C concerts > ‘We will study in this chapter: 1. The Early Empire 2. The Third Century Crisis 3. Gender, Literacy and Culture 4, Economic Expansion of the Empire ws ‘The Roman Empire was stretched over a vast | territory. This vast territory included most of the present Europe, West Asia and a large part of North Africa: This kingdom or empire embraced a wealth of local cultures and language. ‘The legal position of women quite strong which women many present countries. Much of the economy of the empire was run on slave labour. It d lenied freedom to considerable in the empire was hardly enjoy even in | * rus Caesar, the Roman Empire stretched {ll present Britain and Germany, Latin was the main ote etl ving inthe a el Ge Eee | 3 e. Roman peo aie ple had great respect for the Many changes came in the frst ; the politcal setup ofthe empien MU BCE in Tithe 48 century BCE, Emperor became a Christian, Itresulted in ¢) Constantine | of the empire, hristianisation, @ An Empire Across Three Continents MAIN POINTS OF THE THE! In the fourth century, whole of the Roman Empire was divided into east and west parts for administrative convenience. But, in the west, the empire was fragmented politically by Germanit groups from the North (Goths, Nandals, Lombards, etc.). They took over all the Major provinces and established their kingdoms, This empire of the west had disintegrated by the 5" century. But, the eastern part of the empire Temained integrated and prosperous, Between the 5" and 7% centuries CE, most patt of the Roman Empire was seized by the Arabian Empire. Republic :4 regim lay with the senate, Senate : A body dominated by a small group aay families who formed the nobility. nseripted Army + That army which is sec ein which the reality of powet Armed struggl within the same count Tuggles for power ifforens ry, in i 5, on contrive! “ontrast to conflicts betwee| Transhumance : It is the herdsman’ ual ovement between the iiguer eathal fegions and low lying ground in Tap and other tacks . Slave i : The practice of encouragin, foanle slaves and thoir partners to have more Guléren, who would of course also be slaves. , Frankincense : The European name for an Fomatic resin used in incense and perfumes, | The Equites : Knights or horsemen who were —® traditionally the second. most. powerful and wealthy group. «Monolith : Literally, a largo block of stone but the expression is used to refer to anything. © Christianisation : The process by which christianity spread among different. groups of the: population and became the dominant religion. + Laity : The ordinary members of a religious ‘community as opposed to the priests or clergy who have official positions within the community. _— (NGERT) —CEXTBOOKIQUESTIONS Q.1. If you had lived in the Roman Empire, where would you rather have lived—in the or in the countryside ? Explain why. "Ans. If I had lived in the Roman Empire, then 1 would have lived in towns because of the following three reasons: (j) There was no scarcity of food items in towns. (ii) Better facilities were available in towns as compared to the countryside even during famines (ii) Better means of enjoyment were available in towns. Q. 2. Compile a list of some of the towns, cities, rivers, seas and provinces mentioned in this chapter, and then try and find them on the maps. Can you say something about any three of the items in the list you have compiled ? ‘Ans. Do it yourself with the help of your teacher. Q.3. Imagine that you are a Roman housewife preparing a shopping list for household requirements. What would be on the list ? ‘Ans. Wheat, Barley, Beans, Lentils, various kinds of pulses, wine, etc. Q-4. Why do you think the Roman government stopped coining in silver ? ‘And which metal did it begin to use for the production of coinage ? ‘Ans. Silver was extracted from mines to mint silver coins. But, these mines were exhausted and there was no stock of silver left with the government to support a stable coinage in silver. That is why, the Roman government started to mint gold ea ig Q. 5. Suppose Emperor Trajan bad actual managed o enacer tala and the Romans had held on to the country for several centuries. In what ways do you think India might be different today ? ‘Ans. If the Romans had held on to India for ea centuries, India might be different today in ing wi (i) There might be aristocracy in India in place of democracy. (ii) Christianity might be the state religion. (iii) Slavery system might have prevailed in the country. (iv) Besides Indian languages, languages like Latin and Greek might be spoken in the country. (o) The countryside might be administered by cities. (Vi) There might be changes in art and architecture of the country. (vii) Indians might worship Roman gods and goddesses such as Jupiter, Juno, etc., along with gods and goddesses. "The society might be divided into patricians, plebians and slaves. @. 6. Go through the chapter carefully and pick out some basic features of Roman society and economy which you think make it look ic Features of the Roman Society: (@) Society was divided into upper, middle and lower classes. (ii) There was widespread prevalence of nuclear family. (ii) Women retained full rights in their father's property. They could own and manage property. (Gv) There was vast diversity of religious cults and local deities, the plurality of languages that were spoken, the styles of dress and costume, the food people ate and their form of social organisation, (v) The king could not act arbitrarily. (vi) People made an active use of the law for protection of their rights. Some Basic Features of the Roman Economy + (@ The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, brickyards, ete (ii) Roman trade was prosperous. (iii) Galilee was densely cultivated. (iv) The level of productivity was very high. (v) There was an organised commercial and banking system and money was used widely.eee @ ___\UADDITIONATIMPORTANT:QU Qlobisctve Type Guestions (oTas] Multiple Choice Questions 4. The Roman Empire was stretched over (a) Europe (0) West Asia (c) Large part of North Africa (d) All of these Ans. (d) All of these ‘2. Much of the economy of the Roman Empire was (@ Manual labour (c) Senate's orders Ans. (6) Slave labour. 8. In which of these groups, could the sources of, ‘Roman history be divided ? (a) Texts (6) Documents (c) Material remains (d) All of these Ans. (d) All of these 4. The Roman Empire was seized by ......... - (a) Sassadians (b) Arabian Empire (c) Mesopotamians (d) Egyptian Empire Ans. (b) Arabian Empire 5. The Roman Empire in the west was fragmented () Slave labour @ King’s advice. yes, (@) Goths (6) Lombards (©) Nandals (a) All of these Ans. (6) All of these 6. Which of these languages were used in ‘administration in the Roman Empire ? (a) Latin and Greek (b) Latin and Persian (©) Greek and Persian (@ Greek and English Ans, (a) Latin and Greek 7. Which Roman ruler was considered as the “leading citizen’ ? a Alexander (6) *) Gallienus i. = ms ' (@) Diocletian lich of these ‘ rita wn (b) The aristocracy (@) All of these ~( NBD Super Refresher Histon. Rh) IESTIONS <—— (Solved) — 9. What was denarius ? (a) AGold coin (c) ASilver coin (c) ASilver coin 10, Which Roman emperor reduced the expansion V,/at the Roman Empire ? (@) Diocletain (©) Alexander ‘Ans. (a) Diocletion Assertion-Reason Based Questions ‘The questions given below consist of an assertion and a reason. Use the following key to choose the appropriate answer. (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A). (®) Both (A) and QR) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A). (©) (A) is true but (R) is false. (@) (A) is false but (R) is true. 1. Assertion (A): The Roman empire embraced a wealth of local cultures and languages. Reason (R): The Roman empire was stretched over a vastterritory of present Europe, west Asia and large pat of North Africa. 2, Assertion (A): The christianisation of the Roman empire took place in 4th century BCE. Reason (R): In the 4th century BCE, emperor ‘Constantine became a christian, : ap 3. Assertion (A): There was scarcit items in the towns of the Roman empit ee Reason (R): Better even during famines, 4. Assertion (A): rt Asses may ‘There was widespread prevalence of th eee ‘Women had full rights in their father’s () ARuby stone (@) A Red diamond () Augustus @ Gallienus ies were available in towns Assertion (A); The Ronn ns Widely used. and soldiers nan army was not professio®! {is Ne ot aisle prof Reason (R); Sold i ‘Were put in a minimum of 25 ye> gc ‘Three Continents s ¢, Assertion (A): Roman women were given enough legal Ais in owning and managing property. Reason (R): Divorce was relatively an easy affair ‘tion (A): The Roman empire had a system of g, Assertion (A govemmentin which te eal power vested inthe senate. Reason (RY: Members ofthe senate enjoyed a life-long term. Ea to 2@) 3@ 40) 5@ eo 7@ 80) (0) ‘Ans. The Roman Empire was stretched to most gertof present Europe, Western Asia and large part of North Africa. Q.2.In which three groups could the sources of Roman history be divided ? Ans. (i) Texts (ii) Documents Ans. A narrow strip of land which ran along the river Euphrates separates both the empires. Q.4. Which sea was known as the ‘heart of Rome’s empire’ ? Up to where did it stretch ? Ans. Mediterranean sea was known as the heart of the Roman Empire. It stretched from Spain in the north and up to Syria in the east. fog(in®+ The boundaries of the Roman Empire were formed to the north by the rivers, Rhine and Denube. These were formed by the huge expanse of desert alled the Sahara to the south. Q. 6. Which two languages were used in the ition of the Roman Empire ? \ns. Latin and Greek languages were used in Administration of the Roman Empire, Ans. Roman ruler Augustus was considered as the “leading citizen’ only to show that he was not the © absolute ruler. It was done out of respect for the Senate. Q.8eWhich empire's army was a conscripted lurthy? What was its meaning ? Ans. The army of the Persian Empire was a conscripted army or which is forcibly recruited. It means that military service was compulsory for some adult males of the state. Q. 9. State any two features of the Roman army. ‘Ans. (i) The Roman army was professional in which every soldier was paid a salary. (ii) Soldiers were put in a minimum of 25 years of servi Which were the three main players in (é political history of Rome ? ‘Ans. (i) The emperor (ii) The aristocracy (iii) The ‘of membership of Senate. Q. 12. What is meant by the Civil War ? Ans. Armed struggle between two groups of a country to capture power is known as the Civil War. 3. For what is the age of Roman emperor A\gustus known and why ? ‘Ans, Augustan age is known for peace. It was so ‘because this peace came in after decades of internal conflict and centuries of military conquests. Q. 14. Whatis meant by the Near East of Rome? ‘Ans. The Near East of Rome is the territory east of the Mediterranean Sea. Territories of Syria, Palestine and,Arabia were included in it. Ans. The great urban centres were the true bedrock of the imperial system in Rome. The government was able to tax the provincial countrysides through these cities which generated major portion of the wealth of the empire. Carthage, Alexandria and Antioch were the three lai irban centres of Rome. Ql \t steps did the Emperor Gallienus prevent control of the empire from falling into senators’ hands ? __ Ans. (i) The Emperor Gallienus consolidated the rise of power of the new elites. (ii) He excluded senators from military command.Q.17. In the third century Rome, what did the trends of majority of provincial senators reflect ? ‘Ans. (i) These trends reflected that there was a general dectine of Italy within the empire from political and economic perspective. (ii) These trends reflected that there was a rise of new elites in the wealthier and more urbanised parts of the Mediterranean. Q.18. What is meant by a ‘city’ in the Roman sense ? ‘Ans. In Roman sense, a city was an urban centre which had its own magistrates, city council and a definite territory. This territory contained many villages under ts jurisdicti element and to use it for public bathing seemed a desecration to them. This is the reason why public baths wore opposed in Iran. Q. 20. In the third century, rulers of which dynasty of Iran and which Germanic tribes invaded the Roman Empire ? ‘Ans. In the third century, rulers of the Sasani dynasty of Iran and Germanic tribes, namely the Alomanni, the Franks and the Goths, invaded the Roman Empire. Q. 21. How far were Roman women self- dependent ? Ans. (}) Roman women were given enough legal rights in owning and managing property, (Gi Divoree was relatively an easy affair, Q. 22. What were ee amphorae? Where were Ans. Amphorae were a ti ws ype of containers, ‘Tho mere uscd in transporting liguids like wine alive ee : : - ‘They were made in the Mediterranean @. 23. Name four densely populated areas of the Ro: i 5 mcRE Empire (two each from Italy and Ans. () Campania and Sicily in Italy, (i) Fayum and Galilee i Q.24. From in where did the best kinds of wine MBD Super Refresher History Q.25, What is meant by transhumance ? ‘Ans. The regular annual movement of herdsmen in search of pastures for sheep and other flocks jg known as transhumance. (£7@1'36/ Ta which areas of the Roman Empire and for what purposes was the used ? ‘Ams. Water power was used in the mines of gold and silver and in industrial mills. It was widely used in the Mediterranean region. Ga) sinner ng “Ans. In Rome, slave couples were encouraged to have more children. It is known as slave-breeding ‘Their children will also become slaves when they will grow up. '@18 Where was frankincense (resin) used and how was it tapped ? ‘Ans. Frankincense or an aromatic resin was used to make incense and perfumes. It was tapped from Boswellia trees by slashing the bark and allowing the exuded resins to harden. Q. 29. From where did the best quality frankincense come ? Ans. It came from the Arabian Peninsula. Q. 30. Write two ways with which Roman people controlled their workers ? Ans. Workers were mainly slaves. ‘To keep them in control : (@ Workers were branded so that th ) wey could be recognised when they run away, : i) Many private emplo i ‘ 2yees cast their agreements with workers to ensure tighter control over them, Ans. (i) Like 5 landlords, Q. 32..Ni early Sense Ans. () Senators (ij) Knights or horsemen Social classes of the Git) The ee *estion of the people (iv) Slavesi =n Empire Aeross Three Continents Q.33. Write down any two religious changes that took place in late antiquity in the Roman ‘Empire. ‘ns. (i)In the fourth century, Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion, (i) In the seventh century, Islam rose, Q. 34, Why did Emperor Diocletian reduce the expansion of the Roman Ans, Emperor Diocletian felt that many territories ofthe empire had no strategic or economic value. So, he abandoned those territories. Q. 35. Write down any four administrative reforms made by Emperor Diocletian. ‘Ans. (i) Diocletian fortified the frontiers, (Gi) He recognised provincial boundaries. (iii) He separated civilian functions from military. functions. (iv) He granted greater autonomy to the military commanders. sane - ). Q. 36. What was the solidus ? “Ans. The solidus was a type of coin introduced by Emperor Constantine. It was made of 4% gm. of pure gold. Q. 37. The traditional religious culture of Romans had been polytheist. Give two examples. ‘Ans. (i) Romans had faith in many cults and ways of worship. (ii) They made thousands of temples, shrines and sanctuaries. ‘Ans. The process with which Christianity spread among different classes of the population is known. as Christianisation, At the time of Constantine, ‘Ans. (i) Kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain, @) Kingdom of the Franks in Gaul, (ii?) Kingdom of the Lombards in Italy. Q. 40. What was the result of the recovery of Italy by Justinian ? ‘Ans, The recovery of Italy by Justinian left: the country devastated and paved the way for Lombard invasion. Q. 41. Which incident has been called the greatest political revolution ever to occur in the history of the ancient world ? ‘Ans. The expansion of Islam from its beginnings in Arabia. Q. 42) Who was Saint Augustine (854-430) ? ‘Ans. Saint Augustine was the bishop of the North African city of Hippo from 396. He was a towering figure in the intellectual history of the Church. Q. 43. What was the situation of literacy in the Roman Empire ? ‘Ans. Literacy rate in different parts of the Roman Empire was different. There was more literacy rate among certain classes like soldiers, army officers and estate managers. Q. 44. Give names of three authors who used their creations to describe how Romans behaved with their workers. ‘Ans. Columella, Elder Pliny and Augustine. ‘Ans. Hired labour could have been removed in case of non-availability of work. But, slave-labour had to be maintained and fed through-out the year. ‘That is why, slave labour was more expensive than hired labour, 1. What was the Principate in context to the Roman Empire ? 2. Why were public baths opposed in Iran ? 8. What is meant by slave-breeding ? 4. What was the result of the recovery of Italy by Justinian ? Ans, The major sources of Roman history can be broadly divided into three groups : (@) Texts (ii) Documents (iii) Material remains.(® Texts : Letters, speeches, sermons, laws, histories of the period written by contemporaries, tc,, are included in it. “Gi) Documents : Inscriptions and papyri are. included in it. Inscriptions were generally cut on stone which is why they have survived even till today. A large number of inscriptions have survived in both Greek and Latin. Thousands of contracts, letters, accounts and official documents have survived on papyrus which was a reed-like plant and whose leaves were used for writing. (ii) Material remains : A number of items are included in material remains, They are mainly discovered by archaeologists. These include monuments, buildings, other kinds of structures, coins, pottery, mosaics, entire landscapes, ete. Each of these remains gives us specific information about the Roman past, Q. 2. Discuss the expansion of the Roman and Iranian Empires. ‘Ans. In the period down to the 630s, most of the Europe, North Africa and the Middle East was ruled ‘over by two powerful empires. These two powerful ‘empires were of Rome and Iran, Both the empires were rivals to each other. For much of their history, they fought against each other. Both of these empires, ‘were separated only by a narrow strip of land which ran along the river Euphrates and they both lay next to each other. (@® The Roman Empire : The Mediterranean and all the regions around that sea, in north as well as in south, were dominated by the Roman Empire. In the north direction, boundaries of the Roman Empire were formed by two rivers—the Rhine and the Danube. In the south direction, its boundaries were formed by the huge expanse of the Sahara desert. (i) The Iranian Empire : Whole of the area towards south of the Caspian Sea down to eastern Arabia and even sometimes large parts of Afghanistan were controlled by the Iranian Empire. Both of these superpowers had divided most of the world which jerknown as “Ta Ch'in in Chinese, & Ans. The Republican System of the Roman Empire __ was the system of government in which the real _ Power vested in the Senate. Members of the Senate ed @ life-long term. For it, wealth and prestige WD Super Refresher of office were of more importance, 80, the Senate was dominated by rich people, known as the elites, In practice, Republic was a government of the eliteg which was run by an institution, namely the Senate. Republic government was there from 509 BCE to 97 BCE, In 27 BCE, it was overthrown by Julius Cacsar'y ‘adopted son and successor Octavian and he himsele e emperor of Rome. Q.4. What is meant by the : in context of the Roman Empire ? was the position of the emperor ‘Ans. The Principate was the regime established by the first Roman emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE, ‘Although Augustus was the only real source of authority and was the sole ruler but he kept the fiction alive that he was not the absolute ruler, only the ‘leading citizen’, It was done to give respect to the Senate. Senate was the body which had controlled Rome in the days when it was a Republic. The existence of this institution remained for centuries, ‘This institution represented the aristocracy and elites, meaning the wealthiest families of Rome. But, later ‘on, Italian descent, mainly landowners, were also included in it. Emperors were judged by how they behaved towards the Senate. Hostile emperors toward senatorial class were judged as the worst emperors. ‘Many senators yearned to go back to the age of the Republic. But, most of the senators must have realised that this was not possible, Q. 5. Briefly describe the role of army in the early Roman Empire. Ans. The army was one of the major institutions of ‘the Roman Empire. The army of the Roman Empire was a paid professional army. Every soldier had t? give minimum of 25 years of service. In fact, the existence of a paid army was one of the distinctive features of the Roman Empire, The army definitely had the power to determine the fate of emperors asi Was the largest single organised body in the empire There were constant agitations of soldiers for better Wages and service conditions, These agitation, of the times, were changed into mutinies, Army W# fared and hated by the Senate. It was so becaus¢ # ‘was a source of violence. The success of individual emperors was mainly dependent upon their com result generally was a civil war. Q.6. What was the i a Significance of provinels! Ans. () Provincial ee ae was gradually ext Rule : The Roman direet a by “rst mt Se Rsrp Rerass Three Continents stories of the Roman Empire. The Near East region wwas full of this type of kingdoms. The kingdoms that a the west direction of the river Euphrates were Mysawallowed by Rome before the early second aifrury. Some of these kingdoms were very much crlthy. In fact, except Italy, all the territories of the Moire were divided into provinces and all of them had to pay taxes. ii) Local Rule : A number of cities were set up jp whole of the empire. Whole of the empire was wotrolled through these cities. These cities or great fan centres were the actual basis of the imperial sytem. The government was able to tax the provincial ceuntrysides through these centres. These taxes were e major sources of wealth of the empire. ‘Who were the three main players in the fitical history of the Roman Empire ? Write {wo or three sentences about each of them. ‘Ans. The three main players in the political history of the Roman Empire were the emperor, the elite group and the army. (i) The Emperor : The emperor was the sole ler of the empire, but he was called the leading Gtizen. This was done out of respect for the Senate It also showed that he was not the absolute ruler. (ii) The Elite Group : The elite group stood for the Senate. It included members of the aristocracy and wealthy families. It controlled Rome in the days ‘when it was a’Republic. Emperors were judged by how they behaved towards the Senate. Emperors who ‘were hostile to the Senate were considered the worst. (ii) The Army : Next to the emperor and the Senate was the army. It was a professional one. Each soldier was paid a salary. The army had the power to determine the fate of the emperors. one of ‘Ans. The Roman Empire faced a lot of strain in the third century. It would be clear from the following examples: (@ In 225 CE. a new and more aggressive dynasty emerged in Iran, People of this dynasty called themselves the ‘Sasanians’. They expanded very quickly towards the Euphrates within just 15 years. A famous rock inscription, written in three languages, ‘has been found in which the Iranian rulet, Shaper ee ee had destroyed a Roman army of byes ‘laimed to capture the eastern capital ) Meanwhile, a number of Germanic tribes (the Alamanni, the Franks and the Goths) started moving @) towards the Rhine and Danube frontiers. The whole period from 233 to 280 C.E. saw repeated attacks over provinces stretched from the Black Sea to the ‘Alps and southern Germany. Due to these invasions, the Romans were forced to abandon most of their territories beyond the river Danube. (iii) The emperors of this era had to remain constantly in the fields against the barbarians (German tribes). (iv) The quick succession of emperors in the 3rd century is a definite example of the strains faced by the empire during this period. \S Ans. The state of Rome was an authoritarian regime, The emperor and government did not tolerate im, Violent means were used by the government against protests. Then, « strong tradition of the Roman law emerged before the 4' century. ‘This law put brakes on the powers of even the most fearsome emperors. This law stopped the emperors from doing whatever they liked and was mainly used for the protection of civil rights. This was the reason due to which powerful bishops stood against powerful emperors when the emperors were quite repressive sndling of their civilian population. a \°Q. 10. The traditional religious culture of the ‘Greeks and Romans had been polytheist. Give examples. ‘Ans. (i) Both the Greeks and Romans had faith in various cults and ways of worship. (ii) They worshipped Roman/Italian gods like Jupiter, Juno, Minerva and Mars. Besides, numerous Greek and eastern deities were also worshipped. (iii) ‘There were thousands of temples, shrines and sanctuaries throughout the empire. Polytheists had ‘no common name or label to describe themselves. (iv) Judaism was another great religion of the ‘Roman Empire. There was too much diversity within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. ‘These examples prove that the traditional religious "Ans, The proces of decline of the Roman Empire ‘began in the West. When Germanic groups of North (Goths, Vandals, Lombards, ete.) conquered all the© ‘major provinces and established their kingdoms, then the empire was fragmented in the West, ‘The major provinces out of these were the Visigoths in Spain, the Franks in Gaul and the Lombards in Italy. Justinian recaptured Africa front thé Vandals in 533 CEE. He also recovered Italy from the Ostrogoths. But, this recovery left that country devastated. It cleared the way for Lombard invasion. % ‘The war between Rome and Iran had started again by the early 7 century. Since the third century, Iran ‘was ruled over by the Sasanians. They launched an attack on all the major eastern provinces including Egypt. When the Roman Empire (Byzantium) recaptured these provinces in 620’, then it was just few years away from the ultimate blow which came from the South-East. By 642 C.E., the Arabs had conquered a large part of both the eastern Roman and Sasanian Empires. In this way, the Roman Empire compli tied. (Ans. Following are the Roman civilisatic @ One of the major reasons of decline of the Roman civilisation was imperialism. Democracy in Rome remained no more because of wars and ae (d) The Roman civilisation also declined due to political conflicts and corruption. (it) The authority of the Roman emperors declined with the spread of Christianity, it) he power othe Roman Expire also reduced wit ¢ invasion of Germanic tribes of Vandals, Lombards, ete, pod Q hicks dye) 1. Discuss the expansion of the Roman and the main causes of decline of a TED Super Refresher Hak ae { isto) Qyeshiganswer Type Questions Gs (1. Discuss the main features of family lity ‘the Roman society. ‘Ans, The main features of family life in the Roman society are given below: (i) Nuclear Family System : Nuclear family system widely prevailed in the Roman society. Adult sons did not live with the families of their father. Adult brothers also did not share a common household. On the other hand, slaves were considered as a part of the family because this was the conception of family for Romans. (ii) Marriage System : Till the first century BCE, a wife did not transfer her property to her husband, She retained the complete rights in the natal family’s property. During the duration of marriage, woman's dowry definitely went over to her husband The woman, even after her marriage, remained a primary heir of her father. She even became the owner of the property after her father’s death. In this way, Roman women had enough legal rights in managing and owing property. Divorce was quite easy in those days, It required only a notion of intent to break the marriage either by the husband or wife. Males used to marry in their late twenties or in early thirties, Women used to marry in the late teens or early twenties. That is why, there was a gap between the ages of both. Generally arranged marriages were there. (di) Male-dominated Families ; Families were male-dominated. Generally, women were dominated by their husbands, They used to beat their wives. Besides this, there was a substantial legal control of fathers over their children—sometimes to a shocking degree, For example, they had legal power of disposing children, They even sometimes left Ans. id conomie activities prevailed in ae Folnntlt, Rome saw a great economic ree eeaen ing are some of the characteristics ( Very good economic infrastructure of mines, te briearday quarries, olive oil factories, i beches the eenpkags Wine, wheat and olive in huge quantities and were Mainly from the Egypt, North Africa andee -rempife Aooss Three Continents) inost importantly Italy where very good conditions More there for these crops. Wine and olive oil were transported in containers. These containers were known as ‘amphorae’, (ii) During the years 140-160 C.E., trading of spanish olive oil reached at its peak. The Spanish alive oil was mainly transported in a container which was known as ‘Dressel-20’, The Italian market of clive oil was captured by the Spanish producers. It happened only because the Spanish producers supplied a better quality oil at lower prices. In other words, we can say that the big landowners of different. regions used to compete with each other to take control of the markets for the goods which they produced. (iii) Many regions were there in the empire with a reputation for exceptional fertility rate. Most densely populated and wealthiest parts of the empire were Campania and Sicily in Italy, the Fayum and Galilee in Egypt, Byzacium (Tunisia), Southern Galu (called Gallia Narbonensis) and Baetica (Southern Spain). (iv) Campania was the main producer of best kinds of wine. Large quantities of wheat were exported to Rome by Sicily and Byzacium. (v) Large expanses of the Roman territory were in a much less advanced state. For example, transhumance was widespread in the countryside of Numidia (modern Algeria). These pastoral and semi-nomadie communities were generally on the move. They carried their oyen-shaped huts (called mapalia) with them, As Roman estates expanded in ‘North Africa, the pastures of those communities were drastically reduced and their movements more tightly regulated. (vi) Even in Spain, the north was much less developed, and was inhabited largely by a Celtic- ‘speaking peasantry that lived in hilltop villages called _ The fact is that Rome was economically a very Tich state. A very large number of gold coins were Prevalent in the country. a\ 8. Slavery was deeply rooted both in the iterranean and in West Asia. There were 3 million es under the reign of Augustus out of the total Population of 7.5 million. Bven after when Christianity became the state religion in the fourth century, the institution of slavery remained intact. Slaves were Considered an investment, @ Role of Hired Labour and Slaves : In the first century, peace was established and a warfare became less widespread. It declined the supply of slaves. So, the users of slave labour thus had to find other ways. One of the methods was slave breeding and other was a cheaper substityfe and that was wage labour which was more easily available. Actually, free labour was widely, used in Rome on public works because use of slave labour was yery expensive. Slayes had to be fed and maintained throughout the year but not the hired labour. It inereased the cost of holding this type of labour, That is wHY, in the later period, slaves were not widely used in agriculture. Now, these freed men and slaves were Widely used as business managers. They ‘were given capital by their masters to run business on their behalf or even business of their own. With the passage of time, the number of hired labour increased. The eastern frontier city of Dara had been built in less than three weeks by the late fifth century Emperor Anastasius. He attracted labour ‘on high wages from all over the east. By the sixth century, wage labour had become widespread in many parts of the Mediterranean. arc @) ich religious and administrative ’., changes were made during Ans. The term ‘late antiquity’ is used to describe the final, fascinating period in the evolution and break-up of the Roman Empire and refers broadly to fourth to seventh centuries. This period was full of many cultural and economic fermentations. Following religious and administrative changes were made in the Roman Empire during this period: (a) Religious Changes : (i) In the fourth century, Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion. Now, Christianity began to flourish in the state. (i In the seventh century, Islam rose. This religion also began to become popular rapidly. (b) Administrative Changes : The administrative sot up of the state also saw several significant changes. ‘These changes occurred in the time of Diocletian (248-805) and continued till the time of Constantine and after him. ‘These changes are the following : (a) Changes in the Time of Diocletian : (® The empire had expanded to a great extent, Many of its territories had no strategic or economic value, Therefore, Diocletian cut back by abandoning territories with little strategic or economic value.(ii) He fortified frontiers of the empire. (iii) He reorganised provincial boundaries. (iv) He separated civilian from military functions and granted greater autonomy to the military commanders. It made military officials more powerful. (®) Changes in the Time of Constantine : (@) Constantine created Constantinople and made it the second capital. It was surrounded on three sides by the sea i) As the new capital required a new senate, there was a rapid expansion of the governing classes, in the fourth century. Q. 5. Discuss the economic development made in Rome in the late antiquity. What was its result ? Ans. Extraordinary economic development was made in Rome in the late antiquity which had the following aspects (@ A new denomination called the solidus was introduced by Emperor Constantine. It was a pure gold coin weighing 4.5 gm. This gold coin was minted @kHoTs'——Hos au Q. 1. How were the relations between the Romans and the Iranians ? ‘Ans. The Roman and Iranian Empires were rivals to each other. For most part of their history, they fought against each other. Q. 2. What was the Principate in context to the Roman Empire ? Ans. Principate was the regime established by t frst emperor of Rome, Augustus, in 27 BOE, @. 3. What was the denarius? How 4 a ee v much Bane did Herod’s kingdom yield to Rome denarii per year, which kg. of gold Q.4. Urban population of the Roman je Empire enjoyed a much " higher level of entertainment, ‘Ans. Roman calendar tells that fled not ens than T76 dasa cr terete (hows) year. It shows that ‘(BD Super Refresher Hi in a very large scale and millions of these coins we, in circulation. (ii) Economic growth was stimulated py monetary stability and an expanding population A lot of investment was made in industrig) establishments and rural industries. These includeg glass factories, oil presses and multiple water mille (iii) A lot of investment was also made in the long distance trade. That is why, this trade was revived, Result : The above changes carried over inty strong urban prosperity. It was marked by new types of architecture and a great sense of luxury. The ruling elites became more powerful and wealthier. Q ‘check what did you learn? 1. What were the main features of family life in the Roman society ? 2. Explain the process of the decline of the Roman Empire. 8, Describe the method of the management of labour in the Roman Empire. ESTIONS } (Solved) — urban populations of the Roman Empire enjoyed 4 much higher level of entertainment. @. 5. According to the historian Tacitus, which people were included in the unkempt lower class (plebs sordida) ? aoe te nan lower class (plebs sordida) hu People who were addic i id Gee re addicted to circus an Q. 6. What were post-Romans ? Ans, In the 540’s » Germanic groups from the North major provinces in the West of the‘an Empire Across Three Cont nis languages were used for administrative purposes. The upper classes of the west spoke and wrote in Latin and upper classes of the east spoke and wrote in Greek. All those people who lived in the empire were the subjects of a single ruler means the emperor. It hardly mattered where they lived and what language they spoke. All this shows that the Roman Empire was culturally much more diverse than that of Iran. Q. 8. What was the policy of the Roman emperors towards more expansion of the empire in the first two centuries ? Ans. Very few efforts were made in the first two centuries, towards more expansion of the Roman Empire. This empire was inherited by Tiberius from ‘Augustus. It was already so vast that the rulers saw its further expansion unnecessary. The Augustus regime is known for the peace which came in after several years of internal struggle and centuries of military conquest. The only major campaign of expansion during the early empire was the Trajan’s occupation of territory beyond the river Euphrates and it was fruitless. It took place in the years 113-117 CE. But, Trajan’s successors took this expansion as. useless and abandoned it. Q.9. The dramatic shift in power among the provinces is one of the most interesting aspects of Roman political history. Explain it. ‘Ans. Throughout the second and the third centuries, most of the cadre, which governed the provinces and commanded the armies, was supplied by the provincial upper classes. They formed a new elite lass of military commanders and administrators. This class was much more powerful than the senatorial class because it was supported by the emperors. With the emergence of this new group, Emperor Gallienus (253-68 CE) consolidated his rise to power. He did this by excluding senators from military command. He stopped the senators from serving in the army ‘so that the control of the empire could not fall into their hands. To eum up, in the late first, second and early third centuries, most of the people in administration and the army were increasingly drawn from the Provinces. It was so because people of these regions were also granted citizenship and it was no longer confined only to Italy. But till the third century, Italians continued to dominate the Senate because in the third century, senators of provincial origin @ majority. Q@-10. Briefly describe the social classes of the Roman Empire. ‘Ans. The Roman society was full of diversities. Different social classes existed in the early and late ages. " 1. The Early Age : Tacitus described the leading social groupiof the early age as the following: (@ In thé arly third century, the Senate roughly numbered 1,000, Approximately half of the senators came from Italian families. (ii) Léading’members of the equestrian class. (iii) The respectable section of the people, those attached to the great houses. (iv) The unkempt lower class who were addicted to circus and theatrical displays. (v) The slaves. 2. The Late Age : In the late age, the major classes are as follows: @ Aristocracy : In this age, the senators and the knights had merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy. At least half of all the families were of African or eastern origin. Aristocracy was enormously wealthy. But, it was less powerful than the purely ‘military elites in many ways. (ii) Middle Class : The middle class now consisted of mass of persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy and army. It also included the ‘more prosperous merchants and farmers. According to Tacitus, these middle class families were mainly. dependent on government service and the state for the livelihood. (iii) Lower Classes : Below them were the vast ‘mass of lower classes known collectively as humiliores. ‘These classes consisted of the following: (a) A rural labour force of which many were permanently employed on the large estates. (b) Workers in industrial and military establishments. (©) Migrant workers who supplied much of the labour for the grain and olive harvests and for the building industry. (@) Self-employed artisans who were better fed than wage labourers. (@)A large number of casual labourers, especially in the big cities. (P) Many thousands of slaves who were found all over the western empire in particular.©: spas Q. 1, Read the following excerpt and answer the following question: (incomes of the Roman Aristocracy, Early Fifth Century) " ‘Each of the great houses of Rome contained within itself everything which 9, medium-sized city could hold, a hippodrome, fora, temples, fountains and different kinds of baths... Many of the Roman households received an income of four thousand pounds of gold per year from their properties, not including grain, wine and other produce which, if sold, would have amounted to one-third of the income in gold. The income of the households at Rome of the second class was one thousand or fifteen hundred pounds of gold.’ (@) How did the Roman household receive income ? (6) What was included in each of the great houses of Rome ? (c) What was the income of second class household in Rome ? Ans.(a) Many of the Roman households received income from their properties. (b) Each of the great houses of Rome contained within itself everything which a medium-sized city could hold—a hippodrome, fora, temples, fountains and different kinds of baths. (©) The income of the households in Rome of the second class was one thousand or fifteen hundred oe of gold. Ea . 2. Read the ae of che fource carefully and answer Much more characteristic was the gradual extension of Roman direct rule. This was accomplished by absorbing a whole series of ‘dependent’ kingdoms into Roman provincial territory. The Near East was full of such Kingdoms", but by the early second century those which lay west of the Euphrates (towards Roman territory) had disappeared, swallowed up by Rome. (Incidentally, some of these kingdom: were exceedingly wealthy, for example Herod’: kingdom yielded the equivalent of 5.4 million equal to over 125,000 kg of denarius was a Roman silver coi; ‘containing about 4% gm of pure silver.) a ic SL ALCS tener ai SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS +—((Solved))—_ In fact, except for Italy, which wa, considered a province in these centuries, al iy. territories of the empire were organised ings provinces and subject to taxation. At its pea; the second century, the Roman Empire strete) from Scotland to the borders of Armenia, from the Sahara to the Euphrates and some: beyond. Given that there was no governmentiy the modern sense to help them torun things, yo, may well ask, how was it possible for the emperg, to cope with the control and administration y such a vast and diverse set of territories, with population of some 60 million in the mid-seconq century? The answer lies in the urbanisation the empire. (@) How was the Roman direct rule extended? (6) At its peak in the second century, the Roman Empire was stretched from: (c) What was the population of the Roman Empire in the mid-second century? Ans. (a) Roman direct rule was extended by absorbing the dependent kingdoms into the empire and were directly ruled by the kingdom. (b) At its peak in the second century, the Roman Empire was stretched from Scotland to the borders of Armenia and from Sahara to the Euphrates ani sometimes beyond. and (©) In the mid-second century, around 60 million people lived in the Roman Empire. Q. 3. Read the given source and answer any three of the given questions: As warfare became less widespread with the establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the use!® of slave labour thus had to turn either to slave breeding* or to cheaper substitutes such 2 wage labour which wa: hy di ble. Tn fact, trae Tach 848 more easily dispensa Public works at in the eastern province they di it 15 slaves who had been apne ead OG orrenmivelyausedl'ss beeen cazge™(Gi Empire Across Three Continents). where, obviously, they were not required in large numbers. Masters often gave their slaves or freedmen capital to run businesses on their behalf or even businesses of their own. (a) Why did the supply of slaves decline in the first century? (6) Why were slaves not widespread in the eastern provinces? (c) How was the problem of the decline of supply of slaves solved? ‘Ans. (a) The supply of slaves declined in the first, century because: (@ Warfare became less widespread, (i) Peace was established in the region. (b) Slayes were not widespread in the eastern provinces as it was too costly to keep slaves at that time. (©) The problem of the decline of supply of slaves was solved by doing slave breeding. Q. 4. Read the following excerpt and answer any three questions: ‘The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 nce was called the ‘Principate’. Although Augustus was the sole ruler and the only real source of authority, the fiction was kept alive that he was actually only the ‘leading citizen’ (Princeps in Latin), not the absolute ruler, This was done out of respect for the Senate, the body which had controlled Rome earlier, in the days when it was a Republic.* ‘The Senate had existed in Rome for centuries, and had been and remained a body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest families of Roman and, later, Italian descent, mainly landowners. Most of the Roman histories that survive in Greek and Latin were written by people from a senatorial background. From these it is clear that emperors were judged by how they behaved towards the Senate. ‘The worst emperors were those who were hostile to the senatorial class, behaving with suspicion or’ brutality and violence. Many senators yearned to go back to the days of the Republic, but most must have realised that this was impossible. (a) What was the Principate? (6) How were emperors judged in the Roman Empire? (c) Who was considered as the worst ‘emperor? ‘Ans. (a) The regime established by Augustus was called as the Principate. (®) The emperors were judged in the Roman Empire only through a way they behaved towards the Senate. It was dependent upon the fact that what, type of relations they had with the Senate. (© An emperor was considered the worst as— (@ he was hostile to the senatorial class. (ii) He behaved with suspicion or brutality and violence. (MAP STUDY] Map 1: Europe and North Africa ‘Note: This map shows the areas of Europe and North Africa during the Roman Empire.