sine, cosine and tangent ratios can also be used to find the size of an unknown

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16.2 Non-right-angled Triangles i.e. Area of a triangle = half × product of any two sides × sine of the included angle
Even if a triangle does not contain a right angle, sine and cosine can be used to solve
The area of △ABC can be written as 1 absin C, 1 bcsin A or 1 casin B .
problems involving any triangle. 2 2 2
Obtuse angles: An obtuse angle cannot occur in a Example 6 In △ABC, AB = 6cm, AC = 5cm and ∠BAC = 40˚. C
right-angled triangle. So we must redefine the sine P Find the area of the triangle.
and cosine for such angles. In the diagram, OP makes
Area  1 AB  AC  sinBAC 5cm
an obtuse angle θ with the positive x-axis. PN is +b 2
θ
40˚
perpendicular to ON. Let PN = +b and ON = –a.
 1  6  5  sin40 A
6cm
B
Then we define: N –a O x 2
= 9.6418 = 9.64 cm2 (to 3sf)
sin θ  NP  b cos θ  ON   a
OP OP OP OP P
Sine rule: a  b  c or sin A  sin B  sin C
Now ∠NOP = 180˚ – θ. sin180  θ  NP  b  sinθ sin A sin B sin C a b c
OP OP
b
The area of △ABC can be written as 1 absin C, 1 bcsin A or 1 casin B .
cos 180  θ   ON  a  cos θ 180˚ – θ 2 2 2
OP OP
a A
Therefore if θ is obtuse,
N O
It follows that 1 bcsin A  1 casin B  1 absin C
2 2 2
sin180  θ  sinθ cos 180  θ  cos θ a  b  c . c b
A Dividing by 1 abc gives
2 sin A sin B sin C
Example 5 In the diagram, ABC is a right-angled 13cm
5cm sin A sin B sin C B C
triangle in which AB = 5cm and AC = 13cm. BCD This can be rearranged as   a
a b c
is a straight line, find sin∠ACD. The sine rule can be used to find a side when one side and any two angles are known, or
B C D
sinACD  sin 180  ACB  sinACB  AB  5 to find an angle when two sides and an opposite angle are known.
AC 13 The sine rule shows that the sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles,
A
Area of a triangle: The common formula 1  base  height is i.e. the shortest side is opposite the smallest angle, etc.
2
not always convenient as we may not know the height. We b Example 7 In △ABC, AB = 10cm, ∠CAB = 65˚ and C
h
are developing this formula further so that we can calculate ∠ABC = 40˚. Calculate the lengths of BC and AC.
the area of a triangle given two sides and an included angle. B
a C ∠ACB = 180˚ – 65˚ – 40˚ = 75˚
Suppose the known sides are a and b, and C is the angle between them.
Use the sine rule: BC  AC  10 A
65˚ 40˚
B
sin 65 sin 40 sin 75 10cm
Side a is taken as the base. The perpendicular height is given by sin C  h .
b 10  sin 65
BC   9.3827  9.38 cm (to 3sf)
Therefore h = bsinC. Then sin 75
10  sin 40
Area of △ABC = 1 absin C AC   6.6546  6.65 cm (to 3sf)
2 sin 75
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Example 8 In △ABC, AC = 6cm, BC = 8cm and ∠A = 60˚. B Exercise 16
Calculate the size of ∠B. 1 In the diagram on the right, CDE is a vertical line and C
8cm AEB is a horizontal line. Given that EB = 4.2m, ED =
sin A sin B
The sine rule gives  3.5
BC AC 60˚
2.5m, DC = 3.5m and ∠CAE = 42˚, calculate:
AC  sin A 6  sin 60 A C (a) DB D
sin B    0.6495 6cm
BC 8 (b) ∠ECB 2.5
42˚
A B
∴∠B = sin–10.6495 = 40.5˚ (c) AC E 4.2
2 In the diagram on the right, BCD is a vertical line D
Cosine rule: c 2  a 2  b 2  2 ab cos C and AB is a horizontal line. The point A is 20cm
away from B, the angle of elevation of C from A
2 2 2 C
This formula can be rearranged as cos C  a  b  c . is 25˚ and the angle of elevation of D from A is 40˚.
2 ab
Find the length of CD, correct to 2 significant figures. 40˚
This cosine rule can be used to find the third side when two sides and the included angle 25˚
3 In the diagram below, write down the value of cosθ. B A
are known, or to find an angle when all the three sides are known.
A
Example 9 Find x in the diagram.
x 2  5 2  7 2  2  5  7  cos 40 5cm
x 5cm 3cm A
 25  49  70  cos 40 θ
40˚
 74  53.62  20.38 C B
7cm 4 In the diagram, ABC is a segment of a circle radius
 x  20.38  4.5 cm O 54˚ B
8cm and centre O, where ∠AOC = 54˚. Find the
area of the segment. 8cm
Example 10 Find the smallest angle in the triangle which has sides of length 6cm,
5 In the diagrams, find the labelled sides and angles. C
8cm and 13cm.
(a) (b) 10m (c)
The smallest angle in a triangle is opposite the shortest side.
In the given triangle, the smallest angle is opposite the 6cm side. 35˚
68˚
Let this angle be C. Then c = 6, and we can take a = 8 and b = 13. x x 3cm 5cm
2 2 2
cos C  8  13  6  64  169  36  197 55˚ θ
2  8  13 208 208 x
4cm
6cm 8cm
ˆ  cos 1 197  18.7
C (e) (f)
208 6cm
C 4cm
13cm x
x θ
5cm 130˚ 7cm
θ 5cm
9cm 3cm

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 Scalar multiplication of a matrix: (A scalar is a number written in front of a matrix.)
17 Matrices Each element of that matrix is multiplied by that number.
A matrix is an array of numbers. The numbers of an array are called elements.
2 0  3 2 3 0  6 0 
e.g. 3   
17.1 Calculations of Matrices  3  1  3  3 3   1  9  3 
Order of a matrix: is given by “the number of rows by the number of columns”.
Multiplication of matrices: Matrices can be multiplied if the number of columns in the
 3 first matrix is equal to the number of rows in the second matrix. It is done by laying
e.g. 1 2 is a 1 × 2 matrix.   is a 2 × 1 matrix.
 2 each row of the first matrix against each column of the second matrix, multiplying the
pairs of elements and adding the results together to make a single matrix. The order of
 1 2 2 10  the product of two matrices can be obtained from the number of rows in the first matrix
 4 2  
  is a 2 × 2 matrix.  5 1 9  4  is a 3 × 4 matrix. by the number of columns in the second matrix.
 1 3 3 4 7  7
 
a b  p r
In general, 2 × 2 matrix A=   and 2 × 2 matrix B=  
Addition and subtraction of matrices: Matrices of the same order can be added or c d  q s
subtracted by adding or subtracting corresponding elements.
 p r 
a b e f B=  
In general, 2 × 2 matrix A=   and 2 × 2 matrix B=    q s 
c d g h
 a b   ap  bq ar  bs 
a b   e f  a e b f  A=     = AB
A+B=      c d   cp  dq cr  ds 
c d   g h  c  g d  h 
 1 3  4   3 0  1 3  0 1
 1 4   3 2   6 4  Example 2 Find: (a)    (b) 1 2  (c)   
1 4  2 3         2 2   5   2 4  2 4  1 2 
Example 1 Simplify: (a)     (b)  2 5    0 4     3 2 
 2 3   3 1   3 6   1 2   2
     0 
 1 3  4   1  4  3  5   11 
(a)       
  2 2    5    2  4  2   5    18 
 1 2 4  3  3 7  2×2 2×1 order of product
(a)   
 2   3 3  1    1 4  (2 × 1)

 3 0
 1 3  6 4  2   4   2 6  (b) 1 2     1  3  2  2 1  0  2  4   7 8
     2 4
(b)  2  0   3 5 4 2    5 7 1×2 2×2 order of product
 3   1  2 6  2  0   0 8 (1 × 2)
  
1 3  0 1  1  0  3  1 1  1  3  2   3 5 
(c)       
2 4  1 2   2  0  4  1 2   1  4  2   4 6 
2×2 2×2 order of product
(2 × 2)
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  1 x   4  3 
Example 3 If 2 3   4  12 , find x and y.  2 3  –1 1  4  3   5 5
 y  2 e.g. If A =   , A =   
1 4 5   1 2    1 2 
 5 5 
Multiply  2  3 y 2 x  6   4 12 
A singular matrix has no inverse because the determinant is zero.
So –2 + 3y = 4 and 2x – 6 = –12 ∴x = –3 and y = 2
 2 4
e.g. The determinant of   is 2 × 2 – 4 × 1 = 0. So the inverse cannot be found.
 1 2
17.2 Inverse Matrix
Identity matrix: is a square matrix whose elements in the main diagonal (from the top
Matrix method of solving simultaneous equations: Matrices can be used to solve
left corner to the bottom right corner) are all ‘1’ and the others are all ‘0’ and is denoted
simultaneous linear equations.
by “I”.
Example 4 Solve 2x – y = 5
1 0 0
1 0   x – 2y = 4
e.g.   is the 2 × 2 identity matrix.  0 1 0  is the 3 × 3 identity matrix.
0 1 0 0 1
   2 1  x   5 
Write the equations in matrix form.      
 1  2  y   4 
For any square matrix A, AI = IA = A.

Determinant of a matrix: is the product of elements in the main diagonal minus the  2 1 
Let A =  .
product of the elements in the other diagonal (from the top right corner to the bottom 1  2
left corner). The determinant of a matrix A is denoted by “det A”.
 2 1 
a b  Then det A = 2 × (–2) – (–1) × 1 = –4 + 1 = –3. So A–1 = 1  .
In general, if A =   det A = ad – bc  3   1 2
c d 
Pre-multiply both sides by A–1. (i.e. A–1 goes on the left.)
2 3
e.g. If A =   , det A = 2 × 4 – 3 × 1 = 8 – 3 = 5 1  2 1  2 1  x   1  2 1  5 
1 4       
 3   1 2  1  2  y   3   1 2  4 
A matrix whose determinant is zero is called a singular matrix.
Here A–1A = I.
Inverse of a matrix: is another matrix such that when the two matrices are multiplied
x  x  10  4  1  6    2 
together in any order, the result is the identity matrix. A–1 is the inverse of a matrix A if I      1      
 y   y   3   5  8   3  3    1
A–1A = A A–1 = I.
∴x = 2 and y = –1
a b 
In general, if A =  A–1 = 1  d b 
  
c d  det A   c a 

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Exercise 17
18 Vectors
 2  1   0 3   1 2 
1 Simplify: (a)      (b) 5 2 4   2 3 1 (c) 2   3  18.1 Basic Vector
 3   2   2 2    1 3
Scalar and vector quantities: There are two types of quantities.
A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude only.
0 2 4  3 2 0
(d) 32 1  23 4  (e) 4   2  A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
1 3 5  2 1 4
Notation: A vector can be drawn as a directed line. The length of a line represents the
 3 3  2 2  magnitude of the vector and the arrow indicates its direction.
2 Express as single matrices: (a) 2 1  (b)  2 1 (c) 2 1 
2
  2
   1  3
B
This vector can be written as AB .
 1 3  2 3   3 1  2 3 4 
(d)    (e)    a
 2 2   1 1    1 2  2 1  2  It can also be written as a .
A

1 2   1 2 
3 Given that A =   and B =   , calculate: (a) A + B (b) A – 2B
3 4 2 2  x
A vector can be written as a column vector, in the form   .
 y
(c) B + 3A (d) AB (e) BA (f)A2 – B2
The top number (x) in a column vector represents movement parallel to the x-axis and
1 2  2 1 the bottom number (y) represents movement parallel to the y-axis.
4 A=   and B =   . If AB = BA, find the values of a and b.
 a 1 1 b Movement to the right and up is positive, and movement to the left and down is
negative.
 2 a 4 
5 If the determinant of a matrix   is 12, find the value of a. B –4 B
a 1  4
AB   
 3 3 –3
 4 
 x 3  BA   
6 If a matrix   does not have the inverse, find the value of x.   3
 x  2 x  8 A 4 A

7 Using matrices, solve the simultaneous equations. C 4 C

(a) x – y = 1 (b) 2x + y = 7 (c) 2x – 3y = 14  4 
–3 3 DC   
2x + 5y = 16 3x – 2y = 7 3x + 2y = –5  4   3
CD   
  3 D –4 D

AB  BA CD  DC

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Magnitude of a vector: is the length of the vector. To subtract vectors (a – b), let a + (–b). So the addition above can be applied.
B
The magnitude of vector AB is written as AB .  x
AB   
 y y a b
x a
In general, if AB    , AB  x 2  y 2 (∵Pythagoras theorem) ab a
 y A
x b a
b b
Equal vectors: are vectors whose magnitudes and directions are the same. As vectors a
b
are usually independent of position, they can start at any point.

ab
a  b  b  a 
a c ac
b To add or subtract column vectors, add or subtract the top number in each vector, then
d
add or subtract the bottom number in each vector.
ad a   d 
 2  4
e.g. a  b 
  3 2
Scalar multiplication: is done by expressing a vector as a column vector and
multiplying each number by the scalar.  2  4  2  4   6   4  2   4  2   6 
ab       ba      
 4   2  4  8    3   2    3  2    1  2    3   2  3    1
e.g. 2     
 2   2  2  4   2   4  2  4    2 4  2   4  2  2
a 2a a b          ba      
  3  2    3  2    5   2    3   2   3    5 
 1  1a
4   2  4  2 2
1
    
2  2    1  2    1  18.2 Vector Geometry
 2 
Position vectors: are vectors which start at a known point (usually origin), and its
Addition and subtraction of vectors: Vectors can be added or subtracted. finishing point gives a position relative to that starting point.
To add vectors a and b, draw the second vector (b) at the end of the first vector (a) and e.g. y
draw a new vector from the beginning of a to the end of b. If the coordinates of A are (3, 2),
 3 A(3 ,2)
OA     3
ab  2
then OA   
a b  2
a
a
b O x
b b a

ab  ba
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Vector geometry: Vectors can be used to solve geometrical problems. P
Example 4 In the diagram, OP  p , OQ  q, OM  1 OQ
D 3
Example 1 In the figure, find directed line equal to the A and PN : NQ = 3 : 2.
following: (a) AE  EC (b) BD  DE (c) AB  BD  DC E
(a) Express in terms of p and / or q. (i) PQ (ii) ON (iii) PM N
p
(a) AE  EC  AC (b) BD  DE  BE B C (b) Given that OX  hON , express OX in terms of p, q and h.
X
(c) Given also that PX  k PM , express OX in terms of p, q and k.
Q
(c) AB  BD  DC  AD  DC  AC O M q
(d) Find the values of h and k.

Example 2 The coordinates of P are (3, –1) and the coordinates of Q are (1, 3). Find (a) (i) PQ  PO  OQ  OP  OQ   p  q

the vector PQ . (ii) ON  OP  PN  OP  3 PQ  p  3  p  q   2 p  3 q

5 5 5 5
1
(iii) PM  PO  OM  OP  OQ   p  q 1
 3   1   2  3 3
PQ  PO  OQ  OP  OQ         
  1  3   4   2
(b) OX  hON  h p  q 3 
5 5 

(c) OX  OP  OX  OP  k PM  p  k   p  1 q   1  k  p  k q
Example 3 OACB is a parallelogram in which B M C
 3  3
OA  a and OB  b . M is the mid-point of BC and N
N (d) From (b) and (c), h 2 p  3 q   1  k  p  k q .
b 5 5  3
is a point on AC such that AN : NC = 2 : 1. Express the
following in terms of a and / or b. Compare the coefficients of p and q.
2 h  1 k (i)
(a) BC (b) BM (c) OM (d) ON (e) MN 5
O A 3h  k
a
5 3 (ii)
(a) BC  OA  a
(b) BM  1 BC  1 a
2 2 (ii) → k  9 h Substitute this for k into (i) 2 h  1  9 h  h  5 , k  9
5 5 5 11 11
(c) OM  OB  BM  b  1 a
2
(d) ON  OA  AN  OA  2 AC  a  2 b Exercise 18
3 3
 3  1
(e) MN  MO  ON  OM  ON   b  1 a   a  2 b
 1 If a    and b    , find: (a) a + b (b) a – b (c) 3a + 2b (d) a (e) b
 2  3  2 4
1 2
 a a bb  a b 1 1
2 3 2 3
(f) a  b (g) a  b

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2 In △OAB, OA  a and OB  b . 19 Transformation
B
(a) Given that M is a point on AB such that AB  3AM , A transformation is a geometrical operation which maps a set of points (object) onto
express in terms of a and / or b. (i) AB (ii) OM another set (image). Transformations are described matrices.
b
(b) Given that N is the midpoint of OB, express AN N 19.1 Translation
M A translation is a transformation which moves every point of the object in a straight line
in terms of a and b. P
to another position. The translated image is the same size and shape as the object. A
(c) Given that OM meets AN at P and AP  h AN , translation is usually denoted by T.
O A
express OP in terms of a, b and h. a
 x
A translation can be described by a column vector: T    .
3 OACB is a parallelogram in which OA  a and OB  b .  y
B C
The point E on OA is such that OE : EA = 1 : 2.
A′
(a) Express in terms of a and / or b. (i) OE (ii) BE b
A image
(b) OC and BE meet at F. Given that BF  k BE , F B′
express in terms of a, b and k. (i) BF (ii) OF O E a A object C′

(c) Given also that OF  hOC , express OF in terms of a, b and h.

B C
(d) Find the values of h and k.
 4
(e) Find the ratio of OF : OC Example 1 What is the image A' of the point A(–1, 1) under the translation T    ?
 3
4 OABC is parallelogram in which OA  a and OC  c . The point D is on AB such

that AD : DB = 2 : 1. When the line OD is produced, it meets the line CB at E such  1 y
The position vector of A is   . A′(3, 4)
1
that DE  hOD and BE  k CB . Find: C B
E
Then the position vector of A′ is given  4
(a) BE in terms of a and k T 
D
 1  4   3   3
(b) DE in terms of a, c and h c by         . A(–1, 1)
 1   3   4 O x
(c) the values of h and k
O a A So the coordinates of A' are (3, 4)

Example 2 If the point (3, –2) is translated to (5, –5), what is the translation?

 3   5   5   3   2 
   T    T         

 2 
 5   5    2    3

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19.2 Transformations Represented by 2 × 2 Matrices Example 4 A transformation maps (1, 0) onto (–1, 3) and (0, 1) onto (–2, 1). What is
A translation is the only transformation described by a column vector. All the other the matrix of this transformation?
transformations are described by 2 × 2 matrices.
 1 2 
The first column of the matrix is  and the second column is .
The image A′(x′, y′) of a point A(x, y) under a transformation P is found by  3 1

x a b
pre-multiplying its position vector   by the matrix P   .  1 2 
 y c d Therefore the matrix is  .
3 1

 x'   a b  x   ax  by 
A'  PA        ∴(x′, y′) = (ax + by, cx + dy)
 y'   c d  y   cx  dy  19.3 Reflection
A reflection is a transformation in which any two corresponding points in the object and
Example 3 Find the 2 × 2 matrix which maps the points (1, 1) and (0, –2) onto the the image are the same distance from, and at right angles to, a straight line which is
points (3, –1) and (–2, 4) respectively. called mirror line.
mirror line
a b   a b 1  3   a b  0   2 
Let the matrix be   . Then       and       A A′
c d   c d 1   1  c d   2   4 

a  b  3   2b   2  C
These give two sets of simultaneous equations.      and    C′ image
 c  d    1   2d   4  object

2 1  B B′
Solving these: a = 2, b = 1, c = 1 and d = –2. Therefore  
 1  2
Example 5 △ABC has vertices A(1, 5), B(1, 1) and C(3, 3). Find the coordinates of
The matrix of a transformation can be found if the images of the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) the images of A, B and C under reflection in the y-axis.
y
a b   a b  1   a 
are known. Because if the matrix is   , then       which is the first A(1, 5) The coordinates of the images are
c d   c d  0   c  A′
A′(–1, 5)
B′(–1, 1)
 a b  0   b 
column of the matrix, and       which is the second column of the matrix. C′ C(3, 3) C′(–3, 3)
 c d  1   d 
B′ B(1, 1)

a b  O x
If (1, 0) is mapped onto (a, c) and (0, 1) onto (b, d), the matrix is  .
c d 

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Example 6 Find the matrices for reflections in the following: Example 7 Find the matrices for rotations about O(0, 0) of the following:
(a) the x-axis (b) the line y = x (c) the line y = –x (a) 90˚ anticlockwise (b) 180˚ anticlockwise (c) 270˚ anticlockwise
y y
Find the images of A(1, 0) and B(0, 1). Find the images of A(1, 0) and B(0, 1).
B(0, 1) B(0, 1)
(a) The image of A is invariant as it lies on the x-axis. (a) The point A is mapped onto B(0 ,1).
A(1, 0)
The point B is mapped onto B′(0, –1). The point B is mapped onto B′(–1, 0).
O x
1 0   0 1 B′(–1, 0) O A(1, 0) x
Therefore the matrix is  . B′(0, –1) Therefore the matrix is  .
 0  1 1 0 
y
y
B(0, 1)
(b) The point A is mapped onto B(0, 1). B(0, 1) y=x (b) The point A is mapped onto A′(–1, 0).
The point B is mapped onto A(1, 0) The point B is mapped onto B′(0, –1)
A′(–1, 0) O A(1, 0) x
0 1 x  1 0 
Therefore the matrix is  . O A(1, 0)
Therefore the matrix is  .
1 0  0  1 B′(0, –1)

y (c) The point A is mapped onto A′(0, –1). y

(c) The point A is mapped onto A′(0, –1). y = –x
B(0, 1) The point B is mapped onto A(1, 0) B(0, 1)
The point B is mapped onto B′(–1, 0)
A(1, 0)  0 1
 0 1 . Therefore the matrix is  .
. Therefore the matrix is  . B′(–1, 0) O x   1 0 O A(1, 0) x
1 0 
A′(0, –1) This is equal to a rotation of 90˚ clockwise. A′(0, –1)

19.4 Rotation Example 8 △ABC has vertices A(2, 2), B(4, 2) and C(4, 4). Find the image of
A rotation is a transformation in which an object is turned around a fixed point which is △ABC under a rotation about O through 90˚ clockwise.
y
called the centre of rotation. C(4, 4)
 0 1
A′ From Example 7, the matrix is  .
A object   1 0
C A(2, 2)
Multiply the three column vectors for A, B B(4, 2)
B′ image
and C as 2 × 3 matrix: 90˚
B O x
A B C A′ B′ C′
C′
 0 1  2 4 4   2 2 4  A′
centre
   
  1 0  2 2 4    2  4  4 
The angle through which an object is turned is called the angle of rotation. The direction
∴A′(2, –2), B′(2, –4) and C′(4, –4) B′ C′
of the rotation, clockwise or anticlockwise, must be stated. An anticlockwise rotation is
usually said to be positive. Example 9 △ABC has vertices A(3, 2), B(6, 2) and C(6, 0). Draw the image of
Only if the centre of rotation is the origin, the matrix for rotation can be found. △ABC under an anticlockwise rotation of 90˚ centre (1, 1).
- 49 - y
B' C'
 The centre of rotation is not the origin. The point (1, 0) is mapped onto (k, 0).
So the matrix of this rotation cannot be found. The point (0, 1) is mapped onto (0, k)

First join A to the centre (1, 1).  k 0

Therefore the matrix is  .
Then with angle of 90˚ and the same distance 0 k 
between A and (1, 1), draw A′.
Do the same for B and C as shown in the
Example 11 △ABC has vertices A(1, 1), B(2, 1) and C(–1, 2). Find the image of
diagram on the right.
△ABC under an enlargement with centre O(0, 0) and scale factor –2.

 2 0  y
To find the centre of rotation: Join any corresponding two points in the object and the From Example 10, the matrix is  .
image and construct the perpendicular bisector of each line. The point of intersection is  0  2 C
the centre of rotation. Multiply the three column vectors for A, B A B
A′
A and C as 2 × 3 matrix: O
C x
B′ A B C A′ B′ C′
image
object A′
 2 0 1 2 1  2 4 2  B′
   
B  0  2 1 1 2    2  2  4 
C′
centre C′
∴A′(–2, –2), B′(–4, –2) and C′(2, –4)

When the scale factor is negative, the object and its image are on opposite sides of the
19.5 Enlargement
An enlargement is a transformation which changes the size but not the shape of an centre of enlargement.
object. A′
D′ 19.6 Stretch
A
D
A stretch is an enlargement in one direction from a given line. The given line is the
image invariant line or axis.
object
centre invariant line
B C D D′
C′ A
B′
When corresponding points in the object and the image are joined by straight lines, all
those lines meet at a point which is called the centre of enlargement. The centre of B
C C′
enlargement can be inside, on the edge of, or outside the object.
 image length 
The amount by which an object is enlarged is called the scale factor   .
 object length  Example 12 The matrix S is a stretch such that the y-axis is invariant and the point
Only if the centre of enlargement is the origin, the matrix for enlargement can be found. (1, 2) is mapped onto (2, 2). (a) Find the matrix S. (b) If △PQR has vertices P(2, 1),
Example 10 Find the matrix for an enlargement centre O(0, 0) and scale factor k. Q(3, 5) and R(5, 1). Find the image of △PQR under the stretch S.
y - 50 -
(0, k) K6,000-

(0, 1)
 (a) Take A as (1, 0) and B as (0, 1). Now OB is invariant.
 1 0
If the point(1, 2) moves 1unit to (2, 2), A(1, 0) also moves 1unit to A′(2, 0). the matrix   represents a shear with the y-axis as the invariant and shear factor k.
 k 1
2 0
Therefore the matrix is  . y distance a point moves to its image
0 1 Shear factor =
distance of the point from the invariant line
6
(b) Multiply the three column vectors Q Q′ The shear factor indicates that the distance a point moves to its image is proportional to
for P, Q and R as 2 × 3 matrix: 4
its distance from the invariant line.
P Q R P′ Q′ R′ Example 13 A rectangle OXYZ with vertices O(0, 0), X(2, 0), Y(2, 2) and Z(0, 2) is
 2 0  2 3 5   4 6 10  2 mapped onto the parallelogram OXY′Z′ with Y′(8, 2) and Z′(6, 2).
   
 0 1  1 5 1   1 5 1  P P′ R (a) Find the matrix of the shear.
R′
∴P′(4, 1), Q′(6, 5) and R′(10, 1) O 2 4 6 8 10 x (b) Describe the shear fully.
First draw the diagram to show the information above.
In general,
y
1 0  Z Y Z′ Y′
The matrix   represents a stretch with x-axis as the invariant and scale factor k. 2
0 k 
1

k 0 O 1 2X 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
The matrix   represents a stretch with y-axis as the invariant and scale factor k.
 0 1
Take A as (1, 0) and B as (0, 1). Now OA is invariant. (∵the x-axis is invariant)
distance of the image of a point from the invariant line
Scale factor = Now Y(2, 2) moves 6units, so B(0, 1) moves 3units to B′(0, 3). (∵proportion)
distance of the point from the invariant line
 1 3
19.7 Shear Therefore the matrix is  .
 0 1
A shear is a transformation which keeps a fixed line (invariant line), moves all other
points parallel to the invariant line and maps every straight line onto a straight line. (b) Shear with x-axis as the invariant line and shear factor 3.
S R S′ R′
D D′ C C′ Exercise 19
1 A triangle ABC with vertices A(2, 2), B(4, 2) and C(3, 4) is mapped onto the triangle
P P′ Q Q′ with vertices A′(–2, –1), B′(0, –1) and C′(–1, 1).
(a) Draw and label the triangle and its image.
(b) Describe the transformation which maps ABC onto A′B′C′.
A B invariant line
In general, 2 A rectangle ABCD with vertices A(1, 1), B(4, 1), C(4, 3) and D(1, 3) is mapped onto
A′B′C′D′ with vertices A′(1, –1), B′(4, –1), C′(4, –3) and D′(1, –3).
1 k 
the matrix   represents a shear with the x-axis as the invariant and shear factor k. (a) Draw and label the triangle and its image.
0 1 (b) Describe the transformation which maps ABCD onto A′B′C′D′.

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3 △ABC with vertices A(1, –1), B(3, –2) and C(3, –1) is mapped onto △A′B′C′ with 20.1 Latitude and Longitude
vertices A′(6, 0), B′(7, 2) and C′(6, 2) by a rotation. Circles on the Earth
(a) Draw and label △ABC and △A′B′C′. N pole Any circle on the Earth’s surface whose
(b) Find the centre of rotation by construction. small circle centre is at the centre of the Earth is called a
(c) Find the angle of rotation and its direction. great circle.
4 △ABC with vertices A(1, 1), B(2, 1) and C(2, 2) is mapped onto △A′B′C′ with Other circles are small circles.
vertices A′(1, –3), B′(2, –3) and C′(2, –6) by a stretch. Find the matrix and the scale equator The equator and any circle passing through
factor of the stretch. the poles are great circles.
5 (a) Draw and label △ABC whose vertices A(2, 2), B(4, 2) and C(2, 5). great circle Great circles passing through the poles are
(b) A transformation maps △ABC onto △DEF whose vertices D(5, 2), E(1, 2) and meridian called meridians.
S pole
F(5, –4). Describe this transformation fully.
N Greenwich
(c) A transformation maps △ABC onto △GHI whose vertices G(6, 2), H(8, 2) and Longitude: is the angle between the Greenwich
meridian (GM)
I(12, 5). Describe this transformation fully. meridian, passing through Greenwich (in London),
and any other meridian (measured East or West) 3 1 2

subtended at the centre of the Earth. 30˚

In the diagram, (1) is the GM 0˚, (2) is a meridian 60˚

of longitude 30˚E and (3) is a meridian of
60˚W 0˚ 30˚E

longitude 60˚W.
The maximum possible longitude is 180˚ (E or W). S

Latitude: is the angle between the plane of equator N

and any small circle on the Earth’s surface parallel
to the equator (measured North or South) subtended 2 30˚N
at the centre of the Earth.
30˚ equator
In the diagram, (1) is the equator 0˚, (2) is a small 1
60˚
circle of latitude 30˚N and (3) is a small circle of
3 60˚S
latitude 60˚S.
The maximum possible latitude is 90˚ (N or S). S

N
20 Earth Geometry Position of a point: The position of any point on longitude
the Earth’s surface is given by its latitude and 28˚20′E
The Earth is taken to be a true sphere of radius ≈ 6370km.
longitude. Latitude and longitude are measured in
15˚
degrees (˚) and minutes (′) with 1˚ = 60′. 28˚20′
- 52 - 0˚ latitude
K6,000-
15˚S
Lusaka

S
e.g. Lusaka is on latitude 15˚S and longitude 28˚20′E. This position is given as (15˚S,
 Distance along a circle of longitude  z   2R
28˚20′E) 360

Example 1 The diagram shows the points A, N GM (0˚) Example 2 Given that the radius of the Earth is 6370km, calculate the distance
longitude
B and C on the Earth. 95˚W longitude between A(40˚N, 50˚W) and B(24˚30′S, 50˚W) in: (a) nautical miles (b) kilometres
(a) Describe the position of the points A, B 18˚W (Take  to be 3.142)
latitude
and C in the terms of latitude and longitude. B A 16˚N (a) The two points lie on the same meridian.
(b) Find the difference in longitude between A equator The difference in latitude = 40˚ + 24˚30′ = 64˚30′ = 64 × 60′ + 30′ = 3870′
and B. ∴The distance = 3870 nm
(c) Find the difference in latitude between B C latitude (b) The difference in latitude = 64˚30′ = 64.5˚
45˚S
and C. S ∴ The distance  64.5  2R  64.5  2  3.142  6 370  7 172 km
(a) A is on latitude 16˚N and longitude 18˚W i.e.(16˚N, 18˚W) 360 360
B is on latitude 16˚N and longitude 95˚W i.e.(16˚N, 95˚W) Distance along a circle of latitude
C is on latitude 45˚S and longitude 95˚W i.e.(43˚S, 95˚W)
N N
(b) Since the points A and B are on the same sides of the Greenwich Meridian, the
difference in latitude is given by: 95˚ – 18˚ = 77˚ P x˚N r
r P C
D x˚
(c) Since the points B and C are on opposite sides of the equator, the difference in C R
longitude is given by: 16˚ + 45˚ = 61˚ y˚ x˚
O R equator O A
R
A B
20.2 Distance along Circles of Latitude and Longitude
Nautical mile: is unit of distance on the Earth’s
S S
surface used by ships and planes. A nautical mile (nm)
is 1′ of arc along a great circle (any meridian or the In the diagram, A and B lie on the equator, and C and D lie on the circle of latitude x˚N.
equator). 1 nm ≈ 1852 m = 1.852 km 1′ equator ∠AOC = ∠OCP = x˚ because of alternate angles.
1˚ = 60′ → 360˚ = 360 × 60′ = 21 600′
1nm In the right-angled triangle OCP, cos x  CP  r
∴The circumference of the Earth = 21 600 nm OC R
Therefore The radius of a circle of latitude r = Rcosx˚
∠AOB = ∠CPD = y˚ as these are angles between the same meridians.
arc CD : circumference of circle of latitude x˚N = ∠CPD : 360˚
Distance along a circle of longitude N
arc CD × 360˚ = 2r × y˚
N
In the diagram, two points A and B lie on the same longitude. y
arc CD   2r Now r = Rcosx˚. 60˚N
z represents the difference in latitude. R 360 A B
A
arc AB : circumference of circle = z˚ : 360˚ y
 Distance along a circle of latitude   2 Rcos x 20˚E 110˚E
arc AB × 360˚ = 2R × z˚ z˚ 360
equator
- 53 -
B

S S
Example 3 Point A is on latitude 60˚N, longitude 20˚E and point B is on latitude 60˚N, is the unit commonly used by ships and planes. (1 knot ≈ 1.852 km/h)
longitude 110˚E. Given that the radius of the Earth is 6 370km, find the distance along
Example 5 A plane flies due south from town A (37.5˚N, 15˚E) to town B (15˚S,
the circle of latitude between A and B in:
15˚E) in 9hours. Find the speed of the plane in knot.
(a) nautical miles (b) kilometres (Take  to be 3.142)
The difference in latitude = 37.5˚ + 15 = 52.5˚
(a) The difference in longitude = 110˚ – 20˚ = 90˚ The distance AB = 52.5 × 60 = 3150 nm
The distance AB = 90 × 60 × cos60˚ = 2700 nm
3150 nm
 The speed  distance   350 knots
(b) The distance AB  90   2Rcos 60  1  2  3.142  6 370  1  5 004 km time 9h
360 4 2
N
20.3 Time
Example 4 The diagram shows that A and B both lie in B 55˚N The Earth rotates making a complete rotation (360˚) in 24 hours.
A
latitude 55˚N, meridian NAS is 125˚W and meridian NBS is
directly opposite NAS. Therefore it rotates 360  15 in one hour.
24
equator
(a) Write down the positions, using latitude and longitude, of The world is divided into time zones which are determined from the universal time line
the points: (i) A (ii) B 125˚W at the Greenwich meridian. The universal time is called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
(b) Calculate the shortest distance AB in nautical miles S
For every 15˚ moved to east of the Greenwich meridian one hour is gained against
(a) (i) A lies on latitude 55˚N and longitude 125˚W, i.e. (55˚N, 125˚W) GMT and for every 15˚ west of the Greenwich meridian one hour is lost against GMT.
(ii) Meridian NBS is 180˚ – 125˚ = 55˚E longitude.
B lies on latitude 55˚N and longitude 125˚W, i.e. (55˚N, 55˚E) Example 6 Alexandria is on longitude 30˚E. What is the local time in Alexandria if it
(b) Two paths as distance AB can be considered: is 05:00 hours GMT?
N
A B
(i) via the North pole (along a great circle) Local time is 30  2 hours ahead of GMT.
(ii) along the circle of latitude 55˚N 15
55˚ 55˚ Therefore local time in Alexandria is 05:00 + 2hours = 07:00 hours.
(i) In the diagram on the right,
∠AOB =180˚ – 2 ×55˚ = 70˚ O

The distance ANB = 70 × 60 = 4200 nm

(ii) The difference in longitude = 180˚
The distance AB along the circle of latitude = 180 × 60 × cos55˚ = 6195 nm
A comparison of the two distances shows that the distance via the North pole is Exercise 20 90˚ 90˚
60˚ 30˚ 30˚ 60˚
1 The diagram is an extract from an 0˚
shorter than the distance along the arc of the latitude. 60˚ 60˚
Atlas of the World map. New Orleans Sankt-Peterburg
In general, (a) Write down the position (in 30˚ 30˚
the shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface is the length of the Latitude and Longitude) of the Cairo
arc along the great circle passing through them. town: (i) New Orleans 0˚ 0˚
(ii) Cairo
Speed in nautical miles per hour: A speed of 1 nautical mile per hour is 1 knot. This (iii) Durban 30˚ Durban 30˚
- 54 - 60˚ 60˚
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60˚ 30˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚
90˚ 90˚
 (b) Taking  to be 3.142 and R = 6370km, calculate the distance in kilometres from:
PA   number of favourable outcomes
(i) Cairo to Durban (ii) New Orleans to Sankt-Peterburg total number of possible outcomes
(c) When the time in Sankt-Peterburg is 14:00 hours, calculate the time in
e.g. If a coin is tossed, The probabilit y of heads  PHeads   1 , PTails   1 .
(i) Durban (ii) New Orleans 2 2
2 The diagram shows positions of four towns A, B, C 80˚W N 20˚W Example 1 A box contains 3 red balls, 2 blue balls and 1 white ball. If a ball is picked
and D on the Earth’s surface. Two jets X and Y are to at random from the box, what is the probability that it is:
A B 45˚N
fly from town A to D. X flies along the circle of (a) red (b) blue (c) white (d) black (e) not blue
C D 20˚N
latitude 45˚N to B and then due south to D, while Y
flies due south to C and then along the circle of (a) Total number of balls is 3 + 2 + 1 = 6. Pred   3  1
6 2
latitude 20˚N to D.
(a) Calculate the total distance travelled by each jet (b) Pblue  2  1 (c) Pwhite   1 (d) Pblack   0  0
6 3 6 6
in kilometres. S
(b) Given that jet X has a speed of 400 knots and assuming that it flies at this speed (e) Pnot blue   1  Pblue  1  1  2
3 3
from A to D, calculate its flight time, giving your answer to the nearest hour.
(c) If is also given that jet Y takes the same time to fly to town D as jet X, calculate 21.2 Combined Events
the speed of jet Y in knots, giving your answer to the nearest ten. A combined (compound) event involves two or more events
Mutually exclusive events: are sets of events which cannot occur at the same time.
e.g. The outcomes of tossing a coin
∵Either heads or tails turns up. They cannot occur at the same time.
In general, if A and B are mutually exclusive events,
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

This rule is called the addition rule and can be applied to any number of events if they
21 Probability are mutually exclusive.

The probability of an event happening is a measure of how likely that event happens. Example 2 A box contains 3 red balls, 2 blue balls and 1 white ball. If a ball is picked
Probability is measured on a scale from 0 to 1. A value of 0 means it is impossible, at random from the box, what is the probability that it is red or white?
while 1 means it is certain. The probability of an event A is usually denoted by P(A). Total number of balls is 6, 3 of these are red and 1 are white.
In general, P(A) + P(not A) = 1. ∴ P(not A) = 1 – P(A)
P red   3 , P white   1
6 6
21.1 Theoretical Probability
Theoretical probability is the probability of an outcome occurring in theory. This  Pred or white   3  1  4  2
6 6 6 3
probability is based on equally likely outcomes (e.g. coins, dice, cards, etc.). Theoretical
probability is expressed as:

- 55 -
Independent events: are events which have no effect on each other. Tree diagrams: are diagrams on which the possible outcomes of events are written at
e.g. When two dice are rolled, their outcomes are independent. the ends of the ‘branches’.

In general, if A and B are independent events, e.g. (a) A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random
from the bag and replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from the
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
same bag.
This rule is called the multiplication rule and can be applied to any number of events if (b) A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random
they are independent. from the bag and is not replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from
Example 3 A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random the same bag.
from the bag and replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from the same bag. The information above can be shown below.
What is the probability that both beads were red? (a) 2 R 1 R
5
(b) 4
The two events are independent. R R R: Red
2 3 2 3
5 5 5 4 W: White
P red on 1st picking   2 , Pred on 2nd picking   2 W W
5 5
2 R 2 R
 P both red   2  2  4
5 4
3 3
5 5 25 5 3 5 2
W 5
W 4
Dependent events: Two events are dependent if the first event affects the second event. W W
first second first second
e.g. If a bead is picked at random from a bag of red and white beads, and it is not
replaced in the bag, the colour of the second picked bead is dependent on the first event. Example 5 A box contains 3 blue marbles, 4 red marbles and 5 green marbles. A
The multiplication rule can also be used to find the probability of a combination of marble is taken and is not replaced, and then a second marble is taken.
dependent events. (a) Draw a tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes.
(b) Find the probability of taking: (i) two green marbles
(ii) one blue marble and one red marble (iii) two marbles of the same colour
(iv) two marbles are different colour (v) no red marble
Example 4 A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random (a) The tree diagram is shown below.
from the bag and is not replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from the same There are 3 branches for the first
B: Blue Outcome
bag. What is the probability that both beads were red? 2 B BB taking of a marble and these are
R: Red 11
If the first bead is not replaced, then there are 4 beads remaining in the bag. 4 marked on the branches. At the end of
G: Green B 11 R BR
And if the first bead was red, then there are only 1 red bead left in the bag. 5 each of the first branches, there are 3
3 11
2 1 12 G BG further branches for the second taking
So Pred on 1st picking   , Pred on 2nd picking  
5 4 3 B RB of a marble. The probabilities for these
4 11
3 branches are different from the first 3
 P both red without replacing   2  1  1 12 R 11 R RR
5 4 10 5 branches because the first marble is
11
G RG not replaced.
- 56 - 5 3 B GB
12 11 K6,000-
4
11
G R GR
4
11
G GG
 (a) Draw a tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes.
(b) Find the possibility of getting:
(i) two red balls (ii) one white and one black ball
(iii) one black and one red ball (iv) no black ball
(v) two balls of the same colour (vi) two balls of different colour

(b) (i) PGG   5  4  5

12 11 33

(ii) PB and R   PBR   PRB  3  4  4  3  1  1  2

12 11 12 11 11 11 11
(iii) P(two marbles of the same colour) = P(BB) + P(RR) + P(GG)

 3  2  4  3  5  4  6  12  20  38  19
12 11 12 11 12 11 132 132 66
(iv) P(two marbles of different colour) = 1 – P(two marbles of the same colour)

 1  19  47
66 66
(v) If no R is taken, outcomes are BB, BG, GB and GG
P(no R) = P(BB) + P(BG) + P(GB) + P(GG)

 3  2  3  5  5  3  5  4  6  15  15  20  56  14
12 11 12 11 12 11 12 11 132 132 33

Exercise 21
1 If a six-sided die is rolled, find the probability that:
(a) 1 turns up (b) an odd number turns up (c) a prime number turns up
2 Two fair coins are tossed. Find the probability of getting a heads and a tails.
3 A bag contains 1 red, 2 yellow and 3 blue beads. A bead is selected and replaced in
22 Statistics
the bag. Then a second bead is selected What is the probability of getting:
(a) two yellow beads (b) one red bead and one blue bead (c) no red bead Statistics deals with the collecting, recording, interpreting, illustrating and analysing of
(d) two beads of the same colour (e) two beads of different colours data. Statistics are used to make decisions and predict what may happen in the future.
4 Bag X contains 2 white and 3 black marbles. Bag Y contains 3 white and 2 black 22.1 Presentation
marbles. A marble is chosen at random from Bag X and placed in Bag Y without Data can be presented visually in different ways, depending on the nature of the data
seeing its colour. A marble is now picked from Bag Y. What is the probability that it and what you would like to show.
is white? Pie charts: are circular diagrams in which the angles of sectors represent the frequency
5 A box contains 2 white, 5 black and 3 red balls. Two balls are drawn from the bag in (the angles are proportional to the frequency).
succession without replacement.

- 57 -
Example 1 The pie chart represents 60 pupils.
(a) What angle represents 1 person? A
(b) How many people are represented by sector B? D 60˚ 22.2 Measures
(c) If sector C represents 9 people, find its angle. Measures of averages (central tendency): There are three kinds of average in statistics
108˚
(d) How many people does sector D represent? – mean, mode and median.
B
(a) 360˚ represents 60 people. Mean: is the arithmetically calculated average which is found by adding up all the
C values and dividing by the number of values.
360  6 represents 1 person.
60
Mean  Sum of all the values
Number of values
(b) 108  18 people
6 Mode: is the value with the highest frequency.
(c) 9 × 6˚ = 54˚ Median: is the middle value of an ordered set of data. In general,

(d) Angle of sector D = 360˚ – 60˚ – 108˚ – 54˚ = 138˚  138  23 people. position of median  n  1 where n is the number of values. For an odd number of
6 2
or sector A represents = 60˚ ÷ 6˚ = 10 people. So 60 – 10 – 18 – 9 = 23 people values, the median is the value in the middle. For an even number of values, the median
is the mean of the two middle values.
Bar graphs: are diagrams in which the vertical or horizontal bars of equal width
represent the frequency (the lengths are proportional to the frequency). Example 2 Find (i) the mean, (ii) mode and (iii) median of the numbers:
(a) 2, 3, 5, 6, 6, 9, 10 (b) 5, 2, 1, 3, 6, 5, 5, 2, 3, 4
e.g. Population of a city Sports activities in a school
20 (a) (i) Mean  2  3  5  6  6  9  10  5.85 = 5.9 (to 2sf)
Volleyball 7
Population(million)

Sports activities

15
Basketball (ii) Mode is 6 (iii) Median is 6
10 (b) Arrange the numbers in ascending order: 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6
Netball
5
Football (i) Mean  1  2  2  3  3  4  5  5  5  6  3.6
10
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 0 10 20 30 40
Year Number of pupils (ii) Mode is 5 (iii) Median  3  4  3.5
Line graphs: are diagrams in which frequencies are plotted and the points are joined by 2
lines. Measures of spread (dispersion): gives how much the data is grouped around the
e.g. Change in temperature of naphthalene average or spread out. There are several ways of measuring spread.
100 Range: is the difference between the highest and lowest values.
Temperature ( ˚C)

80 range = highest value – lowest value

60
Quartiles: divide the values into four equal parts (this means there are three quartiles).
40
The second quartile (Q2) is the median and the other two quartiles are called the lower
20
(Q1) and upper quartile (Q3). In general, if n is the numbers of values,
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Heated time (min) - 58 -
K6,000-
 3n  1 Count the frequencies and then present these marks in a frequency table.
position of lower quartileQ1   n  1 , position of upper quartileQ 3  
4 4
Marks (x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Interquartile range: is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles. Frequency (f) 2 2 3 5 7 7 8 3 2 1
interquartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile (a) The mean can also be found by using a frequency table.
Redraw the table with another row for the product (fx) and another column at the
Example 3 Find the range, the lower quartile, the median, the upper quartile and the
end for total. Calculate fx and the total of f and fx.
interquartile range of the numbers 25, 31, 30, 24, 28, 33, 35, 31, 27, 23, 33.
Arrange the 11 numbers. 23 24 25 27 28 30 31 31 33 33 35 Marks (x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Q1 Q2 Q3 Frequency (f) 2 2 3 5 7 7 8 3 2 1 40
311  1 Product (fx) 2 4 9 20 35 42 56 24 18 10 220
position of Q1  11  1  3, position of Q 2  11  1  6, position of Q 3  9
4 2 4 The mean of a frequency distribution is given by the following formula:
∴the range = highest value – lowest value = 35 – 23 = 12 Sum of fx
the lower quartile = 25 Mean of a frequency distribution 
total f
the median = 30
the upper quartile = 33  Mean  220  5.5
40
the interquartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile = 33 – 25 = 8
(b) The mode can be found easily. Find the marks with highest frequency.
Percentiles: divide the values into 100 equal parts. Percentiles are used for large So 7 is the mode.
amounts of data. In genera, if n is the numbers of values, (c) position of median  40  1  20.5
2
mn  1 90n  1
position of mth percentilePm   e.g. the 90th percentile P90  The 20th number and 21st number both are 6. So the median is 6.
100 100
It can be said that the lower quartile is the 25th percentile, the median is the 50th Grouped data: is data put into groups to make it easier to handle when there is a large
percentile and the upper quartile is the 75th percentile. number of data or the data is widely spread. The groups are called classes and the width
of a class is called a class interval. In any collection of grouped data, the class intervals
are usually all the same but do not have to be.

22.3 Frequency Distributions Example 5 The table below shows the heights of 50 pupils in ascending order.
A frequency distribution is used for large amounts of data. Construct a frequency table using a class interval of 5, beginning with 151–155.
Frequency tables: show the frequency each value occurs. 154 155 156 157 157 158 158 159 159 159
159 160 160 160 161 161 162 162 163 163
Example 4 The data below shows the marks obtained by 40 pupils in a mathematics
164 164 165 165 165 165 165 166 166 167
test. Make a frequency table and find (a) the mean, (b) mode and (c) median of the data.
167 167 168 168 168 169 170 170 170 171
7 9 5 4 1 3 7 8 6 7 5 7 6 7 8 6 5 4 7 10 171 172 172 172 173 173 174 174 175 176
3 4 8 6 5 2 5 4 5 1 7 2 6 6 4 9 5 7 6 3
The heights can be grouped into classes having a class interval of 5 as follows.

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 Heights 151–155 156–160 161–165 166–170 171–175 176–180 14 14
12 12
Frequency 2 12 13 12 10 1
10 10

Frequency
Frequency
8 8
Mean of grouped data: can be found by using the class centre as the representative for
6 6
each class. (The class centre is the mid-point of the class interval) 4 4
Example 6 Calculate the mean of the grouped data of Example 5. 2 2
0 0
Redraw the table with two more row for the class centre (x) and the product (fx), and 153 158 163 168 173 178 153 158 163 168 173 178
another column at the end for total. Height Height
frequency polygon with histogram frequency polygon without histogram
Heights 151–155 156–160 161–165 166–170 171–175 176–180 Total
Class centre (x) 153 158 163 168 173 178
2 12 13 12 10 1 50
22.4 Cumulative Frequency
Frequency (f)
A cumulative frequency is the frequencies added to produce a running total. A
Product (fx) 306 1896 2119 2016 1730 178 8245
cumulative frequency is used to make estimates.
Sum of fx 8245
 Mean    164.9 Cumulative frequency curves: are diagrams obtained by joining the cumulative
total f 50
frequencies against the upper class boundaries with a smooth curve. (The class
Histograms: are like vertical bar graphs of grouped data in which each frequency is boundary is the border between two class intervals. The upper class boundary divides a
represented by a rectangle, there are no spaces between the bars, the widths of class interval from the one above it.)
rectangles are proportional to the class interval and the areas of rectangles are Example 7 Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the data of Example 5.
proportional to the frequency.
15 Redraw the table with two more row for the upper class boundary and the
e.g. The diagram on the cumulative frequency.
right shows the histogram for 10
Frequency

Heights 151–155 156–160 161–165 166–170 171–175 176–180

the data of Example 5. Upper class
5 155.5 160.5 165.5 170.5 175.5 180.5
boundary
Frequency 2 12 13 12 10 1
0
151-155 156-160 161-165 166-170 171-175 176-180
Cumulative 2 + 12 14 + 13 27 + 12 39 + 10 49 + 1
2
frequency = 14 = 27 = 39 = 49 = 50
Frequency polygons: are Height
(This table is called a cumulative frequency table.)
diagrams obtained by joining the mid-points of the tops of the bars on a histogram.
Plot the cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries and join them
e.g. The diagram below shows the frequency polygon of Example 5.
with a smooth curve.

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K6,000-
 50 300
285
40 263
250
Frequency

30 Upper quartile (Q3)

20
200
10

Frequency
0 Median (Q2)
150
150 155 160 165 170 175 180
Height
100
A cumulative frequency can be used to find out further information about the data such
Lower quartile (Q1)
as ‘How many pupils scored more than 75%?’ or ‘How many pupils scored less than
25%?’ 50
Example 8 The table below shows a test marks of 300 pupils.
Marks 1 – 10 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 0
31 42 55
Frequency 6 14 49 70 65 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
M arks
Marks 51 – 60 61 – 70 71 – 80 81 – 90 91 –100 (b) Median = 50th percentile
Frequency 44 29 13 7 3 Upper quartile = 75th percentile Lower quartile = 25th percentile
(a) Draw a cumulative frequency curve. From the graph, (i) the median = 42
(b) Use your graph to estimate: (i) the median (ii) the interquartile range (ii) the interquartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile = 55 – 31 = 24
(c) Pupils scoring 75marks or more were awarded distinctions. Estimate the number of (c) The frequency at 75 marks is 285. So 284 pupils were not awarded.
pupils who had distinctions. The number of pupils who had distinctions = 300 – 284 = 16
(d) If a pupil is chosen, what is the probability that his marks will be greater than 65 (d) The frequency at 65 marks is 263. So 37 pupils’ marks are greater than 65 marks.
marks?
So the probabilit y  37
(a) Construct the cumulative frequency table. 300

Marks 1 – 10 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50
Frequency 6 14 49 70 65
Cumulative
6 20 69 139 204
frequency
Marks 51 – 60 61 – 70 71 – 80 81 – 90 91 –100
Sleeping
Frequency 44 29 13 7 3
Cumulative 105˚
248 277 290 297 300 Other
frequency Exercise 22
Plot the cumulative frequencies and join them with a smooth curve. 1 The pie chart shows how a pupil spends a day. 120˚
School
- 61 -
Eating
Homework
 (a) What fraction of time is spent for school? from the first few terms.
(b) How long is the time for sleeping? Example 1 Write down the next two terms in each of the following sequences.
(c) If the time for homework is 2hours, what is the angle of sector ‘homework’? (a) 3, 7, 11, 15, . . . (b) 2, 4, 8, 16, . . .
(d) What percentage of time is spent for eating, giving your answer correct to 1dp?
(a) Each term is obtained by adding 4 to the previous term.
2 Find (a) the mean, (b) mode and (c) median of the numbers:
∴The next two terms are: 15 + 4 = 19 and 19 + 4 = 23
6, 5, 4, 6, 7, 3, 4, 8, 2, 6
(b) Each term is obtained by multiplying the previous term by 2.
3 The table below shows the marks obtained by a class in a mathematics test.
∴The next two terms are: 16 × 2 = 32 and 32 × 2 = 64
Marks 0–9 10 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39
The nth term of a sequence: can be expressed as a function of n. The nth term is
Frequency 2 7 23 15
denoted by a n . In general,
Marks 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 – 79
-if each next term is obtained by adding a constant to the previous term,
Frequency 6 3 2 2
(a) Draw a histogram. a n  a  n  1d
(b) Find: (i) the number of pupils who wrote the test (ii) the mean of marks where a = the first term, n = the number of terms, d = the common difference
4 100 pupils were asked the time they took to travel to their school in a city. The -if each next term is obtained by multiplying the previous term by a constant,
results are shown in the following table. a n  ar n1
Time in min (x) 10<x≤20 20<x≤30 30<x≤40 40<x≤50 where a = the first term, n = the number of terms and d = the common ratio
Number of pupils 8 17 23 20
Example 2 Find the formula for the nth term of following sequences.
Time in min (x) 50<x≤60 60<x≤70 70<x≤80 (a) 2, 5, 8, 11, . . . (b) 3, 6, 12, 24, . . . (c) 1, 4, 9 , 16, . . .
Number of pupils 15 11 6
(a) Each term is obtained by adding 3 to the previous term.
(a) Calculate an estimate of the mean of time taken to travel. So a = 2 and d = 3.  a n  2  n  1  3  3n  1
(b) Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table for the time taken to travel. (b) Each term is obtained by multiplying the previous term by 2.
Time in min (x) ≤20 ≤30 ≤40 ≤50 ≤60 ≤70 ≤80 So a = 3 and r = 2.  a n  3  2 n1
Number of pupils 8 100 (c) Each term is obtained by squaring the number of its position.
(c) Draw a cumulative frequency curve to illustrate this information. 1st term = 12 = 1, 2nd term = 22 = 4, 3rd term = 32 = 9, . . .  an  n 2
(d) Use your graph to find: (i) the median of time taken (ii) the interquartile range
(e) If a pupils are chosen at random, find the probability that he will take less than or
equal to 35minutes.

Applications of sequences
23 Sequences Example 3 Match sticks joined end to end were used to construct squares as shown
A sequence is a list of numbers which follow a mathematical rule. Each number in a below. The table shows the relationship between the number of squares (n) and the
sequence is called a term of the sequence. If the rule is not given, it can be worked out number of match sticks (m) used.

- 62 -
K6,000-
 Number of
1 2 3 4 5
squares (n)
Number of
4 7 10 x y
match sticks (m)
(a) Find the value of x and y in the table
(b) Write down the formula of m in terms of n.
(c) Find the number of squares (n) that will be constructed with 151 match sticks (m).
(a) Each term is obtained by adding 3 to the previous term.
Therefore x = 10 + 3 = 13 and y = 13 + 3 = 16
(b) The first term (a) is 4 and the common difference (d) is 3.
∴m = 4 + (n – 1) × 3 = 3n + 1
(c) Substitute 151 for m and find the value of n.
151 = 3n + 1 3n = 150 ∴n = 50

Exercise 23
1 Find the next two terms: (a) 2, 5, 8, 11, . . . (b) 8, 6 , 4, 2, . . . (c) 1, 10, 100, . . .
(d) 16, –8, 4, –2, . . . (e) 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, . . . (f) 4, 9, 16, 25, . . .
2 Find the nth term: (a) 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . (b) 10, 6, 2, –2, . . (c) 2, 6, 18, 54, . . .
(d) 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, . . . (e) 1, 8, 27, 64, . . .
3 Consider the following pattern.

(a) How many dots are in the 4th rectangle space?

(b) Write down the formula for the number of dots in the nth rectangle.
(c) A given rectangle has 44 dots, what is its position in this pattern?
(d) How many dots are in the 25th rectangle?

- 63 -
 Income = 9×52 000 + 1×40 000 = K508 000 2
Answers  2 33 2
2
4
Profit/Loss = 508 000 – 450 000 = K58 000 (profit) or         
  3    3  9
Exercise 1 2 (a(a) Discount  5  120 000  6 000
100 1 1 1
(f)  
1 (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 2 (e) 4 (f) 3 120 000 – 6 000 = K114 000 1
25 5
2
2 (a) 7 – 2 + 12 = 17 (b) 12 – 6 = 6 (c) –35 – 8 = –43 100  5 25
(b) original price   K28 500
100 3
3 (a) 2  1  4  6  4  1  1  9  1
3
8 8 8 100 (g) 16 4  4 16 3  2 3  8 or 2 4 4  23  8
original price  28 500   K 30 000
95 3 (a) 7.03×102 (b) 8.4052×103 (c) 7.2×10–2
(b) 2  4  3  15  5  12  1  22  1 11
30 30 15 8 (d) 3.75×10–4
1 200 000  9.5 
2
3 I 12  K 76 000 4 (a) 3.0 (b) 2.97 (c) 2.974
(c) 4  7  4  6  8  1 1 100 5 (a) 40 (b) 41 (c) 41.0 (d) 40.97
3 6 3 7 7 7
1 A = 1 200 000 + 76 000 = K1 276 000
1 P 74
4 Amount  832 000  P  Exercise 4
(d) 7   5  9   7  7  25  18  7  7  10  7 100
3 2 5 4 3 10 4 3 7 4
1 832 000  100 1 E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A = {2, 3, 5, 7} B =
P   K 650 000
128 {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, C = {3, 6, 9}
 10  7  40  21  19   1 7 
3 4 12 12  12  (a) A' = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9} (b) A∩B = {3, 5, 7}
I  100 120 000  100
4 42 = 2×3×7, 70 = 2×5×7, 105 = 3×5×7 5 R   8% (c) B' = {2, 4, 6, 8}, C' = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8}
PT 250 000  6
∴HCF = 7, LCM = 2×3×5×7 = 210 ∴B'∩C' = {2, 4, 8}
7 (d) B∩C = {3, 9} ∴A∪(B∩C) = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
5  455  245 boys
76 2 If A and B don’t intersect,
6 (a) 135min : 13.5min = 10 : 1
Exercise 3 n(A∪B) is largest and A B
1 3 n(A∩B) is smallest. The
8 : 15 : 12  8 : 15 : 12 1 1

1  2    
(b) 2 3 6 2  2 0
7 5
12 12 12 1 (a) x x (b) x  x 1 largest value of n(A∪B)
7 1cm on the map represents 20 000cm = 0.2km. 2 is 7 + 5 = 12 and the
1 1 2
(a) 1 : 0.2 = 8 : x ∴x = 0.2×8 = 1.6km 2 (a)  (b)    4 smallest value of n(A∩B)
 53 125 1
is 0.
(b) 1 : 0.2 = x : 6 x  6  30cm
0 .2 If B⊂A (Fig 4.2),
(c) 5 613  1  5 2  25 A
(c) 1cm2 on the map represents 0.2×0.2 = 0.04km2. n(A∪B) is smallest and B
1 : 0.04 = 200 : x ∴x = 0.04×200 = 8km2 3 n(A∩B) is largest. The 2
3 2
(d) 4 2.51  41.5  42   4 3
 23  8 smallest value of n(A∪B)
5
(d) 1 : 0.04 = x : 3 x   75 cm
0 .04 3 2
3 is 7 and the largest value of
or 2  
2 2
 2 2
3
2 8 n(A∩B) is 5.
2 2
Exercise 2  8  2 4
(e)  3       
 27   3  9
1 Cost = 10×45 000 = K450 000
- 64 -
K6,000-
3 (a) E A (b) E A (f) 2x2 – 5x – 3 2
B B p –6 2y 1
= 2x2 – 6x + x – 3
s –5
3 y 2
 2
1 x  2y 1  x  2
3y 1
= 2x(x – 3) + 1(x – 3)
f –6, 1
= (x – 3)(2x + 1) 1 2
2 (a) x = (b) x = 0 (c) x = 10 (d) x 
C C (g) 12x2 – 5xy – 2y2 2 3
p –24y
= 12x2 – 8xy + 3xy – 2y2 3 (a) x = 3, y = 6 (b) x = 6, y = –2
s –5y
(c) E (d) E =4x(3x – 2y) + y(3x – 2y)
A B A B f –8y, 3y (c) x = 4 , y =  2 (d) x = –1, y = 2
=(3x – 2y)(4x + y) 5 5
(h) (7 + 4x) (7 – 4x) (i) (ab + 2c) (ab – 2c) 4 (a) x(x – 3) = 0 x = 0, 3
(j) s(t2 – 4) + 2(t2 – 4) = (s + 2) (t + 2)(t – 2) (b) (x + 2)(x + 3) = 0 x = –2, –3
C C 1 3x  2 x  4  x  4
3 (a) (b) (c)  x  3 2  0 x=3
z 3x  22 x  3 2 x  3
(e) E  a  2  1 1 2 2 5 1
A B (c)  (d)  (d) (2x + 1)(x – 3) = 0 x   ,3
a  2a  2 a  2 2a 2a 2
1 x  y   1 x  y  2x 1  13 1  3.606
(e)  (e) x    0.77,  0.43
 x  y  x  y  x  y  x  y  6 6
C 1 1 2x  3  1  1  41  1  6.403
(f)   (f) x    1.35,  1.85
x  2 2 x  3 x  2  2 x  3x  2 4 4
4 E A
2 x  2  2 1 3
B   5 (a) x   27  3  3 (b) x  4 2  2 3  8
2 x  3x  2 2 x  3
15 5 10 2 x  y  3 2 1
3 (g)   4 1 1
2 4 9  x  y 3 (c) x   1    1 
4 4
1 (d) x  8 3  2 1  1
13  16  2 2 2
3 C x 1 2 x  4  2
(h)   (e) 2x = 24 ∴x = 4 (f) 10x = 100 ∴x = 0
 x  3 x  4   x  12  x  3x  1
Exercise 5 (g) 5 2 x  5 1 2 x  1  x   1
(i)
 x  y  x  3 y  y x  3y 2
2 2
 
1 (a) 6x – 2xy (b) 5x – 19y (c) a + 3a – 10 xy x y x
 4x  3  x   3
(h) 2  4 x  2 3
(d) 3x2 – 2xy – 8y2 (e) 4a2 – 12ab + 9b2 4
1
(f) 4 x 2  4  2 2   3  3
Exercise 6 6 (a) f  3  3
x 3
2 (a) 3x(x – 2)
1 (a) R 
100 I 4V
(b) r  3 (b) 5  2 x  3 5 x  2 x  3  x  1
(b) 3a(c – 2d) – 2b(c – 2d) = (3a – 2b)(c – 2d) PT 3 x
(c) (x + 1)(x + 2) (d) (x + 3)2 (e) (x – 7)(x + 3) q
(c) 2 p  1t  q  t  (c) xy  2 x  3 x  3  f 1
 x   3
2 p 1 y2 x2
p 2 p 9 p –21
x 1
s 3 s 6 s –4 (d) y 2 2
y 3 x  2   x  1 (d) f 1  4   3  1
3x  2 42 2
f 1, 2 f 3, 3 f –7, 3

- 65 -
 (b)
Exercise 7 9y y = 4x – 6
tangent  1  20  10  20  20  1  5  20  550 m
8 2 2
7
1 (a) gradient = 1 y-intercept = –2 6 30
(b) y = 2x + 4 gradient = 2 y-intercept = 4 5 (i)
4 20
(c) y   2 x  2 gradient   2
3
y-intercept = 2 2
3 3 1 (ii)
y (iii)
(b) 2x – y = –4 0
-1 0 x 0
4 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 20 25
-2
-3
3 (a) y = x – 2 -4
-5
2
-6
y = –5
(c) average speed  total distance  550  22 m/s
-7 total time 25
1
-8
x
-9 (d) decelerati on  0  20  4 m/s 2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 (c) The tangent passes through the origin. speed = 20 + (–4)×2 = 12 m/s
(c) 2x + 3y = 6
–2
gradient  5  0  5
–3 30 3
–4 (d) 9
Exercise 8
8 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
1 (a) x > –1
7
6
2 (a) x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 5
y 18 8 2 0 2 8 18 4 (b) x ≤ 3
3 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b) y-intercept = (0, 10) (a) y = 2x2 2
20 y
–x2 + 3x – 10 = 0 18 1
16 0 (c) x < 4
(x – 5)(x + 2) = 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 1 2 3 4 5 6
∴x-intercept 12
Draw three trapeziums in which each height is 1 unit.
= (5, 0) and (–2, 0) 10
8 (d) –3 < x ≤ 2
2 6
Area  1 3  5   1  1 5  6.5  1  1 6.5  7.8   1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
2 2 2
y   x  3   49 4
 2 4 2 = 16.9 unit2
0
x (e) From the graph, x = 0.7 2 x + 2 < 7 ⇒ x < 5 7 < 2x + 1 ⇒ 3 < x
∴The turning point -4 -3 -2 -2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 3 < x < 5 ∴x = 4
-4 (f) 4  6  6  x  4 x  0  4  6  x  4 x  6
  3 , 49  2
(b) y = –x + 3x + 10 x x 3 (a) smallest x + smallest y = –2 + (–6) = –8
2 4 
Draw the line y = 4x – 6. From the graph, x = 0.9, 2.6 (b) largest x – smallest y = 3 – (–6) = 9
(c) y = –5
4 (a) decelerati on  20  30  0.5 m/s 2
3 (a) a  4  6  5  7.8 20
5
(b) total distance = area of (i) + area of (ii)
+ area of (iii)
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K6,000-
 (c) The greatest possible amount of acid B means 3 (10 – 2)×180˚ = 1440˚
4 (a) y (b) y  3 x  3
2 that the greatest value of y. Its coordinates are (30, 4 Each exterior angle = 180˚ – 135˚ = 45˚
y 3x – 2y = 6
3
60). 360   45  n  360   8 or n  2   180   135 
So the mass of acid A is 30mg. n 45 n
0 2 x The mass of acid B is 60mg. 5 (a) ∠CED = ∠EBA = 60˚ ∵corresponding angles
0 3 x (d) When the line x + 2y = k y ∠BED = 180˚ – ∠CED = 180˚ – 60˚ = 120˚
y = –x + 3 –3 passes through the point (b) ∠BAD = ∠BED = 120˚ ∵opposite angles
75
(30, 30), the volume becomes
60 ∠BAC = 120˚ – 35˚ = 85˚
smallest. (c) ∠ADF = ∠ABE = 60˚ ∵opposite angles
5 (a) x = 0 ⇒ y-axis, y = 0 ⇒ x-axis So the volume is 30 ∠CFD = ∠FAD + ∠ADF = 35˚ + 60˚ = 95˚
x + 2y = k
y 30×1 + 30×2 = 90mm3 6  2  180
0 30 60 x 6 each interior angle =  120
6
4
∠FAB = 180   120   30
2
Exercise 9 ∴∠BAE = 120˚ – 30˚ = 90˚
0 4 x
1 6×12 = x×8 ∴x = 9 people
x+y=4 y 7 x  6 2  3 2  27  5.20cm
2 y  kx 2 k  2  82  2  y  2 x 2  2  5 2  50
x 2
y x 2  2 2  27  4  23  4.80 cm
(b) (c) k
y y y=x+2 3 y k  y  x  2   2  5  2   6
x2 8 B
6 7cm
A
y=4 4 3y = –2x + 6
 y  6  6 1 24cm AB  24 2  7 2  625  25cm
x2 82
2
2 yz 2
–2 0 6 x
x 4 (a) y  k x k  2  5 2 3  15  y  15 x D C
–2 0 3 z x 1 z
x = –2 2x + 3y = 12
y = –2x + 6
2 9
(b) y  15  2  12
5 4cm 42 = x2 + x2 16 = 2x2
x
6 (a) (i) x + y ≥ 60 (ii) y ≥ x (iii) y ≤ 2x 2 yz 6  10
(c) x    4  x  2 x x  8  2.83cm
(iv) x + 2y ≤ 150 15 15
(b) y y = 2x y=x
75 Exercise 10 10 AB  10  4  2  14  6 2  100  10 units
60 1 3x + 90˚ + 114˚ = 360˚ ∴x = 52˚
2 (a) ∠ABD = ∠BDE = 46˚
x + 2y = 150
(b) ∠EBC = 180˚ – ∠BEF = 102˚
(c) ∠BEF = ∠DBE + ∠BDE = 78˚
0 30 60 x
(or = 180˚ – ∠ABE) 11 (a)
x + y = 60
- 67 - A
C 110˚
(∵Alternate angles)
 The bearing of A from C 3 (a) ∠REC = ∠EAC = 54˚ 3 (a) △ABC is similar to △DBA.
= 180˚ – 110˚ = 070˚ (b) ∠BEC = 180˚ – 90˚ – 54˚ = 36˚ DB  DA 5  4  x  7.5 cm
(c) ∠SEA = ∠EBA = 180˚ – 68˚ – 54˚ = 58˚ AB AC x 6
(d) ∠CDE = 180˚ – 54˚ = 126˚ 2
(b) (b) Area of ΔPQS   2   area of ΔPQR  8 cm 2
 CED  180  126   27 3
The bearing of B from A 2
A
200˚ = 360˚ – 200˚ = 160˚
(∵110˚ + 90˚)
B Exercise 12 Exercise 14
(c) 1 (a) (b) (c)
1 (a) 10  8  8  10  106  2  3.142  10
A The bearing of A from B 360
160˚ = 180˚ + 160˚ = 340˚ = 36+ 18.50 = 54.5 m (to 3sf)
(∵Alternate angles) B
(b) 2  1  4  10   8  106  3.142  10 2
2 360
= 112 + 92.51 = 204.5 m2 (to 3sf)
(d) (d) (e) 2 Shaded area = area of sector OABC – area of △OAC
110˚ (∵70˚ + 40˚)
The bearing of C from B
C = 90  22  7 2  1  7 2
= 180˚ + 110˚ = 290˚ 360 7 2
B
= 38.5 – 24.5 = 14 cm2

3 (a) V  rrod 2 h  22  0.7 2  40  61.6 cm 3

2 A D E F H M S T Y 7
Exercise 11 (b) A = area of circle of blade – area of hole
No. of lines 1 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1
1 (a) x  1  70   35  y  1  360  70    145 Order 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1  rblade 2  rrod 2  rblade  rrod rblade  rrod 
2 2
(b) x = 35˚ + 40˚ = 75˚ 3 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)  22  7  0.7   7  0.7   152.46 cm 2
(c) x = 180˚ – 100˚ = 80˚ y = 80˚ + 30˚ = 110˚ No. of lines 6 8 0 1 2 1 ∞ 7
(c) V = area×height = 152.46×2 = 304.92 cm3
(d) x = 2×47˚ = 94˚ y  180  94  43  Order 6 8 2 1 2 1 ∞
2 (d) Mass = Density×Volume
(e) x = 180˚ – 2×70˚ = 40˚ 4 (a) (i) 4 (ii) 0 (b) (i) 4 (ii) 4 Total mass = mass of blade + mass of rod
(f) x = 180˚ – 40˚ = 140˚ = 3×304.92 + 6×61.6
A
= 1284.36g
2 (a) BDT  180  50  65  Exercise 13 10cm
2 B
4 (a) AP  10 2  8 2  6 cm 8cm P
∴∠BDC = 65˚ – 41˚ = 24˚
1 AD  AE 3  x  x  2.5 cm
(b) ∠CEB = ∠CDT + ∠DTE = 41˚ + 50˚ = 91˚ DB EC 6 5 17cm
(c) ∠BAD = ∠BCE = 65˚ PC  17 2  8 2  15 cm
2 AD  4 AB  2 AB  4 cm
(d) ∠DBC = ∠CDT = 41˚ 9 3 ∴AC = AP + PC = 21 cm C

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K6,000-
 (b) A = 2×area of △ABC
1 (a) DB  4.2 2  2.5 2  4.89 m  3 3 0 
1 (a)   (b) 3 5 5 (c)   (d) 12 11
 2  1  21  8  168 cm 2 1
   1 13 
2
(b) tanECB  EB  4.2  0.7
(c) V = area of cross-section×length CE 6
 6 4 16 
= 168×25 = 4200 cm3 1
(e)  
 ECB  tan 0.7  35.0  8 10 12 

Exercise 15 C (c) sinCAE  CE  AC  6  8.97 m  6 3  1 6 

AC sin42 2 (a) 8 (b)   (c) 3 1 (d)  
 4 2  2 8
1 2 BD  AB  tanDAB  20  tan40  16.78 cm
BC  20  tan25  9.32 cm
7cm 5cm
 8 8 10 
CD = BD – BC = 16.78 – 9.32 =7.46 = 7.5 cm (e)  
O  2 5  8
3 BC  5 2  3 2  4 cm
0 0  3 6 2 4  3 2
3 (a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
A B  cosθ  cos 180  θ    4  5 6    1 0  11 14   5 2
9cm 5
4 Area of segment = Area of sector – Area of triangle
 7 10   7 10   3 2  10 12 
2 (e)   (f)    
C A = 54    8 2  1  8  8  sin 54  8 12  15 22   2 0  13 22 
360 2
= 30.16 – 25.89 = 4.27 cm2
 4 1  2b   2  a 4  b
5 (a) x = 4×tan55˚ = 5.71cm 4 AB =   , BA =  
 2a  1 a  b  1  ab 2  b 
(b) x  10  12.2 m
55˚ 40˚
cos35 ∴a = 2, b = 1
O 2 2 2
A 6cm B (c) x = 3 + 5 – 2×3×5×cos68˚ = 22.76 5 2a×1 – (–4)×a = 12 ∴a = 2
∴x = 4.77 cm 6 det = x(x + 8) – 3(x + 2) = 0
5  sin 68 (x + 6)(x – 1) = 0 ∴x = –6, 1
sin θ   0.9719
x
 x  5 1 1   3 
–1
∴θ = sin 0.9719 =76.4˚ 7 (a)    1      
 y  7   2 116   2 
3 (d) x2 = 52 + 92 – 2×5×9×cos130˚ = 131.85
C
b(i) ∴x = 11.5 cm
 x  2 1 7   3 
b(ii) 9  sin130 (b)    1      
sin θ   0.60 ∴θ = sin–10.60 =36.9˚  y  7   3 2  7   1 
x
7cm 2 2 2
P (e) cosθ  10  8  7  0.71875  x  2 3  14   1 
Q
2  10  8 (c)    1      
y
  13   3 2   5    4 
40˚ ∴θ = cos–10.71875 =44.0˚
A B
9cm x2 = 42 + 52 – 2×4×5×cosθ = 12.25 ∴x = 3.5 cm

Exercise 18
Exercise 16 Exercise 17
- 69 -
 2  4  7 (c) DE  DB  BE  1 AB  BE  1 c  k a 1 0 
1 (a) a  b    (b) a  b    (c) 3a  2b    3 3 a = 1, b = 0, c = 0, d = –2  
6
  
 2 14  0  2
h a  2 c   k a  1 c h  k , 2 h  1  h  k  1
 3  3 3 3 2 The scale factor is –2,
(d) a  3 2  2 2  13 (e) b   12  4 2  17
5 (a)
y
(f) a  b  2 2  6 2  40 Exercise 19 C I
y 4
1 (a)
(g) a  b  4 2   2 2  20
C D G
2 E
A B H
2 (a) (i) AB  a  b
C'
A B
(ii) OM  OA  1 AB  a  1  a  b   2 a  1 b O x
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
3 3 3 3
A' B' –2
(b) AN  OA  ON   a  1 b  4 
2 (b) Translation with column vector  
  3 F
(c) OP  OA  AP  OA  h AN  a  h  a  1 b 
–4
 2  2 (a) y D C
(b) Join A to D and C to F. The point of intersection
 1  h a  1 hb
2 (3, 2) is the centre of enlargement.
A B
image length DE  4
3 (a) (i) OE  1 a (ii) BE  OB  OE  b  1 a O x    2  scale factor
3 3 A' B' object length AB 2
∴Enlargement with centre (3, 2) and scale factor –2.
(b) (i) BF  k   b  1 a 
 3  (c) The invariant line is parallel to the x-axis, so let
D' C'
the line be y = a.
(ii) OF  OB  BF  1 k a  1  k b
3 (b) Reflection in the x-axis. A(2, 2) moves 4units and C(2, 5) moves 10units.
3 (a) y 4  10 ∴a = 0
(c) OF  h OC  ha  b  C' B' The invariant line is y = 0
2a 5a

(d) 1 k  h , 1  k  h  k  3 , h  1 i.e. x-axis. Shear factor is 4  2.

3 4 4 O A' x 20
A C ∴Shear with x-axis invariant and shear factor 2.
(e) OF  1 OC ∴OF:FC = 1:3
4 B
(b) (3, 2) (c) 270˚ clockwise or 90˚ anticlockwise
4 (a) BE  k CB  k OA  k a
 a b 1 2 2   1 2 2 
4  
 

(b) DE  h OD  h OA  AD  h OA  2 AB 
3   c d

 1 1 2    3  3 

6 Exercise 20
1 (a) (i) (60˚N, 60˚W) (ii) (30˚N, 30˚E)
 h OA  2 OC   h a  2 c 
 3   3  (iii) (30˚S, 30˚E)
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K6,000-
 (b) (i) Difference in latitude = 30˚ + 30˚ = 60˚
(b) P(R and B)  2  P(R)  P(B)  2  1  1  1  2 5 5 2  2
6 2 6 10 9 10 9 9
Distance  60  2 R  6672 km
360 (iii) P(B and R) = P(BR) + P(RB)
(c) P(no R for each selection)  1  1  5
(ii) Difference in longitude = 60˚ + 30˚ = 90˚ 6 6
 5 3 3 5 1
10 9 10 9 3
Distance  90  2Rcos 60  5004 km So for two selections, P(no R)  5  5  25
360 6 6 36 (iv) P(no B) = P(WW) + P(WR) + P(RW) + P(RR)
(c) (i) 14:00 hours (d) P(two beads of the same colour)
 2 1  2 3 3 2 3 2  2
= P(RR) + P(YY) + P(BB) 10 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 9
(ii) Difference  90  6 hours
15 (v) P(two balls of the same colour)
 11  11  11  7
14:00 – 6hours = 08:00hours 6 6 3 3 2 2 18 = P(WW) + P(BB) + P(RR)
2 (a) Difference in latitude between A and B (C and D) (e) P(two beads of different colour)
 2  1  5  4  3  2  14
= 60˚ = 60×60′ = 3 600′ = 1 – P(two bead of the same colour) 10 9 10 9 10 9 45
Distance AB = 3600×cos45˚ = 2 545. 5 nm (vi) P(two balls of different colour)
 1  7  11
Distance CD = 3600×cos20˚ = 3 382. 8 nm 18 18 = 1 – P(two balls of the same colour)
Difference in longitude between B and D (A and C) 4 P(W from Y) = P(W from X)×P(W from Y)
 1  14  31
= 25˚ = 25×60′ = 1500′ + P(B from X)×P(W from Y) 45 45
Distance BD = Distance AC = 1500 nm
 2  4  3  3  17
∴Distance by jet X = 2545.5 + 1500 = 4045.5 5 6 5 6 30
= 4046 nm 5 (a) The tree diagram is shown below.
Exercise 22
∴Distance by jet Y =1500 + 3382.8 = 4882.8 W: white Outcome 360  15 represents 1hour.
1 W WW 1 1day = 24hours
= 4483 nm B: black 9 24
5
W
(b) Time  Distance  4045.5  10.1  10 hours R: red 9 B WB (a) 120  1 (b) 105  7 hours (c) 2×15˚ = 30˚
Speed 400 3 360 3 15
2 9
R WR (d) Angle of sector ‘eating’
(c) Speed  Distance  4882.8  483  480 knots
10
Time 10.1 2 W BW = 360˚ – 105˚ – 120˚ – 30˚ – 90˚ = 15˚
5 9
4 15  100  4.16  4.2%
10 B 9 B BB
3 360
Exercise 21 9
2 Arrange the numbers: 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8
R BR
1 (a) 1 (b) 3  1 (c) 3  1 3 2 W RW (a) mean  2  3  4  4  5  6  6  6  7  8  5.1
6 6 2 6 2 10 9 5 10
9
B RB
2 PH and T   PHT   PTH   1  1  1  1  1 R 2 (b) mode = 6 (c) median  5  6  5.5
2 2 2 2 2 9 2
first second R RR
3 These events are independent.
P(R)  1 , P(Y)  2  1 , P(B)  3  1 (b) (i) P(RR)  3  2  1
6 6 3 6 2 10 9 15 3 (a) 25
(ii) P(W and B) = P(WB) + P(BW)
(a) P(YY)  P(Y)  P(Y)  1  1  1 20
3 3 9 Frequency
15
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10
5
0
4.5

14.5

24.5

34.5

44.5

54.5

64.5

74.5
 (b) first term(a) =5, common difference (d) = 3
 a n  5  n  1  3  3n  2
(c) 44 = 3n + 2 ∴n = 14
(d) a n  5  25  1  3  77

(b) Redraw the table.

Marks 0–9 10 – 19 20 – 29
Centre (x) 4.5 14.5 24.5
Frequency(f) 2 7 23
Product (fx) 9 101.5 563.5 (d) (i) The median = 41 minutes
(ii) The interquartile range = 54 – 30 = 24 minutes
Marks 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59
(e) The frequency at 35minutes is 37.
Centre(x) 34.5 44.5 54.5
Frequency(f) 15 6 3 The probabilit y  37
100
Product (fx) 517.5 267 163.5
Marks 60 – 69 70 – 79 Total
Centre(x) 64.5 74.5 Exercise 23
Frequency(f) 2 2 60 1 (a) 11 + 3 = 14 and 14 + 3 = 17
Product (fx) 129 149 1900 (b) 2 – 2 = 0 and 0 – 2 = –2
(i) The number of pupil = total f = 60 (c) 100 × 10 = 1 000 and 1 000 × 10 = 10 000
Sum of fx 1900 (d)  2    1   1 and 1    1    1
(ii) Mean    31.7 (to 1dp)
total f 60  2  2 2
Sum of fx 15  8  25  17    75  6 (e) 11 + 5 = 16 and 16 + 6 = 22
4 (a) Mean  
total f 100 (f) 62 = 36 and 72 = 49

 4240  42.4 min 2 (a) a = 1, d = 2  a n  1  n  1  2  2n  1

100
(b) (b) a = 10, d = –4
x ≤20 ≤30 ≤40 ≤50 ≤60 ≤70 ≤80  a n  10  n  1  4  4n  6
f 8 25 48 68 83 94 100 n 1
(c) a = 2, r = 3  a n  2  3
2
(d) a n  n  1 (e) a n  n 3
(c) 100 3 Sequence: 5, 8, 11, . . .
(a) Each term is 3 more than the previous term.
80
∴4th term = 11 + 3 =14

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60 K6,000-
Frequency

40