924405

research-article20202020
SGOXXX10.1177/2158244020924405SAGE OpenAlam and Noor

Original Research

SAGE Open

The Relationship Between Service

April-June 2020: 1­–19
© The Author(s) 2020
DOI: 10.1177/2158244020924405
https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020924405

Quality, Corporate Image, and Customer journals.sagepub.com/home/sgo

Loyalty of Generation Y: An Application

of S-O-R Paradigm in the Context of
Superstores in Bangladesh

Mirza Mohammad Didarul Alam1,2 and Nor Azila Mohd Noor1

Abstract
Facing immense competition, retailers across the globe are experiencing reduction in their customer loyalty. This decreasing
trend is even more observable in the superstore retailing in Bangladesh; especially whose target market is young cohort
(Generation Y [Gen Y]). As a result, it is vital for the superstore owners to ascertain the factors affecting the customer
loyalty of Gen Y. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of service quality and corporate image on
customer loyalty of Gen Y in the retail superstores of Bangladesh. A total of 325 Gen Y shoppers were surveyed from
four leading superstores in Bangladesh using a structured questionnaire. Smart-PLS 3.0 software was used to validate the
collected data and test the statistical significance of the path relationships by following structural equation modeling. The
results indicate that Gen Y customers’ loyalty toward the superstores is positively and significantly influenced by both service
quality and corporate image. The outputs also reveal that service quality indirectly affects Gen Y customer loyalty toward
superstores with an intervening role of corporate image. Research implications from theoretical and practical standpoints as
well as the recommendations for forthcoming study are also provided.

Keywords
corporate image, customer loyalty, Gen Y, service quality, S-O-R Model

Introduction (Prakash, 2019; Roy et al., 2019; Shemwell et al., 1998) and
for retailers, in particular (Jain & Aggarwal, 2018; Prentice
With the presence of intense rivals, nowadays, retailers are et al., 2018; Sarker & Ashrafi, 2018). Thus, higher level of
struggling to ensure the loyalty of their customers (Hegner- service quality might ensure the cutting edge of competition
Kakar et al., 2018). The reduction rate of loyal customers is which in turn leads to customer attachment toward the retail-
proportionately high especially in the retail industry compared ers. Moreover, in the emerging economies, there is dearth of
with other service sectors of the economy (Ngobo, 2017). knowledge concerning the structural association between
Majority of the retailers have identified the issue of customer retail store service quality and customer loyalty (Nguyen et al.,
retention as the most important encounter that they face 2016) and such limitation is more prevailing in the superstore
(Kamran-Disfani et al., 2017). This battle is even more severe sector in Bangladesh (Islam et al., 2016).
in the retail sector of developing countries (Grosso et al., As narrated by Baumann et al. (2017), it is inevitable to
2018), such as Bangladesh (Alam, 2018). Thus, retailers are explore a new construct as an intervening variable
losing their existing customers and this decreasing trend is
more intensive among those who are dealing with Generation
1
Y (Gen Y) customers as they possess unique characteristic— OYA Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok,
Malaysia
tendency to attach less with products/retailers (Quintal et al., 2
School of Business & Economics, United International University, Dhaka,
2016). Thus, as a consequence, it is vital for the retailers to Bangladesh
differentiate themselves from rivals (Konuk, 2018). As an
Corresponding Author:
important differentiation tool, ensuring and rendering service Mirza Mohammad Didarul Alam, Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School
quality at their high end is considered essential in creating of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah 06010, Malaysia.
competitive edge for service organizations, in general Email: [email protected]

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(https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 SAGE Open

in the service quality and customer loyalty link as customer incorporating variables that lead to purchase decision of con-
satisfaction has become stagnant in such link in terms of influ- sumers (Chang et al., 2015). The proposed study framework
encing strength. The American Marketing Association (2019) is theoretically supported by the S-O-R paradigm where ser-
defined store image from two distinctive perspectives—one is vice quality acts as S, CI as O, and customer loyalty as the
from retailing view point represented by store attributes in the ultimate R of customers.
name of “store image” and other is from holistic view point In the original S-O-R framework of consumer behavior
represented by the overall impression of customers toward the (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), a stimulus represents any envi-
store in the name of “corporate image” (CI). The distinction of ronmental cue that triggers the emotional reactions of indi-
the image construct in retailing lies in the ultimate discrepan- viduals toward that environment. Literature indicates that
cies of focus given. The construct “store image” is used if the service quality attributes are considered as the elements of
focus is on the major attributes of the store, whereas, the con- environmental cues (Alsaggaf & Althonayan, 2018; Um &
struct “corporate image” is utilized if the focus is on the retail Lau, 2018), and hence the attributes of retail store service
corporation as a whole (Lin & He, 2017). In the context of quality. For instance, Alsaggaf and Althonayan (2018) used
retailing, it is evident in the literature that store image (from five dimensions of SERVQUAL model as environmental
store attributes perspective) has long been used as an anteced- stimuli to predict electronic word of mouth and switching
ent of service quality (see Bao et al., 2011; Konuk, 2018). intentions (as responses) through pleasure, arousal, and atti-
Whereas, in different research settings, the construct “corpo- tude (organism). In the similar fashion, Famiyeh et al. (2018)
rate image” has appeared as a consequence of service quality also considered and tested the service quality dimensions as
(Coutinho et al., 2019; Darmawan et al., 2018; Giovanis & environmental stimuli to justify the relationship with customer
Tsoukatos, 2017; Hassan et al., 2019). But in the platform of loyalty (response). According to S-O-R paradigm, an organ-
retailing, study addressing the CI construct (from holistic ism is a psychological state that acts as a mediating link
viewpoint) as an outcome variable of service quality is still between the environmental stimuli and the individual
scant (Nesset et al., 2011). Hence, to address this gap in the responses (Chang et al., 2015). As perceived image has both
retailing literature, this study considers image of the super- functional and emotional aspects (Lee et al., 2010) and we
store retailers from holistic viewpoint and initiates to investi- conceptualized image of the store from consumer behavioral
gate the intervening role of CI in the path association between (psychological/emotional) perspective, considering image as
service quality and Gen Y customer loyalty. an organism (emotional state) is justifiable. Moreover, several
The significance of this study has many dimensions. First, previous studies also confirmed the role of image as an organ-
in the retailing perspective, image is typically perceived ism in the S-O-R paradigm along with different set of stimuli
through the lens of “store attributes,” but this study viewed and responses (such as Faryabi et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2015;
image from holistic sense and used as a mediating variable in Kim et al., 2009; Nunthiphatprueksa, 2017; Park & Lennon,
the link between service quality and customer loyalty. 2009; Rohman, 2019; Sherman & Smith, 1987). For instance,
Second, this study focuses on the loyalty behavior of Gen Y Huang et al. (2015) verified the role of CI as an organism in
toward superstore retailing which is a rare one from the relationship between consumer attitudes toward green
Bangladesh perspective. Finally, by investigating the influ- marketing and purchase intention. Finally, as an output
ence of retail store service quality on Gen Y customer loyalty (response), customer loyalty has appeared in various scholarly
with the intervention of CI aligned with stimulus–organism– papers (Famiyeh et al., 2018; Wu & Li, 2018). Thus, it is
response (S-O-R) paradigm is a rare one. expected that being exposed to various aspects of superstore
quality, customers will form a positive emotional feeling
toward the retail store image which in turn will drive them to
Literature Review stay with the store.
The S-O-R Model
The S-O-R paradigm was developed by Mehrabian and Gen Y
Russell (1974) and appeared as a widely used guiding frame- Generational Cohort Theory, introduced by Inglehart (1977),
work in the field of consumer behavior (Chang et al., 2011; has become a dominant customer segmentation tool as indi-
Choi & Kandampully, 2019; Goi et al., 2018). In the S-O-R viduals belong to a specific cohort that exhibits similar val-
framework, stimulus (S) is a variable that affects the inner ues, preferences, and experiences (Ladhari et al., 2019;
state of consumers, known as organism (O), which in turn Parment, 2013). Among the five generational cohorts identi-
elicits the behavioral responses (R). This S-O-R paradigm is fied in the literature, this study concentrates on Gen Y. In the
also widely recognized and used as input (S)–process (O)– literature, there is still lack of unified consensus among the
output (R) framework (Kim et al., 2020). Initially, the S-O-R scholars on the starting and ending period of Gen Y cohort.
framework was developed to address the influence of store One group of scholars identify Gen Y as individuals born
attributes on consumer behavior and later on modified by after 1980 (Khera & Malik, 2017; Lub et al., 2012; Messarra
Sherman et al. (1997) to cope up with the retail setup by et al., 2016; Ordun, 2015), while another group of researchers
Alam and Noor 3

refer the late 1970s as the starting point (Dalla Pozza et al., Moreno-Gil, 2018) which can be understood as a custom-
2017; Quintal et al., 2016; Reis et al., 2016; San et al., 2015). er’s unfathomable emotional commitment to purchase a
However, such variation in the timeline is acceptable due to particular product and/or service (Cong, 2016). As defining
the dissimilarities that prevail among countries and cultures loyalty solely from either attitudinal or behavioral perspec-
(Soares et al., 2017). For this study, individuals who were tive is not enough to gauge the true picture of loyalty
born within the year 1977 and 1994 are defined as the mem- (Suhartanto et al., 2020), it is imperative to address both the
bers of Gen Y cohort recommended by recent scholars (e.g., facets of loyalty (Bapat, 2017). Even this assimilation is
Cham et al., 2018; Chen & Chou, 2019; Dalla Pozza et al., more essential for retailing due to distinctive characteristics
2017; Husnain et al., 2019; Quintal et al., 2016; Tangsupwattana attached to it (Sivapalan & Jebarajakirthy, 2017). As this
& Liu, 2017). Historically, Gen Y members are considered as study focuses on the loyalty of Gen Y customers toward
the most vibrant generation and economically an active mar- superstore, for better conceptualization, the loyalty con-
ket segment (Tudorache et al., 2019). Having a high dispos- struct encompasses the composite approach covering both
able income and greater discretionary spending capacity attitudinal and behavioral aspects.
(Chen & Chou, 2019; Gardiner et al., 2014), this cohort has
become a focal segment for marketers in general (Bilgihan,
2016) and retailers in particular (Altinbasak-Farina &
Corporate Image (CI)
Guleryuz-Turkel, 2015). They are rigorously fascinated to CI has become a vital issue for both academicians and prac-
brands and are ready to pay extra for having their desired one titioners as it plays a significant role in the choice narrowing
(Chen & Chou, 2019). Thus, perceived image of a brand (like process of customers at the time of purchase (Horng et al.,
store) is very crucial for the members of this cohort. They 2018). Being an intangible asset, CI of a firm is quite diffi-
have the courage to accept new marketing offers and hence, cult to emulate by the rivals, and as a consequence affects the
act as innovators in the new offer adoption process (Ladhari overall perception of the customers about the firm (Kant
et al., 2019). As they are always connected through social net- et al., 2017). As the domain of CI is very broad, a unique
work (Bento et al., 2018), Gen Yers have become sophisti- definition of this construct accepted by the scholars is still
cated shoppers (Eastman & Liu, 2012). Compared with their absent (Lee, 2019). As defined by some scholars (such as
previous generations, the members of Gen Y cohort are more Abratt & Mofokeng, 2001; Barich & Kotler, 1991; Dichter,
conscious about style and quality and less sensitive to price of 1985; Lee & Lee, 2018; Park et al., 2011), CI is the public’s
a product (Fyall et al., 2017). perception of overall impression that an organization holds.
Whereas, some others (Dutton & Dukerich, 1991; Gürlek
et al., 2017) viewed CI as the concrete outcome of a compa-
Customer Loyalty ny’s various stakeholders’ emotions, opinions, interactions,
Customers who do exhibit loyalty have the tendency to and impressions regarding an organization. As the customers
spread positive word-of-mouth and enhance the referrals are external stakeholders and vital for any corporation
(Bowen & Shoemaker, 1998; Eryandra et al., 2018; Lai, (Mostafa et al., 2015), creating positive impression among
2019). As a result, a loyal customer has become a vital asset them toward the corporation can ensure the competitive
for any organization (Petzer & van Tonder, 2019; Shankar advantage of such corporation (Gürlek et al., 2017; Leonidou
& Jebarajakirthy, 2019) and has become a focal manage- et al., 2013). In the context of retailing, image can be seen
ment issue (Rokonuzzaman et al., 2020). Although a pleth- from two perspectives—one from consumer behavior and
ora of study on customer loyalty has been carried out in the another from store attributes (American Marketing
domain of marketing scholarship (Makanyeza & Chikazhe, Association, 2019).
2017), still disagreements prevail among the scholars on
how to operationalize this concept (Ali et al., 2016; Ngobo, Image from store attributes perspective. From this aspect,
2017). Oliver (1999) conceptualized loyalty as “a deeply image of the store is perceived from a standpoint of store
held commitment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred prod- attributes in terms of physical characteristics, psychological
uct or service consistently in the future, thereby causing attributes, and retailing mix (Nesset et al., 2011). This con-
repetitive same-brand or same brand-set purchasing, despite ception of image focuses more on functional factors of the
situational influences and marketing efforts having the store with respect to both tangible and intangible elements
potential to cause switching behavior” (p. 34). Critics that can be compared easily with rivals (Martineau, 1958;
argued that this definition of loyalty is not widely accept- Moliner-Velázquez et al., 2019). Literature indicates that this
able due to its behavioral focus. From the behavioral stand- view of store image usually precedes the service evaluation
point, customer loyalty can be seen as an actual choice variables (service quality, customer satisfaction, and cus-
behavior (Carrel & Li, 2019) focusing on frequency of tomer value) as appeared in several scholarly works (e.g.,
usage or repetition of purchase (Neal, 1999). From the atti- Bao et al., 2011; Beneke et al., 2015; Calvo Porral & Lévy-
tudinal perspective, on the contrary, loyalty is termed as Mangin, 2015; Konuk, 2018; Moliner-Velázquez et al.,
conative loyalty or loyalty intention (Almeida-Santana & 2019).
4 SAGE Open

Image from consumer behavior perspective. Retailer image policy (a bunch of guiding principles with respect to product
from the standpoint of consumer behavior encompasses the quality, credit card facilities, parking facilities, and conve-
holistic view of the customers in terms of emotions, feelings, nient operating hours), and personal interaction (courteous,
and experiences toward the retail outlet (Brunner et al., 2008) helpful skills of store personnel, and the capacity of them to
and this view is considered for this study. This conception of instill trust and confidence among shoppers) (Dabholkar
store image encompasses psychological issues appealing to et al., 1996). Aligned with numerous scholars (such as Bhat,
the personality of consumers that deduce the sense of belong- 2016; Jain & Aggarwal, 2016; Yeap Ai Leen & Ramayah,
ingness to the store through their feelings (Burlison & Oe, 2011), this study applied the RSQS instrument for appraising
2018; Lindquist, 1974). In the other context like banking sec- the superstores’ service quality.
tor, this format of image is termed as CI. In this connection,
CI refers to the totality of the impression or perception of the
customers as a major stakeholder which incorporates both
Theoretical Model and Hypotheses
real facts as well as inferences (Johnson & Zinkhan, 2015). Development
Like the chain (branch) banking, superstores are managing Service Quality and Customer Loyalty
their businesses through different branches under the same
corporate name. Hence, this study conceptualized image of In a handful number of service settings, the effect of service
the store from a holistic point of view in the name of CI and quality on customer loyalty has extensively been examined
this conception is evident in the study of Ko et al. (2013). (Kiran & Diljit, 2017) and appeared as a positive link
(Bloemer & Kasper, 1995) explaining that the better the ser-
vice quality provided, the more the loyalty of customers is
Service Quality expected (Mukerjee, 2018; Zeithaml et al., 1996). In the B2B
Growing demand for the presence of higher quality services context, Gandhi et al. (2019) conducted a study and found
in an organization has become the vital trend among the con- that organizational service quality (OSQ) leads to a better
sumers (Chen et al., 2019; Osakwe, 2019). Quality services distributor service quality (DSQ) that ensures the satisfaction
are essential to differentiate the organization and gain com- and loyalty of the organization toward the distributor.
petitive advantage (Mahmoud et al., 2019). Although the Subrahmanyam (2017) empirically examined a research
issue of service quality is quite prominent in various sectors model in the higher education setup and found that students’
of service economy, this issue is more important in retailing loyalty is affirmatively and significantly determined by stu-
industry due to the presence of strong rivals (Bhat, 2016; dents’ perception of quality services. Numerous scholars also
Hsiao, 2018). Thus, ensuring the delivery of quality services investigated the affirmative link of service quality with cus-
at the higher end is considered by the retailers as one of the tomer loyalty in various service settings and confirmed this
essential and vital strategic issues (Ihtiyar & Ahmad, 2015). link as statistically significant (Boonlertvanich, 2019; Iqbal
Despite the increasing interest among the academicians and et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Parawansa, 2018; Prentice &
practitioners, a consensus on the conceptualization and oper- Kadan, 2019). In the context of retailing, numerous studies
ationalization of service quality is still scant as different also established the significant role of service quality in
scholars defined this construct with diverse characteristics determining the long-term attachment of customers toward
clubbing into numerous dimensions (Lopes et al., 2019). It is the stores (Das, 2014; Sheikh & Lim, 2015). In the same
evident from the service quality literature that the most cited vein, more recently, Konuk (2018) investigated the influence
information came from the work of Parasuraman et al. (1985) of perceived quality on purchase intention of customer for
in the name of SERVQUAL model. But due to some unique organic private level food and found the relationship as posi-
features attached to the retailing context (combination of tive and significant. Moreover, the loyalty behavior of Gen Y
physical goods and intangible services rather than pure ser- toward shopping mall is significantly determined by the ser-
vices alone; Dick & Basu, 1994; Kajenthiran, 2018), the vice quality of the mall (Haj-Salem et al., 2016). Hence, we
SERVQUAL model is not considered as a suitable instru- stipulate the hypothesis as follows:
ment to encompass the quality aspects in this sector. Based
on a vacuum present in the literature to operationalize retail Hypothesis 1 (H1): Service quality has a positive effect
store service quality more appropriately, Dabholkar et al. on customer loyalty.
(1996) introduced a new instrument which is multidimen-
sional and hierarchical in nature, namely Retail Service
Service Quality and CI
Quality Scale (RSQS). This instrument comprises of five
basic dimensions—such as physical aspect (store design in In their study, Lai et al. (2009) asserted that customers tend
terms of physical appearance and convenience), reliability to evaluate the image of an organization more favorably
(ensure delivery as promised and doing things right the first given that they are experienced with better service quality. It
time), problem solving (ability of the store staff to manage is also explained by numerous scholars that formation of an
customers’ problems, complaints, returns, and exchanges), organization’s overall image is the result of customers’
Alam and Noor 5

intention. The study revealed that in both cases (influence of

Service Quality
H2
Corporate H3 Customer service quality on CI and CI on revisit intention), the path
Image Loyalty analyses appeared as positive and significant. Liat et al.
Physical Aspect H4 (2014) also found CI as a mediating variable in the service
Reliability
Problem Solving quality and customer loyalty link. Similarly, other scholars
H1
Policy also investigated the indirect influence of service quality on
Personal Interaction
customer loyalty via CI and found significant effects (Cheng
& Rashid, 2015; Giovanis et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2009). Thus,
we posit the hypothesis as follows:
Stimuli Organism Response

Direct path Hypothesis 4 (H4): CI mediates the association of ser-

Indirect path vice quality with customer loyalty.

Figure 1. Conceptual model.

The Proposed Theoretical Model
Figure 1 illustrates the proposed theoretical model of the
accumulated perception about service quality derived from
study. Based on a theoretical ground of S-O-R paradigm, the
recurrent service experiences (Lai et al., 2009; Nguyen &
model encompasses the influence of service quality and CI
LeBlanc, 1998). In the setup of quick service restaurant
on customer loyalty along with the intervening role of CI in
industry, Wu (2013) conducted a study to examine the linear
the link between service quality and customer loyalty.
association between service quality and CI along with other
variables in a complex model and concluded that service
quality has a positive and significant explanatory power over Method
CI. In different contexts, various scholars also confirmed the
positive and meaningful impact of perceived service quality Measures
on favorable assessment of CI (Geraldine & David, 2013; The measurement items of all the constructs of the study
Hapsari et al., 2017; Kandampully et al., 2011; Liat et al., were taken from the existing literature with minor revisions.
2014; Nguyen & LeBlanc, 2001; Wu et al., 2015). Therefore, To gauge customer loyalty toward superstores, Chang and
the following hypothesis is offered: Yeh (2017) proposed a scale comprising six items covering
both attitudinal and behavioral aspects. CI was measured
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Service quality positively effects CI. based on a three-item scale proposed by Nguyen and
LeBlanc (2001). Finally, the construct service quality was
CI and Customer Loyalty operationalized based on the five-dimensional RSQS instru-
ment developed and proposed by Dabholkar et al. (1996).
As the attitude of customers toward the organization is the Although the original RSQS instrument comprises of total
function of CI (Gürlek et al., 2017), organizations, such as 28 items clubbing into five primary factors, for the final
retailers, with better CI are basically preferred by the cus- questionnaire of this study, four items were discarded due to
tomers (Bloemer & De Ruyter, 1998; Nguyen & LeBlanc, contextual differences as recommended by Deb and Lomo-
2001). Existing literature indicates that better image of a David (2014) and Meng et al. (2009). As a consequence,
company positively effects customer retention (Andreassen five items for physical aspect dimension, three for problem
& Lindestad, 1998; Lee & Lee, 2018; Nguyen & LeBlanc, solving, five for reliability, three for policy, and eight for
2001; Richard & Zhang, 2012; Xhema et al., 2018). It is personal interaction were finally retained for the scale (see
argued by Kevork and Vrechopoulos (2009) that customer Appendix A). In this study, service quality was operational-
behavioral intention (loyalty) can be increased as a result of ized as a second-order reflective construct where five
identification as well as customers’ psychological support, dimensions were measured as first-order constructs. A
whereas confirmation of both can be accelerated by a com- 5-point Likert-type scale was applied to measure all three
pact CI (Ryu et al., 2012; Wang, 2020). Thus, we offer the study constructs. The originally developed instrument was
following hypothesis: translated to Bengali and then further converted to English.
Expert opinion was taken to confirm the preciseness and
Hypothesis 3 (H3): CI positive effects customer loyalty. clarity of the converted items.

CI as a Mediator Sampling and Data Collection

In their study, Wu et al. (2015) investigated the influence of Data were gathered from Gen Y customers (age of whom
service quality on CI and subsequently on customers’ revisit ranges from 23 to 40 years) who did shopping in four
6 SAGE Open

leading superstores (viz., Agora, Shwapno, Meenabazar, the later phase, the structural model was assessed through
and Princebazar) of two major cities (such as Dhaka and applying SEM technique to test the hypotheses.
Chattogram) in Bangladesh. Since the inception of Agora in
2001, Bangladesh has witnessed a tremendous growth in the
Results
superstore retailing sector (Alam & Noor, 2019). Eventually,
other superstores such as Meenabazar, Princebazar, and This section embraces the results of data analysis as fol-
Shwapno started their operation in 2002, 2005, and 2008, lows—inspection of non-response bias, evaluation of the
respectively. According to industry experts, the expected common method variance (CMV), assessing the respon-
turnover of this sector in Bangladesh will reach to US$2.6 dents’ demographic profile, assessment of measurement
billion by the year 2021 with an average sales growth of model, and subsequently the structural model.
30% per annum (Gain Report, 2013). At present, 121 outlets
of different superstores are running their businesses in
Bangladesh (Alam, 2018). Among them, 95 branches are
Assessment of Non-Response Bias
managed by the above-mentioned four major superstores. To inspect the existence of non-response bias in the data set,
For sampling purpose, 10 out of 95 branches were randomly this study deployed independent-sample t test for comparing
selected. Then, from each branch, 50 respondents were the mean score of early group (181) and late group (144) of
approached using a systematic sampling method where respondents. Respondents who initially refused to fill the
every five alternative respondents were intercepted. As sug- questionnaire at the time of entrance but did it at the time of
gested by Orel and Kara (2014), data were systematically leaving the superstore are considered as late respondents. As
collected both in morning and evening session of each col- shown in Appendix B, the outcome reveals that the differ-
lected day to ensure more representation of the selected ence between the two group means is statistically insignifi-
samples. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed and cant in relation to all variables. As a result, non-response bias
finally 325 were returned with 65% response rate. This sam- is not an issue for the collected data that confirm the homo-
ple size is enough to run a SEM (structural equation model) geneity in both early phase and later phase.
analysis as it meets the minimum number of sample sug-
gested by Hair et al. (2010) based on the formula (5 × num-
ber of items/observable variables in the model). In this
Evaluation of CMV
connection, minimum size of the required respondent is 165 As the generated data came from a single source, it is neces-
(5 × 33). Moreover, respondents were prescreened to con- sary to scrutiny the existence of CMV in the data set. As a
firm their belongingness in the Gen Y cohort by asking a widely applied post hoc technique to assess the CMV issue,
filtering question. the Harman’s single factor test was used as recommended by
Podsakoff and Organ (1986). The test output reveals that the
variance explained by the first factor is 31.83% which is
Data Analysis below the recommended ceiling value of 50%; whereas all
At the initial stage of analysis, SPSS Version 23 was applied the factors generate the aggregated variance of 59.61%
to detect and phase out incomplete responses, missing val- which is higher than the threshold level of 50% as recom-
ues, and outliers of the data, along with analyzing the respon- mended by Podsakoff et al. (2003). Moreover, single factor
dents’ demographic profile. Later on, Smart-PLS 3.0 software was not extracted through exploratory factor analysis
was used to test the assumed relationships by deploying (EFA)—indicating that CMV is not an issue for collected
PLS-SEM method. For several reasons, we utilized PLS- data. Several recent scholars also applied this technique to
SEM as a data analysis technique. First, PLS-SEM can deal detect the CMV issue in their study (e.g., Kim et al., 2019;
with hierarchical component model (in our case, reflective– Rahman et al., 2020). In addition, as a second endeavor to
reflective second-order service quality model) whereas tradi- detect the presence of CMV in the data set, correlation analy-
tional regression analysis in SPSS cannot (Hair et al., 2017). sis was done as recommended by Pavlou et al. (2007) and
Second, PLS-SEM has higher statistical power in explaining Bagozzi et al. (1991). According to them, the presence of
the significance of the path relationships (Hair et al., 2019). high correlation value (more than 0.90) between any two
Third, this technique is less sensitive to data normality (do constructs of the study model indicates that the data are sus-
Valle & Assaker, 2016). Finally, in scrutinizing the indirect ceptible to CMV issue. Table 3 illustrates that the highest
(mediation) effect, this analysis technique delivers more con- correlated value of the study constructs is .696 which is
sistent outputs compared with traditional regression analysis below the endorsed cut-off value 0.90. Recently, Islam et al.
in SPSS (Ramli et al., 2018). A two-stage approach sug- (2019) also utilized this technique to check the CMV issue in
gested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) was followed. At the their study. Thus, it is confirmed that CMV is not an issue for
initial phase, measurement model was examined to assess this scholarship. Besides, we confirmed the anonymity of the
the factor structure of the selected constructs and confirmed research and informed the respondents not to be concerned
by means of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA); whereas, at about right or wrong answer, rather focus on the honesty in
Alam and Noor 7

Table 1. Convergent Validity Outputs of the First-Order Construct.

Variables Items Loading α CR AVE

CL CL1 0.855 0.921 0.939 0.718
CL2 0.869
CL3 0.877
CL4 0.835
CL5 0.831
CL6 0.815
CI CI1 0.845 0.792 0.878 0.706
CI2 0.846
CI3 0.830
PA PA1 0.732 0.763 0.840 0.512
PA2 0.769
PA3 0.658
PA4 0.713
PA5 0.703
REL REL 1 0.757 0.792 0.858 0.547
REL2 0.782
REL3 0.761
REL4 0.699
REL5 0.696
PS PS1 0.749 0.779 0.871 0.694
PS2 0.876
PS3 0.867
POL POL1 0.840 0.793 0.879 0.707
POL2 0.855
POL3 0.826
PI PI1 0.755 0.864 0.894 0.513
PI2 0.746
PI3 0.693
PI4 0.640
PI5 0.733
PI6 0.732
PI7 0.674
PI8 0.747

Note. CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; CL = customer loyalty; CI = corporate image; PA = physical aspect; REL =
reliability; PS = problem solving; POL = policy; PI = personal interaction.

providing responses. These initiatives are often found as than BDT 60,000 (BDT 1 = US$0.0119223 as on February
remedies to lessen the risk of CMV in surveys (Chang et al., 20, 2019).
2010; Chuah et al., 2017; MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 2012).

Assessment of Outer Model

Sample Profile
At the initial phase of SEM analysis, it is essential to check
Out of the total sample (N = 325), majority of the partici- the factor structure of the outer model to make sure the reli-
pants (56.6%) were female, indicating the general trend pre- ability as well as validity aspects of the study variables by
vails in the world’s grocery shopping. This outcome is more examining convergent and discriminant validity.
relevant in the context of Bangladesh as appeared in the As recommended by Hair et al. (2017), the convergent
study by Rahman and Noor (2016). Despite the participants validity of the measurement model was examined through AVE
were from Gen Y cohort, most of them (55.4%) were from 23 (average variance extracted), factor loadings, internal consis-
to 30 years—indicating younger customers. Majority of the tency, as well as composite reliability (CR). The outputs (see
participants were married (55.7%) followed by single Table 1) indicate that the requirements of convergent validity
(41.5%), divorced (2.2%), and widow (0.6%). Most of them are fulfilled as the factor loadings of all the indicators are above
were graduated (96.9%) with 52.3% master’s degree and 0.6, the Cronbach’s alpha and CR values exceed 0.70, and the
1.8% PhD; 56.2% participants had monthly income more AVE values are higher than 0.50 (Hair et al., 2017).
8 SAGE Open

Table 2. Convergent Validity of the Second-Order Construct.

Second-order
construct First-order constructs Factor loadings Cronbach’s α CR AVE
Service quality Physical aspects 0.673*** 0.892 0.906 0.507
Reliability 0.760***
Problem solving 0.667***
Policy 0.714***
Personal interaction 0.741***

Note. CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted.

***p < .001.

Table 3. Discriminant Validity (Fornell and Larcker Criterion).

Construct Mean Standard Deviation 1 2 3

1. Customer loyalty 3.553 0.693 0.847
2. Corporate image 3.586 0.655 0.696 0.840
3. Service quality 3.593 0.439 0.632 0.624 0.712

Note. Below the diagonal are the values of correlation between constructs; whereas the bold values of the diagonal are the square root of average
variance extracted (AVE) of the constructs indicating the highest in any row or column.

Inherently, the RSQS instrument is a multidimensional statistical significance of null hypothesis (H0: HTMT ≥ 1)
hierarchical construct to evaluate the service quality of the as opposed to alternative hypothesis (H1: HTMT < 1). As a
superstore (Dabholkar et al., 1996). Aligned with the nature token of assessment, if the confidence interval encompasses
of the instrument, we also measured service quality as a the value of 1 (i.e., H0 holds), this is the indication of the
reflective–reflective second-order component model. nonexistence of discrimination among the constructs
Moreover, in PLS analysis, it is recommended to consider (Henseler et al., 2015). Table 4 exemplifies that the observed
higher order construct as it lessens the quantity of relation- HTMT values are lower than the suggested Kline standard
ships and makes the structural model more parsimonious (0.85). Besides, the HTMT inference reveals that the value of
(Hair et al., 2017). The hierarchical service quality construct 1 does not take place in any confidence interval, confirming
was estimated by five first-order constructs, namely, physi- the discrimination of the constructs.
cal aspects, reliability, problem solving, policy, and personal
interaction. Table 2 depicts the outputs of convergent validity
Inner Model Assessment
of this construct showing factor loading of 0.673 (physical
aspect), 0.760 (reliability), 0.667 (problem solving), 0.714 As recommended by the scholars, it is required to verify the
(policy), and 0.741 (personal interaction) with all statisti- existence of multicollinearity among the predictors of a crite-
cally significant at p < 0.001. The Cronbach’s alpha value rion variable by inspecting the VIF (variance inflation factor)
(0.892), CR value (0.906), and AVE value (0.507) of the ser- before assessing the inner model. As shown in Table 5, VIF
vice quality construct are surpassed the recommended values of both service quality (1.639) and CI (1.639) for crite-
threshold value, indicating that service quality as a second- rion variable customer loyalty are below the maximum thresh-
order construct is a reliable and valid one. old value of 3.3 as suggested by Kock and Lynn (2012). Thus,
To justify the discriminant validity of the study constructs, for assessing structural model, multicollearity is not an issue.
both Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion and Henseler et al. The prime criteria to examine the structural model are
(2015) recommended Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) ratio assessing the R2 values (coefficient of determination), path
of correlations were applied. As shown in Table 3, the square coefficient (beta) values, t values (with resample of 5,000
roots of all AVE values of the constructs are greater than the through bootstrap procedure), the values of effect size (  f  2),
off-diagonal correlation values of their corresponding each and the Q 2 values as recommended by Hair et al. (2017). Table 6
row and column. As a result, the requirement for discrimi- and Figure 2 represent the outputs of the structural model.
nant validity of the outer model is confirmed (Fornell & The path analysis was also investigated. The outputs dem-
Larcker, 1981). Moreover, under the HTMT approach, if the onstrate that both service quality (β = 0.324, t = 6.087, p <
observed HTMT value is higher than 0.85 (Kline, 2015), 0.001) and CI (β = 0.493, t = 8.348, p < 0.001) have mean-
then the validity of the constructs with respect to discrimina- ingful effect on Gen Y customer loyalty. Hence, H1 and H3
tion is questionable. In addition, it is required to confirm the are retained. Furthermore, CI is directly and meaningfully
Alam and Noor 9

Table 4. Discriminant Validity (HTMT).

Construct CL CI SQ
CL
CI 0.810
CI0.90 [0.733, 0.875]
SQ 0.686 0.729
CI0.90 [0.618, 0.745] CI0.90 [0.657, 0.793]

Note. HTMT = Heterotrait–Monotrait; CL = customer loyalty; CI = corporate image; SQ = service quality.

Table 5. Collinearity Assessment (VIF).

Inner VIF values for criterion variables

Serial Predictors Corporate image Customer loyalty

1 Corporate image 1.639
2 Service quality 1.000 1.639

Note. VIF = variance inflation factor.

Table 6. Outcomes of the Structural Model.

95% confidence interval

(BC)

Hs Relationship β SE t value Decision R2 f2 Q2 LL UL

Direct effect
H1 SQ → CL 0.324 0.053 6.087*** Supported 0.548 0.142 0.365 0.235 0.410
H2 tSQ → CI 0.624 0.040 15.684*** Supported 0.390 0.639 0.256 0.552 0.684
H3 CI → CL 0.493 0.059 8.348*** Supported 0.329 0.393 0.588
Mediation effect
H4 SQ → CI 0.308 0.041 7.456*** Supported 0.241 0.378
→ CL

Note. H = hypothesis; BC = biased corrected; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit; SQ = service quality; CL = customer loyalty; CI = corporate image.
***p < .001.

determined by service quality (β = 0.624, t = 15.684, substantial effect on that endogenous variable. Table 6 shows
p < 0.001), confirming H2. Moreover, the mediation effect the generated f2 values of the studied model. The effect size of
was also assessed. Table 6 shows that service quality signifi- 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are considered as small, medium, and
cantly affects customer loyalty with the mediation of CI (β = large in effect, respectively (Cohen, 1988). The outputs indi-
0.308, t = 7.456, d p < 0.001). Hence, H4 is also supported. cate that the effect of service quality on CI is large; whereas,
The R2 value of CI is calculated as 0.390, which indicates in influencing customer loyalty, the effect size of service
that service quality has 39% explanatory power in determin- quality is medium and CI is large. As a final parameter, as
ing the variation of CI. The value of R2 for customer loyalty is suggested by Henseler et al. (2009), the value of Q2 is inves-
found as 0.548, demonstrating that 54.8% of the variation in tigated. If the Q2 value of an endogenous construct is greater
customer loyalty is responsible for the variation in service than the value of zero (0), then the model has a predictive
quality and CI. In both cases, the explanatory power of the relevancy for that endogenous variable (Hair et al., 2017; S.
predictors over criterion variable is moderate (Chin et al., A. Rahman et al., 2017). A particular endogenous variable has
2008). In addition to R2 value, the f2 value is also important to a small, medium, and large predictive relevance if the Q2
assess (Hair et al., 2017). The f2 value measures the influence value is 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, respectively (Hair et al., 2017).
of a particular independent variable on a dependent variable The results demonstrate the large and medium predictive rel-
given that the omission of that exogenous variable has a evancy for customer loyalty and CI, respectively.
10 SAGE Open

Figure 2. Results of the structural model.

Discussion CI as an outcome variable of service quality as well as an

intervening variable in explaining the impact of service qual-
This study investigates the association between service qual- ity on Gen Y customer loyalty toward superstore chains in
ity and Gen Y customer loyalty toward superstores in Bangladesh. Besides, image can be used as a predictor of
Bangladesh. This study further examines the mediation role service quality if customers have no previous experience (Hu
of CI in explaining the path association between service et al., 2009; Nguyen & LeBlanc, 2001); whereas, image is
quality and Gen Y customer loyalty. The investigated model influenced by service quality if customers are somewhat
is grounded on the S-O-R theory, where S stands for service experienced (Giovanis & Tsoukatos, 2017). As our research
quality, O for CI, and R for customer loyalty. The analyses is concerned about Gen Y customers’ loyalty toward super-
outputs indicate that service quality was appeared as a sig- stores, it is expected that customers are somehow experi-
nificant predictor of customer loyalty. In the retailing con- enced with the superstores. Thus, image as a consequence of
text, this outcome is corroborated by several previous studies service quality in our study context is justified. Hence, from
(Diallo et al., 2018; Yoon & Park, 2018). This study also con- theoretical perspective, the contribution of this scholarship is
firmed the significant impact of image on customer loyalty in twofold. First, this study introduces image as an outcome
the retailing context, which is supported by earlier scholarly variable of service quality by considering it from holistic
works (e.g., Burlison & Oe, 2018; Nesset et al., 2011). viewpoint (American Marketing Association, 2019) which is
Besides, the significant intervening role of CI was appeared very limited in the superstore context globally and rare from
between service quality and customer loyalty. In fact, higher Bangladesh perspective. Second and most importantly,
level of store service quality significantly enhances the total- investigation of CI as a role of mediator in the relationship
ity of the store image (Yu & Ramanathan, 2012), which in between service quality and customer loyalty in the context
turn expedites the loyalty of the shoppers. of superstore retailing allied with the S-O-R theory is a rare
one. Thus, this study is expected to broaden the domain of
Theoretical Contributions S-O-R theory.
In the retailing context, most of the previous studies consid-
ered CI as a predictor of service quality and view it from Practical Implications
retailing perspective in the name of “store image” rather
treating it as an outcome of service quality in the name of This scholarship has also a number of managerial implica-
“corporate image” (Giovanis & Tsoukatos, 2017). By con- tions. The findings of this research initiative specify that ser-
sidering it from holistic view point, this study incorporates vice quality and CI play noteworthy roles in determining
Alam and Noor 11

customer loyalty. In addition, this scholarship reveals the shoppers which helps them to sort out their preferred store
mediating role of CI in relation to the effect of service quality easily and encourage them to attach with that store more
on customer loyalty. In this connection, some meaningful deeply (Burlison & Oe, 2018). As findings show that CI of
solutions are proposed for the owners of superstores in the superstores mediates the influence of service quality on
Bangladesh to develop and implement the strategies to sus- customer loyalty of Gen Y, the superstore management
tain as well as uplift the loyalty of their customers, particu- should look into a step forward to develop and retain a better
larly Gen Y. image of the store. In this connection, the store management
As this study illustrates that significant loyalty of Gen Y can try to comply with the required standards of several
customers can be confirmed toward a superstore with the authoritative body such as Bangladesh Standard and Testing
presence of better service quality, the store managements are Institute (BSTI) and Bangladesh Food Safety Authority, and
required to be more cautious about availability of various hence, by doing so, can gain the certificate of better per-
aspects of service quality. Store managers should focus on former. This kind of recognition and ranking will help the
better store atmospheric attributes with suitable layout design superstore managers to uplift their image perception among
which is more appealing to the young customers. The super- the customers in general and Gen Yers in particular.
store owners should focus on developing and implementing
better human resources policies to recruit those in-store staffs
having inclination to serve the customers with dedication
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
and intimacy, on one hand, and to train them to upgrade their Despite some important findings, this study is not free from
skills and knowledge for dealing with customer problems limitations. First, this study considered service quality as
more satisfactorily, on the other hand. Superstore managers reflective–reflective hierarchical construct to predict loyalty
are required to strive for better improvement in their quality behavior of Gen Y customers. Recent scholars suggest that
of services by collecting feedback from customers and other measuring second-order service quality construct should fol-
means of their service evaluations. It is also evident in the low the reflective–formative format rather than reflective–
literature that rather than service recovery strategy taken reflective one. In the absence of global item for each
against service failure, consistent service delivery can dimension of the RSQS instrument, reflective–formative for-
increase the image of the store as well as intentions of cus- mat was not followed for this study. Future study can collect
tomer to patronage the store (Brown et al., 1996). Thus, to data according to prescribed format and justify the reflec-
strengthen their customer base, superstore managers should tive–formative format of the scale. Second, cross-sectional
concentrate on reliability aspect of their service delivery design was used for this study to gather necessary data.
rather than fixing the problem upon service failures. The Causal relationships among the variables require to be
decision makers of the superstore should be careful in formu- assessed by undertaking longitudinal approach due to
lating store policies as fair policy is instrumental for better dynamic retail environment. Third, data were taken from
service quality which uplifts the image of the store and loy- Gen Y cohort regarding their perceptions of superstore retail-
alty level of the customers. In this connection, policies such ing and hence, generalization of findings for other study con-
as the creation of facilities to accept the major debit/credit text may be questionable. Incorporating customers from
cards, the gathering of high-quality merchandises, the conve- different cohorts and geographic locations might provide dif-
nient operating hours of the stores throughout the weeks, ferent insights. To make the research model more compre-
exchange and return of merchandises, and so on are highly hensive, future research can consider other predictors of
recommended to owners of the superstores to follow. customer loyalty, such as customer education, customer par-
Kinley et al. (2010) pointed that placement and display of ticipation, service fairness, and customer value along with
products at the retail store become important for the custom- the mediating variable of CI. In addition, socio-economic
ers of Gen Y cohort. Besides, Gen Y customers are accus- factors can be used as a moderating variable between the pre-
tomed with experiential consumption and as a consequence, dictors and criterion variable of the future study model.
persuasive retailers need to be concerned with store atmo- Moreover, this study model can be expanded and integrated
spherics along with sensorial marketing activities (Chaney with the expectancy–confirmation theory (ECT) in future
et al., 2017). endeavors.
In addition, retailers should concern about developing
their institutional image in building such loyal customer
Conclusion
base. Specially, to attract and retain the profitable young seg-
ment, it is imperative for the superstore owners to gain a The study investigated the direct influence of service quality
favorable image (overall impression) of their stores in the and CI on customer loyalty and indirect effect of service
mind of consumers. The reason behind is that the Gen Y cus- quality on customer loyalty through CI in the superstore con-
tomers are more serious about the image of an object (e.g., text of a developing country, Bangladesh, focusing on the
product, store; Wang et al., 2018). A clear and consistent Gen Y customers’ perception. Facing immense competition,
image of a store can create a distinctive place in the mind of superstores in Bangladesh are now losing their customers
12 SAGE Open

(Alam, 2018). In this connection, it is required to heighten service reliability, customers’ problem solving, attractive
the focus of the store management to find out the influencing store policies, as well as cordial interaction of the store per-
factors that will lead to ensure the strong customer base. The sonnel to reap the financially lucrative market share of young
outcomes of this study reveal that service quality and CI of generation most. Besides, the superstore authority should
the superstore have positive and significant impact on cus- concentrate on the development of positive and holistic
tomer loyalty of young cohort. This outcome will guide the impression of the store in the mind of the young consumers
superstore owners to concentrate more on improving their as image plays a significant mediating role in the path asso-
quality service delivery in terms of store physical aspects, ciation between service quality and Gen Y customer loyalty.

Appendix A

Table A1. Measurement Items of the Constructs.

Customer Loyalty (CL) (Chang & Yeh, 2017)

CL
CL1 I am likely to say positive things about this store to other people.
CL2 I will encourage my friends and relatives to purchase from this store.
CL3 I will recommend this store to someone who seeks my advice.
CL4 I am a loyal customer of this store.
CL5 I am likely to continue purchasing from this store in the next few years.
CL6 This store is my first choice when I want to buy appropriate products.
Corporate Image (CI) (Nguyen & LeBlanc, 2001)

CI
CI1 I have always had a good impression about this store.
CI2 In my opinion, this store has a good image in the minds of consumers.
CI3 I believe that this store has a better image than its competitors.
Service Quality (RSQS; Dabholkar et al., 1996)

PA
PA1 This store has modern-looking equipment and fixtures.
PA2 The physical facilities at this store are visually appealing.
PA3 Materials associated with this store’s service (such as shopping bags, catalogs, or statements) are
visually appealing.
PA4 The store layout at this store makes it easy for customers to find what they need.
PA5 The store layout makes it easy for customers to move around in the store.
REL
REL1 When this store promises to do something by a certain time, it will do so.
REL2 This store provides its services at the time it promises to do so.
REL3 This store performs the service right from the first time.
REL4 This store has merchandise available when the customers want it.
REL5 This store insists on error-free sales transactions and records.
PS
PS1 This store willingly handles returns and exchanges.
PS2 When a customer has a problem, this store shows a sincere interest in solving it.
PS3 Employees of this store are able to handle customer complaints directly and immediately.
POL
POL1 This store offers high-quality merchandise.
POL2 This store has operating hours convenient to all their customers.
POL3 This store accepts most major credit cards.
PI
PI1 Employees in this store have the knowledge to answer customers’ questions.
PI2 The behavior of employees in this store instill confidence in customers.
PI3 Customers feel safe in their transactions with this store.
PI4 Employees in this store give prompt service to customers.
PI5 Employees in this store inform customers exactly when services will be performed.
PI6 Employees in this store are never too busy to respond to customer’s requests.
PI7 This store gives customers individual attention.
PI8 Employees in this store are consistently courteous with customers.

Note. CL = customer loyalty; CI = corporate image; RSQS = Retail Service Quality Scale; PA = physical aspect; REL = reliability; PS = problem solving;
POL = policy; PI = personal interaction.
Alam and Noor 13

Appendix B

Table B1. Test of Difference Between Respondent Groups.

Group Statistics.
Early_Late n Mean SD SE M

PA
Early respondent 181 3.6718 .55129 .04098
Late respondent 144 3.7736 .53532 .04461
REL
Early respondent 181 3.5878 .52500 .03902
Late respondent 144 3.6069 .52432 .04369
PS
Early respondent 181 3.2634 .80278 .05967
Late respondent 144 3.3171 .83469 .06956
POL
Early respondent 181 3.7201 .62180 .04622
Late respondent 144 3.7292 .61447 .05121
PI
Early respondent 181 3.6222 .59511 .04423
Late respondent 144 3.6589 .58727 .04894
CI
Early respondent 181 3.5599 .60930 .04529
Late respondent 144 3.6181 .70954 .05913
CL
Early respondent 181 3.5580 .64563 .04799
Late respondent 144 3.5463 .75092 .06258

Independent Samples Test.

Levene’s test for
equality of variances t test for equality of means

Significance Mean 95% confidence interval of

F Significance t df (two-tailed) difference SE difference the difference

Lower Upper

PA Equal variances assumed 0.905 .342 –1.675 323 .095 –.101 .060 –.221 .017
Equal variances not assumed –1.680 310.503 .094 –.101 .060 –.220 .017
REL Equal variances assumed 0.215 .643 –0.326 323 .745 –.019 .058 –.134 .096
Equal variances not assumed –0.326 306.956 .745 –.019 .058 –.134 .096
PS Equal variances assumed 0.416 .519 –0.589 323 .556 –.053 .091 –.233 .125
Equal variances not assumed –0.587 301.288 .558 –.053 .091 –.234 .126
POL Equal variances assumed 0.333 .564 –0.132 323 .895 –.009 .069 –.144 .126
Equal variances not assumed –0.132 308.332 .895 –.009 .068 –.144 .126
PI Equal variances assumed 0.118 .732 –0.554 323 .580 –.036 .066 –.166 .093
Equal variances not assumed –0.555 308.510 .579 –.036 .065 –.166 .093
CI Equal variances assumed 1.338 .248 –0.795 323 .427 –.058 .073 –.202 .085
Equal variances not assumed –0.781 282.704 .435 –.058 .074 –.204 .088
CL Equal variances assumed 2.544 .112 0.151 323 .880 .011 .077 –.140 .164
Equal variances not assumed 0.149 282.918 .882 .011 .078 –.143 .166

Note. PA = physical aspect; REL = reliability; PS = problem solving; PI = personal interaction; CI = corporate image; CL = customer loyalty;
POL = policy.
14 SAGE Open

Declaration of Conflicting Interests Bapat, D. (2017). Exploring the antecedents of loyalty in the con-
text of multi-channel banking. International Journal of Bank
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Marketing, 35(2), 174–186.
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Barich, H., & Kotler, P. (1991). A framework for marketing image
management. MIT Sloan Management Review, 32(2), 94–104.
Funding Baumann, C., Hoadley, S., Hamin, H., & Nugraha, A. (2017).
Competitiveness vis-à-vis service quality as drivers of cus-
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or
tomer loyalty mediated by perceptions of regulation and sta-
authorship of this article.
bility in steady and volatile markets. Journal of Retailing and
Consumer Services, 36, 62–74.
ORCID iD Beneke, J., Brito, A., & Garvey, K.-A. (2015). Propensity to buy
Mirza Mohammad Didarul Alam https://orcid.org/0000-0001- private label merchandise. International Journal of Retail &
8657-8134 Distribution Management, 43(1), 43–62.
Bento, M., Martinez, L. M., & Martinez, L. F. (2018). Brand
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