13.

WATER {CLASS 7 / chapter - 5}

08 May 2024 11:53

Water
• Sun's heat causes evaporation of water into vapor.
• Water vapor cools, condenses, and forms clouds.
• Precipitation (rain, snow, sleet) falls on land or sea.
• Water continually changes form, circulates between oceans, atmosphere, and land.
• Persistence of Water
→ Earth's water cycle resembles a terrarium; water that existed centuries ago still exists today.
→ Water used for irrigation in one location may have traveled through rivers to a different location years ago.
• Sources of Fresh Water
→ Rivers, ponds, springs, and glaciers are major sources of fresh water.
• Salinity of Oceans
→ Oceans and seas contain salty water due to dissolved salts, primarily sodium chloride (table salt).
• Terrarium
→ Artificial enclosure for keeping small house plants.
• Distribution of Water Bodies
→ Three-fourth of Earth's surface covered by water.
→ Despite abundance of water, many countries face water scarcity.
• Availability of Water
→ Not all water on Earth is readily available for use.
• Distribution of Water
→ Table provides distribution of water in percentage.
• Salinity of Oceans
→ Average salinity of oceans is 35 parts per thousand.
→ Dead Sea in Israel has salinity of 340 grams per liter.
→ Increased salt content makes it dense, allowing swimmers to float.
• Ocean Circulation
→ Ocean movements categorized as waves, tides, and currents.
• Waves
→ Ocean water continuously moving, never still.
→ Waves: water on surface rises and falls alternately.
→ Formed by winds scraping across ocean surface.
→ During storms, high-speed winds create huge waves.
→ Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or underwater landslides can generate tsunamis.
→ Tsunamis travel at speeds exceeding 700 km/h.
→ 2004 tsunami caused widespread damage in coastal areas of India.
• Tsunami
→ Japanese word meaning "Harbour waves."
→ Harbors get destroyed during tsunamis.
• Tides
• Rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice daily.
• High tide: water covers much of shore at highest level.
• Low tide: water falls to lowest level, recedes from shore.
• Gravitational pull of sun and moon causes tides.
→ High tides during full moon and new moon (spring tides).
→ Low tides during first and last quarter moon (neap tides).
• High tides aid navigation, fishing, and electricity generation.
• Ocean Currents
→ Constant streams of water flowing on ocean surface in definite directions.
→ Warm currents originate near equator, move towards poles.
→ Cold currents carry water from polar to tropical latitudes.
→ Examples: Labrador Ocean current (cold), Gulf Stream (warm).
→ Influence temperature conditions of areas.
▪ Warm currents bring warm temperatures over land.
▪ Areas where warm and cold currents meet provide best fishing grounds (e.g., seas around Japan, eastern coast of North
America).
▪ Meeting areas also experience foggy weather, challenging navigation.

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 13. WATER {CLASS 11/ chapter 14}
08 May 2024 12:33

MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER

• Dynamic Nature of Ocean Water
→ Physical characteristics (temperature, salinity, density) and external forces (sun, moon, winds) influence ocean water movement.
→ Horizontal and vertical motions are common.
• Horizontal Motion
→ Ocean currents continuous flow of water in definite direction.
→ Waves: horizontal motion of water, wave trains move ahead.
• Vertical Motion
→ Tides: rhythmic rise and fall of water in oceans and seas.
▪ Occurs twice a day due to gravitational pull of sun and moon.
→ Upwelling of cold water from subsurface and sinking of surface water are forms of vertical motion.
• Waves
→ Waves transmit energy across ocean surface, not water itself.
→ Wind provides energy to waves, causing them to travel.
→ Surface water motion minimally affects stagnant deep ocean water.
→ Waves slow down as they approach beach due to friction with sea floor.
→ Break when depth of water is less than half the wavelength.
→ Largest waves found in open oceans, grow larger as they absorb wind energy.
→ Most waves caused by wind driving against water, forming ripples that grow into waves.
→ Wave size and shape reveal origin, steep waves likely from local wind, slow and steady waves from distant places.
→ Maximum wave height determined by strength and duration of wind.
→ Waves travel due to wind pushing water and gravity pulling wave crests downward.
→ Circular motion of water beneath waves: upward as wave approaches, downward as it passes.
• Characteristics of Waves
→ Wave crest and trough: Highest and lowest points of a wave.
→ Wave height: Vertical distance from trough bottom to crest top.
→ Wave amplitude: Half of the wave height.
→ Wave period: Time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs.
→ Wavelength: Horizontal distance between two successive crests.
→ Wave speed: Rate of wave movement through water, measured in knots.
→ Wave frequency: Number of waves passing a point during one-second time interval.
• Tides
→ Periodical rise and fall of sea level, occurring once or twice a day, primarily due to the attraction of the sun and moon.
→ Surges, caused by meteorological effects like winds and atmospheric pressure changes, are irregular and not as predictable as
tides.
→ Study of tides is complex spatially and temporally, with significant variations in frequency, magnitude, and height.
• Causes of Tides
→ Moon's gravitational pull, augmented by the sun's gravitational pull to a lesser extent, are major factors in tidal occurrence.
→ Centrifugal force, counterbalancing gravity, contributes to the formation of tidal bulges on Earth.
→ Gravitational attraction and centrifugal force create two major tidal bulges on Earth, one facing the moon and the other on the
opposite side.
• Tide-Generating Force
→ The difference between gravitational attraction and centrifugal force creates the tide-generating force.
→ Near the moon, gravitational pull exceeds centrifugal force, causing a bulge towards the moon, while on the opposite side,
centrifugal force dominates, resulting in a bulge away from the moon.
• Impact of Geography
→ Horizontal tide-generating forces are more crucial than vertical forces in forming tidal bulges.
→ Wide continental shelves lead to higher tidal bulges, while mid-oceanic islands experience lower tides.
→ Bay and estuary shapes along coastlines can amplify tidal intensities, with funnel-shaped bays significantly altering tidal
magnitudes.
• Example: Bay of Fundy
→ The highest tides globally occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada, with tidal bulges reaching 15-16 meters.
→ With two high tides and two low tides daily, the tide rises about 240 cm per hour, making it crucial to monitor tide movements,
especially in areas with steep cliffs.
• Types of Tides
→ Tides vary in frequency, direction, and movement depending on location and time.
→ Tides can be categorized based on frequency in a day or 24 hours, as well as based on their height.
• Tides Based on Frequency
→ Semi-diurnal tide: Features two high tides and two low tides each day, with successive tides of similar height.
→ Diurnal tide: Only one high tide and one low tide occur each day, with successive tides of similar height.
Mixed tide: Variations in tide height occur, often observed along the west coast of North America and Pacific islands.

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 → Mixed tide: Variations in tide height occur, often observed along the west coast of North America and Pacific islands.
• Tides Based on Sun, Moon, and Earth Positions
→ Spring tides: Occur when the sun, moon, and earth are in a straight line, resulting in higher tides, happening twice a month
during full and new moon periods.
→ Neap tides: Happen when the sun and moon are at right angles to each other, occurring about seven days after spring tides, with
forces counteracting each other.
→ Monthly variations: Tidal ranges are influenced by the moon's orbit (perigee and apogee) and the earth's distance from the sun
(perihelion and aphelion).
• Additional Information
→ Ebb and flow: The falling water level between high tide and low tide is called ebb, while the rising tide is called flow or flood.

• Predictability of Tides
→ Tides, determined by the positions of the earth, moon, and sun, can be accurately predicted well in advance.
→ This predictability aids navigators and fishermen in planning their activities effectively.
• Importance in Navigation
→ Tidal flows play a crucial role in navigation, influencing routes and timings for ships and boats.
→ Tidal heights are particularly significant for harbors near rivers and estuaries with shallow bars at the entrance, affecting vessel
access.
• Environmental Benefits
→ Tides aid in desilting sediments and removing polluted water from river estuaries, contributing to environmental cleanliness.
• Energy Generation
→ Tidal energy is utilized for generating electrical power in various countries like Canada, France, Russia, and China.
→ Projects like the 3 MW tidal power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans, West Bengal, demonstrate ongoing efforts to harness
tidal energy for sustainable power generation.
• Nature of Ocean Currents
→ Ocean currents resemble river flows in oceans, representing a consistent volume of water following specific paths and directions.
→ Influenced by two types of forces: primary forces initiating movement and secondary forces shaping the flow.
• Primary Forces
→ Heating by solar energy causes water expansion, creating a slight gradient that encourages water to flow down slopes,
particularly near the equator.
→ Wind action on the ocean surface pushes water, with friction between wind and water affecting movement.
→ Gravity contributes to gradient variation, pulling water down and creating movement.
→ Coriolis force deflects water to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere, resulting in the
formation of Gyres—large accumulations of water producing circular currents.
• Vertical Mobility
→ Differences in water density, influenced by salinity and temperature, affect vertical mobility of ocean currents.
→ Denser, colder water sinks at the poles and moves towards the equator, while warmer, less dense water moves towards the poles
along the surface.
• Characteristics of Ocean Currents
→ Currents are categorized by their "drift," with surface currents typically stronger than deeper currents.
→ Drift, measured in knots, indicates the speed of a current, with most currents having speeds less than or equal to 5 knots.
→ Current strength decreases with depth, with surface currents often exceeding 5 knots in speed.
• Classification of Ocean Currents
→ Ocean currents can be categorized based on their depth as surface currents and deep water currents.
→ Surface currents constitute approximately 10% of ocean water, located in the upper 400 meters of the ocean.
→ Deep water currents comprise the remaining 90% of ocean water, moving due to density and gravity variations, especially sinking
into deep ocean basins at high latitudes where temperatures are cold.
• Classification Based on Temperature
→ Cold currents and warm currents.
→ Cold currents
▪ Transport cold water into warm water areas
▪ Found  west coast of continents in low and middle latitudes, and on the east coast in higher latitudes in the Northern
Hemisphere.
→ Warm currents
▪ Carry warm water into cold water areas
▪ Observed  east coast of continents in low and middle latitudes, and on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes
in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Influence of Winds and Coriolis Force
→ Significantly influenced.
→ Oceanic circulation patterns correspond to the earth's atmospheric circulation patterns, with anticyclonic circulation prevalent in
middle latitudes, more pronounced in the southern hemisphere.
→ Cyclonic wind flow at higher latitudes corresponds to oceanic circulation patterns.
• Effect of Monsoon Winds
→ Regions with pronounced monsoonal flow experience influence from monsoon winds on current movements.
Coriolis Force and Current Movements

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• Coriolis Force and Current Movements
→ Due to Coriolis force, warm currents from low latitudes deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
• Heat Transport
→ Oceanic circulation facilitates the transport of heat between latitude belts, similar to atmospheric circulation.
→ Cold waters from Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer tropical and equatorial regions, while warm waters from lower
latitudes move polewards.
• Direct and Indirect Influences of Ocean Currents
→ Ocean currents exert both direct and indirect influences on human activities.
• Effects on Coastal Climates
→ West coasts of continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (excluding equatorial regions) are bordered by cool waters,
resulting in relatively low average temperatures with narrow diurnal and annual temperature ranges.
→ These areas typically experience arid conditions with occasional fog.
→ West coasts of continents in middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters, creating a distinct marine climate
characterized by cool summers and mild winters with narrow temperature ranges.
• Effects on Climate Patterns
→ Warm currents flowing parallel to the east coasts of continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes lead to warm and rainy
climates.
→ These areas are located in the western margins of subtropical anticyclones.
• Impact on Marine Ecosystems
→ Mixing of warm and cold currents replenishes oxygen levels and promotes the growth of plankton, the primary food for fish
populations.
→ Major fishing grounds are often located in these mixing zones.

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