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THE TEXTBOOK OF

BIOLOGY
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10
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For Grade
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SINDH TEXTBOOK BOARD, JAMSHORO

 N
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THE TEXTBOOK OF

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BIOLOGY
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bo
For Grade
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Te
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nd
Si

Sindh Textbook Board, Jamshoro

 All rights are reserved with the SINDH TEXTBOOK, BOARD, JAMSHORO.
Prepared by Association For Academic Quality (AFAQ) for Sindh Text Book Board
Reviewed by Directorate of Curriculum Assessment and Research Sindh, Jamshoro
Prescribed by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education Hyderabad, Sukkur,
Shaheed Benazirabad, Larkana, Mirpurkhas and Karachi for Secondary School Examination.
Approved by the Education and Literacy Department, Government of Sindh.
No.SO(C) SELD/STBB-18/2021 Dated: 14th July, 2021 for the province of Sindh

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Patron in Chief

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Pervaiz Ahmed Baloch
Chairman, Sindh Textbook Board.

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Managing Director Project Director
Shahid Warsi Khwaja Asif Mushtaq
Association for Academic Quality (AFAQ) Association for Academic Quality (AFAQ)

Project Manager Cheif Supervisor

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Rafi Mustafa Yousuf Ahmed Shaikh
Association for Academic Quality (AFAQ) Sindh Textbook Board, Jamshoro

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Supervisor
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Daryush Kafi
Sindh Textbook Board, Jamshoro

AUTHORS REVIEWERS
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Prof Dr. Nasir-ud-din Shaikh Prof. Dr. Basir Ahmed Arain

Mr. Muhammad Saleem Mughal Prof Dr. Nasir-ud-din Shaikh
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Prof. Dr. Altaf Ahmed Simar Mr. Muhammad Saleem Mughal

Mr. Muhammad Junaid Khilji Syed Saleh Muhammad Shah
Ms. Samreen Arain Mr. Piaro Khan Saharan
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Dr. Abdul Latif Khokhar

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Ms. Abida Abid

EDITORS Technical Assistance

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Prof Dr. Nasir-ud-din Shaikh Mr. M. Arslan Shafaat Gaddi

Composing Designing & Illustration

Muhammad Arslan Chauhan

Printed at:
 PREFACE
The century we have stepped in, is the century of Biology. The modern
disciplines Biology are strongly influencing not only all the branches of science
but each and every aspect human life.
To keep the students. abreast with the recent knowledge, it is a must that the

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curricula, at all the levels, be updated regularly by introducing the rapid and
multidirectional development taking place in all the branches of Biology.

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The recent book of Biology for class X has been written in this preview and in
accordance with the revised curriculum prepared by Ministry of Education, Govt
of Pakistan, Islamabad reviewed by independent team of Bureau of Curriculum,

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Jamshoro sindh. Keeping in view of the importance of Biology, the topics have
been revised and re-written according to the need of the time.
Since long Biology was teaching only in IX class, the text book was consits of
19 chapters which was unable to complete in working hours. it has been decided

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now the Biology syllabus will be divided into portions, one should teach in 9th
class and other will teach 10th class. So this book is consist of 9 chapters which

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have been thoroughly revised and re-written to meet the requirement of the
curriculum. Special emphasis has also been paid to the applied aspect including
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the biological problems of daily life. Attention has also been focused on the
causes and preventive measures of the common disorders of the human body.
Being agriculture country, the agriculture aspects and problems of country are
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also discussed.
Among the new editions are the introductory paragraphs, information
boxes, summaries and a variety of extensive exercises which I think will not only
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develop the interest but also add a lot to the utility of the book.
The Sind Textbook Board has taken great pains and incurred expenditure in
publishing this book inspite to its limitations. A textbook is indeed not the last
word and there is always room for improvement. While the authors have tried
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their level best to make the most suitable presentation, both in terms of concept
and treatment, there may still have some deficiencies and omissions. Learned
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teachers and worthy students are, therefore, requested to be kind enough to

point out the short comings of the text or diagrams and to communicate their
suggestions and objections for the improvement of the next edition of this book.
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In the end, I am thankful to Association For Academic Quality (AFAQ) our

learned authors, editors and specialist of Board for their relentless service
rendered for the cause of education.

Chairman
Sindh Textbook Board, Jamshoro
 CONTENTS

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CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO.

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CHAPTER 1 GASEOUS EXCHANGE 1

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CHAPTER 2 HOMEOSTASIS 16

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CHAPTER 3 COORDINATION AND CONTROL 40
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CHAPTER 4 SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT 66
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CHAPTER 5 REPRODUCTION 83
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CHAPTER 6 INHERITANCE 105

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CHAPTER 7 MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT 133

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CHAPTER 8 BIOTECHNOLOGY 168

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CHAPTER 9 PHARMACOLOGY 185

 Chapter GASEOUS
1 EXCHANGE
Major Concept

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In this Unit you will learn:

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Ø Introduction
Ø Gaseous Exchange in Animals
Ø Gaseous Exchange in Plants

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Ø Gaseous Exchange in Man
« Air Passage Way and Lungs
« Mechanism of Breathing
« Respiratory Disorders and their Causes (Asthma, Bronchitis,
Pneumonia, Lung Cancer)
Ø Effects of Smoking
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CO2
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O2
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O2 CO2
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
All living organisms must need to exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide gases with their environment to carry out their vital functions
such as respiration. In addition to respiration, photoautotrophs like
plants do carry out gaseous exchange for the process of photosynthesis.

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Aquatic organisms exchange gases with water while terrestrial ones with
air.

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1.2 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

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As stated above, plants exchange gases for the processes of
photosynthesis and respiration.
During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is taken in
while oxygen is given out whereas in respiration, oxygen is taken in and

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carbon dioxide is given out. During daytime, green parts of the plants
carry out the process of Photosynthesis to prepare complex food
molecules (organic molecules) by utilizing simple molecules such as
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carbon dioxide gas and water. During this process, carbon dioxide gas is
taken in while oxygen gas released as by-product is given out. Respiration
on the other hand, takes place in all living cells. It is the process in which
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food is oxidized to release energy. In aerobic respiration, it involves taking

in of oxygen and given out of carbon dioxide. The process of exchange of
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gases in plants takes place mainly through minute openings called

stomata present in leaves. The roots and stem do exchange gases for
respiration.
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Photosynthesis Respiration
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1. Anabolic process. 1. Catabolic process.

2. Synthesis of food from simple, 2. Breaking down of food into
inorganic substances. inorganic substances.
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3. Requires light energy. 3. Does not require light energy.

4. Occurs in plants. 4. Occurs in all living organisms.
5. Uses carbon dioxide gas. 5. Uses oxygen gas.
6. Releases oxygen gas. 6. Releases carbon dioxide gas.
7. Takes place during day-time. 7. Takes place all the times.
8. Chlorophyll is required. 8. Chlorophyll not required.

2
Stomata: (Singular Stoma means mouth)
These are microscopic openings present in the epidermis of leaves.
Through these openings, plants exchange gases with their environment.
Each stoma is a slit like opening formed by two special cells called guard
cells. They are chlorophyll containing cells with thicker inner while

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thinner and elastic outer cell walls. The opening and closing of stomata
depends upon turgidity of the guard cells. During daytime, as a result of

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ongoing process of photosynthesis, the accumulation of photosynthetic
solutes causes increase in turgidity of the guard cells. Thus stomata are

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opened and the process of taking in of carbon dioxide and giving out of
oxygen begins until it becomes dark.

Upper

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epidermis

Palisade
chlorophyll
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Spongy Water
mesophyll
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Lower Photosynthetic
epidermis products
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Vein
Co2
Stoma
O2 water vapour
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Stoma closed
Stoma open Nucleus
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Chloroplasts
Vacuole
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Guard cell

Cell wall

Stoma
Fig. 1.1 Gaseous Exchange

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PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
The effect of light on the net gaseous exchange from leaf by
using Hydrogen bicarbonate as indicator.
Hydrogen bicarbonate is an indicator for carbon dioxide. Its colour
turns as follows according to the level of carbon dioxide:

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Photosynthesis Respiration

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Highest Yellow
High Orange
Atmospheric level Red
Low
Lowest ok Magenta
Purple
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Requirements:
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Four test tubes, test tube stand, aluminum foils or black paper,
tissue paper, fresh green leaves, four corks, wax, thread, glass marking
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pencil
Steps:
1. Mark test tubes as 1, 2, 3 and 4.
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2. Fill each test tube quarter full with Hydrogen bicarbonate

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indicator.
3. Attach each leaf with separate thread and hang one into the test
tube 1, test tube 2 and test tube 4 into 3.
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4. Plug all the tubes with corks and seal them with wax.
5. Wrap tube 2 with aluminum foil or black paper from all side so
that light cannot penetrate into this test tube. Similarly wrap
test tube 3 with tissue paper.
6. Place all tubes on stand and put the stand in well lighted place.

4
 7. Note and record your observations given below in the table by
tick marking the right in the following table:

Test Tube Test Tube Test Tube Test Tube

1 2 3 4

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Light on Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

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Leaf present Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

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Foil on Tube Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

Yellow/ Yellow/ Yellow/ Yellow/

Indicator color after
an hour
Orange/
Red/
Magenta/ ok
Orange/
Red/
Magenta/
Orange/
Red/
Magenta/
Orange/
Red/
Magenta/
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Purple Purple Purple Purple
Carbon dioxide Highest/ Highest/ Highest/ Highest/
concentration High/ High/ High/ High/
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Normal/ Normal/ Normal/ Normal/

low/ low/ low/ low/
lowest lowest lowest lowest
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Respiration Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

Photosynthesis Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

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Critical Thinking:
Q1. Is there any change of coloration of Hydrogen bicarbonate indicator?
Q2. What account for these changes?
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1.3 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

Like plants, animals do exchange gases with their environment for
the respiration process. In order to obtain energy from food, they take in
oxygen and give out carbon dioxide. So the process of gaseous exchange is
ultimately linked with the respiration.

5
 The respiratory medium for aquatic animals is water whereas for
terrestrial animals is air. The amount of molecular oxygen present in air is
about 21% while in water it is about 5%. In order to exchange gases,
animals have a respiratory surface. In unicellular organisms like
Protozoa, the plasma membrane serves as the respiratory surface. In
multicellular animals, their body surface or some internal surface could

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serve as the respiratory surface.

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Properties of Respiratory surface:
1) Thin, 2) Wet, 3) Permeable, 4) large in relation to the volume of the

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body.
Proportion of Respiratory surface:
It must be sufciently large enough to exchange gases for all the

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cells of the body. For example, the total surface area of the respiratory
surface in human is about 20 times to the size of the body.
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Respiratory Surfaces
Large surface area:
F An increase surface for
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gaseous exchange allows a

faster rate of diffusion to
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supply oxygen and remove

carbon dioxide. It is also
necessary to compensate for
the small surface area to
volume ration of the animal
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body.
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Fig. 1.2 Respiratory Surfaces

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1.4 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMAN

In human, the process of respiration involves breathing, gaseous
exchange and cellular respiration. Like other terrestrial vertebrates, our
respiratory surface is located inside the body in the form of alveoli
contained in paired organs, lungs.

6
1.4.1 Human Respiratory System:
Our respiratory system consists of paired lungs located inside the
thoracic (chest) cavity and Air passage ways.
LUNGS:
Each lung is soft, spongy and pinkish in appearance. It is wrapped

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in two Pleural membranes. The space between pleural membranes is

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lled with uid that acts like a lubricant. This makes the breathing
movements easier. Lungs are enclosed in a bony cage made up of a at
sternum in front, 12 pairs of ribs from front to back where vertebral

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column is present. Ribs are attached with intercostals muscles. In the
lower part of thorax, lies a sheet of muscles called Diaphragm which
separates it from abdominal cavity. Each lung is made up of millions of

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alveoli.
Palate
Nasal cavity
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Nose Oral cavity
Pharynx
Nostril
Epiglottis
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Tongue Larynx
Trachea
Right lung
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Left lung

Bronchioles
Heart
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nd

Alveoli

Diaphragm
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Fig. 1.3 Human respiratory system

Each alveolus is the respiratory surface. It's a pouch like
microscopic structure made up of only one layer of cells. It is enclosed by a
dense capillary network. In each alveolus, exchange of gases takes place
between air and blood. The Air passage ways consists of Nostrils, Trachea,

7
Bronchi and Bronchioles. Air from outside enters into the nasal sacs
through external nostrils. This entire passage through which air passes is
lined by mucous secreting ciliated cells. The internal surface has rich
blood capillaries which turn the incoming air slightly hot. The hairs in
nasal sacs as well as ciliated epithelial lining and mucous keep the air
clean by trapping and removing dust and germs. This ensures clean air to

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approach the respiratory surface.

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Trachea:
The internal opening of nasal sacs opens into a long tube, Trachea.

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In its beginning, there is a box like larynx or sound box containing vocal
cords to produce sound. The opening of larynx is known as glottis which
has a lid like cover, epiglottis. During swallowing food or drink, the
epiglottis closes the glottis to prevent any food to enter into the trachea.

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Trachea has C-shaped cartilaginous rings which prevent it from
collapsing.
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Bronchi:
Trachea in the center of the thorax bifurcates into two smaller ducts
or Bronchi. Each bronchus do have C-shaped cartilaginous rings.
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Bronchus of each side enters into the respective lung. As soon as it enters
into the lung, it breaks up into many smaller ducts or Bronchioles.
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Bronchiole:
Each bronchiole is very thin tube that opens into air sacs or alveoli.
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1.4.2 Process of Breathing:

nd

Since the respiratory surfaces are

LUNG CAPACITY: Like a
located deep inside the body in the lungs.
balloon, lungs can be lled
So in order to perform exchange of gases,
with a maximum amount of
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the air must rst be brought into the

5 liters of air. Surprisingly,
lungs from the atmosphere. It is achieved
we use normally about ½
through the process of breathing or
liter of the air coming into
Ventilation. The process of breathing
the lungs.
consists of two phases, viz., Inspiration
and expiration.

8
Inspiration:
It is the process through Terminal
bronchioles
which atmospheric air is directed
through the air passage ways up to
the alveoli in the lungs. It involves

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contraction of intercostals muscles
and diaphragm. As a result, the

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volume of thorax (chest) is Alveolar
increased thereby decreasing the duct

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pressure of air in lungs. So the Respiratory Alveolar
external air rushes inside from high bronchioles sacs
pressure to low pressure. The lungs
get expanded in this way. Fig. 1.4 Inspiration
Expiration:
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It is just reverse of inspiration. During this process the air moves
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out from the lungs. Both, intercostals muscles and diaphragm are
relaxed. This moves the ribs inside and diaphragm becomes at. Both
the activities depress the chest inside. The volume of thoracic cavity
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(chest) is decreased causing an increase upon the pressure on lungs.

This forces the air present in lungs to outside through the body.
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Breathing in Breathing out

Chest Chest
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expand contracts
nd

Ribs
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Lungs

Diaphragm

Diaphragm Diaphragm
contracts relaxes
Fig. 1.5 Expiration

9
1.5 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ALVEOLI:
The gaseous exchange takes place at the level of alveoli. Oxygen
brought in by air is taken up by the hemoglobin of RBCs of blood and vice
versa the carbon dioxide brought by the blood is given out to the air
present in alveoli. This gaseous exchange involves diffusion which

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becomes possible at this level because both alveolus and blood capillaries,
are only one cell layered in thickness.

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10.5.1 Composition of Inspired and Expired Air:

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Components (%) Inspired air (%) Expired air (%)
Oxygen About 21 About 16
Carbon dioxide About 0.03 About 4
Nitrogen
Water Vapour ok
About 79
Variable
About 79
saturated
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Temperature Atmospheric 37 degree
temperature celsius
Table 10.1 Composition if Inspired and Expired air
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Blowing
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exhaled air
Syringe
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Cork

Glasstube
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Lime water

(A) (B)
Air being into lime water Air being passed into lime water
with a syringe
Fig. 1.6 Demonstration of release carbon dioxide during expiration

10
 Carbon dioxide if passed through limewater turns it milky. This is
evident through experiment (A) when one exhales air through the lime-
water containing apparatus, the lime water turns milky. In (B) if
atmospheric air is passed through the lime-water, the later remains
unchanged.

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10.5.2 Rate of Breathing at Rest and During Exercise:
Breathing is largely an involuntary process. It is regulated by

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hypothalamus of our brain. The rate of breathing changes automatically
according to the changes in internal or external conditions. For instance,

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if a person is doing exercise, its rate of breathing would increase because
of increased consumption of oxygen by his muscles. Thus gradually
increase in concentration of carbon dioxide in his blood will cause an
increase his breathing rate. If the exercise condition persists, the muscle

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cells will start breaking down Glucose without oxygen. It is termed as
“anaerobic respiration”. As a result of this, lactic acid is formed in the
muscles rather than carbon dioxide. It causes pain and cramp in normal
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muscles. The breaking down of lactic acid requires additional amount of
oxygen which is termed as “oxygen debt”. The extra amount of oxygen is
obtained through deep breathes.
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Articial Ventilator:
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A machine that works like lungs when patient's natural breathing

becomes difcult. Through this machine, the oxygen rich air is directly
supplied to the trachea through a tube inserted the mouth upto the wind
pipe.
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Fig. 1.7 Articial ventilator

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1.6 RESPIRATORY DISORDERS:
Bronchitis:
The inammation of the air passage ways is termed as Bronchitis.
It is caused either by smoking or by some bacteria. It is characterized by
cough, increased mucous secretion, shortness of breath and low fever.

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Emphysema:

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It is related to the progressive destruction to the alveoli due to long
term exposure usually to the industrial pollutants. It is characterized by

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laborious breathing. It causes cough with phlegm production.

Pneumonia:

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It is an infectious disease usually caused by special bacteria,
viruses or fungi. In pneumonia, the alveoli are infected so they may be
lled with uid or pus. The breathing becomes difcult. The patient
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suffers from fever, cough, chill and chest pain.
Asthma:
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It is an inammatory condition of air-ways of lungs. It is

characterized by shortness of breath, chest pain, fever, wheezing sound
during expiration and cough. Asthma is actually an allergic response to
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pollens, dust, smoke, fur, feathers and number of other substances. It

may obstruct the air-ways making it difcult to breath for its patient.
Lung Cancer:
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Lung cancer is usually

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associated with smoking. Due to

smoke or air pollution, abnormal cells
appear in lungs which may spread to
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other tissues. The major signs and

symptoms are cough with blood,
shortness of breath, repeated lung
infections, weight loss, bone ache,
hoarseness, weakness, fatigue, etc.
Fig. 1.8
Deaths linked to air pollution

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 SUMMARY
· Respiration and photosynthesis require exchange of gases.
· Respiration takes place in all living organisms.

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· Photosynthesis occurs in green parts of plants.

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· During respiration, oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is given out
while in photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is used and oxygen is given

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out.
· In terrestrial plants, most of the exchange of gases occurs through
minute openings, stomata.
·
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The animals use either their body surface, or some internal surface
for the exchange of gases.
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· Respiratory surface must be thin, wet, permeable and large in
relation to the volume of organism.
· The respiratory surface of man is alveoli present in lungs.
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· Both lungs have millions of alveoli.

· Air passage ways lead the atmospheric air to alveoli.
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· Air pollution causes number of respiratory problems.

· Clean air is essential for better respiratory health.
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 EXERCISE

A. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct answer:

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i) The biological functions which perform gaseous exchange:
(a) Photosynthesis (b) Respiration

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(c) Both a & b (d) Growth

Plants do exchange of gases through:

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ii)
(a) Roots (b) Stomata
(c) Stem (d) All of these

iii) Each stoma is formed by:

(a) one guard cell
(c) three guard cells
ok (b) two guards cells
(d) four guard cells
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iv) Respiratory surface possesses following property:
(a) thin and wet (b) permeable
(c) very large (d) all of these
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v) Inspiration involves:
(a) Contraction of intercostals muscles
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(b) contraction of diaphragm

(c) Inward movement of ribs
(d) Both a & b
h

vi) Larynx is located on:

(a) Lungs (b) Trachea
nd

(c) Bronchus (d) Bronchiole

vii) The respiratory surface of human is:

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(a) Nostril (b) Bronchiole

(c) Alveoli (d) Trachea

viii) Increase in rate of breathing is due to the following:

(a) increase CO2 in blood (b) Increase O2 in blood
(c) decrease CO2 in blood (d) decrease O2 in blood

14
ix) Which of the following disorder is associated with degeneration of
alveoli?
(a) Bronchitis (b) Lung cancer
(c) Asthma (d) Emphysema

x) Which of the following disorder is associated with inammation of

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air passage ways?
(a) Bronchitis (b) Lung cancer

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(c) Asthma (d) Emphysema
B. SHORT QUESTIONS:

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i) Why the stomata generally open during day-time?
ii) Which parts of the plant intake CO2 and give out O2 , take in O2
oxygen and give out CO2 during day-time?
iii)
iv)
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Why do we have to breathe through nostrils rather than oral cavity?
Differentiate between breathing, gaseous exchange and
respiration.
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v) Why do we deep breath during or immediately after exercise?
vi) What is “oxygen debt”?
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vii) Distinguish between inspiration and expiration.

viii) What is lung cancer?
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ix) How the asthma is characterized?

x) Name ve animals which use their body surface for gaseous
exchange.
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C. EXTENSIVE RESPONSE QUESTIONS:

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i) What measures would you take to avoid respiratory disorders?

ii) Discuss human respiratory system with the help of suitable
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illustrations.
iii) Prove with the help of experiment that CO2 is released during
respiration.
iv) Explain the process of ventilation in man.
v) Why smoking is dangerous? How it is related with respiratory
disorders?

15
 Chapter
HOMEOSTASIS
2
Major Concept
In this Unit you will learn:

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Ø Introduction

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Ø Homeostasis in Plants
Ø Homeostasis in Man
Ø Homeostasis in Animals

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Ø Urinary system of Man
« Structure and Functioning of Human Kidney
« Structure of Kidney
« Structure of Nephron

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« Functioning of Nephron
Ø Disorders of Human Excretory System
Ø Kidney Stones and Treatment
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
The internal conditions of an organism is referred its internal
environment it includes H2O quantity, different solutes, temperature, etc.
For proper metabolic functions body requires all these conditions at
particular level. So homeostasis is set of metabolism which maintain

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internal environment of an organism within suitable limits. Why should
the internal environment remain constant? Let's take the example of

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temperature, the temperature of external environment continuously
change during the day but the enzymes work within a certain range of
temperature therefore, the living organisms must keep their internal

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temperature within this range. Organisms maintain internal condition by
feedback mechanism. How body maintain homeostasis by feedback
mechanism.

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detected by
feedback
Condition Decrease/ Receptor
Condition increase
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Normal or
set point
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Condition back to
normal by Corrective
h

increasing/ Control center

mechanism
decreasing
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Fig. 2.1 Homeostasis by feed-back

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2.2 ADAPTATION OF PLANT FOR DIFFERENT INTERNAL

CONDITION
There are three main aspect of homeostasis
(i) Osmoregulation:
It is the maintenance of internal water and salt conditions by
osmosis.

17
(ii) Thermoregulation:
The maintenance of temperature within suitable limits where
enzymes can work optimumly.
iii) Excretion:
The process where metabolic toxic waste or excess metabolic

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substances from body i.e NH3,urea or uric acid, gums, latex etc.

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2.2.1 Excretion or Storage of CO2
At daytime plant perform photosynthesis in green cells and

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respiration in all living cells. The CO2 produced in respiration utilized in
photosynthesis. When rate of photosynthesis will be higher than
respiration the plant gets extra CO2 from air and release extra O2 in air
through stomata. At night plant only perform respiration only CO2 is
produced which is removed by the process of diffusion through body

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surface. The green parts perform these gases exchange through stomata
while non green parts perform this gaseous exchange through body
surface.
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2.2.2 Removal of Extra Water
The plant store large amount of water this water can be removed
xt

from plant in two ways i.e.

(a) Transpiration
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(b) Guttation
Transpiration is the removal of water in the form of vapours from
aerial part of plant. It occurs only at day time.
h

Guttation is the removal of

water in the form of liquid from the
nd

margin of leaves through special

pores, hydathodes. It only occurs at
night when water pressure is high
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in leaves and low temperature

environment is present.
Plants modify their leaves
size, structure and structure of
stomata to control the rate of
transpiration.
Fig. 2.2 Showing Guttation in Leaf

18
 Plants produce some secondary products like latex, resin and gum.
These secondary products are insoluble, harmless compounds. Some
plants produce special types of gums for example Neem or keeker etc. The
extra amount of these are removed from special pores called lenticels.
The coniferous plants produce resins like material while the rubber plants
produce latex which remove from scare like openings. Some of these

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carnivorous plants and okra produce mucilaginous material to capture
insects.

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2.2.3. Osmotic adjustment in plants

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The plants grow in different conditions of water and salts, on the
basis of water and salt quantity there are four type of plants
(a) Hydrophytes
(b) Halophytes
(c)
(d)
Mesophytes
Xerophytes ok
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(a) Hydrophytes (hydro = water; phyta = plants)
The plant which grow in fresh water; they live completely or partially
in fresh water so called totally or partially submerged plants. They adapt
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themselves for removal of excess water which can enter in this condition.
· These plants do not contain
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roots or have poorly developed

roots.
· They have broad leaves if
h

partially submerged and have

stomata at upper epidermis
nd

e.g water lilly.

· They may have thin and
spongy tissues in leaves and
Si

stem in totally submerged

plant e.g Hydrilla. Fig. 2.3 Hydrophyte
(b) Halophytes (Halos= salt)
They grow in sea marshes or in saltish water. In salty condition
water moves outside the cell which is not suitable for plants. To move
water from outside to inside the plant develop following characters.

19
 · Plants develop salt glands where
plant store salts by taking it through
active transport.
· Plants oppose salt to move outside
from vacuole.

d
· Some salt accumulated at surface of
leaf which attracts water from air

ar
Fig. 2.4 Halophyte

(c) Mesophytes:

Bo
The plant grow in moderate water
containing soil they will develop following
characters.
·

·
They have developed root system
which do not grow very deep.
They have moderate sized leaves.
ok
bo
Fig. 2.5 Mesophyte

(d) Xerophytes:
xt

Plants grow in soil of low water quantity. They grow in desert or

steep slopes or at high altitude. To conserve water and absorb proper
Te

amount of H2O they develop following characters.

· They have vertically growing deep
root system to absorb proper
amount of water.
h

· They possess thick waxy cuticles

nd

over epidermis to conserve water.

· They have short sized leaves or
leaves are modied into spines to
Si

reduce loss of water by reducing the

number of stomata.
· Some xerophytes has special
parenchyma cells in stem, where
they store water, this makes the Fig. 2.6 Xerophyte
stem soft, wet and juicy called succulent organs e.g. cacti.

20
2.3 HOMEOSTASIS IN ANIMAL
Osmoregulation in Animals
Like plants, animals also live in aquatic and terrestrial habitat.
According to their environment their cells require more critical balance of
water and solutes. Water continuously leaves and enters the cells with

d
solutes to keep the water and solute in constant quantity which are
required for smooth metabolic functions.

ar
Osmoregulation in aquatic environment
The aquatic conditions are classied on the basis of the

Bo
concentration of salt present in it. The water which contains very low
amount of salt called fresh water and the water contains high salt called
marine water. Animal osmoregulate differently in both waters.
i. Osmoregulation in fresh water

ok
Fresh water animals have hypertonic conditions inside their
body or cells so they always facing the problem of ooding of H2O and
bo
loss of salts.
We can classify further these animals in two groups.
xt

Unicellular Multicellular
Te

· Pump out excess water by · Pump out excess water by

contractile vacuole producing dilute urine.
· e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium etc. · Loss of salt is compensated by
active uptake of salt by gills and
h

skin as well as use of salt

containing food.
nd

ii. Osmoregulation in marine animals

Si

Usually marine animals have hypotonic conditions (low salt) inside

the body but some marine animals develop hypertonic (high salt) or
isotonic (same salt condition) by metabolism.

21
 Bony sh Cartilaginous sh Osmoconformer
· Have low salt · Have high salt by · Have equal amount
inside the body storing urea inside of salt.
· Actively get sea · Eat food which · These animals do

d
water and have salt contain nitrogenous not require any
glands to increase compound i.e. meat activity to adjust

ar
the salt and their internal
desalination osmotic condition.

Bo
· Produce i.e. unicellular.
concentrated urine

iii. Osmoregulation in terrestrial condition

ok
Terrestrial conditions are harsh for living organism because the
direct contact of heat to body causes loss of water which leads to
bo
dehydration, major problem for terrestrial life. Only arthropods, some
molluscs reptiles, birds and mammals can survive in this habitat
because:
xt

· Their bodies are covered by exoskeleton or thick skin, which

prevent loss of water.
Te

· They conserve water by reabsorption in kidneys and rectum.

· Some of them can produce water from fats catabolism with the help
of peroxysomes i.e. camel, kangaroos.
· Continuously drinking of water or using liquid food.
h

Excretion:
nd

During metabolism living organisms catabolize protein and other

nitrogen containing compounds which produce some toxic nitrogenous
compound. These toxic compounds are mainly NH3 or urea or uric acid
Si

generally called nitrogenous waste. If these compound retain in the body

and accumulate, they can damage the cells or organs therefore they must
be removed from the body. The removal of these nitrogenous metabolic
waste is called excretion.
On the other hand plants metabolism is different from animal.
Plants are autotrophs, initially they produce carbohydrates as primary
products. Carbohydrate is catabolized to produce CO2 and H2O. The CO2

22
reutilized in photosynthesis and H2O is not a toxic compound. As
autotrophs they synthesize variety of compounds, so the waste products
of one reaction are utilized in other metabolic reactions as reactant and
consumed.
Excretion in animals:

d
The animal cells produce their nitrogenous waste during
metabolism and removed them either in tissue uid or in blood. So the

ar
animals develop some organs to lter the tissue uid or blood. These
organs are called excretory organs.

Bo
Excretory Excretory
Name of animal organs compound Source

Flame cells
Planaria
(Platyhelminthes)
Earthworm
Excretory ducts
Metanephridia
ok
(Protonephridia), Dilute urine Tissue uid
bo
(Annelids) Dilute urine Coelomic uid
Cockroach Malphigian Uric acid pellets Haemolymth
(Arthropod) tubules
xt

Kidneys Nh3, Urea,

Vertebrate Blood
Uric acid
Te

2.4 HOMEOSTASIS IN MAN

Humans have well developed homeostasis systems. The main
h

organs which involved in homeostasis are

nd

(i) Skin
(ii) Lungs
Si

(iii) Kidneys
(i) Skin:
The skin is considered as the largest organ of the body, basically
functions as a protective organ as the rst line of defense but it also works
efciently as a homeostatic organ by maintaining temperature, water and
salt.

23
(ii) Lungs:
They maintain levels of O2 and CO2 in the blood, body uid and cells.
Maintenance of O2 and CO2 level, maintain rate of respiration and
continuous ow of energy.
(iii) Kidneys:

d
Kidneys are called lters of the body uids, they maintain internal

ar
water by removing excessive water, also maintain urea, uric acids,
creatinine and other waste by excreting them through urine
2.4.1. Structure of Human Skin

Bo
Human skin consists of three layers called epidermis, dermis and
hypodermis. The outer layer of skin is epidermis, made up of at, dead
cells containing keratin protein. This layer does not contain blood
vessels. It is impermeable to water and prevent water loss from the body as

ok
well as work as protective layer by preventing entry to microorganisms.
Dermis is the layer present between epidermis and hypodermis, it
bo
contains many different structures i.e. nerves ending receptors to detect
temperature change, pain, pressure etc. The dermis also contains sweat
glands which secrete sweat on the surface to maintain temperature and
also secrete urea, water and salt.
xt

A network of arterioles are also present in the form of network,

which are involved in temperature regulation. The dermis also contain
Te

hair follicle and sebaceous glands which secrete oily sebum.

Hypodermis is the inner most layer of skin containing fats which act
as insulation against loss of heat. It also stores energy.
h
nd

Hair
Epidermis Sweat pore
Si

Nerve
Derma
Sweat gland
Hypodermis
Hair bulb
Subcutaneous Vein
layer Adipose Artery
tissue

Fig. 2.7 LS of human skin

24
2.4.2. Role of Skin in Regulating Body Temperature
The skin is the organ which help in regulating body temperature
when the receptor in skin detects change in body temperature from set
point ( set point of human is 37OC) i.e increase or decrease, and then
Receptor send nerve impulse to the brain. It occurs by feedback
mechanism to correct the temperature.

d
If Body Temperature Start Rise

ar
(i) Production of sweat:
The sweat gland starts to produce and secrete sweat. The sweat

Bo
accumulates at the surface of skin which evaporates with heat energy so
the body feels cooling.
(ii) Laying down of hairs:

ok
In hot condition, muscles which are attached with hair relax. It
allows the hair to lie at against surface of the skin
(iii) Vasodilation:
bo
Arterioles found in the form of network in dermis, dilate (become
wide) which increase the ow of blood, as well as it brings the blood
vessels near the surface of skin which allows more heat loss. This process
xt

of vessel dilation is called vasodilation.

In cold condition when body temperature starts decreasing
Te

(i) Erection of hairs:

The muscles contract pulling the hairs upright and trapping a layer
of insulating air next to skin. Now it is not very much effective in human.
h

(ii) Vasocontraction:
nd

Narrowing of blood arterioles of dermis occurs which reduces the

blood ow in capillaries of skin so less heat is lost.
(iii) Decrease in sweat production:
Si

The sweat gland stops to produce and secrete sweat, so ir prevent

from energy loss.

25
(iv) Increase in metabolic rate:
In cold conditions the rate of metabolism in the organs increases
generating more heat which is distributed around the body in the blood
stream. It prevents loss through the adipose tissue in hypodermis which
work as an insulation layer.

d
Body temperature Body temperature

ar
falls rises

Bo
Blood vessels constrict so
that heat is conserved. Blood vessels dilate, resulting
Sweat glands do not secrete in heat loss to the environment.
uid. Shivering (involuntary
contraction of muscles)
generates heat, which ok Sweat glands secrete uid. As
the uid evaporates, heat is
lost from the body
bo
warms the body.
Normal body
temperature
xt

Heat is lost to
Heat is retained
Te

the environment
Fig. 2.8 Thermoregulation in Man
2.4.3. Role of lungs to keep the CO2 concentration low to certain level
h

Tissue/cells produce a large amount of CO2 during aerobic

respiration. As blood passes through tissues via blood capillaries, this CO2
nd

diffuses into the blood, where it reacts with water form carbonic acid. This
reaction takes place by an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase present in
R.B.C. The carbonic acid dissociate into H+ and bicarbonate H-1CO3ions.
Si

The level of H+ in blood is continuously monitored by special detectors

(receptor) carotid bodies and aortic bodies. Most of the bicarbonate ions
diffuse out from R.B.C to blood plasma. A small amount of CO2 is also
carried and dissolved in R.B.C when the blood reaches lungs these
bicarbonate ions diffuse back into RBC where again converted into
carbonic acid then into CO2. The CO2 diffuses out of the blood capillaries
and into alveoli, where from it is expelled out when breathing out.

26
 If the CO2 level increases in blood, pH of blood start increasing so
that the receptor sends a message to the control centre which ultimately
increases the breathing rate to expel out the CO2 efciently.

Carbon

d
Dioxide CO2

ar
Oxygen O2

Bo
Lungs

Red blood okOrgans

bo
cells
xt
Te

Fig. 2.9 Role of lungs in keeping low CO2 and high O2 level in blood

2.4.4. Role of kidney in controlling blood composition

h

Blood is the uid having cells. In plasma, it contains a high amount

nd

of H2O and some solutes like Na+, Cl-, Ca++, K+ etc. with nitrogenous waste.
Liver continuously produces urea and NH3 by breaking amino acid, we
continuously take different solute ions in our food like Na+, Ca++, K+ etc. the
Si

concentration of H2O, solute and nitrogenous waste are maintained by

kidney through process of ltration and reabsorption, which we will study
in next topics.
2.5 URINARY SYSTEM IN MAN
The urinary system of human is consist of
· A pair of kidney

27
 · A pair of ureters
· A urinary bladder
· A urethra
Kidneys are reddish-brown bean
shaped organs, situated at the dorsal side

d
Renal
of the abdominal cavity on either side of the Left Kidney tubules
vertebral column. The kidneys lie above Right Kidney

ar
the waistline. Each kidney has an area in
the center of concave surface which faces Urine

Bo
the vertebral column; this area is called Ureter Renal
Pelvis
hillus. The renal artery, renal vein, nerve
and ureter are connected to each kidney at
the hillus.
Uterus

ok
Bladder
The ureter is a narrow tube which Urine
connects the kidney to the urinary bladder.
Urethra
Urine passes through ureter to the urinary
bo
bladder. Fig. 2.10 Urinary System

The urinary bladder is a thin walled muscular bag situated towards

the bottom of abdominal cavity in front of the rectum which stores urine.
xt

The urethra is a tube which comes out from the urinary bladder,
runs down and opens outside the body through urinary opening. It passes
Te

urine from bladder to outside the body.

2.5.1 Structure of a Kidney

h

Kidney is enclosed
in a membrane called Cortical
nd

peritoneum. A uid is Cortex glomerulus

lled in between Medulla Minor calyx
peritoneum and kidney
Si

called peritoneal uid Renal artery Juxtamedullary

glomerulus
which reduces the Renal vein
friction. A longitudinal Major calyx
Kidney pelvis
section of kidney shows
Ureter Capsule
three main parts: the
cortex, the medulla and
the pelvis. Fig. 2.11 LS of Human Kidney

28
 Cortex is the outer dark brown portion. It is covered and protected
by a brous capsule. The medulla is the inner lighter portion of the
kidney. It contains the conical projection called renal pyramids; the
human Kidneys contain 12-16 pyramids. The medulla contains
nephrons. Nephrons are the basic functional units of the kidney. These
are tiny kidney tubules where osmoregulation occurs to produce urine.

d
The kidneys are connected to the ureter at pelvis. Pelvis is a funnel like
space. It is the enlarged portion of ureter inside the kidney.

ar
2.5.2 Structure of Nephron

Bo
Nephrons are the functional unit of kidney. Each kidney contains
more than one million nephrons, which are microscopic urinary tubules.
Each nephron consists of four main parts: The Bowmann's capsule,
proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle's, distal convoluted tubule.
Number of nephrons open into a tube called collecting duct.

ok
Nephrons are surrounded by different blood vessels that are
connected to the renal artery and renal vein.
bo
Glomerular capsule
Afferent arteriole Distal convoluted
xt

tubules
Proximal
Te

convoluted tubule Cortex-medulla junction

Intertubular Collecting duct
artery
Venule
h

Intertubular
nd

vein
Loop of
the Henle
Si

Peritubular
capillary network
Urine ows into renal pelvis
Fig. 2.12 Structure of Nephron with Blood Vessels

29
 Proximal
convulated tubule
Bowman’s capsule leads
into a short. Convoluted (coiled)

d
Distal convoluted tubule tubules. Which passes into the
When the tubule enters the medulla.

ar
cortex again, it becomes
convoluted again.

Bo
Fibrous capsule
Glomerulus

Filtered blood from

glomerulus to
body
Cotrex
ok
bo
xt
Te

Unltered blood to Medulla

glomerulus from (Pyramid)
body
h

Bowman’s capsule
nd

Each nephron begins in

the cortex as a cup
like structure Collecting tubule
Si

Loop of Henle
The tubule enter into medulla,
extends into the renal pyramid
and makes a U like tube,
back into the cortex.

Fig. 2.13 Section of Kidney showing structure of two nephrons with blood supply

30
2.5.3. Function of Nephron

d
ar
Bo
ok
bo
xt
Te
h
nd
Si

2.5.4. Role of kidney in urine formation

Urea formation
The urea is formed within the liver cells. The liver stores surplus
glucose of food by converting it into glycogen and other food substances
but it can not store the proteins. The excessive amino acid break and get

31
some energy from it. The amino group (NH2) is removed from amino acid
called deamination. This NH2 group is converted into ammonia (NH3)
which is very poisonous, it may kill the cell when stored in high
concentration. So the liver cells quickly convert NH3 into less toxic
substance urea. This urea is carried by blood to kidneys and excrete out in
the form of urine. A small amount of urea is also excreted in sweat as well.

d
Urine formation

ar
Excess mineral salt and nitrogenous waste products i.e. urea,
creatinine and uric acid, which are poisonous if accumulated. These are

Bo
removed from body with water and
Afferent
this mixture is called urine. arteriole
Efferent
Urine formation takes place arteriole
in Kidneys. Two main processes
are involved in the formation of
urine within nephron.
(i) Filtration ok
Bowman’s
Glomerular
capillaries
bo
capsule
(ii) Reabsorption
Filtration
(i) Filtration
Re-absorption Renal
xt

Filtration is the process of

vein
taking out material from blood. It Secretion
is of two types:
Te

Excreation
(a) Ultraltration
(b) Selective ltration Fig. 2.14 Ultra Filtration in Glomerulus

(a) Ultraltration
h

Ultraltration occurs at Malpighian body when the blood from

nd

afferent arteriole enters into glomerulus located in Bowman's capsule.

Most of the blood plasma is forced out of the glomerulus blood capillaries
into Bowman's capsule without any selection. Process of non-selective
Si

ltration is called ultraltration.

(b) Selective ltration
Selective ltration occurs at proximal and distal convoluted tubules
when blood ows into peritubular capillaries, the remaining amount of
urea lter out from blood by active transport. It requires some energy

32
(ii) Reabsorption
In a normal adult about 120 Cm3 of ltrate is formed in the kidney
every minute. If this large amount of ltrate allowed to pass out from the
body as urine, the body will dehydrate and death may occur. To prevent
this huge loss of water and useful salts, when the ltrate passes through
the nephron useful substances and excessive water reabsorbed into the

d
blood stream by:

ar
(a) Non-selective
(b) Selective reabsorption

Bo
(a) Non-selective reabsorption
Non-selective reabsorption occurs at distal and proximal
convoluted tubules without any selection.
(b) Selective reabsorption

ok
Selective reabsorption occurs at Loop of Henle's and collecting duct
with the help of hormones. i.e. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), Parathyroid
bo
hormones (PTH) and calcitonin.
At the collecting duct,
At proximal convoluted
some water is
tubule, most of the mineral
reabsorbed.
xt

salts and in a healthy

Excess water, excess
person, all of the glucose
salts and metabolic
Te

and amino acids are

waste products such as
reabsorbed through the
urea, uric acid and
walls of the tubule into the
creatinine pass out of the
surrounding blood
collecting duct into the
capillaries. These solutes
renal pelvis as a mixture
h

are reabsorbed via

called urine.
diffusion and active
nd

transport.
This reabsorption is highly
selective, and only those At the distal
Si

substances required by the convoluted tubule,

body are reabsorbed some water and
readily. mineral salts are
Most of the water in the reabsorbed.
ltrate is reabsorbed by
osmosis here. At the loop of Henle,
some water is reabsorbed

Fig. 2.15 Resorption of Material in Nephron

33
2.5.5. Role of kidneys in osmoregulation
The water potential (capacity to loose water) of blood in the body has
to be kept constant because big and sudden change in the water potential
of blood can lead to serious problems e.g. if plasma becomes very much
dilute water will enter the blood cells will swell and possibly burst.
On the other hand if the blood plasma becomes too concentrated,

d
water will move out of the cell by osmosis, as a result of it the blood cells,

ar
tissues will become dehydrated and shrink. This control of water and salt
content of the body is known as osmoregulation.
Kidney is not only an excretory organ, it also regulates water and

Bo
salt balance in the blood. Kidneys makes sure that the concentration of
blood stays more or less constant.

Sweating i.e Intake of H2O

Loss of H2O

ok by drinking
bo
Stimulates Stimulates
Water potential of Water potential of
blood decreases blood increase
xt

ADH hormone
release from Pituitary gland
Te

Hypothalamus releases less ADH

pituitary gland

Collecting duct of
Collecting duct of
nephron absorb
nephron absorb
h

less H2O into

H2O into
cell → capillaries
nd

cell → capillaries

Ÿ Renin produce
Si

in high quantity
Ÿ Dilute urine
produce
Ÿ Urine produce in
small quantity
Ÿ Concentrated Water potential
urine produce of blood returns
to normal.
Fig. 2.16 Role of Kidney in Osmoregulation

34
2.6 DISORDERS OF KIDNEYS
Kidney Stone
A kidney stone is a solid mass that forms from the crystals of
calcium oxalate or Calcium Carbonate. Sometimes uric acid and cysteine
are also present in it. These molecules separate from urine, precipitate in

d
kidney and deposit in the form of stone. Sometimes these stones are not
hard therefore they break into sand like crystals which can pass out of the

ar
body with urine without pain. The little large size stone however damages
the kidney tissues, it may stuck anywhere in urinary tract and cause renal

Bo
failure with pain.

ok
bo
xt
Te

Fig. 2.17 Lithotropsy machine

Treatment of Kidney Stone
If the size of stone is comparatively small we can use the technique
h

of lithotripsy to break stone by ultrasonic waves (sound waves). The

broken rudiments drain out from kidney with urine.
nd

The large size stone cannot be broken by lithotripsy, so it is removed

only by the process of renal surgery.
The large intake of water is the only measure to minimize the chances of
Si

formation of stone in kidney.

Kidney Failure
Sometimes the nephrons of kidney stop working, it is called kidney
failure. It is mainly due to solute disbalance in blood and kidneys. The
failure of kidneys allows urea and other waste material to accumulate in
blood. The amount of H2O is not regulated also. This disbalance of solutes
causes death unless the patient is given treatment to lter out waste by
machine.

35
(i) Kidney dialysis
Patient of kidney failure may get a kidney transplant. A person with
two healthy kidneys may donate one kidney and survive with one kidney.
If a donor is not available, the patient can be treated with dialysis using a
dialysis machine. A dialysis machine performs the function of a kidney. It

d
helps to clean the patient's blood from metabolic waste products and
toxics.

ar
For effective treatment the patient needs to undergo dialysis 2-3
times a week. Each session lasts about 3-5 hours depending on the

Bo
patient's body size and medical condition.

Blood thinners

ok
prevent clotting
bo
Pump
Dialysis uid
carring waste
products and
Arterial blood
xt

Dialysis uid in urea is removed

leaves the arm
Te

Clean blood returns

Dialysis machine
to a vein in the arm
h

Clean blood ows through bubble

trap to get rid of any bubbles
nd
Si

Fig. 2.18 Working of Dialysis Machine

36
 SUMMARY
· Homeostasis is set of metabolism which maintain internal
environment of an organism within suitable limits.
Organisms maintain internal condition by feedback mechanism.

d
·
· There are three main aspects of homeostasis i.e. osmoregulation,

ar
thermoregulation and excretion.
· Osmoregulation is the maintenance of internal water and salt
condition by osmosis.

Bo
· Thermoregulation is the maintenance of temperature within
suitable limits where enzymes can work optimumly.
· Excretion is the process where metabolic toxic wastes, excess
substances remove from body.
·
·
· ok
Hydrophytes are the plants which grow in fresh water.
Halophytes grow in sea marshes or in saltish water.
Mesophytes are the plants grow in moderate water containing soil.
bo
· Xerophytes are the plants grow in soil of low water quantity.
· The main organs involved in human homeostasis are skin, lungs
and kidneys.
xt

· Human skin is consist of three layers called epidermis, dermis and

hypodermis.
· Body temperature when rise body produce sweat, hair lies at,
Te

vasodilation.
· When body temperature decrease the erection of hairs,
vasocontraction, decrease in sweat production and increase in
metabolic rate occurs.
h

· Lungs keep the CO2 concentration at low level.

Kidneys maintain blood composition by maintain level of H2O,
nd

·
solutes and nitrogenous waste by the process of ltration and
reabsorption.
· Kidneys are situated at the dorsal side of the abdominal cavity on
Si

either side of the vertebral column.

· Nephrons are functional unit of kidney.
· Urea is formed in liver and excreted from kidneys.
· Mixture of urea, creatinine, uric acid and water called urine.
· Kidney stone is a solid mass made of calcium oxalate or carbonate
crystals.
· Kidney failure patient can be treated with dialysis machine, dialysis
machine performs the function of a kidney.

37
 EXERCISE

A. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct answer:

d
i) The internal condition of an organism is referred as:
(a) Homeostasis (b) Internal environment

ar
(c) Internal metabolism (d) Feedback mechanism
ii) A set of metabolism reaction which maintain internal environment

Bo
is:
(a) Positive feedback (b) Negative feedback
(c) Osmoregulation (d) Homeostasis
iii) Removal of extra liquid water is:
(a) Exudation (b) Guttation

iv)
(c) Respiration
ok(d) Transpiration
Plant grow near coastal area called:
(a) Xerophyte (b) Halophyte
bo
(c) Epiphyte (d) Hygrophyte
v) Organ of human body which is considered on the largest organ is:
(a) Skin (b) Digestive tract
xt

(c) Liver (d) Brain

vi) The maintenance of body temperature with in suitable limit is called
Te

(a) Homeotherm (b) Thermoregulation

(c) Osmoregulation (d) Heterotherm
vii) The kidney is enclosed in a membrane called
(a) Pericardium (b) Peritoneum
h

(c) Pleural membrane (d) Plumule

viii) The network of blood capillaries present in the layer of skin:
nd

(a) Epidermis (b) Dermis

(c) Hypodermis (d) Endodermis
ix) Selective reabsorption in nephron takes place at
Si

(a) Glomerulus (b) Malpighian body

(c) Convulated tubules (d) Loop of Henle's
x) The hormone ADH release from
(a) Pituitary gland (b) Kidneys
(c) Liver (d) Lungs

38
B. SHORT QUESTIONS:
i) Why homeostasis is required?
ii) Why plants remove liquid water instead of water vapours?
iii) How plant survive in saltish water?
iv) Why skin is considered as excretory organ?
v) What type of structures are present in dermis to perform different

d
functions?

ar
vi) Draw a neat and labelled diagram of nephron.
vii) What is kidney stone?
viii) How human skin maintains temperature in cold conditions?

Bo
ix) When dialysis is required?
x) Why ltration at Para tabular capillaries called ultra ltration?

C. EXTENSIVE RESPONSE QUESTIONS:

i)
ii)
iii) ok
How skin works as thermoregulatory organ?
Describe the urinary system of man with the help of diagram
Describe the structure of nephron within the L.S of kidney.
bo
iv) Describe the network of blood vesseles in nephron and their
functions.
v) Describe different disorders of kidneys and their treatment.
xt
Te
h
nd
Si

39
 Chapter
COORDINATION
3
Major Concept

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In this Unit you will learn:
Ø Introduction

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Ø Types of Coordination (Nervous and Chemical Coordination)
Ø Human Nervous System

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« Components of Nervous System
« Structure and Function of Neuron
« Reflex Action and Reflex Arc
Ø Receptors of Man (Eyes and Ears)
Ø Endocrine System

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« Important Endocrine Glands (Pituitary, Thyroid, Pancreas,
Adrenal, Gonads)
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Ø Nervous Disorders (Paralysis and Epilepsy)
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h
nd
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3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The organisms have to perform various tasks in order to live. To
achieve their tasks, there must by coordination and interaction among
different parts or organs of the body. This results in proper activity or
response.

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Have you ever have touched some hot object accidentally? Can you

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recall what you did then suddenly? You must have removed your hand
immediately from that hot object. Do you know how and why you did that?

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The environmental conditions are always subject to change without any
warning. In order to live, the living organisms have to adjust themselves
according to the changing conditions. Such adjustment would only be

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possible when they can detect changes, analyze them and issue
commands accordingly to various organs of the body. This will make not
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only their survival possible but also ensure the continuity of their species.
So, coordination is dened as the process where different units of a
system work together to perform a meaningful function.
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Stimulus:
It refers to any factor which cause change either in internal or
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external environment of the organism. The changes are detected by

special cells or organs termed as receptors. For example, eyes are
photoreceptors (sensitive to light), ears are sound receptors, nose is
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chemoreceptor for gases and tongue is chemoreceptor for solids or liquids.

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Stimulus = Heat
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A stimulus is:
A change in the environment
that can be detected by a
sense organ and bring
about a response
Response = Let go

Fig. 3.1 Stimulus

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Response:
It is the activity performed by some living organism after analyzing
stimulus or stimuli. It is exhibited by organs like muscles, glands which
are termed as effectors.

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STIMULUS RECEPTOR

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FEEDBACK

MODULATOR

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RESPONSE EFFECTOR

3.2 TYPES OF COORDINATION:

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Fig. 3.2 Response activity
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There are two types of coordination: 1) Chemical Coordination, 2)
Nervous Coordination
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Both are inter-related and interact with each other to develop proper
response.
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1) Chemical Coordination: It takes place by releasing specic, signaling

molecules such as hormones by special cells or glands. These molecules
are released to stimulate or inhibit other cells or tissues of the body. The
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target cells must have receptor molecules (special receiving molecules)

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for signaling molecules.

This kind of coordination is helpful in lower animals as well as plants
because of their simple body plans and small size.
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2) Nervous Coordination: It is an advance type of coordination exhibited

by most of the animals, which is a consequence of specially designed cell,
Neurons. The neurons upon stimulation generate electrochemical
signals. Since the signaling is in electric form so it is very rapid.

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A comparison of Nervous coordination with Chemical coordination:

NERVOUS COORDINATION CHEMICAL COORDINATION

1) Activity of Neurons 1) Activity of special secretory cells

2) Signal type is electro-chemical 2) Signal type is purely chemical

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3) Rapid in action 3) Slower in action
4) Response is shorter duration 4) Response is longer duration

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5) Advance type of coordination 5) Primitive type of coordination
6) Exclusively related to animals 6) Related to all organisms

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7) Involves neurotransmitters 7) Involves other signaling
molecules such as hormones.

Coordination in lower organisms and plants:

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Lower organisms like prokaryotes, protozoa, algae, fungi and plants
have chemical coordination through signaling molecules released usually
in the form of hormones to regulate their movements, growth,
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metabolism, reproduction, etc. For example, leaves of the “touch me not”
are closed when touched. After a short while, they restore their original
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open position. The pressure or touch serves as stimulus while closing

down of leaves is the response.
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Give at least one reason why

leaves of “touch me not” fold or
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closed when touched?

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Fig. 3.3 Touch me not plant

Other responses like growth, reproduction are due to the secretion
of hormones by secretory cells and carried via the transport media to their
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respective target organs. Another fascinating

movement is the turning towards the direction
of sun in “sun ower” plants. It's a bit slower
movement which is believed to be caused by
phytohormones called Auxins. It causes rapid
cell growth in shaded regions of the plant. Fig. 3.4 Sun ower

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3.3 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
Human nervous system like other vertebrates is “centralized-type
nervous system” (CNS). It is the most complicated type. Stimuli from
various organs of the body are sent simultaneously its control center or
central nervous system where they are integrated, analyzed and

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processed to develop command in the form of response. Centralized

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nervous system consists of two major divisions, viz. Central Nervous
System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

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3.3.1 Central Nervous System:
It is the major command and control center to which stimuli are reported
and decisions are made and conveyed to effector organs. It consists of two
main components, brain and spinal cord.

Choroid plexus
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Cerebrum Third ventricle
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Lateral ventricle

Pineal gland Hypothalamus

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Optic nerve
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Cerebellum
Pons
Fourth ventricle
Medulla Pituitary
Foramen magnum gland
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Spinal cord
nd

Fig. 3.5 Human brain

1. Brain: It is the major command and control center of our body. It is
wrapped in three protective membranes called meninges. Inside the
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brain, there are empty cavities or ventricles lled with a cerebro spinal
uid (CSF). It also provides a cushion-like protection to the brain. Bones
of the skull provide another protection to brain.
Human brain consists of following important parts: Cerebrum,
hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, mid-brain,
cerebellum, and medulla oblongata.
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Cerebrum: It is the largest part of the brain where important decisions are
made. It is considered to be the seat of intelligence, all conscious activities
and memory. Its outer part, cortex or gray matter is grayish in color and
consists of cell bodies of neurons while inner part white matter is whitish
and consists of cell processes which are hair-like outgrowths. Cerebrum

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consists of two hemispheres, i.e. Right and left cerebral hemispheres. The

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right cerebral hemisphere regulates the left side of the body while the left
cerebral hemisphere to the right side of the body. The cortex is associated

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with thoughts, plans, actions and determination. It can be divided into
four sections or lobes, viz., Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe and
Occipital lobe. Frontal lobe is associated with thoughts, emotions, etc.

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Parietal lobe is associated with different sensations like pressure,
temperature, language processing, etc. The temporal lobe is involved in
hearing and speech. The occipital lobe is associated with vision.
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Thalamus: Thalamus lies inside in the brain just above the
hypothalamus. It guides the stimuli towards appropriate part of the
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cortex.
Hypothalamus: Hypothalamus regulates life maintaining functions like
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blood pressure, body temperature, hunger, thirst, etc. It plays vital role in
maintaining homeostasis of the body.
Hippocampus: It is related with long-term memory.
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Amygdala: It's a deep seated small area involved in emotions (pain,

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pleasure, etc.)
Mid brain: In human it is relatively smaller and involved in integration of
visual and olfactory (smell) stimuli. It is also collaborator of spinal cord
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with fore-brain.
Cerebellum: It is highly convoluted structure located on the dorsal side
just below the cerebrum. It controls the precision in movement of the
muscles for balance and maintains the position of the body in relation to
gravity. Activities like writing, drawing, painting, dancing, crafting have
become possible due to its elaborate structure in human.

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 Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe
Ÿ Touch perception
Ÿ Motor control (premotor cortex) (somatosensory cortex)
Ÿ Problem solving (prefrontal area) Ÿ Body orientation and
Ÿ Speech production (Broca’s area) sensory discrimination

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Occipital lobe

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Ÿ Sight (visual cortex)
Ÿ Visual reception and

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visual interpretation

Cerebellum

Temporal lobe
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coordination
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Ÿ Auditory processing (hearing)
Ÿ Language comprehension Brainstem
(Wernicke’s area) Ÿ Involuntary responses
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Ÿ Memory/information retrieval

Fig. 3.6 Parts of brain

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Medulla oblongata: It lies just above the spinal cord. It is the control
center for automatic activities like breathing, heart-beat, blood pressure,
coughing, swallowing, hiccupping, digesting food, etc. Such activities are
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termed as Reexes.
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Pons: It lies on the ventral side of medulla oblongata. It helps in

controlling the facial muscles as well as helps in sleep and wakening.
2. SPINAL CORD: It's a buttery shaped, thick, whitish, long tube like
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structure which arises from medulla oblongata and extends down

through the vertebral column. Unlike brain, in cross section, its outer
portion is whitish called white matter while inner is grayish or gray
matter. Like brain, it is also wrapped in meninges and bathed in
cerebrospinal uid. It acts as a mini control center for few reexes. It also

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acts as express way for ow of information from brain to the different parts
of the body and vice versa.
Peripheral nervous system:
It consists of cables which arise from CNS PNS
the central nervous system and connect it

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to different organs of the body. Each cable

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is termed as a Nerve. Each nerve consists
of bundles of axons of both sensory and

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motor neurons. The PNS consists of
somatic nervous system and autonomic
nervous systems. The somatic nervous

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system is associated with skeletal muscles
and glands while the autonomic nervous Fig. 3.7 Nervous system

system is associated with involuntary functions like digestion, breathing,

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etc. These functions are vital for maintaining life processes.
3.3.2 Neuron:
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The cells of the nervous system are termed as neurons. Each

neuron is specialized to generate and conduct neuronal signal or nerve
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impulse. Typically, a neuron consists of a cell body or soma and cell

processes. Cell body or soma
comprised of plasma membrane, Dendrite
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cytoplasm and nucleus. The cell

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processes are hair-like projections

Nucleus
given out from soma. They are of Axon
two types, dendrites and axon.
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Dendrites receive stimulus

while axon transmits the Cell body
command either to some other Fig. 3.8 Neuron
neuron or some effector cells. Like an electric cable, cell processes
usually have insulated coverings, termed as myelin sheath to ensure the
uninterrupted transmission of nerve impulse.

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3.3.3 Reex action:
You know that activities Cell body of
Axon of afferent l
neuron
afferent neuron
ike blinking of eyes, hand with- Cell body of
interneuron
drawl, knee-jerk, sneezing,
hiccup, cough, etc are automatic.

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Cell body of
They are not learnt during the life Efferent neuron t

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Pain receptors
ime. Such automatic, pre- in skin

programmed responses regulated Axon of

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efferent
by CNS are termed as reex neuron

actions. Some of them are directly

regulated by brain while others by Muscles contracts and

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withdrawn parts being
spinal cord. The shortest path of a stimulated
reex action, such as knee-jerk Fig. 3.9 Reex action i
nvolves two neurons, a sensory neuron and a motor neuron. The pathway
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of a reex action is termed as reex arc. In complicated reexes, the reex
arc may involve one or numerous inter-neurons in between sensory and
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motor neuron.
EXPERIMENT: Contraction of shin muscle (leg muscle) of Frog using
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battery.
Observation: Muscles contract when provided signal through neurons by
nervous system. In this experiment, we observe that a shin muscle
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removed from dissected frog is placed in methylene blue solution in a petri

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dish. When articially stimulated by power supplied i.e. 12 volts D.C.

battery, it contracts.
Apparatus: Dissecting box, Frog, dissecting tray, petri-dish, 12 volt D.C.
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charged battery, wires.

Procedure: Dissect out a pithed frog with the help of a teacher to expose
its shin muscles as shown in diagram. Remove the shin muscle with
sciatic nerve carefully and place in stretched condition in petri-dish.
Connect the battery with wires and then touch the shin muscle at its

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beginning and end with wires. Now observe the muscle contraction.
Repeat the experiment for three times.

Electrodes Sciatic nerve

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(a) Dissected Frog
ok (b) Attaching electrodes with sciatic nerve

Fig. 3.10 Hind limb of frog showing sciatic nerve after dissection
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3.4 RECEPTORS OF THE HUMAN BODY
Human body can detect number of stimuli like light, sound, gravity,
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damage to the tissues, etc, through its various receptors. We will discuss
here only photoreceptor and sound receptors, i.e., eyes and ear,
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respectively.
Eye:
It is the organ of sight. It works on the principle of a simple camera
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which collects light reected from any object in front and diverts it to a
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layer of sensory cells or retina. The light captured by retina is converted

into nerve impulses and reported to the brain. Each eye lies in a bony
socket for protection. A tough outer coat, sclera (white part of eye) covers
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each eye. In front, the sclera becomes transparent termed as cornea.

Behind it, lies a small chamber, aqueous humor lled with watery uid.
At its back lies coloured part or iris with a central hole, called pupil. The
pupil appears blackish. Immediately behind the iris is a crystalline convex
lens suspended by a ring of circular muscles known as ciliary body. The

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contraction of ciliary muscles causes changes in the shape of the lens to
adjust focus. Behind the lens, there is a main cavity of eye ball lled with a
clear gel, vitreous humor. The innermost layer of eye is retina on which
the image is formed by cornea and lens. It has sensory cells, rods and
cones which upon stimulation convert light signals into nerve impulses

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and report them to the brain.

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Retina

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Diameter of the pupil in
Ciliary body bright and dim light.
Angle Pupil
Iris Iris Pupil
Aqueous

Iris
Lens
Cornea
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Optic nerve
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Sclera
The iris relaxes The iris contracts
in bright light. in dim light.
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Optic disc

Fig. 3.11 Human eye

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Pupil reex:
The pupil adjusts itself depending upon the intensity of light. In
case of bright light, it protects the retina by constricting itself so less
h

amount of light falls on retina. Vice versa, in dim light condition, the pupil
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dilates to allow more light to fall on retina.

Accommodation:
It is an automatic process of altering focus to get sharper image of
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the near objects. To do this, the ciliary muscles contract allowing the
elastic lens to become thicker and more convex. With age, the lens loses its
elasticity and as a result, accommodation becomes increasingly difcult.
Role of vitamin A with vision:
Vitamin A or retinal is required for proper vision and needed for

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sensory cells of retina. It also helps the cornea to be well lubricated.
Deciency of vitamin A could lead to corneal ulcers and blindness.

Spherical lens
Retina

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Near

Contracted ciliary muscle

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Flattened lens Retina

Far
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Relaxed ciliary muscle
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Fig. 3.12 Mechanism of accommodation

Short-sightedness and long-sightedness:

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Short-sightedness (myopia) refers to the difculty in focusing

distant object while the near objects are focused normally. On the other
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hand long- sightedness (Hyperopia) is the difculty in focusing closer

objects while distant vision is clear. Both can be diagnosed and corrected
by using appropriate glasses or contact lenses.
h

Concave
Near lens
nd

sighted

Retina
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Retina
Convex
Far lens
sighted

Retina
Retina

Fig. 3.13 Short sightness and long sightness

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Colour blindness:
It's a deciency of vision in which one
cannot distinguish certain colours such as
blue and yellow or red and green. It is due to
the defect in cones of retina. Though, the

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vision may be normal in a colour blind

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person, yet the most common problem is Fig. 3.14 Colour blindness
driving because of their inability to distinguish red and green trafc lights.

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Contribution of Ibn-al-Haitham and Ali-Ibn-Isa about the strucuture
of eye and treatment of ophthalmic diseases:

Ibn-al-Haitham:
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He was a great Muslim mathematician,
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philosopher, astronomer and physicist of 11 th
century. He was considered as “father of modern
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optics” due to his great contribution in principles of

optics and visual perception. He was the rst person
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to consider vision as a result of bouncing back of light

from an object and then enters our eyes. His most
Fig. 3.15
important book on optics was “Kitab-ul-manazir”. Ibn-al-Haitham
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Ali Ibn-Isa:
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He was one of the most important Muslim ophthalmologists of

medieval times. In his famous book “Memorandum of the oculists” on
ophthalmology, he described more than hundred different eye diseases
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and their treatment.

Ear:
Ear is an organ of hearing and balance. It consists of three parts: 1)
outer ear, 2) middle ear and 3) inner ear. The outer ear consists of pinna,
ear canal and tympanic membrane or ear drum. The pinna composed of
folds of skin and cartilage. The pinna leads into the ear canal which is

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closed at the inner end by tympanic membrane. Ear canal has hair and
produces wax to trap dust and small foreign bodies. The outer ear collects
and transmits sound waves.
Malleus Incus Organs
(Hammer) (Anvil) of Balance
Outer ear

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Stapes
(Stirrup)

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Nerves to the central
auditory system and
brain
Ear canal Inner ear

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(Cochlea)

Eustachian tube
Pinna Tympanum
(Eardrum)

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Middle ear
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Fig. 3.16 Human ear

The middle ear consists of a small cavity containing three small

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moveable bones (malleus, incus and stapes). The middle ear is connected
to inner nasal cavity through a small tube, the Eustachian tube. The
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middle ear receives sound waves from air outside and transmits it into the
uid in the inner ear.
The inner ear consists of a front membranous cochlea and a rear, three
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semicircular canals deep inside the skull bones. The cochlea is

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associated with hearing while semicircular canals are associated with

balance. Both cochlea and semicircular canals are uid lled and contain
sensory hair cells. These cells transform sound waves into nerve impulse.
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Role of ear in balance:

Semi circular canals are sensitive to gravity, position and
movements of head. Any of such changes are detected and reported to the
brain through nerve bers. The three semicircular canals are inter
connected and lie right angle to each other. They are connected to a

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swollen part, the vestibule. Semicircular canals and vestibule are
involved in maintaining balance of the body in relation to gravity.
Anterior
Canal
Lateral
Canal

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Posterior
Canal Utricle
Cochlea

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Saccule

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Cupula
Ampullae

Fig. 3.17 Inner ear

Light and Sound in a

thunderstorm:
ok
bo
In a thunderstorm, the
lighting and its acoustic
effect on ground appear
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with interval. Since the

light travels much faster
than sound, the lighting
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appears rst and the

sound of thunder is
heard after a short while.
h

Fig. 3.18 Thunderstrome

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3.5 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:

It is an important means of chemical coordination. In animals, it is a
system of ductless glands which secrete hormones directly into the blood.
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It carries hormones to their target tissues or organs. The hormones

usually required in small quantity. They act like chemical signals or
chemical messengers for target organs either stimulating or inhibiting
their function.

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 Pituitary gland Hypothalamus

Thyroid gland
Thyroid gland
Thymus
Thymus
Adrenal glands

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Adrenal glands
Pancreas

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Pancreas
Ovaries
Testies

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Fig. 3.19 Endocrine system

Following are important endocrine glands in human body, Pituitary

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gland, Thyroid gland, Pancreas, Adrenal gland and Gonads. They are
located in different locations in our body.
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1) Pituitary gland:
It is located in brain and considered to be very important. It secretes
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number of hormones which inuence upon other endocrine glands also

besides other organs. Pituitary gland consists of two lobes in human, an
anterior lobe or anterior pituitary gland and a posterior lobe or posterior
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pituitary gland.
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Anterior pituitary gland:

It has number of hormone secreting cells. Its important hormones
and their effect with target organs are summarized in the table:
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Hormones Target organ Important effects

Follicle
Gonads Stimulate gonads to
Stimulating
( Testes and ovaries) develop gametes
Hormone (FSH)

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 Luteinizing Development and
Gonads
Hormone (LH) release of gametes.

Thyroid
Stimulate thyroid

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Stimulating Thyroid gland
gland
Hormone (TSH)

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Growth in children and
Somatotropin Bones, Cartilages, normal body structure

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(Growth Hormone=GH) muscles, etc and metabolism in
adults

Adenocorticotropin Stimulates adrenal

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Adrenal cortex
Hormone (ACTH) cortex

Melanocyte
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Stimulates pigmentation
Stimulating Skin
(melanin) in skin
Hormone (MSH)
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Some important hormones of Anterior Pituitary gland, their target organs and
important effects
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Posterior Pituitary gland:

It is actually stores and releases Supraoptic Paraventricular so
nucleus nucleus
me hormones of hypothalamus. Few Hypothalamus
ne
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urons of hypothalamus store and secrete th

Optic
nd

eir hormones from posterior pituitary chiasm g l

and. Examples of such hormones are Oxytocin
Vasopressin

antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and ox

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ytocin. ADH maintains the blood pr

essure, blood volume and tissue water. Posterior O
pituitary
xytocin stimulates greater contraction of Anterior s
pituitary
mooth muscles as well as social be
Oxytocin Vasopressin
havior.
Fig. 12.20 Posterior Pituitary gland

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Thyroid Gland:
It's a buttery shaped gland located on trachea in the base of neck.
It secretes thyroxine and calcitonin. Thyroxine has iodine as its
important constituent. It regulates the rate of the metabolic activities of
cells. It regulates the physical growth and mental development in

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children. In case of its deciency, physical and mental retardation occur

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in children. If the intake of iodine in diet is low in adult, the thyroid
gradually enlarges in size. This abnormal condtion is termed as “goiter”.

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Calcitonin released in response to high level of calcium in blood lowers the
blood calcium.

Larynx

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Cartilage
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Thyroid
gland
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Traches
(windpipe)
h

Goiter
nd
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Thyroid Enlarged
gland thyroid
gland

Fig. 3.21 Thyroid gland

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Pancreas:
Pancreas is about 6 inches long, leaf-like in structure located in the
abdominal cavity in between stomach and small intestine. It is both
exocrine as well as endocrine gland in nature. The endocrine part consists
of patches of cells called “Islets of Langerhan's”. It is involved in regulating

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glucose metabolism. In response to high level of glucose, it secretes

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Insulin which helps in decreasing the blood glucose levels. On the other
hand, low level of blood glucose, it secretes glucagon which increases the

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glucose level up to normal. The regulation of blood glucose through
insulin and glucagon is a type of negative feed-back in which opposite
effect is observed in relation to stimulus.

Pancreas
Splenic artery

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Pancreatic islet
Spleen
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Bile duct
(from gall bladder)
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Common bile duct

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Pancreatic islet

Duodenum of
small intestine
Alpha cells
h

Pancreatic duct Beta cells

Acinar cells secrete
digestive enzymes Exocrine
nd

acinus

Fig. 12.22 Pancreas

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Diabetes mellitus:
It's a disorder in which pancreas produces insufcient or no
insulin. As a result, the level of glucose in blood becomes very high. The
excess amount of glucose is excreted in urine so the frequency of passing
urine increases many times. Moreover, the patient feels very thirsty and
hungry. In the absence of using or storing glucose by the cells, the patient
losses weight and get tired.

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 Dietary Management of Diabetes
Ÿ Dietary Management and appropriate
amount of physical activity play important
roles in diabetic control.
WAYS TO MANAGE
Ÿ Balanced diet with a variety of foods.
DIABETES MELLITUS
Ÿ “3 Low, 1 High” principle, i.e low fat, low

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Ÿ Balanced Diet
sodium (or salt), low sugars and high bre.
Ÿ Exercise

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Ÿ Reduce intake of saturated fat, trans fat and
Ÿ Medication
sodium can lower the risk of developing heart
Ÿ Blood Glucose Monitoring
diseases and hypertension.

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Ÿ Controlling intake of energy for the purpose of
weight reduction or maintenance.

Fig. 3.23 Dietary management of diabetes

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In case of low blood insulin, it can be administered through injecting
insulin derived from animals. Some patients may show allergic reactions
to this animal-insulin. It has been overcome by using pure human insulin
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made by genetically altered bacteria.
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Kiwi Avocado

Cinnamon
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FOODS FOR
h

Guava CONTROLLING
DIABETES
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Dark leafy vegetables

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Whole grains
Berries

Apples

Fig. 3.24 Food for controlling diabetes

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 2-3 hours
Mg/DL Fasting After Eating
After Eating

Normal 80-100 170-200 120-140

Impaired Glucose 101-125 190-230 140-160

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Diabetic 126+ 220-300 200+

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Fig. 12.25 Blood glucose chart

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ACTIVITY
Write a paper on the
changes in body
while performing an
exercise like running
ok
bo
a 100 meter sprint
race.
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Te

Adrenal gland:
Adrenal gland is located on the top of each kidney. It is triangular
shape and consists of two glands; the outer part is called Adrenal Cortex
h

while the inner one is Adrenal Medulla. Adrenal Cortex secretes number
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of steroid (lipid) hormones necessary for regulation of body metabolism,

maintenance of water and salts. Cortisol is one of the important
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hormones secreted by adrenal cortex in response to illness or

inammation of any tissue. It stimulates glucose production. Adrenal
medulla responds to emergency conditions to produce so called “ght or
ight response”. It secretes adrenaline or emergency hormone resulting
in an increase in blood glucose level by breaking down of glycogen. As a
result, the body responds to the emergency situation quickly. It dilates the

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blood vessels of muscles, heart and brain and constricts those of kidneys
and skin so that more blood is supplied to the muscles, heart and brain.

Adrenal gland regions

Adrenal cortex
Adrenal glands

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Adrenal Medulla

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Adrenal cortex zones
Zona reticularis
Zona fascuculata

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Zona glomerulosa

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Gonads: Fig. 3.26 Adrenal glands

Gonads are the reproductive organs, viz., testes in male while

ovaries in female. They are involved in gametes formation and hormones
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secretion.
Testis:
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Each testis is oval shaped structure located in a pouch of skin,

scrotum. It secretes hormone known as testosterone, a type of androgen
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hormone. Testosterone is responsible for the development of secondary

characteristics in boys like appearance of moustache and beard,
deepening of voice, etc.
h

Ovaries:
nd

Each ovary is about the size of a grape located in the lower

abdominal cavity on either side of uterus. Ovary secretes estrogen and
progesterone hormones. Estrogen is responsible for the development of
Si

secondary characteristics in girls like development of breasts, sharpening

of voice, etc. Progesterone maintains and prepares uterus for pregnancy.
Feed back control mechanism of hormonal secretion:
Hormone secretion is regulated through feed-back control so that
they are secreted whenever required. There are two types of feed-back
systems working in the body, negative and positive feed-back controls.

60
Negative feed-back control:
It refers to the opposite effect in relation to the stimulus. For
example, if there is an increase in blood glucose level (effect), the pancreas
would secrete insulin (response) which will bring down the blood glucose
to its set point.

d
Positive feed back control:

ar
It refers to enhancement of the effect in relation to stimulus. For
example, when an infant sucks the nipple of his mother's breast, she

Bo
secretes hormone to secrete milk. Further continuous sucking increases
the hormonal secretion several folds.
3.6 DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:

ok
Like any other system of the body, nervous system could suffer from
disorders. Depending upon the nature of disorders, they could be of two
common types: Vascular (e.g. paralysis) and Functional (e.g., epilepsy).
bo
Paralysis:
It is characterized by partial or complete loss of controlled
xt

movement caused by the inability to contract one or more muscles. It may

be accompanied by loss of sensation. The most common cause is either
Te

bleeding (hemorrhage) or blood clot in the specic part of brain. However,

it could be a result of injury to brain, spinal cord or nerves. It can be
treated if diagnosed the exact cause. Physiotherapy of the affected
h

muscles is required otherwise muscles may degenerate.

nd

Epilepsy:
It is a brain disorder in which there is temporary alteration in one or
more function or recurrent seizures. It is due to the abnormal electrical
Si

activity in brain. Stimulus like sudden ash light on eyes is also

associated cause of the epilepsy. As a result, the victim may become
unconscious with stiffness of the body and then twitches or jerks
uncontrollably. The frequency of seizures can be reduced by using proper
medication.

61
 SUMMARY
· The changes or stimuli are detected by special cells or organs
termed as RECEPTORS.

d
· The activity or response performed after analyzing stimulus is
exhibited by organs like muscles, glands which are termed as

ar
effectors.
· There are two types of coordination:

Bo
1) Chemical Coordination, 2) Nervous Coordination
· The neurons upon stimulation generate electrochemical signal.
· Lower organisms and plants have chemical coordination through
signaling molecules.
·

·
nervous system”
ok
Human nervous system like other vertebrates is “centralized-type

Brain is the major command and control center of our body.

bo
· Human brain consists of following important parts: Cerebrum,
cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus and medulla oblongata.
· Spinal cord is a buttery-shaped, thick, whitish, long tube like
xt

structure which arises from medulla oblongata and extends down

through the vertebral column.
Te

· Peripheral Nervous System consists of cables or Nerves which arise

from the central nervous system and connect it to different organs
of the body.
· The cells of the nervous system are termed as neurons.
h

· Each neuron is specialized to generate and conduct neuronal signal

or nerve impulse.
nd

· The pathway of a reex action is termed as reex arc.

· Human body can detect number of stimuli like light, sound, gravity,
damage to the tissues, etc, through its various receptors.
Si

· Accommodation is an automatic process of altering focus to get

sharper image of the near objects.
· Vitamin A or retinal is required for proper vision.
· Short-sightedness (myopia) refers to the difculty in focusing
distant object while the near objects are focused normally. On the
other hand long- sightedness (Hyperopia) is the difculty in
focusing closer objects.

62
· Colour blindness is a deciency of vision in which one cannot
distinguish certain colors such as blue and yellow or red and green.
· Ear is an organ of hearing and balance.
· Endocrine system consists of ductless glands which secrete
hormones directly into the blood.

d
· Pituitary gland located in brain secretes number of hormones
which inuence upon other endocrine glands also besides other

ar
organs.
· Thyroid gland, a buttery shaped gland located on trachea in the

Bo
base of neck secretes thyroxine and calcitonin.
· Pancreas consists of patches of cells called “Islet's of Langerhans”
which are involved in regulating glucose metabolism through their
hormones insulin and glucagon.
· Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which pancreas produces

·
insufcient or no insulin.
ok
Testes secrete testosterone which is responsible for the
development of secondary characteristics in boys.
bo
· Estrogen is responsible for the development of secondary
characteristics in girls, etc. Progesterone maintains and prepares
uterus for pregnancy.
xt

· Hormone secretion is regulated through feed-back control so that

they are secreted whenever required.
Te

· Paralysis is partial or complete loss of controlled movement caused

by the inability to contract one or more muscles.
· Epilepsy is a brain disorder in which there is temporary alteration
in one or more function or recurrent seizures.
h
nd
Si

63
 EXERCISE
A. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Choose the correct answer:
i) The activity in relation to changes in environment is:

d
(a) Stimulus (b) Response

ar
(c) Both a & b (d) None of these
ii) Stimulus is detected by:
(a) Receptor (b) Effector

Bo
(c) Nerve (d) All of these
iii) The type of coordination through electrochemical signals is:
(a) Nervous (b) Chemical
(c) Mechanical (d) All of these

ok
iv) The chemicals released from one cell and carried to signal some
distant cell through blood are:
(a) Neurotransmitters (b) Enzymes
bo
© Hormones (d) all of these
v) The type of coordination exhibited by Plants:
(a) Nervous coordination (b) Chemical coordination
(c) Mechanical coordination (d) Both a & b
xt

vi) The part of brain involved in reasoning is:

(a) Fore brain (b) Cerebrum
Te

(c) Cortex (d) Frontal lobe

vii) The part of brain involved in balance and precision in movements is:
(a) Cerebrum (b) Cerebellum
(c) Thalamus (d) Medulla oblongata
h

viii) Vital functions for survival of animals are regulated by:

(a) CNS (b) PNS
nd

(c) somatic sub-division (d) Autonomic sub-division

ix) The shortest path of reex action consists of:
(a) 1 neuron (b) 2 neurons
Si

(c) 3 neurons (d) many neurons

x) The type of lens in our eye is:
(a) Convex (b) concave
(c) Both a & b (d) None of these
xi) The automatic process of altering focus to get sharper image of near
object is:
(a) Vision (b) Accommodation
(c) Focus (d) All of these

64
xii) The vitamin necessary for proper vision is:
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B
(c) Vitamin C (d) Vitamin D
xiii) A colour blind person cannot see:
(a) Anything (b) Red
(c) White (d) Black

d
xiv) The book “Kitab-ul-manazir” was written by:
(a) Jabir bin Hayan (b) Ibn-al-Haitham

ar
(c) Ali Ibn-Isa (d) Bu-Ali Sina
xv) Sensory hair-cells are present in:

Bo
(a) Retina (b) Cochlea
(c) Skin (d) Nose
xvi) The gonads are the target organ for:
(a) FSH (b) LH
(c) Both a & b (d) None of these

B. SHORT QUESTIONS: ok
bo
i) What do you mean by feedback system?
ii) Why the nervous coordination is faster than chemical
coordination?
iii) Which of the two coordination types is better and why?
xt

iv) How reex action works by a reex-arc?

v) Why driving license is not issued to a color blind person?
Te

vi) Why thyroid gland swell up and give the name of the disease?
vii) What is the role of Islet's of Langerhans cells?
viii) What is “emergency hormone” and why it is named so?
ix) What are the possible reasons of paralysis?
h

x) What is Epilepsy?
xi) Differentiate between Chemical and Nervous Coordination.
nd

C. EXTENSIVE RESPONSE QUESTIONS:

i) Discuss the detailed structure of human brain?
Si

ii) Write a note on human eye or ear.

iii) Why does the intelligence level of persons differ from each other,
even though the components of brain are same?
iv) What is endocrine system? Discuss the gland involved in regulation
of blood glucose and how?
v) What is diabetes mellitus? Explain some ways of its management.

65
 Chapter SUPPORT AND
4 MOVEMENT
Major Concept

d
In this Unit you will learn:

ar
Ø Introduction
Ø Concept of Movement
Ø Concept of Support and its Requirement

Bo
Ø Types of Skeletons
Ø Human Skeleton (Axial Skeleton and Appendicular Skeleton)
Ø Ball-n- Socket and Hinge Joints
Ø Action of Antagonistic Muscles at a Hinge (Elbow) Joint

ok
Ø Disorders of Skeletal System (Arthritis and Osteoporosis)
bo
xt
Te
h
nd
Si

66
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The cells of an organism have a living material, protoplasm,which is
sensitive, due to its sensitive nature it possess special property called
irritability. It means it irritates when there is a change in its environment.
Due to this irritability the living organism take some action to reduce its
irritation these actions called movement. The change in environment

d
takes place due to some factors these factors are called stimulus (stimuli:

ar
p). so we can say that movement is a response shown by living organisms
toward stimuli. All living organism have property of locomotion due to
nutrients, shelter and reproduction mainly plants are sessile while

Bo
animals are usually motile therefore they respond to stimuli in different
ways. Plant responds to stimuli by adjusting the rate of growth and
osmotic condition. While respond to these stimuli by changing their
position either towards or away from stimuli.

ok
The movement can also occur at cellular level, like cyclosis in cell or
the movement of chromosomes towards their respective poles during cell
division etc.
bo
On the basis of stimuli there are two types of movement
Autonomic or spontaneous Paratonic or induced
movement movement
xt

It is due to internal stimuli It is due to external stimuli

i.e. cramps due to involuntarily i.e. reex action.
Te

release of Ca++ ions.

Types of movement on the basis of responses.

h

Locomotory
Movement or Taxis Trophic Movement
nd

Nastic Movement
or Tactic Movement
· Types of movement · T y p e o f g r o w t h · Type of movement
Si

where organism movement, organism where change in

change its place move toward or away osmotic water occur
either towards or by growing their due to stimuli.
away from stimulus organs.
· Usually found in
plants, fungi or in
bacterial colony.

67
· Usually found in · G r o w t h o f r o o t · Purely found in
animals, bacteria towards water and plants like touch
and protozoa. mineral or growth me not plant,
of stem towards which close leave
light. when touch.

d
Difference between movement and locomotion

ar
It is a misconception that locomotion and movement are the
same phenomena. Movement is a broad term where organism

Bo
response to stimuli in any way whereas locomotion is one of the type
of movement where organism change its place takes place either
towards stimuli or away from stimuli. If an organism show response
towards stimuli but does not change its place it may be any type of
movement but not locomotion.
4.2 SKELETON AND ITS TYPES
ok
For locomotion animal body want support to change its place
bo
in a balanced and well-coordinated manner. For support animal
have skeletal system. Skeleton are the frame work which gives shape
to any structure. The skeleton performs three main functions
xt

· Provide shape to organs

· Provide support to organs during movement
Te

· Provide protection to soft, vital organs.

Types of skeleton
There are three main types of skeletons.
h

Hydrostatic Skeleton
Hydro= water, Exoskeleton Endoskeleton
nd

static = to stay
· Skeleton made up of · S k e l e t o n d e p o s i t · Skeleton develop
Si

uid. outside the body or inside the body.

organ.
· Found in soft bodied · Found in Arthropod, · F o u n d i n h i g h
animal. Mollusca and higher animals.
animals.
· S i m p l e s t t y p e o f · It provide support · P r o v i d e s h a p e ,
skeleton. and protection. support and
protection.

68
· Help in extension · N o n l i v i n g i n · Living in nature
or withdrawl of n a t u r e , i n made up of cells.
body or its organs. arthropods made · T w o t y p e s o f
· In jelly sh, help in up of chitin, in endoskeleton
propulsion by Mollusca made up cartilage made up

d
water. of CaCo3. of chondreocyte
· I n e a r t h w o r m , · In high animals bones made up of

ar
coelomic uid m a d e u p o f osteocytes.
w o r k a s proteins.

Bo
hydrostatic
skeleton.

ok
bo
Human Skeleton
xt

The skeletal system of human is basically made up of two types of

skeletons
Te

(i) Cartilage
(ii) Bones
Both are rigid, cellular structure and type of endoskeleton.
h

Cartilage Bones
nd

· Type of skeleton which is · Type of skeleton which is harder

exible
Si

· It is made up of cells called · It is made up of cell called

chondrocytes embedded in a osteocytes embedded in a
matrix of protein called matrix of protein called
collagen. collagen.
· It is much softer than bones as · I t i s h a r d e r d u e t o t h e
well as exible. deposition of calcium
phosphate, process is called
calcication.

69
· Calcication does not takes · Calcication takes place.
place.
· It covers ends of the bones and · It support the organ consists of
joints. an outer shell of compact bone.
· No blood vessel penetrate into · Blood vessels can penetrate into

d
cartilage. bone especially in spongy
bones.

ar
Bo
ok
bo
xt
Te
h
nd
Si

Fig. 4.1 Human Skeleton

70
4.2.1 Skeleton Provide Support and Movement

Skeleton provides support to the

body, especially limbs. i.e. Hind Limbs
and pelvic girdle provide support to the
human body to be a bipedal animal,

d
with these limbs the complete vertebrae
of vertebral column provide support to

ar
stand straight. Cartilage of external
pinna and nose support the organs to

Bo
make their proper shape. Cartilages
also support larynx, trachea and
bronchi of respiratory system. It forms
tough pads which acts as shock
absorbers found in knee joints and also f
orm intervertebral discs between
vertebrae of backbone.
ok
bo
Fig. 4.2 Bone Forming Cells
xt

4.2.2 Skeletal System is a Dynamic System

Te

The dynamic property of skeletal system means that it is made up

of living tissues, it is capable of quick growth. It can adapt to stress and
can repair itself after damage (injury). 5% to 10% of our bones dissolve
away annually and are replaced by a new one this process is called
remodeling while in the growing age our bones enlarge with the growth of
h

the body. The remodeling system allows a skeleton to alter the shape and
nd

size of skeleton in response to demands. e.g the bones carry heavy load or
subjected to extreme stress become thicker to provide more strength and
support. Normal stresses are major factors in maintaining bone strength.
Si

There are three types of cells associated with bones i.e. bones
forming cells (osteoblast), mature bone cell (osteocyte) and bone
dissolving cells (osteoclast).

Bone remodeling is the result of coordinated activity of osteoclast

and osteoblast. This coordination can be seen clearly at the time of repair
of broken bone.

71
4.2.3 Model of Bone Healing Occurs During 6 Weeks.
A bone is broken. Let's see the sequence of events occur during 6
weeks of bone healing.
Medullary
Step 1 Compact cavity
bone
Blood from reptured blood vessels form a large clot

d
around the fracture. Phagocytic cells and

ar
osteoclast in the blood ingest, dissolved the
Cellular debris and bone fragments. Hematoma

Bo
*Bones are normally covered with a thin
layer of connective tissues
i.e. periosteum, rich in capillaries,
osteoblast and osteoblast forming cells.
Step 2
External
A fracture ruptures the periosteum and stimulates

ok
callus
the production and release of numerous Internal
callus
osteoblasts, Which secrete a porous mass of bone
and cartilage called callus, around break. Callus
bo
replaces the original blood clot and holds the end
of the bones together, the remodeling process re- New
blood vessels
form the original shape of the bone.
xt

Spongy
bone
Te

Step 3

Osteoclast, osteoblast and capillaries invade the

callus. Blood nourished the cells, osteoclast
h

breakdown the cartilage while osteoblast replace it

with bone. Bony callus
nd

of
spongy bone
Si

Step 4

The healing of bone completed

Healed
fracture

72
4.3 Human Skeleton
In humans 206 bones are present which can be categorized into two
groups.
(a) The axial skeleton
(b) The appendicular skeleton

d
The axial skeleton forms the main axis of the human body,
includes the bone of the head (skull 22 bones ), vertebral column (26

ar
vertebrae) and rib cage (ribs 12 pairs and sternum 1 bone).
The appendicular Skeleton forms the appendages (Limbs) and

Bo
their attachment to the axial skeleton includes pectoral (shoulder) and
pelvis (hip) girdles.
Pectoral girdle is consist of two bones i.e. scapula and clavicle. The
forelimb consists of humerus, radius and ulna, carpal (8), metacarpal (5),

ok
and phalanges (14).
Pelvic girdle consist of three bones ileum, ischium and pubis.
Hind limb consists of femur, patella, tibia, bula, tarsals (7), metatarsals
(5) and phalanges (14).
bo
4.4 JOINTS
4.4
The junction of two bones is called a joint. There are two types of
xt

joints. Immovable or xed joint. Joint where bones are xed like puzzle
pieces and do not allow to move, like 8 bones of skull or 3 bones of pelvic
Te

girdles.
h
nd

Brain case
Si

Fig. 4.3
Immovable joints Skull Knee as Hinge Joint Hip Joint as Ball & Socket Joint

Moveable joints where bones are allowed to move freely or partially.

So there are two types of moveable joints i.e freely moveable and partially
moveable.

73
 Moveable Joints

Freely moveable joints Partially moveable joints

e.g sternum and ribs

d
Hinge joint Pivot joint Sliding joint

ar
e.g elbow, knee, e.g e.g
phalanges etc elbow joint wrist joint

Bo
Ball and socket Gliding joint
joint e.g Hip joint, e.g
shoulder joint vertebrae

ok
bo
xt

Fig. 4.4
Elbow as pivot joint Wrist as Sliding Join Vertebral disc as Sternum & ribs as
Te

gliding joint partially movable joint

Hinge Joints (e.g knee joint) allow movement in one plane only
whereas ball and socket (shoulder joint) allow movement in many plans
such as forward, backward and sideways. Both hinge joints and ball
h

socket joints have the same basic structure.

nd

4.4.1 Ligament and Tendon: Their Role in Movement

The band of brous connective tissues by which bones are joined to
one another at joints called ligament. It works as strong rmly attached
Si

ropes, it stabilizes the joint o

r hold the ends of two bones Ligament t
ogether. The strong c
onnective tissue in the li
gaments protects these s
tructures and prevents them fr
om bending twisting or t
earing.
Fig. 4.5 Ligaments of knee joint

74
 Skeletal muscles are attached to
bones on either side of the joint by
bands of tough, brous connective
tissues called tendons. They are
tougher and less elastic than ligaments.
Tendon transfers the mechanical force

d
of muscle contraction to the bones. It is
strongly connected to muscles ber at

ar
one end and to components of the
bones at its other end. They are very Fig. 4.6

Bo
strong, highly tensile. Bone tendon of skeletal muscles
4.4.2 Location and Movement of Hinge Joint
Hinge joints move back and forth like the hinge on a door and allow
movements in one plane only. The knee and elbow are hinge joints.
4.4.3 Location and Movement of Ball and Socket Joints

ok
This joint allows movement in all directions. The ball of humerus
and femur t into the socket of pectoral and pelvic girdle respectively. The
hip and shoulder joints are ball and socket joints.
bo
xt
Te

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7 Movement of Ball and socket of (a)Hip joint (b) Shoulder Joint
h

4.5
4.5 MUSCLES
nd

Movements of arms and legs are brought about by the contraction

of muscles attached to bones. Muscles are connective tissues consist of
brous cells. These tissues have a tendency to contract and relax. The
vertebrate possess three kind of muscles.
Si

i. Skeletal muscles ii. Cardiac muscles iii. Smooth muscles

i. Skeletal muscles
The muscles which are attached to the skeleton called skeletal
muscles. They are associated with the movement of bones. These muscles
are voluntary in nature. They are also called striped or stride muscles
because they have alternate thick and thin means dark and light bands.

75
ii. Cardiac muscles
These are the muscles which build the walls of heart. They are also
striated muscles but unlike skeletal muscles they are branched in nature
and arranging mash work. They are involuntary in nature, work under the
control of SAN (Sino auricular node).
iii. Smooth muscles

d
Smooth muscles are the earliest form of muscles from evolutionary

ar
point of view. They are made up of long and spindle shaped cells, each cell
contain single nucleus. They have no striations or stripes. They are

Bo
involuntary in nature. These muscles are found in blood vessels, digestive
tract and many other internal organs.

ok
bo
xt
Te
h

Fig. 4.8 Muscles

nd

Support and locomotion is mainly due to skeletal system and

skeletal muscles system. The contraction and relaxation of skeletal
muscles allows the bones to move. The muscles which are attached with
bones are called skeletal muscles. These muscles only exert a pulling
Si

force. When skeletal muscles relax, they are stretched by the contraction
of another muscles. It shows that muscles are always found in pairs. The
one muscle of this pair when contracted other muscles will relax. This type
of working of two muscles against each other called antagonism. The pair
of skeletal muscles which work against each other called an antagonistic
pair. The action of biceps and triceps muscles of arm is a good example of
an antagonistic pair.

76
 The bicep muscle is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper
arm between the shoulder and elbow. It has two heads or origin. The tricep
is also a large muscle on the back of arm. It is three headed or origin.

d
ar
Bo
ok
Fig. 4.9 Bicep and Tricep muscle work as Antagonistic muscles of arm
bo
When the biceps muscle contracts it pulls upon the radius bone of
lower arm, which bend the arm at elbow, this bending process is called
exon. On the other side when triceps muscle contracts it pull on the ulna
xt

which straightens or extends the arm. The straighten process is called

extension. It shows that when the biceps contracts the triceps relaxes
Te

and vice versa. It means that in arm the biceps is the exor muscle and
tricep is the extensor muscle.
4.6 DISORDER OF SKELETON SYSTEM
4.6.1 Effect of Calcium Deciency on Bone
h

The hardening of bones occurs due to deposition of calcium

phosphate, this process is called calcication. If Ca++ deciency occurs in
nd

body or blood, ultimately it occurs in bones. This deciency of Ca++ in bone

is called hypocalcemia known as calcium deciency disease. A long term
calcium deciency can lead to dental weakness, osteoporosis, in
Si

childhood rickets.
Osteoporosis is a disorder related to the aging process. In this
condition the bones become porous or more spongy, thinner and weaker
so that they become fragile, in this condition a slight injury break the
bone. Osteoporosis is more common in female than male.
Rickets
Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children, usually
because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deciency. Vitamin D

77
plays vital role in the absorption of Ca++, deciency of vitamin D leads to
deciency of Ca++ in bone.
Rickets Normal Bones Rickets

d
ar
Bo
ok
bo
Fig. 4.10 Calcium deciency develop rickets in children
xt

4.6.2 Arthritis
It is the painful condition of joints due to swelling and tenderness of
Te

joint. The main symptom of arthritis are

· Joint pain
· Tenderness and stiffness
· Inammation in and around the joint
h

· Restricted movement of joint

nd

· Warm red skin over the affected joint

· Trouble dressing, combing, gripping, bending over squatty or
climbing stair.
Si

Fig. 4.11 Arthritis in knee as inammation of joint

78
Common types of Arthritis
It is a “wear and tear”,
Osteoarthritis causes; overuse of joints, age, joint injury, obesity.
Joints that bear weight, like knees, hips, feet and spine.

d
It is due to immune system i.e. autoimmune
Rheumatoid
disorder. In this disorder immune system attacks on
Arthritis

ar
joints.

Bo
Psoriatic In this disorder joints and skin affects.
Arthritis

Causes of Arthritis

· Injury
· Abnormal metabolism ok
The following factors are the causes of arthritis.
bo
· Infection
· Auto immune system
· Genetic makeup
xt

· Reduction in the normal amount of cartilage or synovial uid

Role of obesity in arthritis
Te

Obesity puts stress on joints, especially on knee, causing pain and

develop worse condition in arthritis damage. The rheumatologist states
that just 10 pound overweight increases force of 20 to 40 pound on knees
at each step during walk.
The excessive fats tissues
h

release high levels of cytokines

nd

proteins that can cause

inammation throughout body.
The same protein produced by
joints during rheumatoid
Si

arthritis. It makes existing joint

inammation more worse.

Fig. 4.12
Obesity as one of the cause of arthritis

79
 SUMMARY
· Movement is the action taken by living organism to reduce its
irritation.
· Locomotory movement require skeletal system, Muscular system

d
· Skeleton can be dened as frame work which gives shape to any

ar
structure.
· Skeleton provides support to the body, especially limbs. i.e. Hind
Limbs and pelvic girdle.

Bo
· Cartilages also support larynx, trachea and bronchi of respiratory
system.
· There are three types of cells associated with bones i.e. bones
forming cells (osteoblast), mature bone cell (osteocyte) and bone
dissolving cells (osteoclast).
·

·
groups.
ok
In humans 206 bones are present which can be categorized into two

The junction of two bones is called a joint.

bo
· There are two types of joints. Immovable or xed joint. Joint where
bones are xed like puzzle pieces.
· Hinge Joints (e.g knee joint) allow movement in one plane only
xt

whereas ball and socket allow movement in many plans.

· The band of brous connective tissues by which bones are joined to
one another at joints called ligament.
Te

· The strong connective tissue in the ligaments protects these

structures and prevents them from bending twisting or tearing.
· Skeletal muscles are attached to bones on either side of the joint by
bands of tough, brous connective tissues called tendons.
h

· This type of working of two muscles against each other called

antagonism. This pair of skeletal muscles which work against each
nd

other called an antagonistic pair.

· This bending process is called exon. Straighten process is called
extension.
Si

· A long term calcium deciency can lead to dental weakness,

osteoporosis, in childhood rickets.
· Osteoporosis is a disorder related to the aging process
· Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children,
usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deciency.
· Arthritis is the painful condition of joints due to swelling and
tenderness of joint.
· Obesity puts stress on joints, especially on knee, causing pain and
develop worse condition in arthritis damage.

80
 EXERCISE

A. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct answer:

d
i) Irritation caused by stimulus is the main cause of
(a) Tropism (b) Movement

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(c) Locomotion (d) Arthritus
ii) The frame work which gives shape to any structure called

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(a) Architecture (b) Bone
(c) Cartilage (d) Skeleton
iii) The cartilage are made up of cells called
(a) Osteoclast (b) Osteocytis
(c) Chondrocytes (d) Chaonocytes

(c) Scapula
ok
iv) The head of femur attached with
(a) Pelvic girdles (b) Pectoral girdle
(d) Acetabulum of pelvic gridles
bo
v) The large muscles of arm is
(a) Bicep (b) Tricep
(c) Tetracep (d) Pentacep
xt

vi) The band of tough, brous, connective tissue which are

attached to bone at joints called
Te

(a) Ligament (b) Tendon

(c) Bicep (d) Tricep
vii) Softening and weakening of bone in children due to deciency
of vitamin D called
h

(a) Osteoporesis (b) Osteoarthritis

nd

(c) Rickets (d) Rheumatic fever

viii) The muscle which is responsible to straighten the limb is
(a) Ligament (b) Skeleton muscle
(c) Flexor (d) Extensor
Si

ix) The pair of muscle where both work in opposite direction

(a) Antagonist (b) Cardiac
(c) Smooth (d) Abductor

81
B. SHORT QUESTIONS:
i) What are the main functions of skeleton?
ii) Distinguish between bone and cartilage.
iii) Locate the cartilages in different organs.
iv) Enlist the name and number of bones present in hind limb.

d
v) Locate the immovable joints in the human body.

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vi) Draw neat and labeled diagram of hinge joint and ball and
socket joint.
vii) What is ricket? Give its causes.

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viii) Distinguish between ligament and tendon.
ix) Locate hinge joint in the body of human
x) What do you mean by bicep and tricep muscles?

C.
i)
ii)
ok
EXTENSIVE RESPONSE QUESTIONS:
Prove that the skeletal system is s dynamic system
Describe the exon and extension in human arm
bo
iii) Explain disorders of bones and their causes.
xt
Te
h
nd
Si

82
 Chapter
REPRODUCTION
5
Major Concept

d
In this Unit you will learn:
Ø Introduction

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Ø Reproduction in Plants
« Asexual Reproduction in Plants

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« Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Ø Asexual Reproduction in Animals
Ø Sexual Reproduction in Rabbit
« Male Reproductive System

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« Female Reproductive System
Ø Population Planning
Ø Sexually Transmitted Diseases (AIDS)
bo
xt
Te
h
nd
Si

83
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The living organism performs so many vital processes. One of the
processes where living organisms produce offspring of their own kind is
called reproduction. Reproduction is the most fundamental function of
living things. It is essential for continuing and survival of the species. An
individual will not die if it does not reproduce but there is a danger of

d
extinction, if does not reproduce regularly. First the species becomes
endanger due to low rate of reproduction and nally vanish if not

ar
reproduce. Many species of plants and animals are in danger of vanishing
because man use them or kill them in such large number which cross the

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limit of its rate of reproduction. Sometimes changes in the habitat of an
organism due to the different activities, organism do not feel comfortable
to reproduce. It means the reproduction also depends on the favorable
environmental conditions also.
5.2 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

(ii)
Asexually
Sexually
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Living organism can produce by two ways
(i)
bo
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
xt

· Type of reproduction which · Types of reproduction which

takes place without fusion of takes place by the fusion of
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male and female gametes(sex male and female gamete (sex

Cells). cells).
· In this type of reproduction only · In this type of reproduction
one parent is involved. usually two parents of opposite
h

sexes are involved.

· The off springs are exactly · The off springs are not exactly
nd

similar to their parent. similar to any one of the parent.

· Organisms are genetically · Organisms are genetically
similar to each other as well as dissimilar to each other as well
Si

to their parent. as to their parent.

· No new combination of genes · Genetic recombination occurs
(genetic recombination) occurs. which causes variation and
leads to evolution.

5.2.1 Asexual Reproduction in Protists, Bacteria and Plants

The bacteria, protists and plants reproduce asexually by a number
of methods, whereas Bacteria only reproduce by asexual reproduction.

84
Some of the asexual methods of reproduction in plants are described
below.
(i) By Fission (Splitting):
The splitting of cell into two or more cells is called Fission. It is the
simplest and the fastest mode of asexual reproduction during which there
is replication of genetic material (Prokaryotes) or division of the nucleus

d
(Eukaryotes) followed by division of cell (parent body) into independent
daughter cells. Each daughter cell receives equal amount of nucleic or

ar
genetic material. Fission is of two types. i.e. binary ssion or multiple
ssion.

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(a) Binary Fission:
Type of ssion where a mother
cell divides into two daughter cells. It
occurs during favorable conditions. It
takes place in bacteria under
favorable conditions of temperature,
nutrition and moisture, single
bacterium divides into two bacteria
ok
bo
within 20 minutes and numerous
bacteria are produced within very Fig. 5.1 Binary Fission
short interval of time.
xt

a) Multiple Fission:
Type of ssion where a mother cell divide into more than two
Te

daughter cells
(ii) Budding:
In this type of asexual reproduction the parent cell forms a small
out growth which is called bud. This bud detach from parent cell or body
and grows into new organism. It takes place in yeast and plants.
h
nd

Chain of
New Buds
Developing Bud
Bud
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Yeast
Cell

Fig. 5.2 Reproduction in yeast by budding

(iii)By Spores
In fungi, algae and plants asexual reproductive structure
sporangium is developed on their body. These sporangia produce
numerous unicellular spores. Spores are very small and light usually they

85
dispersed by wind. Spores have thick, resistant walls which enable them
to survive in unfavorable conditions. When these spores drop on proper
substratum, they develop into new organism in favorable conditions.

Spores
Sporangium

d
ar
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Food Source

Hyphae

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Fig. 5.3 Spore formation

(iv) Vegetative Propagation

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Vegetative means non-reproductive part of plant like, thallus, root,
stem and leaf. If any of this part develop into new plant called vegetative
propagation. These parts sooner or later separated from parent plant.
These specialized vegetative organs are morphologically different in
xt

different cases but usually in all cases they bear one or more bud which
develops into new plants.
Te

Runner (Grass and strawberry) stolen (mint), rhizomes (ginger)

Bulb (onion and garlic), stem tuber (potato), Bulbil (Bryophyllus)
Root tubers (sweet potato), Phylloclades (Opuntia)
The vegetative reproduction in most cases is due to accumulation of
h

large amount of reserve food and consequent growth of the vegetative

parts. Runner Stolon
nd
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Sucker Offset
Fig. 5.4 Vegetative propagation in plants

86
 Vegetative Propagation Articial Propagation

· It is natural development of · It is the method of development

new plant without human of new plant with the help of
efforts. human efforts.

d
· Natural vegetative propagation · Articial propagation can

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usually occurs by root, stem, or occur from cells, tissues,
leaves. cutting of stem etc.
· Stem; Runners grow · The method are

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horizontally above the ground. Tissue culture, Cutting,
· Roots; new plant emerges out Grafting, Layering, Budding
of swollen modied root known · Root may be used for articial
as tuber. propagation
· Leaves; of a few plants
detached from parent plant
and develop into new plant e.g. ok
· Any leave tissue may also use
for articial propagation.
bo
Bryophyllum.

5.2.2 Vegetative Propagation in plants (through stem, suckers and

xt

leaves)
New plants can be produced from vegetative structures such as the
roots, stems, suckers and leaves. The process can be natural or articial.
Te

By Stem:
In many plants, the stem has buds as in onions, daffodils and
strawberries etc. have stems that can start new offspring. These type of
stem that can reproduce recognized as runners, bulbs, rhizome, tubers,
h

and suckers.
nd
Si

Fig. 5.5 Vegetative propagation by stem

87
Leaves:
Some leaves have bud on their
margin e.g. Bryophyllum. These buds
give rise adventitious root when fall on
ground or come in contact with soil. After
some time these parts of leaves develop

d
into an independent plant.

ar
Fig. 5.6 Bryophyllum
Suckers:
Suckers are known as root

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sprouts, basically these are plants stem
that arise from buds on the base of stem
or root of parent plant that use suckers,
are apple, elm and banana tree. Suckers
grow and form a dense compost mats

ok
that is attached to parent plant. Too
many suckers can lead to a small crop.
bo
Fig. 5.7 Sucker
5.5.3 Methods of Articial Vegetative Propagation:
Plants have unique feature that they possess growing or embryonic
xt

centers in the form of bud. Due to these embryonic centers, plants are
capable of farming new plants. The man has exploited it to reproduce
Te

desired type of plants by articial propagation. It takes place by cutting,

grafting and cloning.

Cutting:
Cuttings are the short pieces of
h

stems that have 2 to 3 nodes and buds. It

nd

cuts obliquely below a node from a plant.

The cutting embedded in soil with at least
one node above the soil. The adventitious
roots and shoots grow from buds of the
Si

portion below the soil and above the soil

respectively forming a new plant e.g.
sugar cane, sweet potato and rose.

Fig. 5.8 Cutting of Sugarcane

88
Grafting:

This is a technique where a branch of desired variety of plant is

joined to another plant with well-established root system. The plant from
which the branch is taken is called scion and the plant to which it is joined
is called stock. The two plants involved are normally belongs to different

d
varieties of same species e.g. oranges, lime and mango.

ar
Bo
ok
bo
Fig. 5.9 Grafting of plant
Cloning (Tissue Culture Technology)
xt

It is one of the recent techniques. In this method tissues of selected

plants are cultured using their ability of asexual reproduction in test tube
Te

or dishes. To speed up the growth, hormones are added in the growth

medium. After some time the baby plant is transferred to eld for large
commercial scale production of desired yield.
h

5.2.4 Apomixes (Parthenogenesis) is the type of asexual

reproduction:
nd

Apomixes is the type of seed production without fusion of male and

female gametes. It is the type of Parthenogenesis which is the form of
asexual reproduction. Where an egg develops into a complete individual
Si

without being fertilized. The resulting offspring can be either haploid or

diploid depending on the process and the species. It is a natural form of
asexual reproduction in which embryo develops in the absence of
fertilization. Most commonly found in plants and invertebrates. The
question arises here when gamete is involved so why it is considered as
asexual reproduction? Because this process does not require fusion of
male and female gametes to produce offspring and new genetic
combination does not occur.

89
5.2.5 Sexual Reproduction in owering Plants
The angiosperm is the group of plants which gives rise traditional
ower therefore these plants are called owering plant. In these plants
sexual reproduction takes place through ower. Flower is highly modied
shoot which is responsible for the reproduction by producing seeds within
fruits.

d
Angiospermic ower has two external wheels of leave called calyx
and corolla which consist of sepals and petals, respectively. The

ar
androecium and Gynoecium are two inner wheels of leaves i.e. stamen
and carpels respectively; which are directly responsible for sexual

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reproduction of plants. Stamen produce pollen grains and carpel produce
ovule in ovary.

ok
bo
xt

Fig. 5.10 Parts of a ower

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Structure of Ovule:

Each ovule has main cellular

h

body called nucellus. It is

surrounded by two coats, outer and
nd

inner integuments. A small opening

present at the apex of the integument
is called micropyle. The ovule has
Si

stalk, the funicle with which it is

attached to ovary wall. Chalaza are
tissues between nucellus and funicle.
There is a large oval cell
embedded in the nucellus which form
embryo sac (female gametophyte).
The mature embryo sac consists of 7
cells i.e. one Ovum, two synergids, Fig. 5.11 Structure of ovule

90
three antipodals cells and one secondary nucleus in numbers while a
diploid cell is a fusion nucleus in the center.
Structure of pollen grain:
Pollen grain develops in pollen sac of anther form microspore in the
form of loose, dusty powder. Each pollen grain is 4 celled structure,
bounded by wall which consists of 2 layers, outer, the exine and inner, the

d
intine.
In angiospermic plants the main plant is sporophyte which consists

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of vegetative and oral parts. The vegetative parts are root, stem and
leaves while ower, fruit, seed are oral parts which develop from ower.

Bo
The oral part is reproductive part. After two processes i.e. pollination and
fertilization, it produces seed within fruit. The seeds when disperse
germinate into baby plant called seedling, when matures, it become a new
plant like its parents.
In ower androecium
(male part) is consist of stamen
(microsporophyll) has 2 to 4
pollen sac (microsporangia) in
ok
bo
its anther. These pollen sac are
lled with microspore mother
cell which produce microspore
xt

by meiotic cell division. Each

unicellular microspore divide
Te

its cells by mitosis and produce

2 to 4 cells, in this way
unicellular microspore become
pollen grain (multicellular) but Fig. 5.12 Structure of pollen grain
each of its cell is haploid. When anther burst these pollen grains disperse
h

in nature.
nd

On the other hand each carpel (megasporophyll) has one or more

ovules (megasporangium) in its ovary. Each ovule has single megaspore
mother cell. This megaspore mother cell divided by meiosis to produce 4
haploid megaspores. Only one will survive and develops into embryo sac
Si

(female gametophyte) inside ovule, which consists of 7 cells as discussed

earlier. The pollen grain disperse if dropped at the stigma of carpel the life
cycle remain continues. Now the question arise how pollen grain
transferred to stigma and what is it called.
5.3 POLLINATION
Pollination is the process in which pollen grains are transferred
from anther to stigma of carpel.

91
5.3.1 Types of Pollination
(i) Self pollination
(ii) Cross pollination
(i) Self Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from
anther of stamen to the stigma of same ower or

d
owers on same plant.

ar
Fig. 5.13 Self pollination

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(ii) Cross Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther of one ower to stigma
of other ower belongs to another plant of same species.

ok
Cross pollination is
more common than self-
pollination, the pollen grains
bo
are carried from one ower to
another ower through
following agents.
(i) Wind
xt

(ii) Water
(iii) Insects
Te

(iv) Animals
Fig. 5.14 Cross pollination

When pollen grain drops at stigma, it starts its development into

pollen tube (male gametophyte), which consists of 6 haploid cells, among
h

them two are prothallial cells, two are male gametes, one stalk nucleus
and one tube nucleus. The pollen tube grows from stigma to ovule through
nd

style and transfers two male gametes in ovule through micropyle which
ultimately reach to embryo sac. One sperm nucleus fuses with ovum to
produce diploid (2N) zygote while other gamete fuses with secondary
Si

nucleus to form 3N (Triploid) cell which later develop into endosperm of

seed. This type of fertilization is called double fertilization which is the
characteristic feature of angiospermic plant.
The 2N zygote after successive mitotic divisions develops into an
embryo within the embryo sac, whereas triploid (3N) secondary nucleus
develops into endosperm. The endosperm provides nourishment to the
developing embryo.

92
 During this development the ovule develops into seed the
integument develop into seed coat whereas zygote form small embryo and
cotyledon during this the ovary outside ovule become swollen due to
mitotic cell division and become fruit. The fruit is eaten by animal or
decay, the seeds come out, disperse or dropped in soil. In favorable
conditions, it germinates and grows into new baby plant

d
ar
Bo
ok
bo
xt
Te

Fig. 5.15 Life cycle of ower

Fig. 5.16 Life cycle of ower

Fruit Formation
h

The ovary enlarges to form a

fruit, containing seed or seeds.
nd

The stigma and style disappear.

The stamens and petals are
usually lost after pollination. In
Si

some cases, sepals remain

attached with fruit e.g. brinjal.
The endosperm provides
nourishment to develop embryo.
It also stores energy in grains like
wheat, rice, gram etc. which can
be utilized by us or other animals. Fig. 5.16 Fruit formation

93
Formation of fruit with out fertilization
Fruit and seed formation usually occur after fertilization but some
fruit may formed without fertilization. This mechanism is called
parthenocarpy i.e formation of seedless fruit, like banana.
5.3.2 Adaptation in the structure of wind pollinated and insect
pollinated owers.

d
Some plants spread their pollen grains by wind and H2O while the
other spread by insects and animals. The plants which spread their pollen

ar
grain by wind and H2O have some adaptive characters.
Adaptive characters of wind and water pollinated plants.

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1. The owers of these plants are non- attractive, small in size and do
not bear any odour.
2. They produce pollen grains in high quantity.
3. The pollen grains are very light in weight, some of them bear wings
and some have parachute like structure.

ok
4. They do not produce high quantity of nectar.
Adaptive character in insect pollinated plants.
1. The owers are large in size.
bo
2. They have bright coloured petals or sepals or bracts.
3. The pollen grains have sticky substance or hooks.
4. They produce special odour
xt

5. They produce high quantity of nectar.

5.3.3 Seed and its structure
Te

Seed may be dened as ripened ovule or it is fertilized, developed

ovule which contains dormant embryo.
The seed consists of following parts:
1. Seed Coat
2. Embryo
h

3. Cotyledon
nd

4. Sometime endosperm
The outer wall of seed
which develops from integument
Si

of ovule called seed coat. The seed

coat consists of an outer thick
layer called testa and inner thin
wall called tegmen. The embryo
develops from diploid zygote. It is
a small axis, lying between two
cotyledons, the upper end called
plumule and the other lower end
Fig. 5.17 Structure of bean seed

94
is called radicle, during germination plumule develops into shoot while
radicale develops into root. The seed also contains leaf-like structure
called cotyledon. These are either one or two on the basis of these
numbers the seeds are classied into monocot or dicot seed,
respectively. In endospermic seed these cotyledons are thin and paper
like. In many of the seeds endosperm is not present than food is stored in

d
cotyledons therefore they become swollen and thick e.g pea. The hilum is a
scare, present at seed coat. The water enters into the seed through a very

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small hole in the seed coat this pore is called micropyle.
In some monocot seeds, ripened ovary walls called pericarp get

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fused permanently with seed coat as found in maize grains. Internally
maize grain is divided into two unequal parts by a thin layer of cells called
epithelium. The larger portion is t
he endosperm and the smaller is e

ok
mbryo. In the embryonic part, a s
hield shaped cotyledon is present c
alled scutellum. Moreover the p
lmule and radicle are enclosed in p
bo
rotective sheath called coleoptile a
nd coleorhiza, respectively.
xt

Fig. 5.18 Structure of maize grain

5.3.4 Germination of seed
Breaking of seed dormancy is called seed germination. As a result of
Te

germination seed develops into seedling.

Conditions necessary for seed germination
Only living seeds can germinate, require optimum condition of
moisture, oxygen and temperature.
h

(i) Role of water (Moisture)

Water is essential for life because metabolic activities depend on
nd

water. Seed coat become soft by water. Cotyledons and endosperm absorb
water by imbibition become swollen and exert pressure on seed coat to
break. So the embryo comes out to grow, enzymes become activated by
Si

water and solid reserve food change into solution.

(ii) Role of oxygen:
The metabolic activities require energy. Energy is produced during
respiration which requires oxygen.
(iii) Temperature:
Enzymes activity require certain range of temperature. Most of the
o
seeds require the temperature range between 25 to 37 C. Seeds do not
o o
germinate at temperature below 0 C or above 45 C.

95
Types of germination

Epigeal Germination Hypogeal Germination

Epi = above, geo = earth Hypo = below, geo = earth

The type of germination where The type of germination where

d
seeds come above the soil during seeds remain in the soil during
germination. germination

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The growth rate of hypocotyl is The growth rate of epicotyl is

Bo
higher than epicotyl. higher than hypocotyl.

The hypocotyl grow in the form of The hypocotyl does not grow in the
arch. form of arch.

when come above the soil and work

as 1st foliage leaves.
ok
The cotyledons become green The cotyledons do not turn green.
bo
xt
Te
h
nd

5.4 REPRODUTION IN ANIMALS

Si

There are also two types of reproduction in animal. i.e. Asexual and
sexual reproduction.
5.4.1 Asexual reproduction
Animals reproduce asexually by different methods, some of them
are as follows.
(i) Fission (Splitting)
Splitting of cell into two or many cells or organisms called ssion.

96
(a) Binary Fission:

The type of ssion where an organism divides into two organisms is

called binary ssion. It is commonly observed in unicellular organisms
like protozoa. During this process the nucleus of the parent organism
divides into two nuclei, both of them move in opposite directions in the

d
cytoplasm. Meanwhile, a constriction appears in cytoplasm which
deepens from outside to inside nally organism divides into two

ar
organisms.

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(b) Multiple Fission

Multiple ssion involves the division of an organism into many

small sized daughter organisms as found in Plasmodium.

(ii) Budding
ok
In this method one or more out growth develop on the body surface
bo
of organism which are called buds. When buds separates from the parent
body starts living independently and develop into new organism e.g.
Hydra.
xt

(iii) Fragmentation
Te

It is found in lower, multicellular animals like liver uke and

nematodes. When a living organism divides into fragments, each fragment
recovers its lost part by regeneration and develops into new organism.
h

5.5 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

nd

The process of sexual reproduction involves fusion of specialized

haploid sex-cells or gametes to form a single diploid cell, zygote. The
Si

fusion of these gametes is called fertilization. Sexual reproduction

involves:
(i) Gametogenesis - Formation of gametes
(ii) Mating - Union of male and female organisms to collect their
gametes at same place.
(iii) Fertilization - Fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote.

97
5.5.1 Gametogenesis in Rabbit:
Gametogenesis is the process of gametes formation by meiosis in
gonads.
These are two types.

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

d
Formation of sperm in male gonads Formation of ovum in female gonads

ar
(Testis) from germ cells. (ovary). The process of gametes
formation or gametogenesis

Bo
involves meiosis, which reduces
number of chromosomes to half in
gametes. It also results variation in
genes by process called crossing
over .These gametes mostly do not

okhave identical genetic make up.

bo
xt
Te
h
nd
Si

98
5.5.2 Male and Female reproductive Organs in Rabbit
Male Female
· Testes two in numbers · Ovaries two in
· Hanging outside, in a numbers
Gonads sac called scrotal · Located in abdominal

d
(Gametes sac. cavity
producing organs) · Contain seminiferous · Produce ovum

ar
tubules
· Epididymis to collect

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sperm
Duct · Vas deferens, two in · Oviduct or fallopian
(Gametes number. tube collect ovum
collecting tubes) from ovary.

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· Two in number

Genitals · Penis, a muscular · Vagina, a tube which

(Gametes depositing organ to transfer receive semen
bo
or receiving organs) semen into female containing many
genital sperms
· Prostate gland · Ovary works as gland
xt

Glands · Cowper's gland as well

· Seminal vesicle
Te

(a) (b)
h
nd
Si

Fig. 5.19 Reproductive organs of rabbit (a) Male (b) Female

99
5.5.3 Fertilization
The process of fusion of male and female gametes from diploid
zygote is called fertilization. On the basis of location of fertilization there
are two types of fertilization, external and internal fertilization.

External Fertilization Internal Fertilization

d
ar
· It takes place outside the · It takes place inside the body
body. of female.
· It takes place in water. · It takes place inside female

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body.
· Both gametes mature at same · Gametes may mature after
time. each other.
· Gametes are produced in · Gametes are produced in

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large numbers. limited numbers.
· It takes place in shes and · It takes place in reptiles, aves
amphibians. and mammals.
bo
5.6 NEED OF POPULATION PLANNING
Population planning is the policy to limit the growth in number of
xt

population especially in those countries which has limited resources or in

densely populated part of earth.
Population means the total number of beings living in a particular
Te

area. The human population helps in estimating the birth and death
rates, the number of resources that will be required i.e. food, houses,
health, electricity, transport, drinking water, garbage disposal etc.
In the modern world people wants to live quality life, better health
h

facilities and jobs. The average is higher than before which is leading to an
increase in the population. An increase in population can cause strain on
nd

the resources due to high demands. This strain can lead to environmental
disturbance.
To establish and maintain the quality of human life and
Si

environmental conditions the birth rate should be planned according to

available resources of the area. It is necessary that the birth and death
rates balances each other to maintain sustainable population growth.
China and India are considered as overpopulated countries. It means that
their population exceeds their caring capacity resulting in depletion of
resources and threatening environment. United Nations and other world
organisations formulated certain policies and strategies to keep a check
on increasing population.

100
5.7
5.7 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
The diseases or infections which are passed from one person to
another person through genital organs and genital uids during sexual
contacts called sexually transmitted diseases. Sometimes they can
spread through intimate physical contact as well like herpes, spread by
skin to skin contact. Some of the sexually transmitted diseases are

d
Gonorrhea, AIDS, Syphilis, Genital herpes etc.
Sexually transmitted infections have been known since ancient

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time, they remain world wide a major public health problem. AIDS is one
of the serious threat came into light around 1980.

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AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deciency Syndrome) is caused by virus
known as HIV (Human Immuno-deciency Virus). The HIV is transmitted
through contaminated surgical instruments, transfusion of infected
blood, sexual contacts, placenta and mother's milk.

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Role of national AIDS Control Program and different NGOs in
educating about AIDs.
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The rst role was the study of AIDS patients, frequency in different
social group of population. The next goal was the study of reasons of AIDS
in different populations. Another aim was to educate people about
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prevention. The next role is the proper diagnosis of HIV in different private
and government sector hospitals.
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 SUMMARY
· Reproduction is the vital process by which living organisms produce
off springs of their own kind.
Reproduction is of two types

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·
(a) Asexual (b) Sexual Reproduction

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· Asexual reproduction takes place without fusion of gamets i-e no
genetic recombination.
· Sexual Reproduction takes place as a result of male and female

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gametic fusion i-e Genetic recombination occur.
· Asexual reproduction in Protist, Bacteria and Plants takes place by
sion, budding, spores, vegetative propagation.
· Vegetative natural propagation means reproduction takes place by

·
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any part of plant except ower i-e by roots, stem, leaves and sucker.
Articial vegetative propagation takes place by cutting, grafting,
clonning and apomixes.
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· Sexual reproduction requires ower where stamen produce pollon
grain which develop into male gametophyte i-e pollen tube, where as
carpel contain ovule in its ovary.
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· Ovule has embryo sac (female gametophyte) which produce ovums.

· Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of
carpel.
Te

· There are two types of pollination i-e self and cross pollination.
· After pollination pollen grain develop pollen tube carry male gamets
to ovule where ovum is present.
· One of the male gamet fuse with ovum to produce 2N Zygote and 2N
h

Secondary nucleus fuse with another male gamet to produce 3N

nd

Zygote. i-e Double fertilization.

· The ovule after fertilization develop into seed where as ovary develop
into fruit.
· Seed is fertilized develop ovule contain dormaint embryo.
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· The breaking of seed domaracy is called germination.

· Seed germinate into two ways i-e Epigeal and Hypogeal germination.
· Asexual reproduction in animal takes place by ssion, budding,
fragmentation ( Regeneration).
· Sexual reproduction has three steps
i) Gametogenesis ii) Mating iii) Fertilization.

102
 · Spermetogenesis is the formation of sperm, where dogenesis is the
formation of ovum.
· Male and female reproductive organs are
i) Gonades to produce gamets
ii) Ducts; gamets collecting tubes
iii) Genitals; gamets donating or receiving organs.

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· Glands of male are prostrats, cowper's and seminal vesicle.
· Glands of female are ovaries.

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· Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes form diploid
zygote (2N)

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· There are two types of fertilization i-e external and internal
fertilization.
· Population planning is a policy to limit the growth in number of
population.

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· Sexually transmitted disease are those which are passed from one
person to another through genital organ and genital uid.
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EXERCISE
A. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
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Choose the correct answer:

i) The process which is essential for continuing and survival of
Te

species is
(a) Digestion (b) Respiration
(c)Reproduction (e)Excretion
ii) The type of reproduction which is necessary for evolution is
h

(a) Vegetative propagation (b) Fragmentation

(c) Sexual reproduction (d) clonning
nd

iii) The unicellular structure, responsible for asexual reproduction

without fusion is
(a) Pores (b) Spores
Si

(c) Gametes (d) Pollen grains

iv) The example of stem which run horizontally on surface of soil to
produce vegetatively
(a) Mint (b) Ginger
(c) Onion (d) Bryophyllum
v) Plant stem that arise from buds on the base of parent plants are
(a) Bulb (b) Rhizome
(c) Sucker (d) Runner

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vi) The type of seed production without fusion of male and female
gametes is
(a) Parthenocarpy (b) Apormixes
(c) Grafting (d) Scion
vii) The female gametophyte of anglosparmic plant is
(a) Embryo sec (b) Ovule

d
(c) Ovary (d) Carpel
viii) The 3N zygote is angiosperm develop into

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(a) Seed coat (b) Cotyledon
(c) Embryo (d) Endosperm

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ix) The male gonades in rabbit are
(a) Testis (b) Ovaries
(c) Scrotal sec (d) Vasdeferens
x) The female gametes are fertilized in the rear end of
(a) Oviduct (b) Follopin tube

B.
(c) Ovaries

SHORT QUESTIONS:
ok (d) Both a and b
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i) Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction, Epigial
and Hypogial Germination.
ii) Draw neat and labeled diagram of T.S of Angiospermic ower.
xt

iii) How a new plant develops with an already growing plant?

iv) How leaves develop into new plants?
Te

v) Draw neat and labelled diagram of Ovule.

vi) Draw neat and labelled diagram of male gametophyte of
angiospermic plant?
vii) List out the male reproductive organs of rabbit with glands.
h

viii) What are STD's?

ix) Why population control is considered important for prosperous
nd

society?
x) Draw life cycle of Angiospermic plant.
Si

C. EXTENSIVE RESPONSE QUESTIONS:

i) Describe natural asexual reproduction in plants.
ii) What is pollination? give adaptive characters of wind and insect
pollinated owers.
iii) Describe different types of asexual reproduction in animals.
iv) Describe the process of Spermetogenesis.
v) What is germination? Give the condition of germination also
describe the methods of different germination.

104
 Chapter
INHERITANCE
6
Major Concept

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In this Unit you will learn:

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Ø Introduction
Ø Chromosomes and Genes
Ø Law of Segregation

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Ø Law of Independent Assortment
Ø Variation and Evolution

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 6.1
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 6.2
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 6.4

6.5
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 Chapter MAN AND HIS
7 ENVIRONMENT
Major Concept

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In this Unit you will learn:

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Ø The Ecosystem: Levels of Ecological Organization; Components
Ø Flow of materials and energy in the ecosystem
Ø Biogeochemical Cycles (Carbon Cycle & Nitrogen Cycle)

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Ø Interactions in the Ecosystem (Competition; Predation; Symbiosis)
Ø Ecosystem Balance and Human impact on environment
(Population growth)
Ø Urbanization, Industrialization, Deforestation)

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Ø Pollution, its Consequences and Control
Ø Conservation of Nature
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 7.2
7.1
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 7.3
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 7.4
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 7.6
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 7.7
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 7.9
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 7.10
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 Chapter
BIOTECHNOLOGY
8
Major Concept

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In this Unit you will learn:

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Ø Introduction
Ø Fermentation and Baking Industry
Ø Genetic Engineering

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Ø Single Cell Protein and its Uses

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169
 Si
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 8.2
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 8.3
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 8.4
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 Chapter
PHARMACOLOGY
9
Major Concept

d
In this Unit you will learn:

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Ø Introduction
Ø Medicinal Drugs and Addictive Drugs
Ø Antibiotics and Vaccines

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 9.2
9.1
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 9.3
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