12-bit designs[edit]
The Intersil 6100 family consisted of a 12-bit microprocessor (the 6100) and a range of
peripheral support and memory ICs. The microprocessor recognised the DEC PDP-
8 minicomputer instruction set. As such it was sometimes referred to as the CMOS-PDP8.
Since it was also produced by Harris Corporation, it was also known as the Harris HM-6100.
By virtue of its CMOS technology and associated benefits, the 6100 was being incorporated
into some military designs until the early 1980s.
16-bit designs[edit]
Part of a series on
Microprocessor modes for
the x86 architecture
• Real mode (Intel 8086)
• 8080 emulation mode (NEC V20/V30 only)
• Protected mode (Intel 80286)
• Unreal mode (Intel 80286)
• Virtual 8086 mode (Intel 80386)
• System Management Mode (Intel 386SL)
• Long mode (AMD Athlon 64)
• x86 virtualization (Intel Pentium 4, AMD Athlon 64)
• AIS mode (VIA C3 only)
First supported platform shown in parentheses
• v
• t
• e
The first multi-chip 16-bit microprocessor was the National Semiconductor IMP-16, introduced
in early 1973. An 8-bit version of the chipset was introduced in 1974 as the IMP-8.
Other early multi-chip 16-bit microprocessors include the MCP-1600 that Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) used in the LSI-11 OEM board set and the packaged PDP-
11/03 minicomputer—and the Fairchild Semiconductor MicroFlame 9440, both introduced in
1975–76. In late 1974, National introduced the first 16-bit single-chip microprocessor,
the National Semiconductor PACE,[54] which was later followed by an NMOS version,
the INS8900.
Next in list is the General Instrument CP1600, released in February 1975,[55] which was used
mainly in the Intellivision console.
Another early single-chip 16-bit microprocessor was TI's TMS 9900, which was also
compatible with their TI-990 line of minicomputers. The 9900 was used in the TI 990/4
minicomputer, the TI-99/4A home computer, and the TM990 line of OEM microcomputer
boards. The chip was packaged in a large ceramic 64-pin DIP package, while most 8-bit
microprocessors such as the Intel 8080 used the more common, smaller, and less expensive
plastic 40-pin DIP. A follow-on chip, the TMS 9980, was designed to compete with the Intel
8080, had the full TI 990 16-bit instruction set, used a plastic 40-pin package, moved data
8 bits at a time, but could only address 16 KB. A third chip, the TMS 9995, was a new design.
The family later expanded to include the 99105 and 99110.
The Western Design Center (WDC) introduced the CMOS 65816 16-bit upgrade of the WDC
CMOS 65C02 in 1984. The 65816 16-bit microprocessor was the core of the Apple IIGS and
later the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, making it one of the most popular 16-bit
designs of all time.
Intel "upsized" their 8080 design into the 16-bit Intel 8086, the first member of the x86 family,
which powers most modern PC type computers. Intel introduced the 8086 as a cost-effective
way of porting software from the 8080 lines, and succeeded in winning much business on that
premise. The 8088, a version of the 8086 that used an 8-bit external data bus, was the
microprocessor in the first IBM PC. Intel then released the 80186 and 80188, the 80286 and, in
1985, the 32-bit 80386, cementing their PC market dominance with the processor family's
backwards compatibility. The 80186 and 80188 were essentially versions of the 8086 and
8088, enhanced with some onboard peripherals and a few new instructions. Although Intel's
80186 and 80188 were not used in IBM PC type designs,[dubious – discuss] second source versions
from NEC, the V20 and V30 frequently were. The 8086 and successors had an innovative but
limited method of memory segmentation, while the 80286 introduced a full-featured
segmented memory management unit (MMU). The 80386 introduced a flat 32-bit memory
model with paged memory management.
The 16-bit Intel x86 processors up to and including the 80386 do not include floating-point units
(FPUs). Intel introduced the 8087, 80187, 80287 and 80387 math coprocessors to add
hardware floating-point and transcendental function capabilities to the 8086 through 80386
CPUs. The 8087 works with the 8086/8088 and 80186/80188,[56] the 80187 works with the
80186 but not the 80188,[57] the 80287 works with the 80286 and the 80387 works with the
80386. The combination of an x86 CPU and an x87 coprocessor forms a single multi-chip
microprocessor; the two chips are programmed as a unit using a single integrated instruction
set.[58] The 8087 and 80187 coprocessors are connected in parallel with the data and address
buses of their parent processor and directly execute instructions intended for them. The 80287
and 80387 coprocessors are interfaced to the CPU through I/O ports in the CPU's address
space, this is transparent to the program, which does not need to know about or access these
I/O ports directly; the program accesses the coprocessor and its registers through normal
instruction opcodes.
32-bit designs[edit]
Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 die
16-bit designs had only been on the market briefly when 32-bit implementations started to
appear.
The most significant of the 32-bit designs is the Motorola MC68000, introduced in 1979. The
68k, as it was widely known, had 32-bit registers in its programming model but used 16-bit
internal data paths, three 16-bit Arithmetic Logic Units, and a 16-bit external data bus (to
reduce pin count), and externally supported only 24-bit addresses (internally it worked with full
32 bit addresses). In PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes the MC68000 internal microcode
was modified to emulate the 32-bit System/370 IBM mainframe.[59] Motorola generally
described it as a 16-bit processor. The combination of high performance, large
(16 megabytes or 224 bytes) memory space and fairly low cost made it the most popular CPU
design of its class. The Apple Lisa and Macintosh designs made use of the 68000, as did other
designs in the mid-1980s, including the Atari ST and Amiga.
The world's first single-chip fully 32-bit microprocessor, with 32-bit data paths, 32-bit buses,
and 32-bit addresses, was the AT&T Bell Labs BELLMAC-32A, with first samples in 1980, and
general production in 1982.[60][61] After the divestiture of AT&T in 1984, it was renamed the WE
32000 (WE for Western Electric), and had two follow-on generations, the WE 32100 and WE
32200. These microprocessors were used in the AT&T 3B5 and 3B15 minicomputers; in the
3B2, the world's first desktop super microcomputer; in the "Companion", the world's first 32-
bit laptop computer; and in "Alexander", the world's first book-sized super microcomputer,
featuring ROM-pack memory cartridges similar to today's gaming consoles. All these systems
ran the UNIX System V operating system.
The first commercial, single chip, fully 32-bit microprocessor available on the market was
the HP FOCUS.
Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor was the iAPX 432, which was introduced in 1981, but was not
a commercial success. It had an advanced capability-based object-oriented architecture, but
poor performance compared to contemporary architectures such as Intel's own 80286
(introduced 1982), which was almost four times as fast on typical benchmark tests. However,
the results for the iAPX432 was partly due to a rushed and therefore
suboptimal Ada compiler.[citation needed]
Motorola's success with the 68000 led to the MC68010, which added virtual memory support.
The MC68020, introduced in 1984 added full 32-bit data and address buses. The 68020
became hugely popular in the Unix supermicrocomputer market, and many small companies
(e.g., Altos, Charles River Data Systems, Cromemco) produced desktop-size systems.
The MC68030 was introduced next, improving upon the previous design by integrating the
MMU into the chip. The continued success led to the MC68040, which included an FPU for
better math performance. The 68050 failed to achieve its performance goals and was not
released, and the follow-up MC68060 was released into a market saturated by much faster
RISC designs. The 68k family faded from use in the early 1990s.
Other large companies designed the 68020 and follow-ons into embedded equipment. At one
point, there were more 68020s in embedded equipment than there were Intel Pentiums in
PCs.[62] The ColdFire processor cores are derivatives of the 68020.
During this time (early to mid-1980s), National Semiconductor introduced a very similar 16-bit
pinout, 32-bit internal microprocessor called the NS 16032 (later renamed 32016), the full 32-
bit version named the NS 32032. Later, National Semiconductor produced the NS 32132,
which allowed two CPUs to reside on the same memory bus with built in arbitration. The
NS32016/32 outperformed the MC68000/10, but the NS32332—which arrived at approximately
the same time as the MC68020—did not have enough performance. The third generation chip,
the NS32532, was different. It had about double the performance of the MC68030, which was
released around the same time. The appearance of RISC processors like the AM29000 and
MC88000 (now both dead) influenced the architecture of the final core, the NS32764.
Technically advanced—with a superscalar RISC core, 64-bit bus, and internally overclocked—
it could still execute Series 32000 instructions through real-time translation.
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