Journal of

Engineering
for Gas Turbines
and Power
Technical Brief

A Theoretical Model of Uniform Flow turbines. The amount, volume, and level of high-energy fluids,
such as exhaust steam and drains from the by-pass or boiler, are
Distribution for the Admission of also increased during the unit start-up, shut-down, or load de-
creases. The high energy exhaust fluids are received by the turbine
High-Energy Fluids to a Surface Steam condenser, and could exceed the design heat load of condenser.
Condenser This can affect normal working, resulting in erosion of metallic
parts or baffles, vibration, or even thermal deformation. Although
the turbine condensers have been commercially available for
J. Wang1 many years, the exhaust equipment represents a problem that is
e-mail: [email protected] often encountered in the turbine condenser. One of the many types
of exhaust equipment consists of a main cylindrical channel on
G. H. Priestman which a row of small holes are drilled along its length. Such
exhaust equipment is called a perforated pipe.
The fluid entering the perforated pipe is divided into several
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, branching streams, and then expanded into the condenser. Hence,
The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S1 3JD, England the design of the perforated pipe in the condenser includes two
steps: 共1兲 uniform flow distribution; 共2兲 parallel multiple jet ex-
pansion 共关1,2兴兲. The perforated pipe was recently studied in the
D. Wu literature 共关1–3兴兲. Sebald et al. studied the pressure drop and flow
distribution applying the Bernoulli theorem. To date, no new ef-
School of Mechanical Engineering, East China University
fort has been directed towards this area, and only minimal under-
of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, P.R. standing of the mechanisms have been developed. Thus data is
China particularly lacking on flow characteristics for such exhaust per-
forated pipes in turbine condensers. Most of the available data
deals with pressure drop and flow characteristics under the as-
An analytical study is made of the perforated pipe distributor for sumption of uniform flow distribution and has been published in
the admission of high-energy fluids to a surface steam condenser. other branching flow systems by Bassiouny and Martin 关4兴, Chang
The results show that for all perforated pipes there is a general et al. 关5兴, and Jin et al. 关6兴.
characteristic parameter M 共 kD/L f 兲 , which depends on the pipe This paper presents an attempt to introduce a general theoretical
geometry and flow properties. Four cases are considered based method to calculate flow distribution and pressure drop in the
on the value of the characteristic parameter M. (1) When M perforated pipe, where the aim is to provide for equal flow rates
⭓1/4, momentum controls and the main channel static pressure through the perforated pipe, and not to include multiple-jet expan-
will increase in the direction of the streamline. (2) When 1/6 sion. The results are not limited to application on turbine con-
⭐M ⬍1/4, the momentum effect balances friction losses and the denser perforated pipes, but can be also applied to similar branch-
pressure will decrease to a minimum, and then increase in the ing problems found in plate heat exchangers, air-conditioning
direction of flow to a positive value. (3) When 0⬍M ⬍1/6, friction installations, fluidized beds, gas burners, and heating systems.
controls and the pressure will decrease to a minimum, then in-
crease slowly, but the total pipe static pressure difference will
always be negative. (4) When M ⫽ 0, a limiting case when the Theoretical Model and Analyses
ratio of the length to the diameter is infinite. This analysis is
The dividing flow device often used for the turbine condenser
useful not only for the design of perforated pipe distributors for
can be represented schematically as shown in Fig. 1. It is con-
turbine condensers over a wide range of dimensions, fluid prop-
structed from a main channel of constant cross section that termi-
erties, and side hole pressure but also for many other technical
nates in a closed end and is provided with equally spaced, uni-
systems requiring branching flow distribution.
formly sized side holes which are perpendicular to the main
关DOI: 10.1115/1.1359237兴
channel.
The variation of fluid pressure arises from two causes: 共a兲 the
Introduction friction of the fluid against the internal surface of the main chan-
nel makes the pressure fall in the direction of flow; and 共b兲 the
Accompanying the development of power generating technol- momentum of the main fluid stream flowing into a hole tends to
ogy is an increase in the fluid state properties in boilers and steam carry the fluid toward the closed end, where an excess pressure is
1
produced due to the deceleration of the flow. When the large fluid
To whom correspondence should be addressed. stream flows into the opening hole and undergoes subdivision the
Contributed by the Power Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANI-
CAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR GAS
friction and momentum effects work in opposite directions, the
TURBINES AND POWER. Manuscript received by the Power Division, Sept. 2000; first tending to produce a pressure drop and the second a pressure
final revision received by the ASME Headquarters Jan. 23, 2001. Editor: D. Lou. rise.

472 Õ Vol. 123, APRIL 2001 Copyright © 2001 by ASME Transactions of the ASME

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 1 dP f dW
⫹ W 2 ⫹ 共 2⫺ ␤ 兲 W ⫽0 (4)
␳ dx 2D dx
After substituting 2k for 2⫺ ␤ Eq. 共4兲 becomes formally as
given in references 共关2,5兴兲 as follows:

Fig. 1 Perforated pipe distributor

1 dP f dW
⫹ W 2 ⫹2kW ⫽0 (5)
␳ dx 2D dx
In general, k is expected to be smaller than unity.
Since the holes are the same size and their distribution along
The development of the theoretical flow model is based on the
the length of the pipe is constant, uniform fluid distribution re-
following suppositions: 共a兲 the exhaust pressure of the holes is
quires that the rate of flow through the pipe must vary linearly
constant and equal to the condenser’s pressure; 共b兲 a main channel
from a maximum at the inlet to zero at the closed end, or
has constant cross section and is horizontal; 共c兲 the side holes are
equally spaced, uniformly sized, and at right angles to the main
channel; 共d兲 the flow velocity of the main channel is highest at the
open end and zero at the closed end.
W X ⫽W 0 1⫺ 冉 冊 x
L
(6)

Consider a section of the main channel near one of the branch- Inserting Eq. 共6兲 into 共5兲 yields an ordinary differential equation
ing outlets as shown in Fig. 2. The hole port can be regarded for for the pressure in the pipe which can be integrated from zero to x.
all practical cases as a quasi-continuous system. Therefore the Finally, one obtains

冋 冉 冊册 冋 冉 冊册
mass and momentum balance on the control volume may be writ-
ten in the following way: x 2
␳ W 20 L f x 3
⌬ P x0 ⫽ ␳ W 20 k 1⫺ 1⫺ ⫺ 1⫺ 1⫺ (7)
L 6D L
共1兲 Mass conservation

冉 冊
After introducing the following dimensionless groups:
dW
␳ FW⫽ ␳ F W⫹ dx ⫹ ␳ F c U c P x
dx
P̄⫽ and X̄⫽
The basic equation becomes ␳ W 20 L

FL dW Eq. 共7兲 can be given as follows:

U c ⫽⫺ (1)
F c n dx Lf
⌬ P̄ X0 ⫽k 关 1⫺ 共 1⫺X̄ 兲 2 兴 ⫺ 关 1⫺ 共 1⫺X̄ 兲 3 兴 (8)
where dx⫽L/n 6D
共2兲 Momentum conservation Differentiating Eq. 共8兲 we receive the first derivative and the
All axial components of velocity change result from the com- second derivative:

冋 册
bined effects in axial pressure and friction force: Lf

PF⫺ P⫹冉dP
dx 冊
dx F⫺ ␶ W ␲ dDX
⌬ P̄ ⬘x0 ⫽ 共 1⫺X̄ 兲 2k⫺

Lf
2D
共 1⫺X̄ 兲 (9)

冉
⫽ ␳ F W⫹
dW
dx
dx 冊 2
⫺ ␳ FW 2 ⫹ ␳ F c U c W c
⌬ P̄ ⬙x0 ⫽
D
共 1⫺X̄ 兲 ⫺2k

⬘ ⫽0 the function ⌬ P̄ x0 has two points of extreme

Let ⌬ P̄ X0
(10)

The simplest shape of main channel is a circular cross section values:

in which its friction force ␶ w ⫽ ␳ F(W 2 /8). Neglecting the higher
orders of dx and collecting the terms, one obtains: 4kD
X̄ c1 ⫽1, X̄ c2 ⫽1⫺ (11)
Lf
1 dP f dW F c n
⫹ W 2 ⫹2W ⫹ U W ⫽0 (2) where M ⫽kD/L f .
␳ dx 2D dx FL c c
Inserting X̄ c1 ,X̄ c2 into Eq. 共10兲 yields:
where W c is the axial velocity component of the fluid in the pipe,
which will be branched off through the hole. It can be smaller or ⌬ P̄ ⬙x0 兩 ¯X c1 ⫽1 ⫽⫺2k⬍0, i.e. X̄ c1 ⫽1 is a point of maximum.
larger than W, depending on the dimensions of the pipe and loca-
tion of the holes. It may be then expressed as a fraction of W as 4kD
given by Bassiouny and Martin 关3兴 as follows: ⌬ P̄ ⬙x0 兩 ¯X c2 ⫽1⫺4kD/L f ⫽2k⬎0, i.e. X̄ c2 ⫽1⫺
Lf
W c⫽ ␤ W (3) is a point of minimum.
After substituting Eqs. 共1兲 and 共3兲 into Eq. 共2兲, the momentum There is a maximum at the point X̄ c1 ⫽1, i.e.
equation may be given as
Lf
⌬ P̄ X0 兩 ¯X c1 ⫽k⫺ (12)
6D
and a minimum at the point X̄ c2 ⫽1⫺4kD/L f , i.e.

冋 冉 冊册 冋 冉 冊册
⌬ P̄ x0 兩¯x c2 ⫽k 1⫺
4kD
Lf
2
⫺
Lf
6D
1⫺
4kD
Lf
3
(13)

Results and Discussion

The division of a fluid stream into parts by means of a perfo-
rated pipe distributor is accompanied by fluid pressure changes
Fig. 2 Control volume near a hole owing to wall friction and to the changing fluid momentum. Fric-

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power APRIL 2001, Vol. 123 Õ 473

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 Fig. 3 The static pressure profile of the main channel for Fig. 5 The static pressure profile of the main channel for
1Õ6Ï M Ë1Õ4 0Ë M Ë1Õ6

tion tends to the make the pressure fall, and momentum exchange a minimum at the point X̄ c2 . When X̄⬍X̄ c2 the friction effect
tends to make the pressure rise. When these pressure trends are exceeds the momentum, which makes the pressure fall in the di-
exactly balanced, the static pressure remains constant along the rection of flow; when X̄⬎X̄ c2 the momentum effect increases
entire length of the perforated pipe, which insures a uniform flow slowly, and the pressure rises. Finally, the momentum effect will
distribution. We easily determine the greatest value and the small- balance or exceed the friction, and the static pressure varies from
est value of this function in a closed interval 关0, 1兴 by comparing negative to positive in the flow direction as shown in Fig. 3. It is
the extreme values of a function ⌬ P̄ x0 with the end-point values. apparent that the function ⌬ P̄ x0 could not be a constant for any
The greatest 共smallest兲 one of the absolute value of these values value M. That is to say, a perfectly uniform side flow is impos-
will be the greatest deviation of flow distribution. Although it is sible. If there is a smaller deviation for the side flow, this case
not possible to keep the fluid pressure perfectly uniform inside the may be M ⫽1/6, according to Eq. 共8兲 or Fig. 4.
main channel, based on Eq. 共8兲 and Fig. 3, it is possible that the
pressure variation can be limited to a minimum amount that pro- Case 3: 0ËMË1Õ6 „1ÌX̄ c2 Ä1À4MÌ1Õ3…, Fiction Con-
duces a small but tolerable inequality in flow through the holes. trols. The opposite of case 1, the momentum effect is smaller
X̄ C2 ⫽1⫺4M indicates that X̄ c2 depends on the value M, i.e. than the friction, and the pressure difference is always negative
the extreme values of Eq. 共8兲 will vary as M. The treatment of Eq. along the flow direction. Although there is a very small pressure
共8兲 gives four different cases. rise when X̄⬎X̄ c2 in the closed interval 关0, 1兴, it is too small to be
apparent in Fig. 5. The greater M is, the smaller is the pressure
Case 1: MÐ1Õ4 „X̄ c2 Ä1À4MÏ0…, Momentum Controls. fall.
In this case, there is no minimum value in the interval 关0, 1兴 If the values of f and k are fixed, M will decrease with increas-
because of X̄ c2 ⬍0. The main fluid stream is decelerated due to the ing L/D and the pressure of the main channel will decrease. In
loss of fluid through the lateral perforations. The momentum ex- unit operations, it is mainly limited to flow in tiny-long channels,
change has exceeded the friction loss since the fluid had entered the flow of some non-Newtonian fluids, and extremely viscous
the open end. Therefore, the static pressure will monotonically Newtonian fluids. Also, it can be seen in ventilating systems or
rise in the flow direction, and reach the maximum at the closed irrigation systems.
end. On the other hand, the static pressure differences increase as
M increases. Figure 4 shows a typical set of pressure curves to this Case 4: MÏ0 „X̄ c2 Ä1À4MÐ1…, a Limiting Case or Not
case. This case corresponds to a larger k or D/L, and a smaller f, Existant. There is no momentum effect in the channel for M
and often occurs in chemical processing systems. ⫽0. In practice it denotes a limiting case, for example, the ratio
L/D or f is of infinitely large magnitudes. This case may be seen
Case 2: 1Õ6ÏMË1Õ4 „1Õ3ÐX̄ c2 Ä1À4MÌ0…, Momentum in irrigation systems.
Effect Balances Friction. Owing to the fact that the friction and The case M ⬍0 should not exist when all of k, D, L and f are
momentum effects work in opposite directions, the former tends positive.
to produce a pressure drop and the latter a pressure rise. There is Finally, Fig. 6 represents the effect of changing the parameter

Fig. 4 The static pressure profile of the main channel for

M Ð1Õ4 Fig. 6 The effect of changing M on flow pressure

474 Õ Vol. 123, APRIL 2001 Transactions of the ASME

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 M on the flow pressure 共or the flow distribution兲 in the main pipe; 共4兲 when M ⫽0, a limiting case: it denotes the limit when the
channel. The effects of M on flow distribution is more apparent at ratio of the length and the diameter of friction factor is infinite.
a small M than at a large M. The predicted values agreed qualitively with the experimental
The advantage of the momentum method is that the detailed results.
flow processes need not be described. The effect of the perforated In any case it would appear that computations of the flow dis-
pipe design parameters, such as the porosity, the area ratio, the tribution from a constant cross-section pipe distributor would be
spacing between holes, and L/D ratio, is included in the two per- useful to the designer who wishes to provide for nearly but not
formance parameters, k and f. The two parameters can be mea- perfectly uniform flow distribution. Furthermore, it is helpful to
sured by experiment. In addition, the momentum method avoids the user who hopes to know the best operational properties and
the difficulty with applying a Bernoulli equation to the branching conditions for utility-type perforated pipes.
process lying in the ambiguity which exists in identifying a rel-
evant streamline on which to conserve energy and estimate fric- Nomenclature
tional losses. D ⫽ pipe distributor diameter
Although the flow distribution may be approximately uniform f ⫽ friction factor
for a properly chosen M the static pressure distribution still de- F ⫽ cross-sectional area of the pipe
pends on the inlet Reynolds number. There should be a value of Fc ⫽ cross-sectional area of a hole
Re0 for a fixed M, which makes ⌬ P̄ x0 uniform. Exhaust equip- k ⫽ momentum recovery factor
ment into the condenser stipulates that the perforated pipe should L ⫽ length of the pipe distributor
be designed for 1/6⭐M ⬍1/4. These conditions impose serious M ⫽ characteristic parameter (⫽kD/L f )
limitations on the capacity and utility of the perforated pipe. This n ⫽ number of holes
result is valuable not only to the design of the perforated pipe of a P ⫽ pressure of the pipe
new condenser, but also provides a practical operating guide in a
utility-type condenser.
P̄ ⫽ dimensionless pressure in the pipe (⫽p/ ␳ w 20 )
The friction and momentum factor still vary along the axis of Uc ⫽ hole velocity
the perforated pipe because of varying flow velocity. Therefore W ⫽ velocity in the pipe
the effect of the flow velocity on f and k should be considered in W0 ⫽ the pipe velocity at the open end
further details to improve the precision of calculation. A constant Wx ⫽ the pipe velocity at the point x
friction and momentum factor are only an approximation. Wang’s Wc ⫽ axial component of the flow velocity at the hole inlet
studies 共关2兴兲 indicated that the predicted values on the constant x ⫽ axial coordinate
factors agreed qualitively with the experimental results, but they X̄ ⫽ dimensionless axial coordinate
can help to clarify the basic characteristics of the flow in the ␳ ⫽ fluid density
perforated pipe. On the other hand, the designer may use the ␤ ⫽ average velocity ratio in the pipe
simple solution obtained here as a convenient mathematical tool ␶w ⫽ wall shear stress
to perform quick performance trade evaluations. A further de-
tailed study on varying f and k can be founded in the literature
References
共关3兴兲. 关1兴 Sebald, J. F., Phillips, N. A., and Haman, L. L., 1982, ‘‘Recommenced Guide-
lines for the Admission of High-Energy Fluids to Steam Surface Condenser,’’
EPRI-CS-2251.
Conclusions 关2兴 Wang, J., 1995, ‘‘Theory of Radial Flow Distributor and Characteristics of a
Parallel-Multiple Jet,’’ Ph.D. thesis, East China University of Science and
There is a general characteristic parameter M (kD/L f ), which Technology, Shanghai.
depends on the pipe design and flow properties, for all perforated 关3兴 Wang, J., Ge, X., and Wu, D., 1998, ‘‘Progress of Flow in Manifold,’’ Adv. in
pipe distributors. Four specific cases can be considered, dependant Mech., 28, No. 3, pp. 392–401 共in Chinese兲.
on the value of characteristics parameter m: 共1兲 when M ⭐1/4, 关4兴 Bassiouny, M. K., and Martin, H., 1984, ‘‘Flow Distribution and Pressure
Drop in Plate Heat Exchangers-I: U-Type Arrangement,’’ Chem. Eng. Sci., 29,
momentum controls: the main channel static pressure will increase No. 4, pp. 693–700.
in the direction of the streamline; 共2兲 when 1/6⭐M ⬍1/4, the 关5兴 Chang, Chengfang, Zhu, Zibin, Xu, Maosheng, and Zhu, Bingchen, 1979, ‘‘An
momentum effect balances friction loss: the pressure will decrease Investigation of Design on the Uniform Fluid Distribution for Radial Flow
to a minimum, and then increase in the direction of flow to a Reactors,’’ J. Chem. Ind. Eng., No. 1, pp. 67–90 共in Chinese兲.
关6兴 Jin, Yong, Yu, Zhiqing, Su, Zhufan, and Peng, Binpu, 1984, ‘‘Investigations
positive value; 共3兲 when 0⬍M ⬍1/6, friction controls: the pres- on Branched Pipe Distributors for Fluidized Beds 共II兲 Determination of Design
sure will decrease to a minimum, then increase slowly, but the Parameters for Branched Pipe Distributors,’’ J. Chem. Ind. Eng., 35, No. 3, pp.
static pressure difference will always be negative at the whole 204–213 共in Chinese兲.

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power APRIL 2001, Vol. 123 Õ 475

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