INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY CONTROL

1.1 Explanation of control

1.1.1 Definition of control

The basic principle of survey control is “working form then whole to the part”. Hence the need
for a survey control network.

This is the framework to which all other future detail is fixed and consists of two types:-

I. Horizontal, in which plannimetric positions of specified control points are located by

trilateration, triangulation, traversing etc…
II. Vertical (height) control, in which elevations are established on specified bench marks
located throughout the area to be mapped.

It is a common practice to fix it at accuracy appropriate to the requirements of the subsequent

detail surveys.

1.1.2 Purpose of control

The main purpose of survey control:-

a) They provide horizontal and vertical position of points to which future surveys are tied
and adjusted to prevent accumulation of errors.
b) They provide/set standards of accuracy for future surveys to meet.

1.1.3 Difference between horizontal and vertical control

The distinction between horizontal and vertical can clearly be appreciated if we consider whether
forms of control try to achieve and methods used thus:-

a) Horizontal control

This is the establishment of all forms of planimetric positions of specific control points. The
values can be expressed in rectangular grid co-ordinates (easting’s and northings) or
geographical co-ordinates (latitudes and longitudes). Some of the methods used to provide this
control are:-

i. Triangulation
ii. Trilateration
iii. Traversing

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 iv. Astronomical observations
v. Satellite/space techniques

b) Vertical control

It consists of the establishment of all forms of height/ altitude position of points within the
vertical datum network. Some of the methods (principal) of provision of this kind of control are:-

a) Levelling( all forms)

b) Trigonometric heighting
c) Barometric heighting

1.2 Methods of providing control

1.2.1 Planimetric/horizontal control

Horizontal control can be established by triangulation, trilateration, traverse, astronomic
determinations and space techniques, etc.

a) Triangulation

When we want to establish horizontal control over a large area, we need some kind of horizontal
control technique like triangulation. This method has been used by almost the world over until
the spread of electronic distance measuring equipped (EDM) to establish control frameworks.

It is a surveying technique which principally comprises of a series of triangles set up on the

ground spanning the area to survey and whose vertex angles have been observed. The basic
principal is, if one side of the triangle (i.e. length and azimuth) is known, the position of all
others can be determined provided angular measurements are made at the vertices.

The common practice/measurement is that one’s side (baseline) be measured. If all the angles of
the triangle are measured, the accuracy of the derived (calculated) distances can be deduced.

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Fig. 1.1 Triangulation

b) Trilateration

This is similar to triangulation in arrangement on the ground except that distance measurements
for the triangles are taken instead of angles. Sporadic azimuth checks are made at regular
intervals by making astronomical observation to celestial bodies. The angels of the triangle are
then calculated by the systematic allocation of the cosine formula e.g.

Fig 1.2 Trilateration

c) Traverse

A traverse may be defined as an orderly sequence of consecutive survey lines, the lengths and
directions of which have been determined by field measurement. Many different kinds of
traverses are in use today, the classification of which could be used according to:

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 i. Methods of employed e.g. EDM traverse
ii. Quality of results e.g. first-order (precise) traverse
iii. Purpose of which they are intended e.g. cadastral traverse
iv. Form e.g. closed, open etc…

With respect to (iv) above a further classification could be as follows:

i. A closed traverse which is opening and closing on two different known points
ii. A loop (polygon) traverse opening and closing on the same known point
iii. An open (hanging, flying) traverse opening but does not close on any known point.

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 In every day practice (i) is preferred to all others. This is because there is no way to detect linear
or azimuth systematic errors in the other forms of traverses.

The open (flying) traverse should never be used unless there is no other alternative because it is
impossible to detect errors by computational checks. It should however be noted that traversing
is a method of providing horizontal control is very liable to accumulation of errors in direction
hence the need to control this by systematic introduction to Laplace stations.

d) Astronomic determinations and space techniques

A. Astronomic determinations

This is a science that offers t surveyors a means of determining the absolute location of any point
or absolute location and direction of any line on the surface of the earth by making astronomical
observation to celestial bodies. These celestial bodies ( starts, sun moon etc…) appears to lie on a
very large sphere which moves around the earth. Though some problems are encountered when
these celestial bodies are observed from the earth, the main variables observed are:-

i. The horizontal angle between the star and the reference object(R.O) placed at some
suitable point of survey, and either
ii. The vertical angle to the star at the same instant as the horizontal angle or
iii. The accurate time of the horizontal observation

Should the vertical angle be observed, an approximate time is required to enable the data to be
extracted star almanac

B. Space techniques

This is a method employing a modern surveying method which principally relies on data
received from the satellites to determine the position of the receiving station.

Two methods are in current use thus

i. Doppler
ii. GPPS (Global Points Positioning System)

The equipment comprises of receivers that tract data (ephemeris) broadcast from satellites which
is late recalculated to give the position of the point using suitable computer software.

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 1.2.2 Vertical control
The task of providing vertical control entails basically determining the difference in height
between points on the surface of the earth above some already established vertical datum. This
process is called levelling and can be defined as the process/method of:-

i. Determining relative height differences or elevations between points or

ii. Establishing a vertical datum (new) in relation to the already existing one.

1) Differential leveling

Is the operation of determining differences in elevation of points or bench marks some distance
apart. This is accomplished by direct levelling. The basic principle of determination of height
differences between two points using a level can be visualized from the diagram below

Fig. 1.4 The difference in level between two pins.

In figure 1.4 the horizontal ine sight intersects the two graduated staves placed at stations A and
B at 0.632m and 3.147m respectively. The difference in level between A and B is

3.147 – 0.632 = 2.151m

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2) Trigonometric heighting

Sometimes it becomes necessary to determine the difference I elevation (height) between two
points far apart but visible form each end. It could so often happen that he ordinary spirit
(differential) leveling could prove very uneconomical. Trigonometric heighting then provides a
rapid way of establishing the difference in level by simply measuring the vertical angle between
the two points. The basic principle can be appreciated by looking at the diagram below.

Figure 1.5 Trigonometric heighting

The required difference in height HAB between stations A and B. the observable quantities are
vertical angle α and L, slope distance in case it was not known. If the two stations are known in
plannimetric position, then the horizontal distance D can be calculated.

Therefore from simple trigonometry,

HAB = D tan α (1.1)

HAB = L sin α (1.2)

The quantity HAB however has to be corrected for curvature and refraction of light path unless
simultaneous reciprocal vertical angles were observed at both ends of the line. Expressions 1.2a
and 1.2b are ideal cases assuming the vertical angles were measured exactly at A and B. this is
however not possible hence allowance has to be given for height of instrument at A and target B
here below denoted by I and g respectively. Therefore the two expressions then become

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 HAB = D tan α + i-g (1.3a)

HAB = L sin α + i-g (1.3b)

Equation 13a is more often used and since tan α is negative when α is negative and positive when
α is positive for angles less than 900, the magnitude and sign are given automatically.

3) Barometric heighting

This is a method which measuring height differences by relying on variations of atmospheric

pressure. The principal instrument used in the altimeter, (aneroid barometer) designed
specifically for survey purposes only.

The basic principle of height difference determination is that with two points one of which the
height is known, reading are taken of atmospheric pressure at the points and certain corrections
applied to the pressure differences. This is based on the assumption that atmospheric increases as
height decreases and vice versa. The absolute height difference above datum will not be given by
the altimeter, hence the observer has to evaluate the differences in height between the stations,
whose height is known and the one to be heighted.

From the forgoing, it is clear that heights are highly dependent on variation of atmospheric
pressure with respect to height above mean sea level. Pressure is related to the acceleration due
to gravity g, and the density of air ρ, and the height h by the expression.

P=f (g, ρ,h) (1.4)

If we assume that pressure p is measured at places where g and ρ are constant, then the
relationship between pressure and height for two points becomes

H1/h2 = Klogθ (P1/p2) (1.5)

Therefore if the height of one point is known then it’s possible to reduce the other. This is
because P1 and p2 and either h1 or h2 will be known.

Barometric heighting is very useful where the points to be heighted not visible and the accuracy
is not so great as to call the use of spirit leveling e.g. in forested areas

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1.3 Construction and us of survey marks/monuments

1.3.1 Pillars
A. High pillar

These are standard survey marks which are usually constructed and used mainly for ordnance
survey or the local Kenya situation, for major triangulation points. These are mounts of
cylindrical concrete carefully cast in place and reinforced with steel irons (12mm) for stability.
The ration of the concrete mixture is usually 1:3:6 i.e. one part of cement, 3 parts of sand and 6
parts of gravel/ballast. The foundation will vary depending on the nature of the ground
supporting the monument e.g. either rock or firm ground.

They should be about 1.2m high and approximately 400m across the top. Where the pillar is built
on firm ground the reinforcing irons must be firmly placed in the concrete of the surface mark,
and where it is on rock, a hole should be drilled in the rock in such a way that the irons are firmly
anchored. Standard survey pillars are shown in figure 1.6 a-b.

B. Short pillar

Similar in use and construction to high pillar expect that no instrument can be set directly on top.
Used for secondary control e.g. minor triangulation points and sometimes standard traverse
marks. Sometimes preferred because of less expense in construction (sometimes can be pre-cast).
A typical short pillar is illustrated below.

Fig 1.6a short pillar

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Fid 1.6b standard survey pillar

The ratio of the concrete mixture is 1:3:6

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 1.3.2 Pipe in concrete (PIC)
This is a survey mark/monument primarily used to mark farms (farm beacon), in rural areas.
Preferred I extensive farms because it’s easy to locate in such areas. The ratio of the concrete
mixture is 1:3:6. It is a surface mark consisting of a mass of concrete with a pipe embedded in it

1.3.3 Angle iron in Concrete (AIC)

The use of this mark is similar to in 1.3.2. The size of the angle iron can vary depending on the
discretion of the surveyor, usually governed by the size of the farm being marked. A standard
AIC is illustrated below.

Fig 1.8 Angle iron in concrete

1.3.4 Iron pins

A. Iron pin in concrete (IPC)
This is a survey mark used to mark farm/plots of smaller extend in acreage. The current use is
restricted to town/urban surveys where the numbers of plots are many hence, any many of these
marks are to be placed. A standard IPC is illustrated below. The ratio of the mixture of the
concrete is 1:3:6

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Fig 1.9 Iron Pin in Concrete

B. Double iron pin in Concrete(DIPC)

It is similar on construction and use as in (1) except that it is usually restricted to

marking/monumenting control points e.g. important traverses. Basically the mark consist of two
IPCs in which one is above the other with a minimum separation of about 0.1- 0.15m. The lower
one is meant to remain in the event of the upper one being vandalized.

C. Iron pin in concrete underground(IPCU)

It is similar construction to IPC, only that it is placed/buried underground for safety and
protection. This is purely a control point monument/mark and not for identification purposes. Its
location would require use of an instrument

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 TRAVERSING

2.1 Definition of traverse

A traverse is a series of consecutive lines connecting points on the earth’s surface whose bearing
and distance have been measured for the purpose of determining the position of the points.

2.2 Classification of traverses

Traverse can be classified in three major category namely, accuracy, type and form of
instrumentation.

2.2.1 According to accuracy

The determining factor is the end result of the computed travers, e.g.

1) First order

This is the highest ranked traverse in the accuracy classification category. Other authorities will
refer to it as precise traverse. It can act as a substitute for triangulation where the terrain is flat
and therefore expensive to build observation towers. The accuracies required are about1:100 000

2) Second order

This also like first order traverse but of slightly lower accuracy i.e. between 1:50 000 – 1:100
000

3) Third order

This is the lowest order of all traverses. Their use is restricted to picking or fixing detail in local
survey. Their accuracies are about 1:10 000

2.2.2 According to type

This is a classification based on the configuration of the traverse legs on the ground.

1) Loop/circuit traverse

This is a traverse that starts and ends on the same known point.

2) Open traverse

This is a kind of traverse that starts on a known point but does not close. It’s sometimes referred
to as a hanging/swinging traverse. It is a seldom used as no proper mathematical adjustment
procedure exists.

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Fig. 2.1a Open traverse

3) Closed/oriented traverse

This is a superior kind of traverse that opens and closes on known points with outside orientation
at both ends. Standard adjustment methods exist hence errors can be detected and distributed
throughout the entire network.

Fig2.1b closed traverse

2.2.3 According to form of instrumentation

Traverse can also be classified according to the principal instrument used e.g. theodolite, EDM,
substene traverse etc… it is a useful classification especially where several traverses have been
run and different equipment used.

1) Theodolite traverse

The principal instrument (for measuring angles) is the theodolite.

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 2) EDM traverse

The principal instrument used for measuring distance is the electronic distance measuring
equipment

3) Subtense bar traverse

Here the distances are measured by horizontal tachometry, for example using the subtense bar.

2.3 Constructing of traverse signals

2.3.1 Types and use of signals

Traversing as means of providing control does not have an elaborate permanent signal
construction. The kind of signal will entirely depend on the length of the traverse legs. For short
traverse legs, portable and temporary signals like ranging rods, tripods etc. can adequately be
used. For long traverse legs e.g. 1Km and above, quadripods can be built for angular
observations.

Distance measurement will normally be done by specialized electronic equipment whose

signals/reflectors are suited to the respective instrument

2.4 Procedure for traversing

2.4.1 Reconnaissance (Recce)

This is the process which precedes any kind of survey. It is basically a planning, evaluation and
analysis stage and varies with each kind of project. The purpose of reconnaissance is to enable
the surveyor to adopt a field practice that will be economical and accurate within his means and
also enable him to study the relevant records that will be used.

Traverse recce practice can then be subdivided into the following.

1) Choice of locations for traverse points

a) Accessibility

Traversing as a method of control entails literally and setting over each station of the network. It
is therefore very important to ensure that accessibility is actually guaranteed.

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 b) Indivisibility

Traverse stations must be inter-visible especially if distance measuring is done by tape/band or

some models of EDMs that require clear sight. This therefore means that the surveyor should
strive to site his stations giving due regards to obstructions between the lines.

c) Length of traverse legs for different orders of accuracy.

This is a very important item to be considered when trying to control error. The guiding principle
should be not to mix short legs with long ones. For first order traverse, al legs should be
approximately of the same length. Should need to rise for short legs, then consideration should
be made to observe outwardly to other control stations.

2) Marking traverse points for different orders of accuracy.

Different orders of traverse should have different monumentation, in Kenya first order traverse
are marked with any of the following;-

i. Tall pillars similar in construction to the triangulation marks

ii. Short pillars with holes in the center for inserting a rod for observation of horizontal
angles.
iii. Double iron pin in concrete – one is placed approximately one foot below the other
iv. The pillars should be erected/ monumented and accompanying sketches drawn for filing
as records.

2.4.2 Traverse observations

1) Ideal conditions for linear and angular measurement

When traversing it’s important to consider the source of error, hence a wise surveyor will try to
schedule his observation at times s minimum external interference (e.g. weather, etc.)

a) Atmospheric conditions

During a hot sunny and clear day, there is high likelihood of shimmer hence angular observation
will be very difficult. Therefore when measuring first order angles, it’s better to observe at night
or very early in the morning or late in the evening. For distance measurement, especially with

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EDM, the time of measurement will vary with each kind of instrument. Most of them are
supplied with their correction factors by the manufacturers.

b) Orientation rays

The orientation rays must be long enough to avoid carrying forward azimuth errors due to short
rays. As a general guide, the lengths of the orienting rays should wherever possible be at least the
longest ray of the traverse.

2) Linear measurement

Linear measurement can either be done by the following:-

a) Steel/invar tape

These are calibrated steel/invar tapes used to measure only short distances.

Their lengths will vary from 100m to 180m. Their use has been superseded with the introduction
of EDM only for long distance. However there are still very useful for short distances. Steel
tapes can be used in catenary or on the ground.

Catenary taping is measuring with the tape suspended over straining poles or tripods. Corrections
for slope, temperature, sea level, sag, tension/pull, etc… are applied to the measured distance.

Ground taping is the method of measuring with the tape when it is laid flat on the ground. The
only correction applied is the slope. It not as accurate as measuring in catenary hence the method
is restricted to rough surveying methods e.g. chain surveying.

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Fig 2.2 measuring in catenary

b) Subtense bar

This method of distance measurement is sometimes referred to as horizontal staff tacheometry.

The bar is placed perpendicularly to the line of sight of the theodolite. Since the base is fixed the
angle subtended at the instrument is proportional to the distance between them.

Fig2.3 subtense bar distance measurement

c) EDM instruments

These are electronic devices that operate on the principle of wave propagation.

This implies that the wavelength of the transmitted signal has to be known. Most EDM
instruments operate on the principle of measuring the number of whole and fractional arts of the
wavelength between the instrument and target.

3) Angular measurement

Angular measurement in traverse can be done as:

a) Included/external angles between the traverse lines, or

b) True bearing of the traverse lines

In (a) the true bearing have to be determined before the traverse can be computed

Some methods of measuring angles in traverse are:

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 i. Repetition method

This is a method which usually used to measure small angles and it actually increases the
accuracy of the instrument. The method requires a double axis instrument. The procedure of
measurement is as follows:-

Sight A in the usual way and book the reading

Release the upper clamp and swing to sight C

Release the lower clamp; swing right while carrying the reading forward and sight A again

Release the upper clamp, swing right and sight C again.

This will give two measure of the angle but it can be repeated several times.

Only the final reading on C is taken and the final angle found by

αm = ( β / n) …………….....(2.1)

Where αm = mean angle

β = final reading on C plus any multiple of 3600

n = number of round the process was repeated

ii. Reiteration method

This is measuring the angles several times on both faces to increase the accuracy of the resultant
angle. The angle can be measured using different parts of the circle to eliminate graduation
errors. This method is commonly adopted for most accurate work.

2.5 Booking and reduction of traverse observations

2.5.1 Angular measurement

The mode and specification of angular reading will be stipulated by the local respective mapping
agencies. In Kenya for example, fully oriented grid bearing are preferred to included and/or
eternal angle observations.

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1. Field book format

The booking format for angular measurement usually varies from country to country. Whichever
method is adopted care should be taken to avoid ambiguity.

An example of the Kenyan is tabulated here below

Fig 2.4 field book format for angular and distance measurement

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2. Change of face/ circle and arc/ zero

When observing angular measurements in the field some observational procedures should be
adopted to cancel systematic errors. Change of arc/zero helps cancel errors due faulty circle
graduation and change of face eliminates errors of maladjustment in the vertical axis of the
theodolite.

3. Specifications of round and precision of traverses

A simple guide is as follows:-

1st order traverse not less than four rounds observed on different zeros

2nd “ “ between two and four

3rd “ “ less than two

The difference between the faces should not be more 10” for first order, 20” for second order and
around 30” for third (lower) order traverses.

4. Reduction

In Kenya, traverse angles are observed as true grid bearing. Therefore the reduction in the
feildnote only corrects for small instrumental/human errors.

The standard reduction procedure currently in use is as show in the sample feildnote. The
difference between face left and right is deduced, and is compared with the one at the orienting
station. Half this difference is applied to the true bearing algebraically. (The assumption is that
the error is made equally on both faces)

2.5.2 Linear measurements

This can either be done by either tape/band or EDM (electro-magnetic distance measurement)
instruments.

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1. By tape catenary
a) Booking of distance and temperature

This is more accurate way of measuring with tape or invar band.

Usually to help reduce the distances to the mapping spheroid the following corrections are:-

Slope, temperature, tension

b) Corrections to sea level, temperature, sag, standardization/calibration and tension

i. Sea level correction

All distances have to be corrected t the mapping spheroid before they are used for computation

In the figure below, d is measured from P’ to O’ at elevation h above sea-level. If R is the radius
of the earth, the reduction is given by the equation,

b/d=R/(R+h) or b=d.R/(R+h)

Fig 2.5 sea level correction

ii. Temperature correction

Tapes/bands are usually standardized at some temperature. Any variation either below or above,
this value will cause to expand or contract giving rise to systematic errors to the recorded
distance. The correction to the measured distance is given by:

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Ct = correction for temperature

L = measured distance length

δt = change in temperature i.e. field temperature –std temperature

K =coefficient of thermal expansion of steel = 11 x 10-6

iii. Sag correction

If the band was standardized on the flat but is now being used in catenary, then a correction for
sag is necessary. The increase in length in excess of the measured is given by:-

Cs= (W2L3)/ (24T2) (2.5)

Where W = the weight of one unit of length of the band

L = the measured length in the same units

T = the tension applied to the tape/band in the same unit as W

Cs= correction for sag

iv. Standardization/calibration

Most tapes will be made to measure correct at certain atmospheric factors, the most common
being tension and temperature. Since field condition will rarely be the same as the calibrating
conditions, some correction hast to be applied to the measured distance to arrive at the true
length. For example, a tape may be said to measure 99.992m at 250C. This means the standard
correction of -0.008m is applied to each full length or proportion of each part of a tape length.

v. Tension correction

Generally the tape is used under standard tension in which case there is no correction. However
sometimes it may be necessary to apply a tension greater than the standard.

Cp = L X (T/AE) (2.6)

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 Where Cp = correction of pull

L = measured length

T = ( FT – ST) change in tension between field and standard

(if in Kg, it should be converted to Newton’s using 1Kgf = 9.806N)

A = cross-sectional area of tape in mm2

E = modulas of elasticity in N/mm2

2. By EDM instruments

These are electronic devices that operate on the principle of the wave propagation. They measure
the number of whole wavelength between the instrument and the target.

a) Booking procedure

The booking procedure of EDM varies from instrument to instrument. This is because each
equipment requires unique field parameters to be recorded. These parameters are atmospheric
conditions like temperature, pressure etc., which determines the design of the feildnote.
Examples of some booking sheets for EDMs are shown below. It should however be noted that
most modern EDMs like the DI series have a provision for the atmospheric factors to be input
hence only the reduced distance need be recorded. In this respect no special design of a feildnote
has been developed.

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Table 2.1 booking feildnote for MRA 2 (Master Remote Apparatus)

25
Table 2.2 booking sheet for MRA 101(Master Remote Apparatus)

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b) Correction of atmospheric factors

All EDMs use form of radiation which is propagated through atmosphere. It is therefore obvious
that they are prone to the effects of weather and other climatic conditions which affect the
measured distance. Some of the corrections applied to the measured distances are;

i. Curvature of signal path

This error arises because the wavelength of the generated signal (and the path it takes) varies
with the density of the atmospheric through which it passes. The error is caused by different
layers of air exhibiting different refractive indices.

The correction is given by

(D-L) = Corrn = (K2 L3)/(6R2) (2.10)

Where K = coefficient of refraction

L = measured length

R = Radius of the earth

Fig. 2.6 curvature of signal path

ii. Variations in refractive index

This is a significant source of error and is actually caused by variations in refractive index caused
by changes in temperature, pressure, humidity and gaseous content. A sample equation relating
distance D, the velocity of light in vacuum Vv, the index refraction µ, and the transit ɷ is

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 D = (Vvµ) ɷ (2.7)

The refractive index of light wave and microwave in air is a function of temperature,
atmospheric pressure, the partial pressure of water vapor which in turn depends on temperature
and relative humidity. Knowledge of this atmospheric condition is required to determine the
refractive index and the consequent effect on velocity of the propagated waves in air,

Refractive index, η, = (velocity in vacuo)/ (velocity in media)

η = (V0/V) (2.8)

Since the distance measured is a function of velocity, it must be corrected. The usual
atmospheric correction (Refractive index) applied to an EDM distance is:

DC = -DM X (η1/η2) (2.9)

Where Dc = corrected distance

Dm = measured distance

η1 = calibrated refractive index

η2 = refractive index of air (actual value of prevailing conditions)

There is a second refraction correction given by

DD = -(D3/6R2){1-2K}K (2.11)

This is usually applied to very long base lines

c) Correction to sea level

Similar to the one in catenary measurement by chain/band

The expression for the correction for the sea level is given by:

C = -(D.hm)/R (2.12)

Where hm = mean height above sea level

D = measured EDM distance

R = radius of the earth

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 When the baseline is below sea, level e.g. tunnel, then the sign of the correction is reversed

d) Arc-to-chord correction

During reductions for slope and sea level, the derivation of the expressions assumes two similar
triangles with common vertex at the center of the earth. Therefore, since the mapping surface is a
long the curved surface of the earth, there is need to bring back the chord distance back to the
arc.

The correction is given by

Fig 2.7 arc-to-chord correction

e) Scale error

The scale error is usually due to a variation of the measuring frequency of the instrument from its
standard value. This variation may be due t aging or drift o the frequency oscillator used to
temperature effects on the oscillator.

3. By subtense bar

As mentioned in (2) traverse distance can also be determined by sustense bar measurement. It is
a form of tangential system where the measured base is held horizontally as illustrated below

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Fig. 2.8 The subtense bar tacheometry

Since the paralactic angle is measured on the horizontal plane the distance obtained is always the
horizontal distance and no slope corrections are needed to be measured. This is usually done by
introducing auxiliary at convenient positions. The configuration can be like e.g.

Fig. 2.9 (a) Bar or base mid-positioned

Fig 2.9(b) setting up an auxiliary base

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 Fig 2.9© auxiliary base mid-positioned

a) Booking

The booking of substense bar field measurement varies from country to country. Some mapping
agencies prefer to book the field readings separate i.e. traverse angles and paralactic angles on
different sheets, while others combine them. Given below are examples of some of them with a
typical survey of Kenya extract.

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Table 2.3a booking sheet for substense bar measurement

32
Table 2.3b booking sheet for subtense bar measurement (SOK)

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b) Sea level correction

As mentioned above, no slope correction is applied to the distance measured. The other obvious
correction is the sea-level, which is basically to reduce the distance to the mapping spheroid. The
formula for this is the same as the one stated in 2.5.2(a),(i) above.

c) Scale

The scale adjustment in a substense distance is only considered I terms of the mapping surface
and that on which the distance was measured.

2.6 Traverse computations and adjustment

2.6.1 Bearing sheet

Bearing sheets will vary depending on the type of traverse run in the field example, of these are
as explained here below.

1. Normal bearing sheet

This is for a simple link traverse with outward orientation on both sides.

The computational layout has the following columns in the sheet.

Station, observed bearing, orientation, preliminary forward bearing and final bearing column.
When the traverse has been observed on the UTM projection, extra columns for (t-T) and plane
will be added. Typical bearing sheets of both versions are tabulated below:

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Table2.4 Normal bearing sheet

35
Table 2.5 Normal bearing sheet observed on the UTM projection

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2. Bearing sheet with mid-orientation

This is closed traverse as n 2.6.1.1 above but an extra step to control azimuth error has been
included i.e. somewhere along the route, observations are taken to outside datum stations. An
example and its reduction is tabulated below:

Table 2.6 bearing sheet with mid-orientation

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3. Bearing sheet with nodal point

This is a bearing sheet of a superior traverse consisting of several hanging traverses both
converging at the same point called the nodal or junction point.

The adjustment of the bearing sheet is preliminarily done for each segment of the traverse up to
the junction point. The observation at the nodal point to each of the previous station in each
‘wing’ of the traverse is compared with the preliminary forward bearing sheet misclosure is
found by proportionately distributing all the misclosures at the junction point by the method of
weighting. To find the individual bearing sheet misclosures, subtract each orientation correction
from the weighted mean orientation correction.

2.6.2 Computation of partial co-ordinates/differences in the Northing and Eastings

This is determining the differences in co-ordinates between the traverse stations, and is done by
simply combining the distance and the trigonometric functions (sine and cosine) of the bearing
between the points. The basic formulae are:

A real computation is set in table 2.7 below

Computation format on form c22

This is a standard sheet printed and distributed by the director of survey, for the urose of survey
computations meant for submission to him for checking/approval.

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Table 2.6 computation format on form c22 (polars & proportional error adj.)

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2.6.3 Adjustment of traverse
This is almost the last stage in the traverse computation and principally involves mathematical
distribution of errors of the traverse uniformly and in acceptable manner before it can be used for
further survey. Two methods are usually used namely:-

1. Bowditch’s method

In this method the assumption is the error in either N and E occurred over the total distance of
the traverse and there, the correction in each leg must be proportional by given.

Example,

Say the errors that occurred in both N and E are e respectively. The total distance is L, while
the traverse legs have distances l1, l2, l3…..ln.

 ln1 = (l1/L).n (2.15a)

le1 = (l1/L).e (2.15b)

where ln1 small correction in northing co-ordinate

le1 small correction in easting co-ordinate

as the total errors n and e are being distributed the sum of the individual corrections must be
equal n and e but opposite sign. But since it is necessary to round off two decimal places it
might not be so hence the need to round down or up.

2. Transit method

In this method the error is distributed in proportion to the length of the co-ordinate difference
instead of the traverse leg.

Example

Let sum of co-ordinate difference = N,e.

Let the co-ordinate difference = N,E

Let total error in co-ordinate difference = ∂N, ∂E

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  nc =N/(N) X ∂N (2.16a)

Ec =N/(E) X ∂E (2.16b)

Where are correction to the difference in northings and eastings respectively.

Note: the method has the advantage that the bearing are altered to a lesser degree than in the
Bowditch method, but there is no theoretical foundation for this rule. Its use is mainly confined
to those traverses in which the accuracy of the angular measurement is very much greater than
the accuracy of the linear measurement.

2.6.4. Location of gross errors in traversing

Gross errors can either occur in linear or angular measurement

2.6.4.1.Identification of traverse leg(s) having gross angular errors

Two ways are available to us;

a. By calculating

Calculate the traverse from the both ends, the station that has the same co-ordinate is the one
where the gross angular error occurred.

b. By plotting

Plot the traverse containing the error as shown below. The correct position of the point on which
the traverse should have closed is also plotted. Join these two points say Y and Y’. the
perpendicular bisector will intersect the point at which the angular error occurred. This will
happen because the figure BYY’ is an measured isosceles triangle formed by the gross angular
error measured at B.

Fig. 2.9 Gross angular error location

41
Identification of traverse leg having gross linear error.

By comparing the bearing of the closing error with the bearing of the individual legs, this error
can be detected. The leg with the same bearing as the closing error is the one where the gross
taping error occurred ( see figure below). If two lines/ legs have the same bearing, then the error
could be in either.

Fig. 2.10 gross linear error

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 ORDINARY SPIRIT LEVELING

3.1.Definitions

3.1.1 Datum
This is an adopted level surface or line into which al the elevations/heights of new/old points are
referred. The most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (msl)

3.1.2 Bench markers

a. Fundamental

This is a primary or major benchmark within the national vertical control network whose
monument is usually built to special standards to enhance its stability.

The location of these points is usually away from any vehicular movements and is further apart
than lower order benchmark. Figure 3.1 shows how it is constructed.

Fig 3.1 fundamental benchmark

b. Permanent benchmark

These are marks constructed permanently in the ground and whose heights above datum have
been determined. In some countries, the values of these marks are usually revised regularly for
the convenience of the public.

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 c. Temporary benchmark

These are benchmarks like any other, but their construction is of temporary nature because their
use is not requiring in future. The marks can be wooden pegs driven in the ground etc.

3.1.3 Level and horizontal lines

a) Level line

This is a line all points of which are normal to the force of gravity

b) Horizontal line

This is a line tangential to the line at a point. (See figure below). It is normal to the line of
gravity at that point say at X

Fig. 3.2Level and horizontal lines

3.2.Procedure for ordinary spirit leveling

3.2.1 Instrument station or set-ups

The instrument stations or set-ups should first be chosen along the route of leveling sited at
convenient places and away from vehicular movements or vibrations. They should be such that
the back sights and foresights are as such as possible equalized to help cancel out error of
collimation.

3.2.2 Staff stations/points

These are positions where the graduated staff will be placed. They are usually put/placed over
the point/route of interest.

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 a) Marking of staff points and order of taking readings
The marking of staff stations are in most cases determined by the ground conditions; this then
determines the order of taking readings. A levelling network usually includes al or some of the
following;

b) Back station

This is the first staff station and is usually sited over a known point. I.e. benchmark or at a
change point. For the latter case, it will have acted as a forward station in the previous instrument
station.

c) Intermediate stations

They are staff set up after the back sight. In some cases it might not be necessary depending on
the terrain and the frequency/interval of determining heights. To avoid constant setting up of
instrument, one can choose to put up several intermediate stations between the instrument and
the staff station. With reference to figure 3.3 statin A, B, D and E are all intermediate staff
stations.

d) Forward station

This is a staff station at which the staff is read twice namely; before and after the instrument has
been set up at a new station. Their location should be on firm ground and where not possible
change plates must be used. They are also referred to as change in points in the remarks column.

e) Datum (opening and closing BM)

These are station whose heights are known, and from which the other staff stations derive and
have their heights adjusted.

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3.3.Booking
The booking of the reading on different staff should also be booked in a specially designed
feildnote to facilitate easier reduction.

3.3.1 Back sight (BS)

This is the first reading taken to the staff placed over a known point (BM) after the instrument
has been set up. It is usually booked in the BS column of the feildnote book.

3.3.2 Inter-Sight(s) (IS)

This can also be referred to as intermediate sight, and is the reading taken to all staffs placed at
intermediate statins. They are in the IS column of the booking sheet.

3.3.3 Fore-sight (FS)

This is the reading taken to the staff placed at all forward station before the instrument is moved
to the set up. They are booked in the FS column of the booking sheet. Refer to figure 3.3 and
table 3.1 below, which illustrate the reading taken at the same staff position. Staff positions C
and F are change point.

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3.3.4 Qualitative field note/annotative information
In every feildnote design, there has to be incorporated a Remarks column. This is a column
reserved for any additional information that will help in the interpretation and analysis of the
field data. It is very useful for large leveling networks where large amounts of data have been
collected and merry cannot be relied upon. The information can either be in form of sketches or
diagrams and some annotations or initials e.g. CP for change point etc. They should however be
as comprehensible as possible to avoid confusion. Where non-standard initials are used, an
appendix to explain should be included.

3.4.Reducing levels
These are two methods of reducing level i.e. Height-of-collimation and rise fall method. The
method of booking should be decided before field data is collected to avoid changing of booking
after the field.

3.4.1 Height-of-collimation method

This method involves first deducting the reduced level of the line of sight of each instrument set
up from which all readings to staff stations at that point are subtracted t find the reduced level of

47
tier base. Referring back to table 3.1 and fig 3.3, the reduced level of OBM is 31.517. the staff
reading over this pint is 2.390.

 Ht. of collimation= 31.517 + 2.390 = 33.6907

This is entered in the appropriate column H.I(height of instrument). Form all other readings at
this set-up are subtracted to deduce the reduced level of their base e.g.

RLA = 33.907 – 1.985 = 31.922

RLB = 33.907 – 1.318 = 32.589

RLC = 33.907 – 1.612 = 32.295

The instrument is moved to a new set up and this means a new height of collimation has to be
determined. As before this is found as Ht. of collimation =RLC + Bsc

=32.295 +0.988 = 33.283

The process continues until the whole feildnote is reduced

3.4.2 Rise and fall method

This method considers the rise and fall from staff position to the next by subtracting the second
reading from the first as though each were simple back sight and foresight. Considering the same
example the readings are tabulated below;

48
Each time the rise or fall has to be found e.g.

2.390 – 1.985 = 0.405 Rise

1.985 – 1.318 = 0.667 Rise

0.988 – 1.502= -0.514 Fall

Having filled the rise and fall columns, the reduced level column is then filled by successive
adding (algebraically) the ‘rises’ and ‘falls’ to the reduced level of the first station e.g.

RLA = 31.517 + 0.405 = 31.922

RLB = 31.992 + 0.667 = 32.589

RLC = 32.589 – 0.294 = 32.295

3.4.3 Arithmetic checks

This is very important for any leveling circuit to make sure that all the levels have been reduced
correctly. Each method has its own (though common) arithmetic checks.

49
 a) Height-of-collimation

Though this method has less calculations the intermediate sight’s reduced levels cannot be
checked as in the rise and fall method. However a single check is;-

‘Difference between sum of BS and FS should EQUAL difference between first RL and last RL.’

A tedious check for all (BS, FS, IS) however does not exist although it is seldom used. It is:

(the sum of all reduced levels except the first) = (each Inst. Ht.) x (No. of IS & FS obs made
from it) *- (Total sum of all the IS and FS readings)

Using figures in table 3.1 above the result will be

228.277 – (33.907x3 + 33.283x3 + 35.387x1) –(2.460 + 6.220)

b) Rise and fall

The check here is straight forward though the calculations in the method are many.

‘The difference between sum of BS and FS = difference between Rise and Fall= difference
between first RL & last RL’

3.4.4 Adjustment of closing error

After reducing the readings, misclosure is reduced by comparing the known height and the
deduced height. The accuracy limit will normally be given by

(4 )mm.

Where K is the distance leveled in kilometers

If the error is within that limit, then the leveling circuit has to be adjusted by distributing the
misclosure throughout. Although sometimes the error might be small/negligible as to effect the
result, in which case it is ignored. The error is adjusted as follows:-

Given no. of set-ups/foresights = nf

Let error = e

Therefore the error per set-up = e/nf

50
The intermediate sights will be corrected by the same amount as the foresight reading. This is
done cumulatively. Referring to table 3.2 again, a closing error of 0.007m was realized aver three
set-ups. Therefore the observed level of OBM No.2 is corrected by 0.007, the value of F by
0.005 and C by 0.002. D and E also take the correction for C (both are intermediate sights)i.e.
0.002.

3.5. Sources of errors

Like any other surveying procedure/task, errors can be classified in various groups:-

3.5.1 Mistakes/human errors

These are errors caused by human faults/errors. They include the following;

a) Failing to center the tilting bubble before a reading is taken

b) Non-verticality of the staff. Use staff bubble where necessary.
c) Misreading or misbooking the readings. Always check the second time and confirm, that
the reading recorded coincides with the reading booked. If there is a booker, he should
repeat the reading back t the observer
d) Entering the reading in the wrong column
e) Omitting of figures e.g. 3.09 instead of 3.009 etc.

3.5.2 Instrumental errors

These are errors caused by the instrument

a) The line of sight not being parallel to the bubble axis or horizontal in automatic axis. This
error will be proportional to the length of the line of sigh. To avoid this, always try t
equalize the back sight and the foresight. The instrument should however be checked for
collimation error.
b) Bubble sensitivity not adequate i.e. the bubble should come to rest quickly.
c) Loose or unstable tripod legs. Check that he tripod legs are well tightened to give a stable
base for the instrument
d) Faulty staff graduation or wrong extension. Always test the graduations for the staff
against another one before use.

51
 3.5.3 Natural causes
These are errors caused by outside factors e.g. wind, sun’s heat, etc. Some of them are:-

a) Vibration due to the wind

This causes the tripod/instrument and the staff to vibrate especially when the staff is fully
extended, hence making accurate readings impossible. Therefore in windy conditions,
always shelter the equipment and keep sights and staff short
b) Differential heating by the sun
In hot sunny weather there’s a possibility of the instrument to expand altering the curve
of the bubble itself. The following can help reduce this error:
c) Shelter the instrument with an umbrella
d) Extend shade well beyond the object glass to stop the sun’s rays from entering it
e) Keep sights short and well above 0.5m above ground.

3.6. Effects of curvature and refraction

Referring back to fig 3.2 above, it can be seen that because of the curvature of the earth, the point
read on the staff is not at the same level as the instrument. This is because the line of sight is
horizontal and level. When observing from X- the instrument head, to the staff BC, a difference
CD is developed, the distance above height of instrument. This means the reduced level of b
appears lower than it should be by this amount.

This effect is however not critical for normal leveling distances of 100m and below because with
this length the deviation between these two lines is very negligible

3.7. Reciprocal leveling

This is a method of leveling in which the instrument is set up and read over the same line from
both ends. See figure below

52
 3.7.1 Purpose
It is a method used when accurate observations between points e.g. A and B are required but it is
found impossible to set up midway between them.

The method can also be used to find the true level difference between points with a level
suspected of being out of adjustment. It is a substitute for the method of setting up midway
because the errors of collimation cancel out.

3.7.2 Procedure
a) Set up at X 5m away from A, and observe both staffs. The differences in reading give an
observed difference in level.
b) Set the level next at Y same distance from B as from A and read both staffs. The
difference in reading give a second observed difference in level.
c) The set-up assumes that the observational errors are approximately the same, but of
opposite sign. Therefore the mean of the two differences in level found from each set-up
will give the true difference in level

53
Example

54
REFERENCES
1. Practical field surveying and computations
by Allam hallway & Maynes
2. Land surveying; 3rd Edition
by Ramsey J P Wilson
3. The surveying handbook; 2nd Edition
by Russell C Bricker & Roy Minnick
4. Surveying; 5th Edition
by A Bannister & S Raymond
5. Plane and Geodetic Surveying for engineers vol. 1 Plane surveying; 6 th edition
by David Clarke and Revised by J E Jackson
6. Basic metric surveying: 3rd edition
by W S Whyte & R E Paul
7. Field Surveying
by Military Engineering Series Vol. VIII
8. Survey manual
by Survey of Kenya
9. Surveying for Engineers; 3rd Edition
by J Uren and W F Price
10. Surveying Theory and Practice; 6th Edition
By Raymod E Davis
Francis S Foote
James M Anderson
Edward M Mikhael

55