MATH 18.100A/18.

1001 Assignment 1

Chapters and exercises given with a numbering are from Basic Analysis: Introduction to
Real Analysis (Vol I) by J. Lebl.

Reading Section 0.3

Exercises

1. Exercise 0.3.6
2. Exercise 0.3.11
3. Exercise 0.3.12
4. Exercise 0.3.15
5. Exercise 0.3.19
6. In this exercise, you will prove that

|{q ∈ Q : q > 0}| = |N|.

In what follows, we will use the following theorem without proof:

Theorem. Let q ∈ Q with q > 0. Then
1) if q ∈ N and q =
6 1, then there exists unique prime numbers p1 < p2 < · · · <
pN and unique exponents r1 , . . . , rN ∈ N such that

q = pr11 pr22 · · · prNN , (†)

2) if q ∈
/ N, then there exist unique prime numbers p1 < p2 < . . . < pN , q1 <
q2 < · · · < qM with pi 6= qj for all i ∈ {1, . . . , N }, j ∈ {1, . . . M }, and unique
exponents r1 , . . . , rN , s1 , . . . sM ∈ N such that
rN
pr11 pr22 · · · pN
q= sM .. (‡)
q1s1 q2s2 · · · qM

Define f : {q ∈ Q : q > 0} → N as follows: f (1) = 1, if q ∈ N\{1} is given by (†),

then
2rN
f (q) = p2r
1 · · · pN ,
1

and if q ∈ Q\N is given by (‡), then

2rN 2s1 −1 2sM −1
f (q) = p2r
1 · · · pN q1
1
· · · qM .

(a) Compute f (4/15). Find q such that f (q) = 108.

(b) Use the Theorem to prove that f is a bijection.

1
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 18.100A Assignment 1

Octavio Vega

February 10, 2023

Problem 1
(a)
Proof. We will show that each set is a subset of the other to prove equality. Let
S = A ∩ (B ∪ C) and T = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
Let x ∈ S. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C,
=⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B, or x ∈ A and x ∈ C
=⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C
=⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = T .
Thus x ∈ S =⇒ x ∈ T , so S ⊆ T . Now let x ∈ T . Then x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),
=⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C
=⇒ x ∈ A, and x ∈ B or C
=⇒ x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C) = S.
Thus x ∈ T =⇒ x ∈ S, so T ⊆ S, which means S = T .
Hence, A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

(b)
Proof. We proceed as in (a). Let S = A ∪ (B ∩ C) and T = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
First let x ∈ S. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∩ C,
=⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B, and x ∈ A or x ∈ C
=⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = T .
Thus x ∈ S =⇒ x ∈ T , so S ⊆ T . Now let x ∈ T . Then x ∈ A ∪ B and
x ∈ A ∪ C. If x ∈ A, then the requirement is satisfied immediately, regardless

1
of whether x is in B or C. Otherwise, if x ∈
/ A, then x ∈ B and x ∈ C must be
true. So x ∈ A, or x ∈ B and x ∈ C
=⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) = S.
Thus x ∈ T =⇒ x ∈ S, so T ⊆ S, which means S = T .
Hence, A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Problem 2
Proof. (By induction).
The inductive hypothesis P (n) is that, for n ∈ N, n < 2n .
(Base case): 1 < 21 , so P (1) is true.
(Inductive step): Assume P (n) is true for n = m, i.e. that m < 2m holds for
m ∈ N. Then

2m+1 = 2 · 2m > 2m (1)

= m + m > m + 1, since m > 1 (2)
=⇒ 2 m+1
> m + 1. (3)

So P (m) =⇒ P (m + 1), which means P (n) is true for all n ∈ N.

Thus, ∀n ∈ N, 2n > n.

Problem 3
Proof. Let A be a finite set such that |A| = n. We form the power set P(A)
by creating the set of all possible subsets of A. Hence |P(A)| is equivalent
to the number of possible subsets of A, which we compute by summing over
the number of combinations that can be created by choosing elements of A, in
succession from choosing no elements (the empty set ∅) to choosing all elements
(the full set A). Thus
n  
n
(4)
X
|P(A)| = .
k
k=0

By the binomial expansion theorem,

n  
n k n−k
(5)
X
p q = (p + q)n .
k
k=0

Substituting p = q = 1 into (5), we arrive at the desired result,

|P(A)| = (1 + 1)n = 2n . (6)

2
Problem 4
Proof. (By induction).
P (n) is the hypothesis that for n ∈ N, n3 + 5n is divisible by 6.
(Base case): 13 + 5 · 1 = 1 + 5 = 6 is divisible by 6, so P (1) is true.
(Inductive step): Assume P (m) holds, i.e. 6 divides m3 + 5m. Then

(m + 1)3 + 5m = m3 + 3m2 + 3m + 1 + 5m + 1 (7)

3
= m + 5m + 6 + 3m(m + 1), (8)

where by the inductive hypothesis m3 + 5m + 6 is divisible by 6 and 3m(m + 1)

is also divisible by 6 because it is divisible by both 3 and 2. So, their sum
(m+1)3 +5(m+1) must also be divisible by 6, which means P (m) =⇒ P (m+1).
Thus, ∀n ∈ N, n3 + 5n is divisible by 6.

Problem 5
Proof. Let A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An , An+1 , ... be finite sets, and let there be infinitely
∞
many of them. We wish to find an example where |
S
Ai | = ∞.
i=1

To satisfy this, choose Ai = {i}. Then A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 · · · = {1, 2, 3, ...} = N. So

their union is not a finite set, as desired.

Problem 6
(a)
Consider q = 15 .
4
Then
4 2·2 22
= = . (9)
15 3·5 3·5
So we compute  
4
f = 22·2 · 32−1 · 52−1 = 24 · 3 · 5. (10)
15
Hence, f 4


15 = 240.
Now suppose f (q) = 108. Then we write

108 = 2 · 54 = 2 · 2 · 27 = 22 · 33 = p2r 1 2s1 −1

1 q1 , (11)

so we identify r1 = 1 and s1 = 2. Thus,

pr11 2 2
q= s1 = 2 = . (12)
q1 3 9

3
(b)
Proof. We first show that f is injective.
Let f (t1 ) = f (t2 ). Then we consider three cases:
Case 1: f (t1 ) = f (t2 ) = 1,
=⇒ t1 = 1 and t2 = 1
=⇒ t1 = t2 .
Case 2: t ∈ N\{1}, t1 = pr11 · · · prNN , t2 = q1s1 · · · qN
sN
,
f (t1 ) = f (t2 )
=⇒ p2r 2rN
1 · · · pN
1
= q12s1 · · · qN
2sn

sN
=⇒ pr11 · · · prnN = q1s1 · · · qN ,
since t1 , t2 > 0. But according to the theorem stated in the problem, these prime
numbers and exponents are unique, so if they are equal to the same number,
then they must all be equal. Thus pi = qi and ri = si ∀i ∈ {1, 2, ..., N }, which
implies that t1 = t2 .
Case 3: t1 , t2 ∈
/ N,
f (t1 ) = f (t2 )
=⇒ p2r 2rN
1 · · · pN
1 2sM −1
· q12s1 −1 · · · qM = w12y1 · · · wN
2yN
· x2z
1
1 −1
· · · x2z
M
M −1

2r 2r 2y 2y
p1 1 ···pN N w1 1 ···wN N
=⇒ 1−2s1 1−2sM = 1−2z1 1−2zM ,
q1 ···qM x1 ···xM

but once again the primes and exponents must be the same since they are all
unique, so t1 = t2 . Thus, f is injective.
Next, we show that f is surjective.
We want to prove that for any n ∈ N, ∃q ∈ Q, q > 0 such that f (q) = n. We
again consider three cases:
Case 1: n = 1, then we simply have q = 1 since f (1) = 1 by definition.
Case 2: n = p2r
1 · · · pN ,
1 2rN

2
=⇒ n = (pr11 · · · prNN )
√
=⇒ n = pr11 · · · prNN ,
since q > 0. By part (1) of the theorem, these primes and exponents are unique
for q ∈ N, so n2 = q for q > 0 and q ∈ N. Then f (q) = f (pr11 · · · prNN ) = n.
Case 3: n = p2r 2rN
1 · · · pN
1 2sM −1
· q12s1 −1 · · · qM ,
2r 2r
p1 1 ···pN N
=⇒ n = 1−2s1 1−2sM ,
q1 ···qM

4
so by part (2) of the theorem, this corresponds to a unique q ∈ N where q =
r r
p11 ···pNN
s s
q11 ···qNN
. Therefore, f is surjective as well.

Hence f is both injective and surjective, so we conclude that f is bijective.

5
MATH 18.100A/18.1001 Assignment 2

Exercises given with a numbering are from Basic Analysis: Introduction to Real
Analysis (Vol I) by J. Lebl.

Reading Sections 0.3, 1.1, 1.2

Exercises

1. Exercise 1.1.1
2. Exercise 1.1.2
3. Exercise 1.1.5
4. Exercise 1.1.6
5. Exercise 1.2.7
6. Exercise 1.2.9
7. Let

E = {x ∈ R : x > 0 and x3 < 2}.

(a) Prove that E is bounded above.

(b) Let r = sup E (which exists by part (a)). Prove that r > 0 and r3 = 2.
Hint: Adapt the proof used in Example 1.2.3.

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 18.100A Assignment 2

Octavio Vega

February 15, 2023

Problem 1
Proof. (By contradiction).
Suppose instead that xy ≤ xz. Then
=⇒ xy − xz ≤ 0
=⇒ x(y − z) ≤ 0.
Since x < 0 by assumption, it must then be true that y − z ≥ 0. But then
=⇒ y ≥ z ⇒⇐,
which is a contradiction since we assumed that y < z. Thus, xy > xz.

Problem 2
(a)
Proof. We want to show that ∃b ∈ S such that ∀a ∈ A, a ≤ b.
Since S is ordered, then for every x, y ∈ S, we have that either x < y, x > y, or
x = y. But since A ⊂ S, then ∀a ∈ A, a ∈ A =⇒ a ∈ S.
=⇒ ∀a, b ∈ A, either a < b, a > b, or a = b.
So A is also ordered. Since A is finite, then ∃a0 ∈ A such that ∀a ∈ A, a0 ≥ a.
Thus, A is bounded.

(b)
Proof. (By contradiction).
Assuming A is finite, suppose instead that there is no maximal element in A.
Choose an element a1 ∈ A. Then, since a1 is not the maximum, ∃a2 ∈ A such
that a1 < a2 . But a2 is also not the maximum of A, so ∃a3 ∈ A such that

1
a2 < a3 . Continuing in this manner, we find an increasing sequence {an }n∈N of
elements of A, i.e. such that

a1 < a2 < · · · < an < an+1 < · · · . (1)

But because this sequence is infinite and contained in A, this contradicts the
assumption that A is finite. Thus, there must exist a maximal element in A.
To show that there exists a minimum element, we recreate the same argument
from above where instead, supposing that there is no minimal element, we
demonstrate that we can construct an infinite decreasing sequence
· · · an < · · · < a2 < a1 of elements of A, once again arriving at a contradiction.
Therfore, both inf A and sup A exist in A.

Problem 3
Proof. Since b is an upper bound for A, then ∀a ∈ A, a ≤ b.
Suppose b 6= sup A. Then ∃ some other element c ∈ A such that c = sup A,
since by problem 2, A must have a supremum because it is finite and a subset
of an ordered set. But since b ∈ A, then b ≤ c.
However, we assumed that b is an upper bound for A, so since c ∈ A, this imples
that b ≥ c. Thus we have that b ≤ c and b ≥ c, so it must hold that b = c.
Therefore b = sup A, as desired.

Problem 4
Proof. Suppose sup A ∈ / A, and let x0 ∈ A. Towards a contradiction, suppose
that ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ x0 . Then x0 is an upper bound for A.
Since x0 ∈ A, then by problem 3, x0 = sup A. But we assumed sup A ∈
/ A, so
contradiction.
So for any x0 ∈ A, ∃x1 such that x1 > x0 . We can repeat the logic above to
show that this holds for arbitrary xi ∈ A, since no xi can both be an upper
bound for A while also being contained in A. Thus ∀xi ∈ A, ∃xi+1 such that
xi < xi+1 .
So we obtain an infinite decreasing sequence {xi }i∈N of elements of A. Hence,
these elements form a countably infinite subset of A, since |{xi |i ∈ N}| = |N|.
Therefore, A does indeed contain a countably infinite subset.

2
Problem 5
(a)
Proof. (Arithmetic Mean - Geometric Mean Inequality)
√ √
Consider the difference x − y. We compute:
√ √
2 √
0≤ x − y = x + y − 2 xy (2)
√
=⇒ 2 xy ≤ x + y (3)
√
Dividing both sides of (3) by 2, we obtain the desired result: xy ≤ 2 .
x+y

(b)
√
Proof. (⇒) Suppose xy = 2 .
x+y
Then
√
=⇒ 2 xy − x − y = 0 (4)
√
=⇒ x + y − 2 xy = 0 (5)
√ √
2
=⇒ x− y =0 (6)
√ √
=⇒ x− y =0 (7)
√ √
=⇒ x= y (8)
=⇒ x = y. (9)
(⇐) Suppose x = y. Then
x+y x+x
= =x (10)
2 √2 √ √ √
= x· x= x· y (11)
√
= xy. (12)
√
Thus, x+y
2 = xy ⇐⇒ x = y.

Problem 6
(a)
Proof. Since A is bounded, then ∃a0 such that ∀a ∈ A, a ≥ a0 . Similarly, since
B is bounded, then ∃b0 such that ∀b ∈ B, b ≥ b0 .
Let c ∈ C, i.e. let a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and take c = a + b. Then for all such c,
c = a + b ≥ a0 + b ≥ a0 + b0 (13)
Hence, the set C is bounded below. By the same logic, we can show that ∀c ∈ C,
c < a1 + b1 where a1 and b1 are upper bounds for A and B, respectively. So C
is also bounded above.
Therefore, C is bounded.

3
(b)
Proof. Let  > 0. By definition of supremum, ∃x ∈ A, y ∈ B such that x + 2 >
sup A and y + 2 > sup B. Then
   
x+y+= x+ + y+ (14)
2 2
> sup A + sup B. (15)

So for every  > 0, ∃c = x + y ∈ C such that

c +  > sup A + sup B. (16)

Then we conclude that sup C = sup A + sup B.

(c)
Proof. Let  > 0. By definition of infimum, ∃x ∈ A, y ∈ B such that x − 2 <
inf A and y − 2 < inf B. Then
   
x+y−= x− + y− (17)
2 2
< inf A + inf B. (18)

So for every  > 0, ∃c = x + y ∈ C such that

c −  < inf A + inf B. (19)

Then we conclude that inf C = inf A + inf B.

Problem 7
(a)
Proof. Let E = {x ∈ R | x > 0 and x3 < 2}. So ∀x ∈ E, x3 < 2. Then

=⇒ x3 − 2 < 0 (20)
  
(21)
1 1 2
=⇒ x − 2 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 2 3 < 0.

But x > 0 =⇒ x2 + 2 3 x + 2 3 > 0, so ∀x ∈ E,

1 2

(22)
1
=⇒ x − 2 3 < 0
√
(23)
3
=⇒ x < 2.

Thus, E is bounded above.

4
(b)
Proof. Let r = sup E, which exists by part (a) and problem 2 (b). We first show
that r > 0.
By definition of the supremum and the set E, ∀x ∈ E, x ≤ r and x > 0. Thus
0 < x ≤ r, so r is indeed positive.
Next we show that r3 = 2.
√
Suppose, toward a contradiction,
√ that r > 3 2. Since r = sup √
E, then x ≤ r for
any x ∈ E. But since 3 2 is an upper bound for E, then x < 3 2 ∀x ∈ E. So
√
(24)
3
=⇒ x < 2 < r
=⇒ r 6= sup E, ⇒⇐ . (25)
√
This is a contradiction, since we assumed that r = sup E. Thus r ≤ 3 2 =⇒
r3 ≤ 2.
√
Now suppose instead, toward another contradiction, that r < 3 2. Then
 √ 3
r3 < (26)
3
2 = 2.
√
But then r ∈ E,√and 3 2 > r which implies that r 6= √
sup E, another
√ contradic-
tion. Thus r ≥√ 3 2. So we have shown that both r ≤ 3 2 and r ≥ 3 2. Then we
conclude r = 3 2.
Hence, r3 = 2.

5
MATH 18.100A/18.1001 Assignment 3

Exercises given with a numbering are from Basic Analysis: Introduction to Real
Analysis (Vol I) by J. Lebl.

Reading Sections 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 2.1

Exercises

1. Suppose x, y ∈ R and x < y. Prove that there exists i ∈ R\Q such that x < i < y.
2. Let E ⊂ (0, 1) be the set of all real numbers with decimal representation using
only the digits 1 and 2:

E := {x ∈ (0, 1) : ∀j ∈ N, ∃d−j ∈ {1, 2} such that x = 0.d−1 d−2 . . .}

Prove that |E| = |℘(N)|. Hint: Consider the function f : E → ℘(N) such that if
x ∈ E, x = 0.d−1 d−2 . . .,

f (x) = {j ∈ N : d−j = 2}.

3. (a) Let A and B be two disjoint, countably infinite sets. Prove that A ∪ B is
countably infinite.
(b) Prove that the set of irrational numbers, R\Q, is uncountable. You may use
the facts discussed in the lectures that R\Q is infinite and R is uncountable
without proof.
4. Let A be a subset of R which is bounded above, and let a0 be an upper bound for
A. Prove that a0 = sup A if and only if for every  > 0, there exists a ∈ A such
that a0 −  < a.
5. We say a set U ⊂ R is open if for every x ∈ U there exists  > 0 such that

(x − , x + ) ⊂ U.

Since the definition is vacuous for U = ∅, it follows that the empty set is open.
It is also clear from the definition that U = R is open.
(a) Let a, b ∈ R with a < b. Prove that the sets (−∞, a), (a, b), and (b, ∞) are
open.
(b) Let Λ be a set (not necessarily a subset of R), and for each λ ∈ Λ, let Uλ ⊂ R.
Prove that if Uλ is open for all λ ∈ Λ then the set
[
Uλ = {x ∈ R : ∃λ ∈ Λ such that x ∈ Uλ }
λ∈Λ

is open.
(c) Let n ∈ N, and let U1 , . . . Un ⊂ R. Prove that if U1 , . . . , Un are open then the
set n
\
Um = {x ∈ R : x ∈ Um for all m = 1, . . . , n}
m=1
is an open set.

1
MATH 18.100A/18.1001 Assignment 3: Due September 25, 2020

(d) Is the set of rationals Q ⊂ R open? Provide a proof to substantiate your

claim.
6. Prove that
1
lim = 0.
n→∞ 20n2 + 20n + 2020

2
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18.100A / 18.1001 Real Analysis

Fall 2020

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 18.100A Assignment 3

Octavio Vega

February 22, 2023

Problem 1
Proof. Let x, y ∈ R with x < y. By the density of Q, we have that ∃r ∈ Q such
that x < r < y.
√ √
Then x + 2 < y + 2. Then ∃r ∈ Q such that
√ √
x+ 2<r <y+ 2 (1)
√
=⇒ x < r − 2 < y. (2)
√ √
But since r ∈ Q and / Q, then the number i := r −
2∈ 2∈
/ Q.
So x < i < y with i ∈ R\Q, as desired.

Problem 2
Proof. Define the function f : E → ℘(N) such that if x = 0.d−1 d−2 ..., then

f (x) = {j ∈ N | d−j = 2}. (3)

We want to show that f is a bijection. First, we show that f is injective.

Let x1 = 0.d−1 d−2 ... and x2 = 0.d−1 d−2 ... for x1 , x2 ∈ E. Suppose f (x1 ) =
(1) (1) (2) (2)

f (x2 ). Then
(4)
(1) (2)
{j ∈ N | d−j = 2} = {k ∈ N | d−k = 2}.
Since each digit d−j ∈ {1, 2}, then the sets of digits must be the same:

(5)
(1) (2)
{d−j | j ∈ N} = {d−k | k ∈ N}.

But by the theorem from class, we know that for every set of digits ∃!x ∈ [0, 1]
such that x = 0.d−1 d−2 .... So if all of the digits are the same, then the numbers
must be the same, i.e.

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 . (6)

1
Thus f is injective.
Next, we show that f is surjective.
Let S ∈ ℘(N) with
S := {j ∈ N | d−j = 2}. (7)
Since this corresponds to the indices for a set of digits, then by the theorem
from class ∃x ∈ [0, 1] such that x = 0.d−1 d−2 ...; i.e. for any S ∈ ℘(N), ∃x ∈ E
such that f (x) = S.
Hence, f is also surjective, which means that it is bijective.
Therefore we conclude that |E| = |℘(N)|.

Problem 3
(a)
Proof. We want to show that there exists a bijection h : A ∪ B → N.
Recall that we can construct the sets of even and odd natural numbers as follows:

O := {2n + 1 | n ∈ N}, and E := {2n | n ∈ N}. (8)

We also know that |O| = |E| = |N| because the functions defined via fe (n) = 2n
and fo (n) = 2n+1, mapping E to N and O to N, respectively, are both bijective.
Finally, we note that O ∪ E = N.
Since A and B are both countably infinite, i.e. |A| = |B| = |N|, then ∃ bijections
f, g such that
f : a → N, and g : B → N. (9)
Then ∀a ∈ A, 2f (a) is even, and ∀b ∈ B, 2g(b) + 1 is odd. So we define the even
and odd sets

E := {2f (a) | a ∈ A}, and O := {2g(b) + 1 | b ∈ B}. (10)

Then we construct the function h defined via

if x ∈ A
(
2f (x)
h(x) = (11)
2g(x) + 1 if x ∈ B.

First, we show that h is injective.

Case 1: x, y ∈ A. Then

h(x) = h(y) (12)

=⇒ 2f (x) = 2f (y) (13)
=⇒ f (x) = f (y) (14)
=⇒ x = y, (15)

2
Since f is injective.
Case 2: x, y ∈ B. Then

h(x) = h(y) (16)

=⇒ 2g(x) + 1 = 2g(y) + 1 (17)
=⇒ g(x) = g(y) (18)
=⇒ x = y, (19)

since g is injective.
Case 3: x ∈ A, y ∈ B WOLOG, and h(x) = h(y). This case is vacuous because
E and O are disjoint, whereas 2f (x) ∈ E while 2g(x) + 1 ∈ O.
Thus, according to cases 1 and 2, h is injective.
Now we show that h is surjective. Let n ∈ N.
Case 1: n is even. Then by surjectivity of f , ∃a ∈ A such that f (a) = 2,
n
i.e.
h(a) = n.
Case 2: n is odd. Then by surjectivity of g, ∃b ∈ B such that g(b) = 2 ,
n−1
i.e.
h(b) = n.
Thus, h is surjective as well.
Therefore we conclude that h is a bijection, hence |A ∪ B| = |N|.

(b)
Proof. (By contradiction). Suppose instead that R\Q is countable. We write:

R = R\Q ∪ Q (20)
=⇒ |R| = |R\Q ∪ Q|. (21)

We know that Q is countably infinite, so |Q| = |N|. We also assumed that R\Q
is countable, so |R\Q| = |N|. Then by part (a), we have that |R| = |N|, but the
reals are uncountable, so contradiction (⇒⇐).
Hence R\Q must be uncountable.

Problem 4
Proof. (⇒) Suppose a0 = sup A. Then for any other upper bound b ∈ R of A,
a0 ≤ b. Also, for any a ∈ A, a ≤ a0 .
Let  > 0. Then a0 +  > a0 =⇒ a0 −  < a0 , but a0 = sup A so a0 −  6= sup A.
Then ∃a ∈ A such that a > a0 − .

3
(⇐) Suppose a0 is an upper bound for A ⊂ R, and that for every  > 0 ∃a ∈ A
such that a0 −  < a. Since A is bounded above by a0 , then ∀a ∈ A, a ≤ a0 .
Then for every  > 0,

=⇒ a −  ≤ a0 −  < a (22)
=⇒ a ≤ a0 < a + . (23)

But a0 is an upper bound for A, so we have shown that for any  > 0, ∃a ∈ A
such that a +  ∈
/ A and a0 < a + . Thus a0 is the smallest upper bound for A,
which means that a0 = sup A by definition.

Problem 5
(a)
Proof. (i) Let  > 0. Then a −  < a =⇒ a −  ∈ (−∞, a). Since (−∞, a) is not
bounded below, ∃x ∈ (−∞, a) such that −∞ < x < a − , i.e. −∞ < x +  < a.
Also, for  > 0 and x ∈ (−∞, a), it holds that −∞ < x −  < a. So

(x − , x + ) ⊂ (−∞, a). (24)

Therefore, (−∞, a) is open.

(ii) ∀x ∈ (a, b), we have that b−x > 0 and x−a > 0. Let  = 1
2 min{x−a, b−x} >
0, and let y ∈ R.
If y ∈ (x − , x + ), then − < y − x < . But  < b − x =⇒ y − x < b − x, i.e.
y < b.
Also,  < x − a =⇒ − > a − x, so y − x > a − x, i.e. y > a. Thus, a < y < b
∀y ∈ (x − , x + ).
Therefore, (a, b) is open.
(iii) Let x ∈ (b, ∞). Then x > b. Let  = x−b
2 > 0, and let y ∈ R.
If y ∈ (x − , x + ), then − < y − x < . Since  < x − b =⇒ − > b − x,

=⇒ b − x < y − x < x − b (25)

=⇒ b < y < 2x − b < ∞ (26)
=⇒ y ∈ (b, ∞). (27)

Therefore, (b, ∞) is open.

(b)
Proof. Suppose Uλ ⊂ R is open ∀λ ∈ Λ.
Take any x ∈ λ∈Λ Uλ . Then x ∈ Uλ for at least one λ ∈ Λ. But since the Uλ
S
are open, then ∃ > 0 such that (x − , x + ) ⊂ Uλ .

4
But this must hold for every x ∈ λ∈Λ Uλ , i.e. for every such x, ∃ > 0 such
S
that
(28)
[
(x − , x + ) ⊂ Uλ .
λ∈Λ

Therefore, the union must also be open.

(c)
Proof. Suppose Um is open ∀m ∈ {1, ..., n}. Choose any x ∈ m=1 Um . Then
Tn
if x is in the intersection of the sets, it must be in each of the sets, i.e.
x ∈ U1 , U2 , ..., Un .
Since the Um are open, then ∃ > 0 such that (x−, x+) ⊂ UmT∀m ∈ {1, ..., m}.
But this must hold for every x in the intersection, i.e. ∀x ∈ m=1 Um , ∃ > 0
n

such that
n
(29)
\
(x − , x + ) ⊂ Um .
m=1

Therefore, the intersection must also be open.

(d)
Claim: The set of rationals Q ⊂ R is NOT open.

Proof. (By contradiction). Suppose instead that Q is open.

Then for every q ∈ Q, ∃ > 0 such that

(q − , q + ) ⊂ Q. (30)

Since q − , q +  ∈ R and q −  < q + , then ∃i ∈ R\Q such that

q −  < i < q + , (31)

as proven in problem 1. Then since there is an irrational number i ∈ (q−, q+),

this implies
(q − , q + ) 6⊂ Q, (⇒⇐) (32)
which is a contradiction to the initial assumption.
Therefore, Q is not open.

5
Problem 6
q
Proof. Let  > 0. Choose N = 20 .
1
Then for n > N , we have

1 1
−0 < 1 (33)
√20


20n2 + 20n + 2020 20 20 + + 2020
20
1
< 1 (34)
 + 2020
1
< 1 (35)

= . (36)

Therefore, lim 2
1
= 0.
n→∞ 20n +20n+2020