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Effect of Nozzle Geometry on the Flow Dynamics and Resistance

Inside and Outside the Cone-Straight Nozzle
Tianwen Jiang, Zhongwei Huang,* Jingbin Li, Yisu Zhou, and Chao Xiong

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ABSTRACT: The cone-straight nozzle has been commonly utilized in various

applications, such as cleaning, cutting, and drilling, and hence investigated extensively
with simulations and experiments. However, the internal flow patterns and dynamics,
as well as the influence of internal flow on jetting performance, remain unclear. In this
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study, we carry out both experiments and computational fluid dynamics to understand
the effect of different converging angles of the cone-straight nozzle on internal and
external flow patterns. Nozzle flows are simulated by a large eddy simulations model
and further compared with the experimental flow fields obtained by a particle image
velocimetry (PIV) method. Nozzles with different converging angles and throat
lengths have been used experimentally. The influence of nozzle converging angle,
throat length, and inlet flow speed on flow field, skin friction resistance, and viscous
force is discussed. Associated boundary layer transition and separation are investigated
comparatively. The flow discharge coefficient and flow core length are measured by
the PIV test system with a high-pressure pump. The experimental results show that a
specific converging angle and flow speed can cause the boundary layer transition and separation. Skin friction resistance increases
first and then decreases with the increase of inlet flow speed when the angle is larger than 20°. The resistance decreases gradually
when the angle is lower than 15°. Importantly, the skin friction resistance remains a lower level when the converging angle is 15°, in
agreement with the previous research results. The experimental results show that the nozzle with a converging angle of 10° or 15°
has a higher discharge coefficient and a better cluster capacity. The nozzle with a throat length of 3 times the outlet diameter has a
longer flow core. Considering the nozzle size, the nozzle with a converging angle of 15° and a throat length of 3 times the diameter
of the outlet is suggested when the nozzle is used in jetting for obtaining a longer jetting distance.

1. INTRODUCTION Nozzle geometry directly affects the performance of jets,

Water jet is an emerging technology developed rapidly in which are further used for subsequent applications such as
recent years and used in many fields. This method uses a pump cleaning, cutting, and drilling. The cone-straight nozzle’s
to generate high-speed fluid with sufficient kinetic energy to geometry comprises a converging section, a throat section,
cut materials, perforate, break coalbeds and rock, and wash and a reaming section. The converging section is used to
wellbore.1−6 Tailored to different applications, several nozzle concentrate the fluid and energy, the throat section to stabilize
structures or shapes have been proposed, such as a self-excited the flow status, and the reaming section to control jet exit
oscillation jet nozzle and a venturi nozzle. The self-excited diffusion angle and control cavitation. However, the reaming
oscillation jet nozzle including the Organ nozzle and the section does not often exist when nozzles are utilized in the
Helmholtz nozzle7 can generate both pulsing and cavitation petroleum field, so it is not considered in this article.
jets. Venturi nozzles are often used in the aerospace industry, The primary parameters of the nozzle geometry are the
energy, and metering, for instance, in the transmission of flow converging angle and throat length and have been investigated
standards,8 gas flow measurement, and the maximum flow by experiments and simulations. Many researchers have
limitation of the flow system.9 Spray nozzles are used in investigated the influences of various parameters on a jetting
irrigation due to their better atomizing ability. The rotating
multi-orifice nozzle can be used in drilling in petroleum Received: December 14, 2021
fields.10,11 Some other non-circle nozzles have been inves- Accepted: February 18, 2022
tigated in recent years for abrasive jet cutting and spray Published: March 8, 2022
irrigation.12−14 Among these, cone-straight nozzles are most
widely used in the petroleum field due to their relatively simple
processing.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by
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Figure 1. Nozzle geometry.

angle, jetting length, and impact force,15−17 especially in venturi nozzle on Reynolds number and wall temperature was
breaking rocks, such as coalbed,3 sandstone, and gas hydrate. investigated by a series of two-dimensional axisymmetric and
The researchers concluded that the nozzle has a critical adiabatic computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations.
converging angle and throat length that can obtain the longest The results showed that the wall temperature effect is stronger
flow core. The better converging angle is 13−15°, and the for small nozzle diameters. The research also presented that
better throat length is 2−4 times the nozzle diameter. the CFD simulations can predict the transition of the boundary
Some researchers focused on the studies of the nozzle layer of inner flow.27 Xiao Yu performed some experiments and
outline, and a streamlined curve (e.g., Sine curve, Gaussian simulations [large-eddy simulations (LES)] and found that the
curve, and Widosinski curve18) is used as the nozzle geometry. shear stress appeared at the nozzle throat.28 A new turbulence
Many simulations are simulated to discover the difference in model was proposed, which could predict the boundary layer
flow speed distributions and pressure loss between the cone- transition of CFVNs. The experimental results showed a good
straight nozzle and streamlined nozzle. Jiang et al. investigated agreement with the simulations.29 All the results showed that
the internal flow characteristics with simulations but only the CFD could predict the boundary layer transition.
focused on one type of nozzle and analyzed the near-wall flow The discharge coefficient is an essential factor in evaluating
field.19 They found that the pressure loss is lower when the the nozzle. The discharge coefficient equation was derived and
fluid flows through a streamlined nozzle. verified by measurement data and subsequently improved.30,31
Some researchers paid more attention to jet noise when the Some researchers also focused on the internal flow state
jetting fluid was gas. The jet noise and nozzle exit boundary transfer and found that the flow in the nozzle remains
layer is an evaluation of the flow turbulence when the fluid is subsonic, accompanied with a reduction in turbulence in the
gas. Jet noise is an essential factor for evaluating turbulent convergent portion and amplification in the divergent
jetting. Based on the research results, the nozzle exit boundary portion.32 Wall roughness plays a vital role in boundary layer
layer plays an essential role in the outer flow field. Some transition, skin friction, and pressure drop. The effect of wall
simulations showed the influence of flow state on jet noise and roughness on flow through converging−diverging nozzles was
found that the nozzles involving turbulent boundary layers studied before. The cooling and roughness effects on the
were quietest. In contrast, the nozzle involving a “nominally transition of nozzle throats and blunt bodies were investigated
laminar” boundary layer was loud, especially on the high- by experiments in the wind tunnel.33,34
frequency side of the sound pressure level spectrum. The However, most researchers have focused on the studies of
noisier nozzle involves a highly disturbed laminar, or nominally gas flow rather than a fluid flow, and the detailed flow field
laminar, boundary layer state instead of a turbulent state.20,21,37 inside the nozzle has not been revealed clearly, especially near
Some nozzles were designed and tested to obtain more the nozzle wall. Few researchers focused on the flow resistance
credible results, such as the ASME nozzle and conical nozzle. inside the nozzle. In this study, cone-straight nozzles with
The results showed that the high-frequency jet noise is reduced different converging angles are simulated by an LES model. In
when the laminar layer transitions to turbulence. The influence addition, the internal flow patterns are measured by a PIV
of the boundary layer on jet noise and the outer turbulent method under a lower flow speed. The external flow field of
shear layer was discussed. The effects of moderate Reynolds the cone-straight nozzle is measured by a high-pressure pump
numbers on subsonic round jet noise with highly disturbed system under high jet pressure.
nozzle exit boundary layers were also investigated.22,23 According to the results of our literature research and
Hariharan et al. conducted (Particle Image Velocimetry) previous work, we made some hypotheses before conducting
PIV measurements and analyzed the viscous shear stress, simulations and experiments. First, the nozzle profile can affect
velocity distribution, and pressure distribution of the nozzle the flow characteristics inside and outside the nozzle directly.
area. Their results supported the validation of their computa- Second, there will be boundary layer separation and transition
tional fluid simulations.24 The flow characteristics of pressure inside the cone-straight nozzle for its converging section.
oscillation and velocity phase diagrams of different self-excited Third, nozzles with specific converging angles and throat
oscillating modes were analyzed. A full Navier−Stokes viscous lengths could generate an optimal jetting performance with
laminar model was established for non-equilibrium condensing lower flow resistance.
steam flow.25 A curve-fit equation obtained by experiments
representing the average trend is provided to predict the 2. SIMULATIONS
throat-to-shock-location distance at a given nozzle pressure LES can capture transitional and turbulent flows with a
ratio.26 The discharge coefficient dependency of critical-flow relatively loose grid compared with Direct Numerical
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Simulation. A wall-adapting local eddy-viscosity model The simulation data is compared to the existing DNS data,37
(WALE) is used to calculate smaller grids.35 LES has been and our PIV experimental data is shown in Figure 3. The LES
proven to be an effective model to simulate boundary data is in agreement with the DNS data and PIV data. The
layers29,36 and is used in this article. maximum error is 3%, which proves the accuracy of the LES
2.1. Geometry. To reduce the amount of computation, a model used.
3D nozzle is simplified to 2D, as shown in Figure 1. D
represents the inlet diameter, d represents the throat diameter,
α is the converging angle, and L is the length of the throat.
Listed in Table 1 are the parameter sets used in our
simulations.

Table 1. Sets of Simulations

converging angle, α (degree) 10 15 20 25
inlet flow speed, U (m/s) 1/5/10 1/5/10 1/5/10 1/5/10

2.2. Grid. The boundary layer must be considered to

capture the flow state near the nozzle wall. The grid must be
fine enough; the first layer height is used to generate the grid,
yp μ
and y+ (y +p = ν
) is used to evaluate the quality of the grid.
The max inlet flow speed is set to 10 m/s, the first layer height
is set to 10−6 m, and the growth rate is set to 1.15. The
boundary layer is set to 20 layers, and the value along the
nozzle is shown in Figure 2. Most values of y+ are lower than 1, Figure 3. Comparison of LES data and PIV data.

Besides, an experimental setup was built, and some flow tests

were done. The setup, shown in Figure 4, is composed of the

Figure 4. Experiment setup.

Figure 2. Distribution of Y+ along the wall.

PIV component, gear pump, and experiment rack. A
transparent nozzle is designed and processed, and the
and all values are lower than 2. To further reduce the experimental data is compared to the LES data shown in
calculation time, the calculation domain is symmetrical. The Figure 5, showing a good agreement. The LES model is proven
maximum surface size of the main flow field is set to 0.001 m. to be accurate to some extent. The numerical simulation is
The number of grids is reduced from 860 000 to 360 000. The used to study the internal flow of the fluid flowing through the
max skewness of the grid is 0.76, and the quality of the grid is cone-straight nozzle.
good and acceptable. 2.4. Results and Discussion. Based on the numerical
2.3. Numerical Model. To fully distinguish the turbulent simulation results, the influence of converging angle and inlet
structure near the wall, the normal phase adopts non-uniform fluid speed on flow speed distribution and flow resistance are
mesh refinement. The periodic boundary condition is adopted, analyzed separately.
and the wall condition is a no-slip boundary condition. 2.4.1. Influence of Nozzle Geometry on the Flow Field.
The flow state inside the nozzle is unstable when the flow Figure 6 shows the flow speed contours of cone-straight
speed is high with curved flows and eddies. The grid near the nozzles with different converging angles when the inlet flow
wall should be fine enough, so the enhanced wall treatment is speed is set to 1 m/s. The flow fields inside the nozzles show a
adopted first. The RNG k-epsilon turbulence model is used to similar trend with a speed peak at the entrance of the throat
obtain a steady flow field, and the calculation result will be set section. The flow speed near the wall of the converging section
as the initial conditions of the LES simulation. The WALE sub- is lower, gradually increases along the vertical wall direction,
grid model is chosen for the unsteady-state solution, the and then tends to be stable. When the fluid is accelerated along
numerical method has the third-order accuracy in space, and the centerline, the speed peak value appears in the main flow
the time step is set to 10−7 to 10−6 s. field. The flow speed at the entrance of the throat section first
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Figure 5. Comparison of the PIV data and LES data. Figure 7. Flow speed distribution near the wall of the throat section.

Figure 8 shows the influence of the converging angle on the

increases along the vertical wall direction and then decreases peak value of flow speed. It is evident that the greater the
and finally stabilizes. In addition, a peak flow speed value converging angle, the sharper the speed peak. When only one
appears at the entrance of the throat section. nozzle geometry is considered, the flow speed distribution in
When the inlet flow speed is set to 5 m/s or higher, the the throat section is shown in Figure 9. The flow speed peak
vortex appears near the whole throat section when the only survives a short distance and then disappears. The
converging angle is 15o degrees, 20°, and 25°, while the vortex difference of flow speed distribution of nozzles with a different
does not appear in a nozzle with 10° of converging angle. The converging angle in the throat section only appears near the
intensity of the vortex increases with the converging angle. wall surface.
When the converging angle is smaller, the distribution of the When the fluid flows into the converging section, it will be
vortex is more uniform, and the periodicity of the vortex is agitated by the converging surface, and the flow state near the
more robust. To display the vortex distribution more wall will be turbulent. The boundary layer will change from the
intuitively, the flow speed distribution (“U”) is depicted in original laminar flow state to turbulent flow, and the small
Figure 7. Some lines parallel to the nozzle wall are monitored, vortex appears at the corner and then the fluid will be
and the flow speeds on those parallel lines are displayed in compressed in the entire converging section. Due to the lower
Figure 7. We marked some circles where the vortex is turbulence intensity, the small vortex cannot survive, and the
generated and developed, and the flow speed near the wall is vortex disappears after flowing through the first corner. The
more fluctuated. The closer to the center of the flow field, the near-wall flow becomes more stable until arriving at the second
smaller the fluctuations. The positions corresponding to the corner. The fluid flow direction near the wall is parallel to the
red circle are the positions where the vortex is generated. The wall when the fluid passes through the converging section. The
vortex develops along the throat section, and the size of the fluids with different flow directions will meet and collide near
vortex becomes greater. The approximately uniform distribu- the throat. The closer to the nozzle center axis, the more
tion of flow speed indicates the appearance of the vortex, and a serious the collision and the more profound the fluid
pulsation period represents the appearance of a vortex. momentum loss. The higher the flow speed, the more severe
However, the homogeneity of flow speed distribution near the collision, and the more severe the fluid momentum loss.
the wall of the throat section deteriorates with the increase of Therefore, the flow speed peak appears near the wall of the
the converging angle. nozzle throat. When the turbulent flow flows into the throat

Figure 6. Vortex generation near the throat wall of the different nozzles with different inlet flow speeds (1, 5, and 10 m/s from left to right).

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Figure 8. Flow speed distribution at (left) and after (right) the entrance of the throat section.

Figure 9. Flow speed distribution (“U”) in converging section (left) and throat section (right).

Figure 10. Influence of inlet flow speed (left) and converging angle (right) on skin friction resistance.

section, the intensity of turbulence will be suppressed. The When the inlet flow speed is low, the vortex near the
main flow will become relatively stable. The converging angle entrance of the converging section and throat section cannot
mainly influences the flow field of the throat section. The survive, and the flow near the wall of the entire nozzle exhibits
a laminar flow pattern. When the inlet flow speed is higher, the
greater the converging angle, the greater the crossing angle of sequential vortex appears at the nozzle throat with a larger
flow speed direction. The more intense the fluid collision, the converging angle. When the inlet flow speed is high enough,
greater the turbulence. the sequential vortex appears in all nozzles. The greater the
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Figure 11. Distribution of boundary layer along the wall. (a) Nozzle with a converging angle of 10°. (b) Nozzle with a converging angle of 15°. (c)
Nozzle with a converging angle of 20°. (d) Nozzle with a converging angle of 25°).

converging angle, the more chaotic the vortex sequence. The When the inlet flow speed is higher, there is a big difference
vortex appearance indicates the existence of boundary layer among nozzles.
transition and separation phenomena. The boundary layer When the converging angle is 10°, the flow near the wall is
transition occurs near the entrance of the converging section mainly laminar. The skin friction resistance increases
and throat section, and the boundary layer separation occurs exponentially with the increase of flow speed. It reaches the
near the entrance of the throat section. maximum value of each group of simulations in this article
2.4.2. Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Skin Friction. when the inlet flow speed is set to 10 m/s. When the
When the flow resistance is considered, the skin friction converging angle is 15°, the growth trend of skin friction
resistance is a factor that should not be ignored. To investigate resistance is similar to that of 10°, but the increase rate is much
the influence of converging angle and the inlet flow speed smaller than the increase of 10°. When the converging angle is
distribution of skin friction resistance, we integrate and solve 20° or 25°, it shows a big difference with a nozzle with 10
the skin friction coefficient, and the whole skin friction is degrees of converging angle, and the peak value appears at 5
obtained m/s of the inlet flow speed; the skin friction resistance
τw increases first and then decreases with the increase of inlet flow
Cf = 1 speed. The peak value is much smaller than that of a nozzle
ρv 2 (1)
2 with 10° and larger than that of a nozzle with 15°. The skin
friction resistance of nozzles with a converging angle of 20 and
2 25° is close in value when the inlet flow speed is set to 1 and
F= ∫surface Cf ρ2v dA
(2) 10 m/s. However, it shows a big difference when the inlet flow
speed is set to 5 m/s.
Figure 10 shows the skin friction resistances of different The length of the converging section plays an essential role
nozzles; when the inlet flow speed is low, there is little in skin friction resistance when the inlet flow speed is low. The
difference among the nozzles with different converging angles. flow state of the boundary layer is laminar, and the resistance
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decrease with the increase of the converging angle because of

the decrease of the converging length. While the resistance in
the throat section does not follow the role fully, the skin
friction resistance in the throat section of 25 degrees of
converging angle is the maximum value among them when the
inlet flow speed is set to 1 m/s. When the flow inside the
nozzle is more turbulent, the boundary layer is turbulent, and
the vortex appears near the wall of the throat section. The
converging angle plays a significant role in the skin friction
resistance of the throat section. Above all, it is evident that the Figure 12. Coordinate transfer.
nozzle with 15 degrees of converging angle has a smaller skin
friction resistance no matter if the inlet low speed is low or dUy
high based on our simulations. τ=
dx (3)
2.4.3. Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Boundary Layer
Thickness. Boundary layer transition and separation directly The equation in MN coordinate system is as follows
affect the appearance of the vortex near the wall of the throat dUym
dUm dU
section. The boundary layer thickness, transition, and τ=μ = μ xm + μ
separation are considered in this article; the boundary layer dn dn dn (4)
transition and separation directly affect the appearance of dUx
We decompose the along the XY axis; then, the formula
vortex near the wall of the throat section. dn
The boundary layer thickness refers to the distance from the can be presented as
wall to the location with 99% of the centerline speed value dUx dU dU
along the vertical wall. Given the fact that the flow direction =a x +b x
near the wall of the converging section is different from the dn dy dx (5)
main flow direction, we deal with the converging section dUy dUy dUy
separately. We take the flow speed distribution along the =a +b
vertical direction of the converging section wall, find the dn dy dx (6)
position of the maximum flow speed at 99%, and calculate the The viscous force equation in the MN coordinate system
boundary layer thickness. can be written as follows
Figure 11 shows the boundary layer thickness of different
nozzles with different inlet flow speeds. The boundary layer dUx dUxm − dUym
=μ
thickness decreases along the converging direction, reaches the dn dn (7)
lowest value at the entrance of the throat section, and then dU
dUx
gradually increases along the throat section, finally showing a dn
and y in the MN coordinate system can be decomposed
dn
stable state of fluctuations. Figure 11a shows the boundary as follows
layer thickness distribution of the nozzle with 10 degrees of
converging angle; the profile is smooth, which shows that the dUx dUxm dUxn
= m⃗ + n⃗
flow near the wall is more stable than other nozzles. The flow dn dn dn (8)
contours also do not show the existence of a vortex. When the
dUy dUym dUyn
converging angle is set to 25°, the vortex appears when the = m⃗ + n⃗
inlet flow speed is set to 1 m/s, which means that the boundary dn dn dn (9)
layer separation occurs earlier than the nozzle with a smaller Then, the viscous force in the MN coordinate system can be
converging angle. When the converging angle is set to 15° or obtained according to the data in the XY coordinate system;
higher, there are fluctuations at the boundary layer thickness the equation used in the converging section is given by
profile when the inlet flow speed is set to 5 m/s or higher. This
suggests that the nozzle has a critical converging angle that can dUx dUy
induce the boundary layer separation earlier. The greater the τ = μa + μb
dn dn
converging angle, the earlier the boundary layer separation
occurs. When the inlet flow speed is the same, the greater the dUx dUx dUy dUy
= μa 2 + μab + μab + μ b2
converging angle, the more severe the boundary layer thickness dn dn dn dn
fluctuation, and the more chaotic the vortex structure. (10)
2.4.4. Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Viscous Force.
The viscous force is analyzed only under an inlet flow speed of When we consider the flow state in the throat section, we
1 m/s. All the results are calculated according to the XY assume that the direction of flow is parallel to the axis of the
coordinate system. However, according to the definition of throat section. The equation of viscous force used in the throat
viscous force, it should be proportional to the velocity gradient section is given by
in the vertical flow direction, so the coordinate system needs to dUUx
be converted to the MN coordinate system shown in Figure τ=μ =μ
dn (11)
12. The conversion equation of the coordinate system is as
follows. When integrating the viscous force, only the viscous force
dUy within the thickness of the boundary layer is calculated because
The data we can get is, the viscous force equation is only the speed of the fluid flowing near the wall is parallel to
dx
given by the wall surface in the converging section, and the viscous force
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Figure 13. Distribution of viscous force in converging section (left) and throat section (right).

in the main flow field is negligible. Monitoring points are increase of the converging angle. The viscous force increases
selected uniformly in the converging section and throat along the direction of flow in the converging section decreases
section. and finally becomes stable along the direction of flow in the
Figure 13 shows the distribution of the viscous force of the throat section. When we integrate the whole vicious force
converging and throat sections of the nozzle with 10 degrees of inside the nozzle, it is evident that the value of the viscous
converging angle. The “Distance” in Figure 13 is the vertical force of the nozzle with 10 degrees of converging angle is the
distance from the monitoring point to the nozzle wall. The largest, and the value decreases with the increase of converging
peak values in monitoring points appear near the wall and then angle.
decrease along the vertical wall direction. Finally, the viscous When the nozzle inlet diameter and throat diameter are
force approaches zero outside the boundary layer, implying consistent, the longer the converging section, the larger the
that the viscous force in the main flow field can be ignored. viscous force, and the viscous force in the throat section
When comparing the viscous force at different locations, it can remains constant when the flow is lower, and the flow state is
be found that the peak value appears at the entrance of the laminar.
throat section. The positions where the viscous force tends to 2.4.5. Influence of Nozzle Converging Angle on Static
Pressure. In our simulations and experiments, gravity can be
zero can indicate that the boundary layer thickness decreases
ignored, so the static pressure is caused by the fluid pressure on
along the converging direction. It is in good agreement with
the wall in the flow field. The heterogeneity of fluid flow can
the trend of the boundary layer thickness discussed above. cause fluctuations in static pressure on the wall.
Figure 14 shows the viscous force of all nozzles. We Figure 15 shows the static pressure curves of different
integrate the viscous force inside the boundary layer of nozzles with different inlet flow speeds. When the inlet flow
monitoring points to investigate the viscous force distribution speed is set to 1 m/s, the static pressures of the nozzle with 15
along the whole flow field inside the nozzle. The peak value of and 20° of converging angle are greater than others. The static
viscous force in all nozzles appears near the entrance of the pressure of the nozzle of 25° of converging angle is the lowest;
throat nozzle. In contrast, the peak value decreases with the there are no fluctuations in the curves of the nozzles with a
converging angle of 15° and 10°. The static pressure curve has
small fluctuations when the converging angle is 20°; there is a
significant fluctuation when the converging angle is 25°. All the
static pressure near the entrance of the throat section is
negative, and the fluctuation values are negative. There are
some differences when the inlet flow speed is set to 5 m/s. The
static pressure on the inner wall of the nozzle fluctuates except
for the converging angle of 10°, and the static pressures of the
nozzles with the converging angles of 15 and 20° are relatively
small. There is negative pressure among all the nozzles. When
the inlet flow speed is set to 10 m/s, all curves fluctuate, and
the curve of 15° is relatively small.
The static pressure increases with the increase of flow speed.
The higher the flow speed, the more severe the intensity of
fluctuations, and the fluctuations only appear in the throat
section. The fluctuation indicates a pulsion of flow speed,
which matches the appearance of the vortex in the throat
section. The intensity of fluctuations can indicate the
Figure 14. Viscous force along the centerline in nozzles with different appearance of boundary layer separation to some extent. As
converging angles. shown in Figure 15a, the boundary layer separation only occurs
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Figure 15. Distribution of static pressure along the wall of different nozzles. (a) Inlet flow speed is set to 1 m/s. (b) Inlet flow speed is set to 5 m/s.
(c) Inlet flow speed is set to 10 m/s.

Figure 16. Outflow field of different nozzles with different inlet velocities. (a) 1. (b) 5. (c) 10 m/s.

in the nozzle with a converging angle of 25°. The boundary flow speed is set to 5 m/s, it is apparent that the most unstable
layer separation happens when the velocity is high enough. outflow stream is the nozzle with a converging angle of 15°.
From the profile of static pressure, the greater the converging When the inlet flow speed is set to 10 m/s, there is almost no
angle, the earlier the boundary layer separation occurs, and the difference in flow speed contours except for the nozzle with a
results are in good agreement with the above discussion. converging angle of 10°.
Static pressure can be used as a consideration when According to the above discussion, the boundary layer
considering nozzle structure optimization. It can also separation occurs in the nozzle with a converging angle of 25°
characterize the speed pulsation; its size and fluctuation can when the inlet flow speed is set to 1 m/s; only the nozzle with
characterize the intensity of turbulence. As Figure 15 shows, a converging angle of 25° shows fluctuations. This means that
when the converging angle is 15°, the rate of static pressure the states of outflow of the three nozzles are identical, and
increases with the flow speed is the smallest, and when the there is no boundary layer separation near the throat wall
converging angle is 20°, the rate of increase is the largest. From among the three nozzles. While there is a sequence of vortex
this perspective, the nozzle could have better flow stability appearing near the wall of the throat section on the nozzle with
when the converging angle is 15°. a converging angle of 25°, the vortex near the wall do not
2.4.6. Influence of Nozzle Converging Angle on Outflow disappear outside the nozzle but gradually developed and has a
Field. The outflow states of the different nozzles with different more significant impact on the central flow core, resulting in
inlet velocities are shown in Figure 16. When the inlet flow fluctuations in a flow core. All of these can indicate that the
speed is set to 1 m/s, the contours show no difference except boundary layer near the nozzle outlet affects the outflow.
for the nozzle with a converging angle of 25°. When the inlet When the inlet flow speed is set to 5 m/s, the boundary layer
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transition and separation appear in that inlet flow speed. The The metal nozzles are shown in Figure 17. The discharge
vortex in the boundary layer near the wall of the throat section coefficient and flow core length were measured experimentally.
of that nozzle can survive a long distance in the outside flow
field; the vortex in the outside flow field develops the longest Table 2. Experimental Parameters
distance among the four nozzles, in agreement with Figure 16.
There is no vortex appearing near the wall of the throat converging outlet measure
angle/° throat length diameter/mm pressure/MPa
section of the nozzle with a converging angle of 10° under the
three simulation conditions. The separation does not occur in 10 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 4 0−25
15 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 4 0−25
the boundary layer of the throat section; there is no vortex
20 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 4 0−25
appearing in the outside flow field, and the flow core is more
25 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 4 0−25
stable.
When the flow speed is low, the flow state of the boundary
layer remains laminar along the throat section. There is no
vortex appearing in the boundary layer on the throat section.
The boundary layer flow will remain stable when flow into the
outside flow field. That is why, the flow core is stable when the
inlet flow speed is set to 1 m/s among the three nozzles with a Figure 17. Experimental metal nozzle.
smaller converging angle. When the separation vortex is just
generated at the critical flow speed, a uniformly spaced vortex 3.1. Experiment Setup. The flow-core length is measured,
sequence can be generated near the wall of the throat section; and the measurements of the flow coefficient for various
the vortex will survive in the outside flow field and develop nozzles with different profiles are carried out with the
slowly, and the sequence vortex can survive a long distance, experimental setup shown in Figure 18. The experimental
which shows unstable flow speed contour as the contours of
the nozzle with a converging angle of 15° under an inlet flow
speed of 5 m/s. When the flow speed gradually increases, the
distribution of the vortex near the wall will become more
uneven. The distance between adjacent vortices gradually
increases along the flow direction. The vortex will develop fast
in short distances when flowing into the outside flow field.
Therefore, it is not easy to see the difference between the three
nozzles with greater converging angles. Still, there will be a
difference in the length of the flow core, which will be
discussed in the experiment section.
Above all, when the flow speed is low, the nozzle with a Figure 18. Experimental setup.
smaller converging angle can generate a more stable flow core.
The flow resistance will increase with nozzle length. According
to the discussions of skin friction resistance and viscous force,
the nozzle with a converging angle of 15° is suggested. setup consists of three main components: the high-pressure
When the flow speed is high, boundary layer transition and pump, blessing, and the visualization device, and the
separation appear near the wall of the throat section, and the experiments are carried out using particle image velocimetry.
viscous force can be ignored. What we should consider is the The high-pressure pump is a device that supplies the power
flow stability inside and outside the nozzle. The best way to and fluids, including the pump, water tank, pressure sensor,
obtain a stable flow is to avoid the appearance of the vortex. flow sensor, and control panel. The range of the high-pressure
Each nozzle has a critical flow speed. There will be no vortex pump is 0−60 MPa, the displacement of the high-pressure
when the flow speed is lower than the critical value. While the pump is 0−100 L/min, and the power is 250 kW. The pressure
longer length will affect the flow resistance, the flow core gauge range is 60 MPa, and the measurement accuracy is 0.1
length should be considered, this part will be discussed later by MPa. The flow meter range is 0−200 L/s, and the accuracy is
experiments, but there is a critical converging angle that can 0.03. The high-pressure pump can generate fluids with high
obtain the longest and most stable flow core. pressure. When the fluid flows through the nozzle, due to the
reduced cross-sectional area of the flow, the fluid pressure
energy will be converted into kinetic energy. The fluid will be
3. EXPERIMENTS WITH A HIGHER FLOW SPEED
accelerated and a higher flow speed is obtained.
We carried out CFD simulations to investigate the flow The Particle Image Velocimetry system used is the Dantec
dynamics inside a cone-straight nozzle and found that the standard Nd:YAG PIV laser system (wavelength 532 nm) with
nozzle with a specific converging angle would have a critical a pulse energy of up to 135 mJ per pulse, which is used to form
angle below which the boundary layer will not separate. an axial laser sheet parallel to the flow. A digital camera
External flow patterns are easier to be investigated by positioned perpendicularly to this laser sheet is used to capture
experiments. We hence carried out some experiments to the illuminated images. The maximum laser emission
study the external flow patterns. The throat length also affects frequency is 7 Hz, and the PIV camera is a 16-bit sCMOS
the development of the near-wall flow, and the outer flow has camera (LaVision, sCMOS, 2550 × 2160 pixels) with a Nikon
been tested with a high-pressure pump and a PIV test system. macro lens equipped with a band-pass filter. The time interval
In this study, 16 different cone-straight nozzles were used in between the two lasers is set to 2−6 μs depending on different
the experiments, and their parameters are listed in Table 2. flow velocities. The laser emission frequency is set to 5 Hz.
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Figure 19. Flow field of the nozzle with a converging angle of 15°. (a) Original PIV image. (b) Without throat section. (c) 4 mm of throat length.
(d) 8 mm of throat length. (e) 12 mm of throat length. (f) 16 mm of throat length.

Fifty images are captured for one experiment to obtain a stable

flow speed.
3.2. Experimental Results and Discussion. 3.2.1. Flow
Core Length. When the flow speed is high, cavitation can
occur, and cavitation bubbles affect the quality of the image.
We hence captured the outer flow field at a relatively low flow
rate by adjusting the jetting pressure (∼0.3 MPa) to ensure no
cavitation. The original image is shown in Figure 19a, and the
particle density is higher than 100 per unit and good for
analyzing the flow field.
Figure 19 shows the flow field of the cone-straight nozzle
with a converging angle of 15° with different throat lengths. To
quantitatively analyze the length of the isokinetic nucleus, we
have done dimensionless analysis and defined a dimensionless
flow core length, R, expressed as
Lv90
R=
Lv40 (12)
Figure 20. Relationship between the flow core length and throat
length.
Lv90 represents the distance from nozzle exit at 90% of
maximum speed, while Lv40 at 40%.
The flow core length of the 16 nozzles is shown in Figure 20. with a converging angle of 10 or 15° has a longer flow core
The flow core length of nozzles with different angles decreases than the other two types of the nozzle.
first and then increasesand finally decreases with the throat Figure 21 shows the relationship between the jet angle and
length. The nozzle with a throat length of 12 mm (3 times the throat length of a nozzle with a converging angle of 15°. The
diameter of the nozzle outlet) can obtain the longer flow core, jet angle decreases first and then increases with the throat
which is consistent with previous research results. The nozzle length. The nozzle with a throat length of 8 mm or 12 mm (2
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increases with the jetting pressure and then becomes stable.

The flow discharge coefficient of the nozzle with a converging
angle of 15° has the best energy transfer efficiency when the
throat length is 16 mm (4 times the diameter of the outlet).
Figure 23 shows the stable value of the flow discharge
coefficient of all the nozzles. There are differences in discharge

Figure 21. Relationship between the jet angle and throat length.

or 3 times the diameter of the nozzle outlet) has a relatively

small jet angle, which means that the nozzle has a better cluster
capacity.
From the results of the visualization experiment by the PIV
test system, we found that the nozzle with a converging angle
of 15° has a longer flow core length and a better cluster Figure 23. Relationship between the flow discharge coefficient and
capacity, which is consistent with the numerical simulation throat length.
results described in Section 2.
3.2.2. Flow Discharge Coefficient. The flow discharge
coefficient is an important evaluation parameter for evaluating
nozzle energy conversion efficiency and has been investigated coefficient trends among the four types of nozzles. The nozzle
in this study. The measurements are done with a jetting with a converging angle of 15° has a higher flow discharge
pressure of 0−25 MPa. coefficient when the throat length is 0, 4, 8, and 16 mm. The
The flow discharge coefficient equation is derived from the nozzle with a converging angle of 15 or 20° has the lowest
equation38 expressed as discharge coefficient when the throat length is 3 times the
1 ρQ 2 diameter of the nozzle outlet. The nozzle with a converging
ΔP = angle of 10° has the highest discharge coefficient. The
2 2C 2A2 (13)
discharge coefficient of nozzles with a converging angle of
Q ρ 25° shows a fluctuation. The main difference occurs when the
C=
2A 2ΔP (14) throat length is 3 times the diameter of the outlet. Hence, the
Figure 22 shows the relationship between the discharge nozzle with 3 times the diameter of the outlet has the better
coefficient and jetting pressure for four types of nozzles with cluster capacity and has the longer flow core length. The
different converging angles. The flow discharge coefficient difference needs to be investigated in future work.
Many influencing factors affect the nozzle flow discharge
coefficient, such as the converging angle and the length of the
throat section. The overall length of the nozzle affects the
nozzle flow coefficient. The nozzle with a converging angle of
10° is almost 3 times the length of the nozzle with a converging
angle of 25° without the throat section. This may be the reason
that the nozzle with a converging angle of 10° has the lowest
discharge coefficient when the throat length is zero. With the
increase of the throat length, the internal flow patterns are
changed, and the discharge coefficient increases first when the
converging angle is 10, 20, and 25°, while the nozzle with a
converging angle of 15° does not.
Above all, the flow core length and flow discharge coefficient
can evaluate the quality of the cone-straight nozzle to some
extent. From the discussion of experimental results, we know
that the nozzle with a converging angle of 10 or 15° will have a
longer flow core, a better cluster capacity, and a higher
discharge coefficient, which is consistent with the simulation
Figure 22. Flow discharge coefficient along with the jetting pressure. results.
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4. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
An LES model is used to simulate the flow inside and outside The authors would like to thank the financial support from the
cone-straight nozzles. The simulation data is in agreement with National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no.
the existing DNS data. An experimental setup is built to carry 51827804), 111 Plan (grant no. B17045), and the National
out some experiments under lower flow speed to validate the Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (grant no.
accuracy of the LES model. Flow field measurements are done 51725404).
to reveal the real flow patterns and flow speed development.
Four types of nozzles with different converging angles are
simulated under three different inlet flow speeds. In total, 16
■ ABBREVIATIONS
D1, inlet diameter, mm
different nozzles are used in the experiments at different α, converging angle, degree
pressures. The conclusions are summarized below. L, length of throat section, mm
The converging angle directly affects the transition and D2, outlet diameter, mm
separation of the boundary layer in the throat section. The U, flow speed, m/s
thickness of the boundary layer has the minimum value at the Uc, flow speed at the centerline, m/s
entrance of the throat section. The boundary layer is R, radius of the monitored point, m
compressed along the converging direction. The greater the D, diameter of the pipe, m
converging angle, the more severe the flow fluctuations. The yp, real distance to the wall
higher the flow speed, the more powerful the fluctuations. The yp+, dimensionless distance to the wall
nozzle converging angle directly affects the skin friction μτ, shear velocity
resistance. The nozzle with a converging angle of 15° has a y+, dimensionless distance to the nozzle wall
smaller resistance among the four nozzles. X, nozzle axis coordinate
The boundary layer at the nozzle exit affects the stability of Y, radial coordinate
the flow core outside the nozzle. The vortex will develop fast in ρ, density, kg/m3
the flow field outside the nozzle and affect the state of the flow ν, dynamic viscosity, Pa*s
core. The converging angle has an important effect on the flow τw, wall shear stress, Pa
state. Cf, skin friction coefficient
The nozzle with a converging angle of 10 or 15° and 3 times F, skin friction resistance, n
the diameter of the outlet has a longer flow core length, a Ux, velocity component along the X coordinate
better cluster capacity, and a higher discharge coefficient. Uy, velocity component along the Y coordinate
Considering the nozzle size, the nozzle with a converging angle Uxm, component of Ux along the M coordinate
of 15°, with a throat length of 3 times the outlet, is suggested Uym, component of Uy along the M coordinate
to obtain a more stable and longer flow core at a low flow Uxn, component of Ux along the N coordinate
speed.

■
Uyn, component of Uy along the N coordinate
τ, shear stress, Pa
AUTHOR INFORMATION R, represent the flow core length, %
Corresponding Author Lv90, distance from nozzle exit at 90% of maximum speed, m
Zhongwei Huang − State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Lv40, distance from nozzle exit at 40% of maximum speed, m
Resources and Prospecting, China University of Petroleum C, flow discharge coefficient,
(Beijing), Beijing 102249, China; Email: huangzw@ Q, flow discharge, m3/s
cup.edu.cn A, nozzle exit cross-sectional area, m2
ΔP, jetting pressure, Pa

■
Authors
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