[SESSION 20]

Unit 21:
M. Twain (1835‐1910)

Literatura Norteamericana I: siglos XVII‐XIX.

Grado de Estudios Ingleses. Segundo curso.

Manuel Casas Guijarro. 2019/2020. UNED. Centro Asociado de Sevilla.

0. SESSION 20 STRUCTURE.
1. Historical context: the US in the 19th century. [UNIT 13]
2. 19th century literature in the US. [UNIT 13]
3. Reconstruction period (1865‐1877). [UNIT 18]
4. Introduction to post‐Civil war literature in the US.
5. M. Twain: some biographical elements.
6. Analysis of M. Twain’s works: main themes, beliefs and influences.
7. Realism: main characteristics.
8. Analysis of selected texts: exploratory questions.
9. Bibliography
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 UNIT 13
1. Historical context: the US in the 19th century.

‐ Period of deep historical changes and socio‐economic development.

‐ Crucial years for the shaping of the United States.
‐ Assertion of political and social independence through artistic creation in a
period of unprecedented literary flourishment: The American Renaissance.

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 UNIT 13
1. Historical context: the US in the 19th century.
Context Important elements
1.1 The early republic years (1776‐1830)
1.2 Prewar and Civil War (1861‐1865)
1. Politics
1.3 Reconstruction period (1865‐1877)
1.4 Transition period (1877‐1901)

2.1 American Industrialization

2.2 Native Americans annihilation
2. Socio‐economics
2.3 Civil rights: slavery and women’s rights
2.4 American Imperialism

3.1 Early Republic Years: 1780‐1830s. [UNITS 9‐10]

3. Literature 3.2 Romanticism: 1830s‐1860s [UNITS 11‐20]
3.3 Realism, Naturalism and Regionalism: 1865‐1901 [UNITS 21‐24]
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 UNIT 13
2. 19th century literature in the US.

‐ 19th century American literature is determined by two major historical

events:

‐ American Independence (1776)

‐ Civil War (1861‐1865)
‐ Both determine the change of aesthetics and the sensibility of literature
and arts in general.

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Historical events Literary movement Dates Author Units
‐ American Independence
‐ Population growth 1780‐ W. Irving 9 
1. Early Republic Years – Knickerbockers
‐ Expansion westwards 1830s J. F. Cooper 10 

Emerson, 11 
Transcendentalism
Thoreau 12 
Hawthorne, 13 
‐ Industrialization Dark Romantics
Melville 14 
‐ Native American Gothic Fiction Poe 16 
1830s‐
annihilation 2. Romanticism Slave narratives Douglass 17 
1860s
‐ Road to slavery Abolitionist
Stowe 18 
literature
abolition
Longfellow 15 
Poetry Whitman 19 
Dickinson 20 

Twain 21
‐ Civil War 3. Realism, Realism
James 22
‐ Reconstruction Naturalism and Regionalism 1865‐1901 Chopin 23
‐ Transition period Regionalism
Naturalism
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Crane 24 6
 UNIT 13
2. 19th century literature in the US.

‐1. Early Republic Years: 1780‐1830s. Knickerbocker writers.

‐ Birth of the novel and romances.
‐ W. Irving and J. F. Cooper. Sets the basis for a truly American literature, independent
from reproducing European models.

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 UNIT 13
2. 19th century literature in the US.
2. Romanticism: 1830s‐1860s

‐ Period of different literary trends under some common “Romantic” aesthetics.

‐ The different movements interact and writers should not be considered as belonging
to a certain single “school” as there is no such concept.
‐ This period is also usually known as the so called “American Renaissance” regarding
the unprecedented literary flourishment where some of the major works of American
literature were written in a span of time of 5‐10 years.
‐ Critics usually highlight the following movements or labels to group literary
production of this time: Transcendentalism, Dark Romantics, Gothic Fiction, Slave
narratives, Abolitionist literature, Fireside and experimental poetry.

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 UNIT 13
2. 19th century literature in the US.

3. Realism, Naturalism and Regionalism. (1865‐1901)

a. Realism: M. Twain, H. James.
b. Regionalism: K. Chopin.
c. Naturalism: S. Crane.

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 UNIT 18
3. Reconstruction period (1865‐1877).

‐ The “Reconstruction Period” is generally understood as the process of

integrating the South after the end of the Civil War (1865‐1877).
‐ The most obvious consequence of the end of the Civil War (1865) was that
it opened an age of the Reconstruction of the country.
‐ Lincoln believed in a lenient (soft) reconstruction of the South, not making
them feel the defeated part.
‐ Lincoln was succeeded by A. Johnson, who continued Lincoln’s moderate
policies.
‐ Southern states adopted a “Black Code”, laws that treated black people as
inferior beings, relegated to subordinate positions in society.

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 UNIT 18
3. Reconstruction period (1865‐1877).

‐ Slavery had been abolished but the South was unready for equal civil or
political rights.
‐ Riots spread in some southern territories and black people started to be
assaulted and killed.
‐ 1866: Creation of the Ku Klux Klan. Group to defend the superiority of
white American people.
‐ 1868: Ulysses Grant (Republican) elected President. More radical
reconstruction.

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4. Introduction to post‐war literature in the US.

‐ 1865 marked the end of an era in American history.

‐ After the Civil war the socio‐cultural reality of the US was not the same as
before the war, so literary movements that had existed up to that moment
became extinguished: Romanticism, Transcendentalism, Gothic fiction.
‐ The war left a desolated landscape where there was no place to explore past
times or idealised landscapes (as in Romantics aesthetics), art focused on
realism.
‐ Realism developed into a harsher depiction of reality known as naturalism.

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4. Introduction to post‐war literature in the US.

‐ Among the most significant American realist authors we can highlight:

‐ Mark Twain: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)
‐ Henry James: Daisy Miller (1878)
‐ Regarding naturalism, we could foreground the figures of:
‐ Stephen Crane: The Red Badge of Courage (1895), Maggie (1893), “The
Open Boat” (1897).
‐ Theodore Dreiser: Sister Carrie (1900).
‐ Edith Wharton: The Age of Innocence (1920).
‐ Apart from that, we can also witness the spread of regionalism or local colour, literary
movement characterized by focusing on the characters, dialect, customs, topography,
and other features particular to a specific region.
‐ One example is Kate Chopin: Bayou Folk (1894), The Awakening (1899).
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5. M. Twain: some biographical elements.

‐ Samuel L. Clemens grew up in Hannibal (Missouri), a small town on the banks

of the Mississippi River that would become the source of inspiration for his
fictional St. Petersburg, where his two most memorable characters, Tom
Sawyer and Huck Finn, had their homes.
‐ As a young man he worked as an apprentice to a local printer and later as an
editorial assistant at various journals.
‐ He began his literary career by writing humorous sketches for newspapers, an
activity he would continue to practice all his life.
‐ In 1857 he headed for New Orleans by steamboat, intending to seek his
fortune in South America.

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5. M. Twain: some biographical elements.

‐ In 1859, at the age of 24, he became a licensed steamboat pilot, a profession

he loved.
‐ In 1861 his piloting days ended with the outbreak of the Civil War, which
severely disrupted river traffic and made steamboating an unprofitable
occupation.
‐ After several jobs, he joined the staff of the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise
as a local reporter, where he adopted the pseudonym of Mark Twain.
‐ He moved to San Francisco, supporting himself by contributing to several
newspapers and journals. While in California, he wrote “The Celebrated
Jumping Frog of Calaveras County”, a short story that was soon reprinted in
many periodicals all over the US and launched Mark Twain as a humorist of
national fame.
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5. M. Twain: some biographical elements.
‐ He set out for Europe, and wrote some travel books: Innocents Abroad
(1869), Life on the Mississippi (1883).
‐ Twain’s first novel, The Gilded Age (1873), whose title gave its current name
to the period that followed the Civil War, was written in collaboration with
Charles Dudley Warner. This poorly constructed work was an extended satire
of the corrupted materialism that characterized commercial and political life at
the expense of public welfare in the post‐Civil War period.
‐ Mark Twain’s next novel, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), vaguely set
in 1844, was rooted in the author’s own childhood memories of frontier life in
the river town of Hannibal. This harsh and violent environment constituted a
very suitable setting for developing the modern “bad boy” literature that
clearly satirized the older “good boy” genre.
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5. M. Twain: some biographical elements.

‐ Its combination of picaresque adventure with witty satire established Twain

as an extremely popular writer of fiction. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
(1884), much richer than its antecedent, was even more popular.
‐ Twain also published The Prince and the Pauper (1881), a classic of children’s
literature.
‐ In the last two decades of his life Clemens abandoned the cheerful mood that
had made his personality so appealing, and sank into despair. He was affected
by a series of financial misfortunes and was heavily in debt.
‐ He felt a deep sense of grief caused by the deaths of his son and two of his
daughters. This caused him a period of depression.
‐ He died of a heart attack on April 21, 1910, when he was 74.
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5. M. Twain: some biographical elements.

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6. Analysis of M. Twain’s works: main themes, beliefs and influences.

Twain’s humorism:
‐ He started writing in the so‐called “frontier humour” or the “humour of
the Southwest”, which was one of the most popular modes of writing in
America during the two decades preceding the Civil War.
‐ This tradition arose from the harsh conditions of frontier life, political
controversy and oral story telling.
‐ In contrast to the sophisticated “urban humour”, the subversive “frontier
humour” relied heavily on roughness, violence, exaggeration, distorted
perceptions, the grotesque and the absurd.

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6. Analysis of M. Twain’s works: main themes, beliefs and influences.

Twain’s realism:
‐ Mark Twain was an exponent of American literary realism. As a typical
realist, he aimed at accurately portraying the daily life of common people.

‐ One of his main concerns was to record precisely the way he heard
ordinary people – both children and adults – talk. He did not simply use
slang and dialect words, but strove to reproduce in print the sounds as
they were pronounced in order to suggest authentic regional accents.

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6. Analysis of M. Twain’s works: main themes, beliefs and influences.

Cultural independence and democracy:

‐ One of his desires was to create a distinct American language based on the
colloquial speech patterns of uneducated people. Context of struggle for
cultural independence that had begun in the previous century.
‐ The aspiration to build up a new national literature of democracy, in
contrast to the inherited literature of aristocracy. It had to be founded on
stylistic innovation.
‐ His accomplishments in the field not only attracted an audience
sympathetic to the promotion of democratic and nationalistic ideals, but
also paved the way for the acceptance of vernacular speech in modern
American literature.
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6. Analysis of M. Twain’s works: main themes, beliefs and influences.

Twain’s use of Satire:

‐ Twain was a master of satire, a term which can be defined as the art of
exposing folly or wickedness by mocking them.

‐ He did not poke fun at trivialities, but resorted to humour in the name of
important values and for crucial purposes, in order to correct, censure and
ridicule the vices of society by making them the target of derision.

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7. Realism: main characteristics.
7.1 Definition and origins:
‐ In general, realism in art and literature refers to the attempt to represent
familiar and everyday people and situations in an accurate, unidealized
manner.
‐ More specifically, the term "realism" refers to a literary and artistic
movement of the late 1800's and early 1900's. This movement was a
reaction against romanticism, which presented the world in much more
idealized terms.
‐ Almost every work of literature has some degree of realism. This is
because it is important for readers to recognize and identify with the
characters and the world they inhabit. But realism as a distinct style and
literary movement dates back to France in the early 1800's:
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7. Realism: main characteristics.

‐ Honoré de Balzac: The Human Comedy (1824‐47).

‐ Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary (1857) was the first major work to fully
embrace the realist style.
‐ Other Realist authors:
‐ Leo Tolstoi: War and Peace (1869).
‐ George Eliot's Middlemarch (1871‐72)

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 7. Realism: main characteristics.
7.2 Main characteristics:
‐ Three main ideas:
1. Suspension of disbelief: authors provide the mechanisms so that the reader
thinks that what they are reading is real, not a work of fiction. Thus, writers try
to help the reader achieve the effect of the suspension of disbelief.
(suspensión de incredulidad)
2. Art as mimesis of reality: the novel as a glass. Author present themselves as
merely portraying reality without any distortion or manipulation. There is a
great effort to present the work of art as mimesis (imitation/copy) of reality.
Verisimilitude is the main goal.
3. Focus on the character’s lives. Characters are the centre (more than the
plot) and they have a psychological dimension.
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7. Realism: main characteristics.

Characteristics of Realism in Literature.

From Richard Chase, The American Novel and Its Tradition (1980).
‐ Reality is rendered closely and in comprehensive detail. Selective
presentation of reality with an emphasis on verisimilitude, even at the
expense of a well‐made plot.
‐ Character is more important than action and plot; complex ethical choices
are often the subject.
‐ Characters appear in their real complexity of temperament and motive;
they are in explicable relation to nature, to each other, to their social class,
to their own past.

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7. Realism: main characteristics.

‐ Class is important; the novel has traditionally served the interests and
aspirations of an insurgent middle class.
‐ Events will usually be plausible. Realistic novels avoid the sensational,
dramatic elements of naturalistic novels and romances.
‐ Diction is natural vernacular, not heightened or poetic; tone may be comic,
satiric, or matter‐of‐fact.
‐ Objectivity in presentation becomes increasingly important: overt
authorial comments or intrusions diminish as the century progresses.
‐ Interior or psychological realism a variant form.

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8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
The texts selected in this unit are:
two chapters (1 and 15) from Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884).

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.

TIP: Read the original

and the modern text.

https://www.sparknotes.com/nofear/lit/huckleberry‐finn/chapter‐15/
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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Main summary:
‐ Twain constructed a fictitious plot about a white boy and a runaway slave,
Huck and Jim respectively, who drift down the Mississippi River trying to get
away from the “civilization” that oppresses them.
‐ Mark Twain began Adventures of Huckleberry Finn as a sequel to The
Adventures of Tom Sawyer in 1876 and had almost completed the book in
1883, after a trip to his childhood home.
‐ Out of the 43 chapters that comprise the novel, the first 11 deal with
adventures on land, and the next 20 chapters detail those that take place
either on the raft that floats down the Mississippi River or on its banks.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Impact of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)
‐ Twain’s most famous work, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, has been very
controversial from the time of its appearance in 1884 to the present. Some of
its first readers considered it vulgar, irreverent and vicious.
‐ Contradictory criticism: Nowadays, it is still one of the most challenged
books in America. Recent commentators generally raise charges of racism.
Positions on this issue range from condemning it as “the most grotesque
example of racist trash ever written” to praising it as “one of the most
devastating attacks on racism ever written”.
‐ Mark Twain was absolutely against slavery and wanted to demonstrate the
harm that the institution had caused to his country.
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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Impact of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) (cont.)

‐ The novel is widely recognized as a major text of American realism.

‐ In the 1940s and 1950s it was hailed as a masterpiece. The last section of
the novel, however, has drawn adverse literary criticism, for the
concluding episodes have often been deemed weak, and the end seems
too elaborate for our contemporary taste.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Contrast Huckleberry Finn and Uncle Tom’s Cabin:
‐ Although Huckleberry Finn expresses antislavery feelings, it is not an
antislavery novel in the sense that Uncle Tom’s Cabin had been, basically
because Twain published it after slavery had been abolished in the US.
‐ His purpose was different from Stowe’s. He wrote it after the Civil War and
Emancipation, in a period of Reconstruction that was failing to establish the
necessary conditions so that former slaves who were legally emancipated
would be truly free.
‐ The author explored the antebellum South relying on his memories of the
boyhood he had spent in Hannibal, a small town where most of the slaves
were held as household servants.
‐IMPORTANT NOTE: Reconstruction period must be in this unit (not in unit 18)
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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Main aim and analysis:
‐ Mark Twain aims a devastating criticism at the existing social order.
‐ The stories represent child psychology as well as contrast the two main
characters of the books, Tom as a romantic and Huck as a pragmatist hit by his
hard life.
‐ Adolescent main characters serve the purpose of presenting both humour
and more transcendental themes.
‐ Journeys on the river are the symbol of the human journey through life.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Main aim and analysis (cont.):
‐ Twain gives his young hero very adult problems and the novel is presented
as a text in the invented language of a twelve‐year‐old boy learning to survive
a hostile environment.

‐ Through humour and mature elements Twain attacks the traditions of the
South. There is thus a combination of comic style and serious comments and
themes. The style of the language is flexible and colloquial.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Language and the narrator:
‐ Twain uses a first‐person narrator and a typical innocent eye perspective.
‐ The use of the vernacular language in the novel remains a crucial feature of
its literary quality.
‐ Huck as a narrator uses a vocabulary and syntax of the uneducated son of
the town drunkard. The boy does not simply employ colloquial phrases and
slang or vulgar expressions, but also breaks grammatical rules.
‐ He frequently uses double negatives, wrong irregular past forms, non‐
standard “ain’t”, and misspellings. Jim’s speech is more difficult to understand
than Huck’s.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
The Setting: the river
‐ The river dominates the geography of the novel and provides a symbolic
contrast with the land, where a decadent and perverted culture prevails.
‐ As we mentioned above, the river provides the framework, the timeline and
the central axis of the story. It can be divided into three parts:
‐ The first: related to Miss Watson and her sister.
‐ The second: in the river with Jim. They run away from civilization and
especially Jim from slavery.
‐ The third: Huck returns to civilization. He lives with Tom in uncle
Sila’s farm.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
Themes:
‐ Some of the themes Twain deals with in the novel are:
• the river, which provides shelter from society and a source for adventure;
• growth and rebirth in Huck;
• society is wrong;
• democracy.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS

‐ Read A Study Guide for American Literature, pages 145‐151.

‐ It focuses on writing about the construction of characters: flat, round, static,
dynamic characters.
‐ Useful for questions 2, 5, 8, 13, 15.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS

1. What is the effect of the “Notice” at the beginning of the novel?

‐ Use of humour and parody: cynical anti‐preface.
‐ It involves a justification for the use of vernacular language: shock for the
readers. Mark of verisimilitude.
‐ Note that the author claims that there is no motive, moral or plot in the
narrative, thus the focus is set on portraying reality as such.
‐ Moreover, it may involve distancing from previous moralistic and allegorical
literature (Hawthorne, Melville, or Puritan writings).

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS

1. What is the effect of the “Notice” at the beginning of the novel? (cont.)

‐ Conclusion: the “notice” as an alert to the reader that this narrative is

something absolutely different from those written before.
Note lines 2‐3: “The book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth,
mainly”.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS

3. References to death.
Chapter I
‐ He felt lonely imprisoned within society: “I felt so lonesome I most wished I
was dead” (lines 69‐70).
‐ Animals making noises about people dead or about to die: lines 71‐73.
‐ Thinks about ghosts in the woods, getting scared, and wishing company: lines
75‐79.
‐ he takes a spider and flipped it off to the candle, where it died. He interprets
this as a sign of bad luck (lines 79‐88).
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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS

4. Twain’s treatment of religion.

‐ Twain identified himself as a “cheerfully irreverent sceptic”.
‐ Moments where he satirizes Christian traditions. Shows distaste and
boredom:
‐ Widow’s saying grace before meals: lines 25‐31.
‐ Miss Watson’s conceptions of heaven and hell: lines 51‐64.
‐ Iconoclastic allusions to biblical characters as Moses: lines 32‐35.

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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS

14. Compare Twain’s diction to: Hawthorne, Melville, Poe.

Remember what do we understand by diction (unit 6):
‐ choice of vocabulary and arrangement of words in order to convey some
effect and meaning to the reader.
‐ Diction evokes emotions and conveys the author’s view of reality to the
reader.

Very interesting presentation on diction:

https://slideplayer.com/slide/4602315
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 8. Analysis of selected text: exploratory questions.
EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS

14. Compare Twain’s diction to: Hawthorne, Melville, Poe. (cont.)

Hawthorne Melville Poe Twain
‐ Didactic and ‐ Comic ‐ Dark, dreary, ‐ Informal
allegorical tone ‐ Lyrical gloomy terms ‐ Humorous
‐ Elegant and ‐ Elevated ‐ Words that foster ‐ Relaxed and
formal ‐ Scientific connotation conversational
‐ Anticipatory tone ‐ Common and
simple words

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 9. Bibliography
Bibliography
 Gibert, Teresa. American Literature to 1900. Segunda Edición. Madrid: Ed. Universitaria Ramón
Areces, 2009.
 A Study Guide for American Literature to 1900. Madrid: Ed. Universitaria Ramón Areces, 2009.
 Gray, Richard. A Brief History of American Literature. Chichester: Blackwell, 2011.
Useful materials:
 Realism: http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753924%3E
 Realism in American Literature: https://public.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm
 Huckleberry Finn Summary and Analysis: https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/huckfinn/section7/
 Curiosities about Mark Twain: https://www.history.com/news/8‐things‐you‐may‐not‐know‐
about‐mark‐twain

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Next session we will:
 Start unit 22: Henry James.

 Check “exploratory questions“: unit 22.

thanks!
[email protected]

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