Equations of Flow and Energy Equation

Previously, we considered the velocity and acceleration at a point in a fluid flow, without
taking into consideration the forces causing the flow. The focus is now on the study of the
forces causing the flow. The dynamic behavior of the fluid flow is analysed by Newton’s
second law of motion, which relates the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to
be incompressible and non-viscous.

Mathematically,

In fluid flow, the following forces are present

i. Gravity force (Fg)

ii. Pressure force (Fp)
iii. Force due to viscosity (Fv)
iv. Force due to turbulence (Ft)
v. Force due to compressibility (Fc)
From Newton’s second law of motion, the net force
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1. When the force due to compressibility is negligible, then the resulting net force becomes
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
and the equation of motions are called the Reynold’s equations of motion
2. When the force due to turbulence is negligible, then the resulting net force becomes
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
and the equation of motions are called the Navier-Stokes equations.
3. If the flow is assumed to be ideal, the viscous force (Fv) is zero and the equation of
motions are referred to as the Euler’s equation of motion

Euler’s Equation for Motion

This is the equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into
consideration. It is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a streamline as
follows.

Consider an infinitesimal element of fluid separated from the steady flow of an ideal fluid
along the stream tube, as shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area and the length
of the fluid element are dA and ds respectively

Let
 Fig. Forces on a fluid element

The external forces tending to accelerate the fluid element in the direction of streamline are
as follows

i. Net pressure force in the direction of flow

( ) (1)
ii. Component of the weight of the fluid element in the direction of flow

( )
(2)

(3)
Acceleration of the fluid element, (4)
But from Newton’s second law, (5)

Substituting equations 1, 2, 3, 5 into 5

(6)

Dividing both sides of (6) by we have

(7)

(8)

The differential equation above is the Euler’s equation

Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation

When the Euler’s equation is integrated, it leads to the Bernoulli’s equation

∫ ∫ ∫ (9)
Diving through by g

Or,
(10)

(11)

Types of Heads (Energies) of Fluid in Motion

There are basically three types of heads associated with fluid motion, they are

i. Potential head (Potential energy): this energy is due to the configuration or position
of a fluid above a suitable datum line. It is usually denoted by z.
ii. Velocity head (kinetic energy): this energy is associated with the velocity of a flowing
fluid and is measured as ⁄ where V is the velocity and g is the acceleration due
to gravity (g = 9.81)
iii. Pressure head (Pressure energy): this energy is associated with the pressure of a liquid
and is given as ⁄ or ⁄ where p is the pressure and w is the weight density of
the liquid, is the density of liquid

Total Head (Energy)

The total head/ energy of a liquid particle in motion is the sum of its potential head, kinetic
head and pressure head. Mathematically, the total head of a liquid particle is expressed as

m of liquid

Example

1. Water is flowing through a circular pipe with a mean velocity of 2.5 m/s and guage
pressure of 350 kN/m2. Determine the total head, if the radius of the pipe is 50 mm and
the pipe is located 8 meters above the datum line. Neglect the effect of friction.

Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s equation states that in an ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and
continuous, the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential (datum) energy is
constant along the streamline. Mathematically
Where

Proof of Bernoulli’s Equation

Consider the flow of an idea incompressible fluid through a non-uniform pipe as shown in the
figure below. Taking two sections LL and MM and assuming that the pipe is running full and
continuity exists between the two sections

Figure: Bernoulli’s Equation

When the liquid between sections LL and MM moves to L’L’ and M’M’ through very small
lengths . The movement of fluid between LL and MM is equivalent to the
movement of liquid between LL and L’L’ and MM and M’M’, the remaining liquid between
LL’ and MM being unaffected.

Let W = weight of liquid between LL and L’L’

As the flow is continuous,

Therefore
Work done by pressure at LL, in moving the liquid to L’L’

( ) ( )

Loss of potential energy ( )

Gain in kinetic energy ( ) ( )

But Loss of potential energy + work done by pressure = kinetic energy gain

( )+ ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Which proves the Bernoulli’s equation.

The following assumption are made in the derivation of the Bernoulli’s equation

a. The liquid is ideal and incompressible

b. The flow is steady and continuous
c. The flow is along the stream line (one dimensional)
d. The velocity is uniform over the section and equal to mean velocity
e. Only pressure and gravity forces are acting on the fluid

Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluid

Bernoulli’s equation derived above was based on the assumption that the fluid is ideal, that is,
frictionless and non-viscous. However, all fluids are real (not ideal) and are subject to losses
since they are viscous. These losses are therefore to be taken into account while considering
the Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid. Therefore equation 11 is modified to incorporate losses
in real fluids as.

(12)

Where
Example

1. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at sections 1 and
2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 litre/s. the section 1 is 6 m above
datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm 2, find
the intensity of pressure at section 2.
2. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the bottom and
upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525 N/cm2 and
the pressure at the upper end is 9.81 N/cm2. Find the difference in datum head if the rate
of flow through the pipe is 40 litres/s.
3. A pipe of diameter 400 mm carries water at a velocity of 25 m/s. the pressures at the
points A and B are given as 29.43 N/cm3 and 22.563 N/cm3 respectively while the datum
head at A and B are 28 m and 30 m. Find the loss of head between A and B.
4. A conical tube is fixed vertically with its smaller end upwards and it forms a part of pipe.
The velocity at the smaller end is 5 m/s and at the lower end it is 2 m/s. the pressure head
( )
at the smaller end is 2.5 m of liquid. The loss of head in the tube is , where
is the velocity at the smaller end and at the lower end respectively. Determine the
pressure head at the lower end. Flow takes place in the downward direction.
5. A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.87, changes diameter from 200 mm diameter
at position A to 500 mm at a position B which is 4 m at a higher level. If the pressures at
A and B are 9.81 N/cm2 and 5.886 N/cm2 respectively and the discharge is 200 liters/s,
determine the loss of head and the direction of flow.
6. The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100 m having diameters of 600 mm at
the upper end and 300 mm at the lower end, at the rate of 50 litres/s. the pipe has a slope
of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end if the pressure at the higher level is 19.62
N/cm2.

Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s equation is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy
considerations are involved. The application of Bernoulli’s equation to some flow measuring
devices will be considered.

1. Venturimeter: it is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe. It consists of three parts (a) a short converging part, (b) throat, and (c)
diverging part.
Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter
For a venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid (say water) is flowing
as shown below
 Figure: Venturimeter

Let d1 = diameter at inlet or section (1)

p1 = pressure at section (1)
v1 = velocity at section (1)
and d2, p2, v2 = corresponding values at section 2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section (1) and (2), we get

(1)

Since pipe is horizontal z1 = z2

(2)

But is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and is equal to h; that is

Substituting

(3)

Applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2

or

Substituting for in (3)

( )
* + * +

* +
 √ * + √
√

Discharge,

√ √ (4)
√ √

Equation 4 above gives the discharge under ideal condition and is called theoretical
discharge. Actual discharge will be less than the theoretical discharge.

√ (5)
√

Where

Value of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer

Case 1: Let the differential manometer contain a liquid which is heavier than the liquid
flowing through the pipe.

Let

Sh = specific gravity of the heavier liquid

So = specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe
x = difference of heavier liquid column in U-tube
* + (6)

Case 2: If the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing
through the pipe, the value of h is given by

* + (7)

where

Sl = specific gravity of the lighter liquid in U-tube

So = specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe
x = difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube

Problems

1. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters of 30 cm and 15 cm

respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer
connected to the inlet and throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine the rate of flow. Take
Cd = 0.98. specific gravity of water (so) = 1, specific gravity of mercury(sh) = 13.6
2. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter of 200 mm and throat diameter of 100 mm
is used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at inlet is 0.18 N/mm2 and the vacuum
pressure at the throat is 280 mm of mercury. Find the rate of flow. The value of Cd may
be taken as 0.98.

Case 3: Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer: this deals with inclined
venturimeter having differential U-tube manometer. Let the differential manometer contain a
heavier liquid, then h is given by

( ) ( ) * + (8)

Case 4: Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer: this also deals with
inclined venturimeter having differential U-tube manometer. Let the differential manometer
contain a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe, then h is given by

( ) ( ) * + (9)

Problems

1. A 30 cm x 15 cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying water flowing in the

upward direction. A differential mercury manometer connected to the inlet and throat
gives a reading of 20 cm. Find the discharge. Take Cd = 0.98.
2. In a vertical pipe conveying oil of specific gravity 0.8, two pressure gauges have been
installed at A and B where the diameters are 16 cm and 8 cm respctively. A is 2 m above
B. The pressure gauge readings have shown that the pressure at B is greater than at A by
0.981 N/cm2. Neglecting all loses, calculate the flow rate. If the gauges at A and B are
replaced by tubes filled with same liquid and connected to a U-tube containing mercury,
calculate the difference of level of mercury in the two limbs of the U-tube.
3. Find the discharge of water flowing through a pipe 30 cm diameter placed in n inclined
position where a venturimeter is inserted, having a throat diameter of 15 cm. the
difference of pressure between the main and the throat is measured by a liquid of specific
gravity 0.6 in an inverted U-tube which gives a reading of 30 cm. the loss of head
between the main and throat is 0.2 times the kinetic head of pipe.

2. Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate: this is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper device compared with the venturimeter. It also works
on the same principle as the venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a
circular sharp edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice
diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4
to 0.8 times the pipe diameter. A differential manometer is connected at section (1),
which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2.0 times the pipe diameter upstream from the
orifice plate and at section (2), which is at a distance of about half the diameter of the
orifice on the downstream side from the orifice plate
 Let p1 = pressure at section (1)
v1 = velocity at section (1)
a1 = area of pipe at section (1)

p2, v2, a2 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section (1)
and (2)

( ) ( )

But ( ) ( )

or

√ (i)

Section (2) is at the vena contracta and a2 represents the area at the vena contracta. If a0 is the
area of orifice then

Where

(ii)

From continuity equation

or (iii)

Substituting for in equation (i)

√
 ( ) or [ ( ) ]

√ ( )

The discharge

√
(iv)
√ ( )

The equation above is simplified by using

√ ( )

√ ( )

√ ( )

√ ( )

Substituting the value of Cc in equation (iv)

√ ( ) √

√ ( ) √ ( )

√ √

√ √
( )

Where is the coefficient of discharge for orifice meter

Practice Problem

An orifice meter with orifice diameter of 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm diameter. The

pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on two sides of the
orifice meter gives a reading of 50 cm of mercury. Find the rate of flow of oil having specific
gravity of 0.9 when the coefficient of discharge of the meter is 0.64.

3. Pitot tube: this is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe
or a channel. It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes
zero, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into pressure
energy. In its simplest form, the pitot tube consist of a glass tube, bent at right angles as
shown in the figure below. The lower end, which is bent through 90° is directed in the
upstream direction. The liquid rises up in the tube due to conversion of kinetic energy
into pressure energy.
The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube. Consider two points
(1) and (2) at the same level in such way that point (2) is just as the inlet of the pitot-tube and
point 1 is far away from the tube.

Let p1 = intensity of pressure at point (1)

v1 = velocity of flow at point (1)
p2 = intensity of pressure at point (2)
v2 = velocity of flow at point (2) which is zero
H = depth of tube in the liquid
h = rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and (2)

But since point (1) and (2) are on the same line and
( )
( ) ( )

Substituting these values into the Bernoulli’s equation

( )

or √

This is the theoretical velocity; the actual velocity is given by

( ) √

Where is the coefficient of the pitot-tube

Therefore, the velocity at any point

√
Velocity of flow in pipe by pitot-tube: in finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by pitot-
tube, the following arrangements are adopted:

i. Pitot-tube along vertical piezometer as shown in figure (a)

ii. Pitot-tube connected with piezometer tube as shown in figure (b)
iii. Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube connected with differential U-tube manometer
as shown in Figure (c)
iv. Pitot-static tube which consists of two circular concentric tubes one inside the other
with annular space in between as shown in figure d. the outlet of these two tubes are
connected to the differential manometer where the difference of pressure head ‘h’ is
measured by knowing the difference of the levels of the manometer liquid say x, then
* +

Practice Problem

1. A pitot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of water in a pipe. The stagnation
pressure head is 6 m and the static pressure head is 5 m. Calculate the velocity of flow
assuming the coefficient of the tube equals 0.98.
2. A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm diameter. The static pressure in pipe is 100
mm of mercury (vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the center of the pipe, recorded by
the pitot-tube is 0.981 N/cm2. Calculate the rate of flow of water through pipe, if the men
velocity of flow is 0.85 times the central velocity. Take Cv = 0.98.